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TYPES OF VALVES USED IN WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

Gate valves:
Gate valves cannot control the water flow as they are designed to be fully opened or fully
closed. If used to adjust the water flow, it can wear out the valves. Gate valves can be used for
the circulation of all types of fluids, such as air, fuel gas, feedwater, steam, lube oil, and
hydrocarbons.
Butterfly Valve
This valve has a rotating metal disc that allows and inhibits the water flow, creating an image
similar to that of a butterfly due to which is called a butterfly valve.
These valves are very compact, light, and relatively short, making them significantly lighter than
the other types.
Ball valves are the most reliable and common type of valves used to regulate the flow of water.
It involves a rotating sphere with a hole that is attached to a lever handle to operate the valve.
In the open position, the hole in the sphere is in line with the pipe, allowing the water to flow
through it. When in a closed position, the hole in the sphere is perpendicular to the pipe, thus
completely restricting the water flow.
Globe Valve
The Globe valve is commonly used to regulate or limit the water flow in plumbing applications,
where the flow needs to be adjusted regularly.
The interior design features contain a stopper on the end of a valve stem that is raised and
lowered by the valve’s twist knob. Globe valves get their name due to the globe-like or ball-like
appearance of their body.
Pressure Relief Valve
Pressure relief valves are used in the plumbing system to reduce water pressure to the desired
limit and protect equipment or piping systems from bursting. The mechanism consists of a
spring and diaphragm adjusted to a specific limit, depending on the pressure of the water
supply.

Q. AIR QUALITY STANDARDS?

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
The NAAQS set by the CPCB are applicable to the whole country. The CPCB draws this power
from the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.

These standards are essential for the development of effective management of ambient air
quality.
The first ambient air quality standards were developed in 1982 pursuant to the Air Act.
Later, in 1994 and 1998, these standards were revised. The latest revision to the NAAQS was
done in 2009 and this is the latest version being followed.
The 2009 standards further lowered the maximum permissible limits for pollutants and made the
standards uniform across the nation. Previously, industrial zones had less stringent standards
as compared to residential areas.
The compliance of the NAAQS is monitored under the National Air Quality Monitoring
Programme (NAMP). NAMP is implemented by the CPCB.
The current standards (2009) comprise 12 pollutants as follows:
Particulate Matter 10 (PM10)
Particulate Matter 2.5 (PM2.5)
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Ozone (O3)
Ammonia (NH3)
Lead (Pb)
Benzene
Benzopyrene
Arsenic
Nickel

Q.Air: Composition And Its Properties

Chemical Composition of Air
Air is a mixture of gases which makes up the Earth’s atmosphere. These gases are colorless
and odorless and hence, we can’t see them but only feel them. The atmosphere is an ocean of
these gases. It consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1 % other gases and water vapour.
The composition of air does not change as you travel through the layers of the atmosphere.
What changes is the number of molecules. The air molecules decrease and become less. The
moisture content varies from place to place. Arid regions have less moisture content as
compared to wetlands.
-The water vapour or moisture content of air varies. The maximum moisture carrying capacity of
air depends primarily on temperature.
-The composition of air is unchanged until the elevation of approximately 10,000 m.
-The average air temperature diminishes at the rate of 0.6oC for each 100 m vertical height.
“One Standard Atmosphere” is defined as the pressure which is equal to that exerted by a 760
mm column of mercury at 0°C sea level and at standard gravity (32.174 ft/sec2).
Other Components of Air
Some other components of air are mentioned below:
Sulfur dioxide(SO2) – 1.0 ppm
Methane(CH4 )-2.0 ppm
Nitrous oxide(N2O) – 0.5 ppm
Ozone(O3)-0 to 0.07 ppm
Nitrogen dioxide(NO2) – 0.02 ppm
Iodine(I2)-0.01 ppm
Carbon monoxide(CO) – 0 to trace ppm
Ammonia(NH3)-0 to trace ppm
Properties of Air
As mentioned earlier, gases are matter. There are certain properties of gases like any other
matter. Some common properties are as follows:
Colourless and Odourless:
Air generally has no colour or odour. It is an invisible matter that can only be felt. All living things
breathe air for their survival. Moving air is called wind.
Occupy Space:
It is a mixture of different gases. Hence, like every other matter, they also occupy space. On
blowing, a balloon expands because the air being blown into it fills up the empty space.
Air Exerts Pressure:
It has weight, and the pressure exerted by the weight of air is known as air pressure. Due to
gravity, this mixture of gases near the surface is denser than at high altitudes. This is why the
gaseous atmosphere in the mountains is thinner than that at the surface.
Expansion:
Another property is its expanding property. On heating, it expands and occupies more space.
The more it expands, the thinner it becomes. Hence, the pressure of the warm wind is lower
than that of cold wind.
Q.TYPES OF FITTINGS.
Types of Pipe Fittings in Plumbing System
Elbow Pipe Fittings
Elbows are used to change the direction of flow between two pipes. Elbows are generally
available with an angle of 22.5o, 45o and 90o. If pipes are of same diameter then normal
elbows are used otherwise Reducer elbows are used
Tee type Pipe Fitting
Tee type fitting is a component of plumbing system which is in T-shape. It is having one inlet and
two outlets, outlets are arranged at 90o to the main line connection (inlet). It can also be used to
combine the flow from two inlets to one outlet
Cross type
Cross type fittings contains 4 opening in 4 directions. These are connected when there are 4
pipes are meeting at a point. These fittings generate more amount of stress on pipe as the
temperature changes, because they are located at the center of four connection points. Cross
fittings are generally used for fire sprinkler systems.
Coupling
A coupling is used to connect the pipes of same diameter. Coupling are also useful if the pipe is
broken or leakage occurs. Generally there are two types of couplings are available.
Compression coupling and slip coupling. Compression coupling is regular coupling which is
connected between two pipes and it prevents leakage by the arrangement of gaskets or rubber
seals on both sides, otherwise glue is provided
Unions
Union is a type of fitting, which functions as similar to coupling. But coupling cannot be removed
after fixing but in this case we can remove the union whenever we needed. Unions consists nut,
male and female ended threads. So, this is also useful for maintaining purpose of pipe.
Adaptors
If the pipes are not having special ends or plain ends then adaptors make them threaded either
male or female whichever is needed. Adopters are generally used for copper and PVC pipes.
Male adapters contain male threads and female adapters contains female threads. One end of
adapter is plain which is glued or welded or soldered to the plain pipe end.
Olet

