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Granular Activated Carbon: Design, Operation and Cost

Book · December 1991

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Granular
Activated
Carbon
Design,
Operation
and Cost

Robert M. Clark
Benjamin W. Lykins, Jr.

• LEWIS PUBLISHERS
Granular Activated Carbon
Design, Operation and Cost

Robert M. Clark
Benjamin W. Lykins, Jr.

-� LEWIS PUBLISHERS
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Clark, Robert Maurice.

Granular activated carbon: design, operation, and cost / by
Robert M. Clark and Benjamin W. Lykins, Jr.
p. cm.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-87371-114-9
1. Water- Purification -Adsorption. 2. Carbon, Activated.
I. Lykins, Ben W. ll. Title.
TD449.5.C53 1989 89-31678
628.1'64--dc20 CIP

Second Printing 1991

COPYRIGHT© 1989 by LEWIS PUBLISHERS, INC.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in

any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photo­
copying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage
and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

LEWIS PUBLISHERS, INC.

121 South Main Street, Chelsea, Michigan 48118

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

 Preface

This book presents a summary of design, cost, and performance informa­

tion on the application of granular activated carbon (GAC) in drinking
water based on field-scale experience. A brief history of the development of
regulations for control of synthetic organics in drinking water is presented.
The use of GAC in other countries is discussed and various design concepts
for the unit operations that make up the GAC process are explored.
Included in the book are chapters that present information from field-scale
research projects dealing with the performance of virgin and reactivated
carbon; problems and limitations of carbon reactivation systems; and use of
carbon for removing trihalomethanes, trihalomethane precursors, and syn­
thetic organics. The last chapter provides cost equations and comparative
cost studies for full-scale application of GAC.

iii
Robert M. Clark has a BS in civil engineering from Oregon State University
(1969) and in mathematics from Ponland State University (1961). He also
has an MS in mathematics from Xavier University in Cincinnati (1964) and
in civil engineering from Cornell University (1968). He received his PhD
from the University of Cincinnati in 1976.
Dr. Clark, a commissioned officer in the U.S. Public Health Service since
1961, is assigned to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency as Director
of the Drinking Water Research Division, Risk Reduction Engineering
Research Laboratory, Cincinnati. He is responsible for directing and con­
ducting research that meets the technology requirements for maintaining
Maximum Contaminant Levels under the Safe Drinking Water Act. This
work includes formulating and guiding a broad-based program conducting
research into frontier areas critically important to the provision of safe
drinking water in the United States. Results of this res earch have had and
will have a major impact on U.S. policies and procedures in water supply
and on international drinking water practices.
Dr. Clark has an outstanding reputation in the government, professional,
and academic communities. He is constantly sought out as a consultant and
advisor by specialists and other experts, both in and out of the water supply
field. Dr. Clark has received many professional awards, including selection
by the American Society of Civil Engineers in 1980 as recipienL of the
Walter L. Huber Civil Engineering Prize. He received both the Commenda­
tion and Meritorious Service Awards from the U.S. Public Health Service
(in 1977 and 1983, respectively). He has served as the chainnan of the
Executive Committee of the Environmental Engineering Division of 1he
American Society of Civil Engineers and is currently vice-chainnan of the
Research Division Trustees of the American Water Works Association.

iv
Benjamin W. Lykins. Jr. has a BS in chemistry from Ma rshall University in
Huntington, West Virginia (1963) and an MS in environmental engineering
from the University of Cincinnati (1974).
Mr. Lykins is currently employed at the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency as Chief of the Systems and Field Evaluation Brandl, Drinking
Water Research Division, Risk Reduction Engineering Research Labora­
tory, Cincinnati. He is responsible for providing an integrated analysis of
the cost and performance of technology associated with supplying safe
drinking water to the public. This work involves conducting research in the
field on modular or full-scale water treatment systems, including water
delivery.
Mr. Lykins has over SO publications and presentations. He has served as a
member of the American Water Works Association Academic Achievement
Awards Committee and the Research Division Organic Contaminants Com­
mittee. He is also a member of several project advisory committees for the
American Water Works Association Research Foundation. He is an active
member of the American Society of Civil Engineers' Environmental Engi­
neering Division Point of Entry/Point-of-Use Committee and the Steering
Committee for the Ontario Ministry of the Environment trace organics
contaminant removal project.