Olets are used when there is standard sizes of fittings are not suitable for our requirement.
Sometimes the inlet pipe size is larger compared to outlet pipes in t-sections then also Olets are
used
Plug
Plug is a component of plumbing component which is generally used to close pipe opening
during inspections and repairs. Plug are generally contains male threads.
Cap

Cap is a type of pipe fitting which function is same as plug but the only difference is plug contain
male threads and cap contain female threads which is screws on the male thread of pipe. These
are available in different materials like rubber, copper, steel, plastic etc.
Q Air Pollution- Monitoring & Control

• Monitoring is done to keep a track on quality of air with a view to collect information & improve
it.

⚫
• The best indicators are - SO2, smoke & suspended particles.
These are monitored on a daily basis and the results are collected by a central agency
1) SO2- Major contaminant in urban & industrial areas which is measured by colorimetric,
conductivity, coulometer & amperometry.
2) Smoke index- A known volume of air is filtered through a white filter paper under specified
conditions & the stain is measured by photoelectric meter & expressed as µg/m3 of air.
3) Grit & dust measurement - Deposit gauge collect grit,
dust & other solids which are analysed monthly. 4) Air quality index - It is an index (that is, a
numerical value or ratio derived from a series of observations) for reporting daily air quality.

⚫
Air pollution monitoring in India
The national air quality monitoring programme sponsored
by the central pollution control board since 1990 has generated database over last 14 years in
10 major Indian cities.
. The trend analysis showed that suspended particulate matter (SPM) exceeds the cpcb
standards in all the cities of
the time throughout the year. ⚫ The concentration ratio of p<10 fraction (human reparable
particles) to the total spm varies between 30% to 60%, with coastal cities showing highest
percentages.

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Q . BUILDING PLUMBING
The plumbing system installed in the building has two main objectives to be served. They are:
Supply of water for the human use
To get rid of human waste
The plumbing system of a building will include the water distribution pipes, the fixture and the
fixture traps, the waste, soil and the vent pipes, the building drain and building sewer, storm
drainage system with their connected devices, connections and appurtenances within the
building and outside, that is within the property line.
When considered systems of plumbing, there are four categories. They are:
1. Single stack system
2. Partially vented single stack system
3. One-pipe system
4. Two-pipe system
1. Single Stack System.
This is the simplest form of plumbing system among the four categories mentioned. This system
of pipes carries waste water from the wash basin, bathrooms, sinks and the foul matters from
the water closets. This is connected to a final single pipe. The pipe will terminate as the vent
pipe at its top. A single stack system will need the use of traps that are filled with 75mm water
seal.
2. Partially Vented Single Stack System.
This is a single stack system where the vent pipe provides ventilation to the traps of the water
closet. Here the traps of the wash basin and the sinks are not connected to the vent pipes.
3. One Pipe System
Here the system uses a single stack and the vent pipe will receive the connections from all the
traps. This will not be the only trap of closets, but also for the sinks, wash basins etc.
4. Two Pipe System
This system will make use of separate pipes for connecting the water closets and for the
discharges from the basin, baths, sinks etc. Here both pipes are separately ventilated. This
system forms a four-pipe connection system. Most of the multistoried buildings prefer this
system.

Q.PLUMBING IN HIGH RISE BUILDINGS.

How does plumbing work in a high-rise building?
Sometimes, buildings let gravity do the work for them; water is pumped up from the city
municipal water supply to a reservoir on the roof, and then it descends back down through the
building piping using gravitational force. Newer towers tend to hide their reservoirs inside and
often use multiple tanks housed throughout the building (New York’s One World Trade Center
has 16 water tanks).

If a high-rise doesn’t feature a water reservoir, a series of pumps will help raise the water
pressure to reach those high places. However, if low water pressure is a problem, a
professionally installed water booster system can help. Water is pumped into an airtight tank
that contains air, which is then compressed by the water entering the tank, forcing it upwards.
This is far safer than increasing the psi (pound per square inch) on a traditional system.
Exceeding city water pressure restrictions can result in burst pipes and a whole host of
problems.

Q.NOISE POLLUTION, CONTROL MEASURES, MEASUREMENT?

Noise pollution refers to any unwanted and unpleasant sound that brings discomfort and
restlessness to human beings. Like air and water pollution, noise pollution is harmful to human
and animal life.
Noise pollution is also an important environmental hazard, which is becoming growingly
injurious in many parts of the world. Noise beyond a particular level or decibel (unit of noise)
tends to become a health and environmental hazard.
Measures to Control Noise Pollution
Noise Pollution can be controlled at the source, in the transmission path, and by using
protective equipment.
Noise Control At the Source
Designing Quieter Machines: Quieter machines should be designed, built, and used to replace
noisy machinery.
Lubrication And Maintenance: Machine lubrication and maintenance should be improved.
Soundproof Room: Placing loud devices which can cause noise pollution in a soundproof room
is another way to control noise at the source.
Vibration Damping: Vibration damping is the process of adding a layer of damping material
(rubber, neoprene, cork, or plastic) beneath a vibrating machine to reduce the noise it produces.
Usage of Silencers: Silencers are used to reduce noise from autos, ducts, exhausts, and other
conveying systems having ends that open into the atmosphere.
Usage of Perforated Metal: For mechanical protection, glass wool or mineral wool is covered
with a sheet of perforated (having holes) metal.
Usage of Acoustic Enclosure: In a room or a chamber, an acoustic enclosure (also known as a
soundproof enclosure, sound enclosure, or noise enclosure) encloses noisy equipment.
Thus to reduce noise, noise-producing machine elements are covered with a sound-absorbing
acoustic enclosure.
Noise measurement
Noise level is measured in decibels (dB). The louder the noise, the higher the decibels. Decibels
can be adjusted to human hearing. Noise level is thus described in decibels A (dBA). The
effects of noise vary with the noise to which a person is exposed. Prolonged exposure to loud
noises (75 dBA over eight hours a day for years) can lead to hearing loss. The body can also
respond to lower noise levels: sleep can be disturbed by an outdoor noise of 40 dBA.

Q.What Is Integrated Solid Waste Management?

Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) is a comprehensive waste prevention, recycling.
composting, and disposal program. An effective ISWM system considers how to prevent,
recycle, and manage solid waste in ways that most effectively protect human health and the
environment. ISWM involves evaluating local needs and conditions, and then selecting and
combining the most appropriate waste management activities for those conditions. The major
ISWM activities are waste prevention, recycling and composting, and combustion and disposal
in properly designed, constructed, and managed landfills . Each of these activities requires
careful planning, financing, collection, and transport, all of which are discussed in this and the
other fact sheets.
Waste Prevention, Waste prevention-also called "source reduction-seeks to prevent waste from
being generateid. Waste prevention strategies include using less packaging, designing products
to last longer, and reusing products and materials Waste prevention helps reduce handling,
treatment, and disposal costs and bltimately reduces the generation of methane

Recycling and Composting. Recycling is a process that involves collecting, reprocessing and for
recovering certain waste materials (eg, gles, metal, plastics, paper) to make new malenals or
products. Some recycled organic materials are rich in nutrients and can be used to improve
soils. The conversion of waste materials into soil additives is called composting Recycling and
composting generate many environmental and economic benefits. For example, they create
jobs and income, supply valuable raw materials to industry produce soil-enhancing compost,
and reduce greenhouse gas emissions and the number of landfills and combustion facilities.

Disposal (landfilling and combustion). These activities are used to manage waste that cannot be
prevented or recycled. One way to dispose of
waste is to place it in properly designed, constructed, and managed landfills, where it is safely
contained. Another way to handle this waste is through combustion Combustion is the controlled
burning of waste, which helps reduce its volume. If the technology is available, properly
designed, constructed, and managed landfills can be used to generate energy by recovering
methane. Similarly, combustion facilities produce steam and water as a byproduct that can be
used to generatenergy

Q. WATER TREATMENT?
Aeration is the process by which air is circulated through, mixed with or dissolved in a liquid or
substance.
Aeration brings water and air in close contact in order to remove dissolved gases and to oxidize
dissolved metals, including iron, hydrogen sulfide, and volatile organic chemicals (VOCs). This
process is typically the first major process at drinking water treatment plant, and occurs in the
secondary treatment processes of activated sludge treatment in wastewater treatment plants.
An evenly distributed oxygen supply in an aeration system is essential to effective wastewater
treatment for fostering microbial growth.
Coagulation
Coagulation is often the first step in water treatment. During coagulation, chemicals with a
positive charge are added to the water. The positive charge neutralizes the negative charge of
dirt and other dissolved particles in the water. When this occurs, the particles bind with the
chemicals to form slightly larger particles. Common chemicals used in this step include specific
types of salts, aluminum, or iron.
Flocculation
Flocculation follows the coagulation step. Flocculation is the gentle mixing of the water to form
larger, heavier particles called flocs. Often, water treatment plants will add additional chemicals
during this step to help the flocs form.
Sedimentation is one of the steps water treatment plants use to separate out solids from the
water. During sedimentation, flocs settle to the bottom of the water because they are heavier
than water.
Filtration
Once the flocs have settled to the bottom of the water, the clear water on top is filtered to
separate additional solids from the water. During filtration, the clear water passes through filters
that have different pore sizes and are made of different materials (such as sand, gravel, and
charcoal). These filters remove dissolved particles and germs, such as dust, chemicals,
parasites, bacteria, and viruses. Activated carbon filters also remove any bad odors.
Water treatment plants can use a process called ultrafiltration in addition to or instead of
traditional filtration. During ultrafiltration, the water goes through a filter membrane with very
small pores. This filter only lets through water and other small molecules (such as salts and tiny,
charged molecules).
Disinfection
After the water has been filtered, water treatment plants may add one or more chemical
disinfectants (such as chlorine, chloramine, or chlorine dioxide) to kill any remaining parasites,
bacteria, or viruses. To help keep water safe as it travels to homes and businesses, water
treatment plants will make sure the water has low levels of the chemical disinfectant when it
leaves the treatment plant. This remaining disinfectant kills germs living in the pipes between
the water treatment plant and your tap.
In addition to or instead of adding chlorine, chloramine, or chlorine dioxide, water treatment
plants can also disinfect water using ultraviolet (UV) light or ozone . UV light and ozone work
well to disinfect water in the treatment plant, but these disinfection methods do not continue
killing germs as water travels through the pipes between the treatment plant and your tap.

Q.Advantages and disadvantages of aerobic and anaerobic processes

Aerobic treatment has some distinct advantages over the anaerobic treatment process. These
include reduced odor (due to non-production of hydrogen sulfide or methane) and better nutrient
removal efficacy (facilitating direct discharge into surface waters or disinfection). However,
aerobic treatment does have several disadvantages. Oxygenation is an energy-intensive
process severely increasing the overall energy consumption, utility and maintenance costs of
this process. Solid wastes that the microbes are unable to digest often settle out as bio-solids.
These bio-solids require appropriate disposal adding to the utility and maintenance costs.
Anaerobic wastewater treatment processes, on the other hand, have a number of advantages
over aerobic treatment processes. The biogas produced during an anaerobic treatment process
can be used as a source of renewable energy (natural gas/methane). This also produces very
low sludge that is de-waterable and fully stabilized for disposal. This makes it less expensive,
simple, and flexible when compared to most aerobic treatment processes.
Since both of these methods have their own advantages and disadvantages, often a
combination of anaerobic and aerobic treatment processes are employed to achieve efficient
treatment of wastewater. The wastewater going into the aerobic reactor will often undergo
pre-treatment in an anaerobic reactor to fulfill wastewater standard discharge requirements in
an energy efficient and cost-effective manner.