V
 Contents

Introduction xiii
1. Drinking Water Contamination and GAC Treatment I
Introduction
Organic Contamination 2
The Safe Drinking Water Act 6
Granular Activated Carbon 13

2. GAC Process Design Considerations 31

Introduction 31
Definition of Process Modules 31
Carbon Selection 33
Contact Time and Breakthrough 34
Breakthrough Characteristics 35
Breakthrough and System Design 37
Design Parameters for Adsorbers 39
Reactivation Systems 47
Carbon Storage and Transfer 54
Construction Materials 56

3. EPA's GAC Field-Scale Studies 59

Introduction 59
Cincinnati, Ohio 61
Manchester, New Hampshire 63
Jefferson Parish, Louisiana 65
Evansville, Indiana 66
Miami, Florida 67
Orsanco Utilities 68

vii
 Pas;ak Vai!ey, Litti� Fan�. New Jc:r�)' 72
Thornton, Colorado 73
Wausau, Wisconsin 75
Phiiadeiphia, P,!nns)'lvania 76
Organic 'P,uameters Analyzed 79

4. Comp&rnti·ve Analysis o'f Fieid-Scal� Projeds 83

I11troduction 83
Adsoi'c,cr vs filter A.dsorber 83
Piiot vs Fuil-Scalc GAC Systems 85
Effects of BBCT 102
Comparison of Different GAC Types 108
Hea'V}' Metais in OAC 117

5. Performanc,i of Virgin GAC 119

IntroductiOn 1 l9
Jefferson Parish, Lm;isiar1a 119
Cincinnati, Ohio 125
Huntington, West Virginia 136
Beaver Falls, Pennsytvan�a 137
Evansviile, !ndiana 137
Manchester, New Hampshire 137
Miami, Fiorida 139
Passaic Valley, Little Falls, New Jersey 140
Thomtvr1, Col,::>rndo 141

6. Reactivatnon Systems 145

Imroauction 145
Cincinnati Water Works 145
Jefferson Parish, Loiiisiana 157
Manchester, New Hampshire 167

'7. Reacti\•ation Performance 169

[ntroduction 169
OAC Property Mei,surements 171
GAC Operational Losses. 173
Rt:activation Furnace Discharge l74
Reactivation Furnace Operation 1"15
Virgin vi IReactivatcd OAC l "/6
By-Products ,of Reactivation 186

viii
 8. Microbiology of GAC Filtration and Biological Activated Carbon 205
Introduction 205
GAC Characteristics 206
Biological Activated Carbon 213
Distribution System Problems 227
Summary and Conclusion s 230

9. Adsorption Modeling 235

Introduction 235
Adsorption Modeling 236
Field-Scale Systems 243

10. Control of Trihalomethanes and Synthetic Organics 257

Introduction 257
Background 258
TOC Removal by GAC 259
TOX Removal by GAC 261
TTHM Removal by GAC 262
Predicting THM Concentrations 265
Cost for Removing TTHMs 270
Removal of Synthetic Organic Chemicals 274

11. Cost Analysis for GAC 295

Introduction 295
Cincinnati Water Works Cost Data 295
Manchester GAC System 302
Comparison of CWW and MWW Rea ctivation Costs 305
Jefferson Parish 310
Cost Modeling 312
Development of Cost Equations 314
Cost Function Development 317
Estimating GAC System Costs 320

Index 339

ix
 Introduction

The first water-related regulation - the prohibition of the use of the com­
mon drinking water cup on interstate carriers-was adopted in 1912. Subse­
quently, additional regulations were adopted and updated until 1974, when
the Safe Drinking Water Act (SOWA) was passed. The Safe Drinking Water
Act has radically changed the way in which we view the delivery of water in
the United States.
Originally enacted in 1974, the Safe Drinking Water Act requires the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to determine which contaminants
threaten public health and to set standards for those contaminants. States,
aided by federal grants, enforce drinking water rules and supervise the
nation's water suppliers. Suppliers must monitor their supplies for contami­
nants and treat the water to meet the standards.
The drinking water standards set by EPA under the act apply to public
water systems (systems that have at least 15 service connections or regularly
serve at least 25 individuals). It is estimated that there are more than
200,000 public water systems in the nation, including nearly 60,000 commu­
nity systems.
The act also requires EPA to institute rules governing the disposal of
wastes by underground injection and provides authority for grants to states
to operate enforcement programs. The rules cannot impede oil and gas
operations unless essential to protect underground drinking water. In areas
that overlie a sole source aquifer-an underground water supply used as the
principal drinking water source for an area - EPA can prohibit new injec­
tion wells or withhold federal money from projects that threaten the
aquifer.
In 1986, Congress amended the SDWA with the objective of speeding
EPA's efforts to set standards for chemical contaminants that have been
detected in drinking water and to establish a national (though limited)