Q.SUSPENDED GROWTH SYSTEMAND ATTACHED GROWTH SYSTEM?

suspended growth processes

Wastewater treatment processes in which the microorganisms and bacteria treating the wastes
are suspended in the wastewater being treated. The wastes flow around and through the
suspended growths. The various modes of the activated sludge process make use of
suspended growth reactors. These reactors can be used for BOD (biochemical oxygen demand)
removal, nitrification, and denitrification.
ATTACHED GROWTH SYSTEM
attached growth processes
Wastewater treatment processes in which the microorganisms and bacteria treating the wastes
are attached to the media in the reactor. The wastes being treated flow over the media. Trickling
filters and rotating biological contactors are attached growth reactors. These reactors can be
used for BOD removal, nitrification, and denitrification.

Explain the different mechanisms of filtration?

Mechanical Straining:
The suspended particles in water whose size are bigger than the voids in the filter media cannot
pass through them and therefore get arrested in the top portion of the filter media thus making
the water free from suspended impurities.

2. Sedimentation and Flocculation:

It has been found that the filters remove the particles whose size is smaller than the size of the
voids. This can be explained by assuming that the voids of the filter-media act as tiny
coagulation and sedimentation tanks. The colloidal particles act as a gelatinous mass and
therefore attract finer particles these finer particles then settle down in the voids and get
removed.

3. Biological Filtering:
Certain bacteria and micro-organisms are generally present in the voids of the filter. They may
either reside initially as a coating in the sand grains or they may be caught in the initial process
of filtration. Nevertheless, the organisms need biological impurities such as algae, plankton, etc.
as their food for survival. These organisms, therefore, utilize this impurity and convert them into
harmless compounds by the process of biological metabolism.

4. Electrolytic Changes:
The purifying action of the water can also be explained by the theory of ionization. According to
this theory, a filter helps in purifying water by changing the chemical characteristics of water.
This can be explained by the fact that the sand grains and the filter media carry some electric
charges opposite in nature. When these oppositely charged particles and the impurities come in
contact, they neutralize each other and therefore change the chemical characteristics of water.
After some time, interval the electric charge of the filter media gets exhausted and has to be
restored by replacing the top layer of the filter media.
Q.INSPECTION CHAMBER AND MANHOLES
Manholes (MH) are the largest chambers providing access to a sewer or drain for maintenance
equipment, and, in some cases, for operatives to enter the system itself. The minimum internal
dimensions of a manhole are 600x900mm and they can be of any depth, although most modern
manholes tend to be at least 1 metre deep with inspection chambers used for shallower depths.
Inspection chambers (often abbreviated to IC) are larger than access chambers, typically a
minimum 450mm diameter. Again, they provide access for maintenance equipment, but tend to
have more branches/spurs feeding into them and are often up to 1000mm deep.

Q.GRIT CHAMBER AND SKIMMING TANK?

Grit chamber is the second unit operation which is used in the primary treatment of wastewater.
Grit chamber is used to remove sand and other heavy matters (grit) which are inert inorganic
such as metal fragments, rags etc. If not removed in preliminary treatments, grit in primary
settling tank can cause abnormal abrasive wear and tear on mechanical equipment's and
sludge pumps, can clog by deposition and can accumulate in sludge holding tanks and
digesters. Therefore grit removal is necessary to protect the moving mechanical equipment and
pump elements from abrasion.

Q. OXIDATION POND AND LAGOONS

Oxidation pond refers to the stabilization pond stabilizing the domestic, trade, industrial wastes
etc., by the microbial interaction (primarily bacteria and algae). It seems like a large shallow
pond with 2-6 feet height of water body. Oxidation pond requires the presence of sunlight and
oxygen for the secondary treatment of domestic and trade wastes.
LAGOONS
Lagoons are deep waste stabilization ponds -like bodies of water or basins designed to receive,
hold, and treat wastewater for a predetermined period of time by artificial means of aeration.In
the lagoon, wastewater is treated through a combination of physical, biological, and chemical
processes.

What Is an Electrostatic Precipitator?

An electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is defined as a filtration device that is used to remove fine
particles like smoke and fine dust from the flowing gas. It is the most commonly used device for
air pollution control. They are used in industries like steel plants, and thermal energy plants.
In 1907, chemistry professor Frederick Gardner Cottrell patented the first electrostatic
precipitator used to collect sulphuric acid mist and lead oxide fumes emitted from various
acid-making and smelting activities.
Catalytic converter
A catalytic converter is an exhaust emission control device that converts toxic gases and
pollutants in exhaust gas from an internal combustion engine into less-toxic pollutants by
catalyzing a redox reaction. Catalytic converters are usually used with internal combustion
engines fueled by gasoline or diesel, including lean-burn engines, and sometimes on kerosene
heaters and stoves
Q.QUALITY OF WATER
Water Quality
Clean, safe and sufficient freshwater is vital for the survival of all living organisms and smooth
functioning of ecosystems, communities and economies. Water quality refers to the basic
physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water that determine its suitability for life or
for human uses.
The parameters for water quality are determined by the intended use. Work in the area of water
quality tends to be focused on water that is treated for human consumption or in the
environment.
Human consumption
Contaminants that may be in untreated water include microorganisms such as viruses and
bacteria; inorganic contaminants such as salts and metals; organic chemical contaminants from
industrial processes and petroleum use; pesticides and herbicides; and radioactive
contaminants.
Environmental water quality
Toxic substances and high populations of certain microorganisms can present a health hazard
for non-drinking purposes such as irrigation, swimming, fishing, rafting, boating, and industrial
uses. These conditions may also affect wildlife which use the water for drinking or as a habitat

Q. primary and secondary pollutants?

Primary pollutants and secondary pollutants: Primary pollutants are substances that are
directly emitted into the atmosphere from sources. Primary pollutants are those that are emitted
directly from identifiable sources. Secondary air pollutants are those that are produced in the air
by the interaction of two or more primary air pollutant.
Primary Air pollutants:-
(i) Fine (less than 100μ) and coarse (more than 100μ) suspended particulate matter
(ii) Oxides of sulfur
(iii) Oxides of nitrogen
(iv) Carbon monoxide
(v) Halogens
(vi) Organic compounds
(vii) Radioactive compounds
Secondary Air pollutants:-
(i) Ozone
(ii) PAN (peroxi aceyl nitrate)
(iii) Photochemical smog
(iv) Acid mists

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Q.QUALITY OF WATER
Water Quality
Clean, safe and sufficient freshwater is vital for the survival of all living organisms and smooth
functioning of ecosystems, communities and economies. Water quality refers to the basic
physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water that determine its suitability for life or
for human uses.
The parameters for water quality are determined by the intended use. Work in the area of water
quality tends to be focused on water that is treated for human consumption or in the
environment.
Human consumption:
Contaminants that may be in untreated water include microorganisms such as viruses and
bacteria; inorganic contaminants such as salts and metals; organic chemical contaminants from
industrial processes and petroleum use; pesticides and herbicides; and radioactive
contaminants.
Environmental water quality:
Toxic substances and high populations of certain microorganisms can present a health hazard
for non-drinking purposes such as irrigation, swimming, fishing, rafting, boating, and industrial
uses. These conditions may also affect wildlife which use the water for drinking or as a habitat
The following is a list of indicators often measured by situational category:
-Drinking water
Alkalinity
Color of water
pH
Taste and odor (geosmin, 2-methylisoborneol (MIB), etc)
Dissolved metals and salts (sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, manganese, magnesium)
Microorganisms such as fecal coliform bacteria (Escherichia coli), Cryptosporidium, and Giardia
lamblia
Dissolved metals and metalloids (lead, mercury, arsenic, etc.)
Dissolved organics: colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM), dissolved organic carbon (DOC)
Radon
Heavy metals
Pharmaceuticals
Hormone analogs
-Environmental
Chemical assessment
(also see salinity)
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
nitrate-N
orthophosphates
Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
Pesticides
-Physical assessment
pH
Temperature
Total suspended solids (TSS)
Turbidity

Q. ESTIMATION OF WATER DEMAND

While estimating the water demand, the above factors should be considered e.g. the size of the
city; its population does matter when estimating the water demand. The more the size of
population, more will be the demand. Estimation of water demand is necessary to:
1. Calculate design flow
2. Determine the pumping power of machines to be used
3. Reservoir capacity
4. Pipe capacity
To estimate water demand, following parameters must be determined or calculated.
1. Average daily water consumption: It is based on complete one year supply of water. It is the
total consumption during one year, divided by the population. q = (Q / P x 365) lpcd (liters per
capita per day)
2. Maximum daily consumption: It is the maximum amount of water used during one day in the
year. This amount is 180% of the average daily consumption MDC = 1.8 x Avg. daily
consumption. It is usually a working day (Monday) of summer season.
3. Maximum weekly demand: The amount of water used by a population during a whole single
week in a study span of 1 year.
Maximum Weekly demand = 1.48 x Avg. D. C
Maximum Monthly demand = 1.28 x Avg. D. C
Maximum Hourly demand = 1.5 x Avg. D. C
Maximum daily demand = 1.8 x Avg. D. C
4. Fire water demand | Fire Demand: Theamount of water usedfor fire fighting is termed as fire
demand. Although, the amount of water used in fire fighting is a negligible part of the combine
uses of water but the rate of flow and the volume required may be so high during fire that it
is a deciding factor for pumps, reservoirs And distribution mains.
Minimum fire flow should be 500 gpm (1890 L/m)
Minimum fire flow should be 8000 gpm(32, 400 L/m)
Additional flow may be required to protect adjacent buildings.

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Disinfection
The filtered water may normally contain some harmful disease producing bacteria in it. These
bacteria must be killed in order to make the water safe for drinking. The process of killing these
bacteria is known as Disinfection or Sterilization.
Disinfection Kinetics
When a single unit of microorganisms is exposed to a single unit of disinfectant, the reduction in
microorganisms follows a first-order reaction.
dN/dt=-kN N=N0e
-kt
This equation is known as Chick‟s Law:-
N = number of microorganism (N0 is initial number)
k = disinfection constant
t = contact time
Methods of Disinfection
1. Boiling: The bacteria present in water can be destroyed by boiling it for a long time.
However it is not practically possible to boil huge amounts of water. Moreover it cannot
take care of future possible contaminations.
2. Treatment with Excess Lime: Lime is used in water treatment plant for softening. But if
excess lime is added to the water, it can in addition, kill the bacteria also. Lime when
added raises the pH value o water making it extremely alkaline. This extreme alkalinity
has been found detrimental to the survival of bacteria. This method needs the removal of
excess lime from the water before it can be supplied to the general public. Treatment like
recarbonation for lime removal should be used after disinfection.
3. Treament with Ozone: Ozone readily breaks down into normal oxygen, and releases
nascent oxygen. The nascent oxygen is a powerful oxidising agent and removes the
organic matter as well as the bacteria from the water.
4. Chlorination: The germicidal action of chlorine is explained by the recent theory of
Enzymatic hypothesis, according to which the chlorine enters the cell walls of bacteria
and kill the enzymes which are essential for the metabolic processes of living organisms