xi
groundwater program by requiring states to protect groundwater tapped by
public water system wells.
EPA has identified hundreds of synthetic organic chemicals, heavy
metals, pesticides, and other pollutants in drinking water supplies, usually
at trace levels . Although the health effects of many chemicals are not well
known, some at sufficient levels can cause eye and skin irritation, birth
defects, cancer, and damage to the nervous system, liver. kidneys, and
lungs. The contaminants come from pollution, from disinfection of drink­
ing water supplies with chlorine (which can react to form dangerous by­
products), and from nature.
In 1983, EPA's Ground Water Supply Survey found that about 280/o of
randomly selected large municipal water systems (serving m or e than 10,000
people) had detectable levels of one or more volatile organic chemicals in
their groundwater supplies. EPA's Community Water Supply Survey found
that water from 4511/o of large public water systems relying on groundwater
had detectable levels of volatile organic chemicals.
In fiscal year 1985, EPA reported aboul 16,000 violations of drinking
water standards and 79,000 viol ations of monitoring and reporting require­
ments. Of the 58,530 community water systems reporting, 728 were persist­
ent violators of the micro biological standards. Most other violations were
caused by exceeding the nitrate and fluoride standards.
Numerous studies have documented that most drinking water quality
problems in the United States are associated with small water utilities (less
than one million gallons of water supplied per day). It is likely that many of
these small utilities will be required to make extensive investments in tech­
nology to meet requirements of the SOWA.
The Safe Drinking Water Act and the Safe Drinking Water Act Amend­
ments {SDWAA) of 1986 require that public water systems use the best
available technology to remove contamination and to monitor for chemicals
that are n ot regulated. The amendments strengthen enforcement of drink­
ing water regulations and rules for disposal of waste through underground
injection wells. Specific provisions of the 1986 amendments are as follows:

• Set deadlines for EPA to regulate dangerous chemicals and other contami­
nants in drinking water provided by public water systems. EPA must iss ue
standards within three years ror 83 contaminants previously identified by
EPA as candidates for regulation. EPA can substitute up to seven contami­
nants for listed contaminants if regulating the substitutes would better pro­
tect public health. The contaminants include volatile organic chemicals such
as benzene, organic chemicals such as cyanide, and radioactive substances,
bacteria, and viruses. For other contaminants that may require regulation,
EPA established a priority list on January I, 1988. Lists are to be established
subsequently at three-year intervals. EPA must regulate those contaminants
that may have any adverse effect on health.

xii
 • Require drinking water standards to be set based on best available technol­
ogy, taking costs into account. Standards for synthetic organic chemicals
must be based on use of technologies at least as effective as granular acti­
vated carbon.
• Require EPA to issue regulations requiring riltration or equally protective
measures by public water systems that rely on rivers or other surface water
sources. EPA also must issue regulations requiring disinfection ror all public
water systems and specifying criteria for variances. Filtration and disinfec­
tion remove bacteria and virus es.
• Require EPA to issue regulations requiring public water systems to monitor
for unregulated contaminants.
• Ban the use of pipes, solder, and flux containing more than small amounts
of lead in the installation or repair of public water systems. The ban also
applies to plumbing in residen ces and other buildings connected to the SYS·
tems. States must enforce the ban through state or local plumbing codes or
other means.
• Require EPA to 1ake enforcement action in every case in which drinking
water or underground injection control requireme nts are violated if the state
docs not act. EPA is given authority to issue administrative compliance
orders as well as take violators to coun.
• Establish a nationwide program requiring states to establish "wellhead pro­
tection areas" around public drinking water system wells where pollutants
could flow down into underground formations containing water supplies.
Within three years, states must develop plans to prevent contamination
from potemial pollution sources. States are 10 decide the cxrcnr of each
wellhead area and how to protect it. A state could determine that technical
and finan cial assistan ce, education and training, or demonstration projects,
without a regulatory program, would protect an area.
• Establish a demonstration assistance progr4ffl for state or local entities to
pro1ec1 aquifers dcsigna1ed by EPA as the sole or principal drinking wa1cr
source for an area.

The admin istrator is required t o set Maximum Contaminant Level G oals

(MCLGs) that are he alth-based. Each MCLG must be set by EPA at a level
at which no known or anticipated health effects occur, allowing an adequate
margin of safety. Each Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) promulgated
under SDWAA must be promulgated simultaneously with the publishing of
the MCLG and must be set as close as is feasible to the MCLG.
Jn this regard, "feasible" means with the use of the best t echnology (treat
ment te chnique) and o ther means available, taking cost into consideralion.
In setting the MCLs for synthetic organic chemicals (SOCs), the use of
granular activated carbon (GAC) for SOC control is considered feasible
according to the 1986 amendments. Any other technology, treatment tech­
nique, o r other means found to be the best available for the control of SOCs
must be as cffective as GA.C for this purpose.
In addition to the determination that the use of GAC for controlling
socs is considered a feasible treatment technique, the amendments require

xiii
 that fo r each National Primary Drinking Water Regulation (NPDWR) that
establishes an MCL, the Administrator of the EPA must list the technology,
treatment technique, and other means that he or she determines are feasible
for meet ing the MCL. There is no requirement that these means be used for
meeting the MCL.
The result of these amendments is to establish GAC as a baseline technol­
ogy for removal of symhetic organic chemicals. Therefore, this book has
been written to provide the best and most current information available in
the United States on the cost and performance of granular activated
carbon.

xiv

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