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLID WASTE

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Density:
It is expressed as mass per unit volume (kg/m�). This parameter is required for designing
a solid waste management program. A reduction in volume by 75% is achieved through
normal compaction equipment, so that an initial density of 100kg/m� may readily be increased
to 400 kg/m�. Significant changes in the density occur as waste moves from sources to
disposal site, as A result of scavenging, handling, wetting, and drying by the Weather and
vibration during transport.
Moisture Content
Values greater than 40% are also not common. Moisture increases the weight of the solid
wastes and therefore the cost of collection and transport increases. Consequently waste
should be insulated from rain or other extraneous water source. Moisture content is critical
determinant in the economic feasibility of waste treatment by incineration. During
incineration energy must be supplied for evaporation of water and raising the temperature of
vapour
Chemical properties
Information of chemical characteristics is important in evaluating alternative processing and
recovery options
Lipids
These are included in the class of fats, oils and grease. The principal sources of lipids in the
garbage are cooking oil and fats. Lipids have high heating values about 38,000 Kj/Kg
(kilojoules/kilograms), which makes the waste with high lipid content suitable for energy
recovery
Carbohydrates
These are primarily originated from the food sources rich in starch and celluloses. These
readily biodegrade into carbon dioxide, water and methane. Decomposition of carbohydrates
attracts the flies and rats and hence should not be left exposed for long duration.
Proteins
These are the compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen and organic acid
with amino groups. They are primarily found in food and garden wastes, but their partial
decomposition result in the production of amines, which impart unpleasant odors.
These are found in paper products, food and yard wastes. Paper is almost100% cellulose,
cotton over 95% and wood products over 40-50%. These are highly combustible products
most suitable for incineration. The calorific value of oven dried paper products are in the
range 12000-18000 kj/kg.

Q.Sewage and Sludge.

Sewage is a sort of wastewater produced by a group of people. It is also known as domestic
sewage, domestic wastewater, or municipal wastewater. Typically, it is disposed of in a sewer
system. Sewage is wastewater that is discharged from houses, businesses, organisations, and
government buildings in the region.

Sludge is a semi-solid slurry created by a variety of industrial processes, including water

treatment, wastewater treatment, and on-site sanitation. It can be made from a settled
suspension acquired from standard drinking water treatment, sewage sludge received from
wastewater treatment operations, or faecal sludge obtained from pit latrines and septic tanks,

Q.METHODS OF DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTE (MSW)?

Composting
Garbage accumulation has never been much of a concern in the past, but due to globalization
and industrialization, there is a need for a more efficient waste disposal method. Following are
some of the methods that are used today.
Landfill
In this process, the waste that cannot be reused or recycled are separated out and spread as a
thin layer in low-lying areas across a city. A layer of soil is added after each layer of garbage.
However, once this process is complete, the area is declared unfit for construction of buildings
for the next 20 years. Instead, it can only be used as a playground or a park.
Incineration
Incineration is the process of controlled combustion of garbage to reduce it to incombustible
matter such as ash and waste gas. The exhaust gases from this process may be toxic, hence it
is treated before being released into the environment. This process reduces the volume of
waste by 90 per cent and is considered as one of the most hygienic methods of waste disposal.
In some cases, the heat generated is used to produce electricity. However, some consider this
process, not quite environmentally friendly due to the generation of greenhouse gases such as
carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.
Waste Compaction
The waste materials such as cans and plastic bottles are compacted into blocks and sent for
recycling. This process prevents the oxidation of metals and reduces airspace need, thus
making transportation and positioning easy.
Biogas Generation
Biodegradable waste, such as food items, animal waste or organic industrial waste from food
packaging industries are sent to bio-degradation plants. In bio-degradation plants, they are
converted to biogas by degradation with the help of bacteria, fungi, or other microbes. Here, the
organic matter serves as food for the micro-organisms. The degradation can happen aerobically
(with oxygen) or anaerobically (without oxygen). Biogas is generated as a result of this process,
which is used as fuel, and the residue is used as manure.
Composting
All organic materials decompose with time. Food scraps, yard waste, etc., make up for one of
the major organic wastes we throw every day. The process of composting starts with these
organic wastes being buried under layers of soil and then, are left to decay under the action of
microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi.
This results in the formation of nutrient-rich manure. Also, this process ensures that the nutrients
are replenished in the soil. Besides enriching the soil, composting also increases the water
retention capacity. In agriculture, it is the best alternative to chemical fertilizers.
Vermicomposting
Vermicomposting is the process of using worms for the degradation of organic matter into
nutrient-rich manure. Worms consume and digest the organic matter. The by-products of
digestion which are excreted out by the worms make the soil nutrient-rich, thus enhancing the
growth of bacteria and fungi. It is also far more effective than traditional composting.

Q.Sewer Appurtenances?

Sewer appurtenances are those structures and devices of a sewerage system which are
constructed at suitable intervals along a sewer line to assist in the efficient operation and
maintenance of the system.
Following are the important sewer appurtenances: 1. Inlets 2. Catch Basins or Catch Pits 3.
Clean-Outs 4. Manholes 5. Drop Manholes 6. Lamp-Holes 7. Flushing Devices 8. Grease and
Oil Traps 9. Inverted Siphons 10. Storm Water Regulators.
Inlets
An inlet is a small box like chamber made of brickwork or concrete, having an opening at the top
in vertical or horizontal direction for the entry of storm water (or rain water) and surface wash.
The water from this chamber leaves through an outlet provided at its bottom and carried by a
pipeline to a nearby manhole.
Catch Basins or Catch Pits:
A catch basin or catch pit is a device meant for the retention of heavy debris in storm water
which otherwise would be carried into the sewer. It is an inlet with its outlet being placed well
above its bottom so that heavy debris such as grit, sand, etc., flowing along with storm water is
allowed to settle down and thus prevented from entering the sewer.
. Clean-Outs:
Clean-outs are the devices meant for cleaning the sewers. These are generally provided at the
upper ends of lateral sewers in place of manholes. A clean-out consists of an inclined pipe, one
end of which is connected to the underground sewer and the other end brought up to ground
level. A cover is provided at the top end of the clean-out pipe at the ground level.
Manholes:
Manholes are the masonry or R.C.C. chambers constructed at suitable intervals along the
alignment of sewers to provide access to the sewers for the purpose of inspection, testing,
cleaning and removal of obstructions from the sewer lines.
They also help in joining sewer lines and in changing the direction or alignment as well as
gradient of sewer lines.
Drop Manholes:
A drop manhole is a type of manhole which is constructed on a sewer line where a sewer at a
high level is to be connected to another sewer at a lower level.
Lamp-holes are small openings provided on sewer lines mainly to permit the insertion of a lamp
into the sewer for the purpose of inspection of sewer lines and detecting the presence of any
obstructions inside the sewers.
A lamp-hole consists of a vertical stone ware or concrete or cast iron pipe 225 to 300 mm
diameter, connected to the sewer line through a ‘T’ junction
Flushing Devices:
When sewers are to be laid in a flat country, it is not possible to obtain a self-cleansing velocity
even once a day due to flatness of gradient especially at the top ends of branch sewers which
receive very little flow.
Grease and Oil Traps:
Grease and oil traps are the chambers provided on the sewer line to exclude grease and oil
from sewage before it enters the sewer line. These are located near the sources contributing
grease and oil to sewage, such as automobile repair workshops, garages, kitchens of hotels,
grease and oil producing industries, etc.
Inverted Siphons:
An inverted siphon is a section of sewer which is constructed lower than the adjacent sections
to pass beneath a valley, river, stream, road, railway and such other obstructions. It runs full at
greater than atmospheric pressure because the crown is depressed below the hydraulic grade
line.
Storm Water Overflow Devices or Storm Water Regulators:
In the case of combined system of sewerage a large quantity of storm water (or rain water) flows
through the sewer along with domestic sewage. Usually it is neither advisable nor practicable, to
pump and/or treat such a large quantity of sewage. Moreover, the percentage of domestic
sewage in a combined system is very much less, and hence the domestic sewage gets diluted
by storm water to a considerable extent.

Q.Small bore systems

Simplified sewerage, also called small-bore sewerage, is a sewer system that collects all
household wastewater (blackwater and greywater) in small-diameter pipes laid at fairly flat
gradients. Simplified sewers are laid in the front yard or under the pavement (sidewalk) or - if
feasible - inside the back yard, rather than in the centre of the road as with conventional
sewerage. It is suitable for existing unplanned low-income areas, as well as new housing
estates with a regular layout.[2] It allows for a more flexible design.[1] With simplified sewerage
it is crucial to have management arrangements in place to remove blockages, which are more
frequent than with conventional sewers. It has been estimated that simplified sewerage reduces
investment costs by up to 50% compared to conventional sewerage.

Q.EFFECTS OF SOLID WASTE ON ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH?

Health impacts: Due to the absence of standards and norms for handling municipal wastes,
municipal workers suffer occupational health hazards of waste handling. At
the dumpsites in the city of Mumbai, for example, 95 workers were examined and it was found
that about 80% of them had eye problems, 73% respiratory ailments, 51% gastro intestinal
ailments and 27% skin lesions. Also, municipal workers and rag pickers who operate
informally for long hours rummaging through waste also suffer from similar occupational health
diseases ranging from respiratory illnesses (from ingesting particulates and bio-aerosols),
infections (direct contact with contaminated material), puncture wounds (leading to tetanus,
hepatitis and HIV infection) to headaches and nausea, etc. Studies among the 180 rag pickers
at open dumps of Kolkata city reveal that average quarterly incidence of diarrhoea was 85%,
fever 72% and cough and cold 63%.
Environmental impacts: In addition to occupational health, injury issues and environmental
health also need to be mentioned in the context of waste management. Contaminated leachate
and surface run-off from land disposal facilities affects ground and surface water quality. Volatile
organic compounds and dioxins in air-emissions are attributed to increasing cancer incidence
and psychological stress for those living near incinerators or land disposal facilities. Drain
clogging due to uncollected wastes leading to stagnant waters and subsequent mosquito vector
breeding is a few of the environmental health issues, which affect the waste workers as well as
the public.
quantification of storm water:-
Generally there are two methods by which the quantity of storm water is calculated:
1. Rational method
2. Empirical formulae method
In both the above methods, the quantity of storm water is a function of the area, the intensity of
rainfall and the co-efficient of runoff.
Rational method:-
Runoff from an area can be determined by the Rational Method. The method gives a reasonable
estimate up to a maximum area of 50 ha (0.5 Km2).
Assumptions and Limitations
Use of the rational method includes the following assumptions and limitations:
1. Precipitation is uniform over the entire basin.
2. Precipitation does not vary with time or space.
3. Storm duration is equal to the time of concentration.
4. A design storm of a specified frequency produces a design flood of the same frequency.
5. The basin area increases roughly in proportion to increases in length.
6. The time of concentration is relatively short and independent of storm intensity. The
runoff coefficient does not vary with storm intensity or antecedent soil moisture.
7. Runoff is dominated by overland
8. Basin storage effects are negligible.
This method is mostly used in determining the quantity of storm water. The storm water quantity
is determined by the rational formula:
Q = cla/360

EE 1

Q . BUILDING PLUMBING
The plumbing system installed in the building has two main objectives to be served. They are:
Supply of water for the human use
To get rid of human waste
The plumbing system of a building will include the water distribution pipes, the fixture and the
fixture traps, the waste, soil and the vent pipes, the building drain and building sewer, storm
drainage system with their connected devices, connections and appurtenances within the
building and outside, that is within the property line.
When considered systems of plumbing, there are four categories. They are:
1. Single stack system
2. Partially vented single stack system
3. One-pipe system
4. Two-pipe system
1. Single Stack System.
This is the simplest form of plumbing system among the four categories mentioned. This system
of pipes carries waste water from the wash basin, bathrooms, sinks and the foul matters from
the water closets. This is connected to a final single pipe. The pipe will terminate as the vent
pipe at its top. A single stack system will need the use of traps that are filled with 75mm water
seal.
2. Partially Vented Single Stack System.
This is a single stack system where the vent pipe provides ventilation to the traps of the water
closet. Here the traps of the wash basin and the sinks are not connected to the vent pipes.
3. One Pipe System
Here the system uses a single stack and the vent pipe will receive the connections from all the
traps. This will not be the only trap of closets, but also for the sinks, wash basins etc.
4. Two Pipe System
This system will make use of separate pipes for connecting the water closets and for the
discharges from the basin, baths, sinks etc. Here both pipes are separately ventilated. This
system forms a four-pipe connection system. Most of the multistoried buildings prefer this
system.

Q.PLUMBING IN HIGH RISE BUILDINGS.

How does plumbing work in a high-rise building?
Sometimes, buildings let gravity do the work for them; water is pumped up from the city
municipal water supply to a reservoir on the roof, and then it descends back down through the
building piping using gravitational force. Newer towers tend to hide their reservoirs inside and
often use multiple tanks housed throughout the building (New York’s One World Trade Center
has 16 water tanks).

If a high-rise doesn’t feature a water reservoir, a series of pumps will help raise the water
pressure to reach those high places. However, if low water pressure is a problem, a
professionally installed water booster system can help. Water is pumped into an airtight tank
that contains air, which is then compressed by the water entering the tank, forcing it upwards.
This is far safer than increasing the psi (pound per square inch) on a traditional system.
Exceeding city water pressure restrictions can result in burst pipes and a whole host of
problems.

Q.NOISE POLLUTION, CONTROL MEASURES, MEASUREMENT?

Noise pollution refers to any unwanted and unpleasant sound that brings discomfort and
restlessness to human beings. Like air and water pollution, noise pollution is harmful to human
and animal life.
Noise pollution is also an important environmental hazard, which is becoming growingly
injurious in many parts of the world. Noise beyond a particular level or decibel (unit of noise)
tends to become a health and environmental hazard.
Measures to Control Noise Pollution
Noise Pollution can be controlled at the source, in the transmission path, and by using
protective equipment.
Noise Control At the Source
Designing Quieter Machines: Quieter machines should be designed, built, and used to replace
noisy machinery.
Lubrication And Maintenance: Machine lubrication and maintenance should be improved.
Soundproof Room: Placing loud devices which can cause noise pollution in a soundproof room
is another way to control noise at the source.
Vibration Damping: Vibration damping is the process of adding a layer of damping material
(rubber, neoprene, cork, or plastic) beneath a vibrating machine to reduce the noise it produces.
Usage of Silencers: Silencers are used to reduce noise from autos, ducts, exhausts, and other
conveying systems having ends that open into the atmosphere.
Usage of Perforated Metal: For mechanical protection, glass wool or mineral wool is covered
with a sheet of perforated (having holes) metal.
Usage of Acoustic Enclosure: In a room or a chamber, an acoustic enclosure (also known as a
soundproof enclosure, sound enclosure, or noise enclosure) encloses noisy equipment.
Thus to reduce noise, noise-producing machine elements are covered with a sound-absorbing
acoustic enclosure.
Noise measurement
Noise level is measured in decibels (dB). The louder the noise, the higher the decibels. Decibels
can be adjusted to human hearing. Noise level is thus described in decibels A (dBA). The
effects of noise vary with the noise to which a person is exposed. Prolonged exposure to loud
noises (75 dBA over eight hours a day for years) can lead to hearing loss. The body can also
respond to lower noise levels: sleep can be disturbed by an outdoor noise of 40 dBA.

Q.What Is Integrated Solid Waste Management?

Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) is a comprehensive waste prevention, recycling.
composting, and disposal program. An effective ISWM system considers how to prevent,
recycle, and manage solid waste in ways that most effectively protect human health and the
environment. ISWM involves evaluating local needs and conditions, and then selecting and
combining the most appropriate waste management activities for those conditions. The major
ISWM activities are waste prevention, recycling and composting, and combustion and disposal
in properly designed, constructed, and managed landfills . Each of these activities requires
careful planning, financing, collection, and transport, all of which are discussed in this and the
other fact sheets.
Waste Prevention, Waste prevention-also called "source reduction-seeks to prevent waste from
being generateid. Waste prevention strategies include using less packaging, designing products
to last longer, and reusing products and materials Waste prevention helps reduce handling,
treatment, and disposal costs and bltimately reduces the generation of methane

Recycling and Composting. Recycling is a process that involves collecting, reprocessing and for
recovering certain waste materials (eg, gles, metal, plastics, paper) to make new malenals or
products. Some recycled organic materials are rich in nutrients and can be used to improve
soils. The conversion of waste materials into soil additives is called composting Recycling and
composting generate many environmental and economic benefits. For example, they create
jobs and income, supply valuable raw materials to industry produce soil-enhancing compost,
and reduce greenhouse gas emissions and the number of landfills and combustion facilities.

Disposal (landfilling and combustion). These activities are used to manage waste that cannot be
prevented or recycled. One way to dispose of
waste is to place it in properly designed, constructed, and managed landfills, where it is safely
contained. Another way to handle this waste is through combustion Combustion is the controlled
burning of waste, which helps reduce its volume. If the technology is available, properly
designed, constructed, and managed landfills can be used to generate energy by recovering
methane. Similarly, combustion facilities produce steam and water as a byproduct that can be
used to generatenergy

Q. WATER TREATMENT?
Aeration is the process by which air is circulated through, mixed with or dissolved in a liquid or
substance.
Aeration brings water and air in close contact in order to remove dissolved gases and to oxidize
dissolved metals, including iron, hydrogen sulfide, and volatile organic chemicals (VOCs). This
process is typically the first major process at drinking water treatment plant, and occurs in the
secondary treatment processes of activated sludge treatment in wastewater treatment plants.
An evenly distributed oxygen supply in an aeration system is essential to effective wastewater
treatment for fostering microbial growth.
Coagulation
Coagulation is often the first step in water treatment. During coagulation, chemicals with a
positive charge are added to the water. The positive charge neutralizes the negative charge of
dirt and other dissolved particles in the water. When this occurs, the particles bind with the
chemicals to form slightly larger particles. Common chemicals used in this step include specific
types of salts, aluminum, or iron.
Flocculation
Flocculation follows the coagulation step. Flocculation is the gentle mixing of the water to form
larger, heavier particles called flocs. Often, water treatment plants will add additional chemicals
during this step to help the flocs form.
Sedimentation is one of the steps water treatment plants use to separate out solids from the
water. During sedimentation, flocs settle to the bottom of the water because they are heavier
than water.
Filtration
Once the flocs have settled to the bottom of the water, the clear water on top is filtered to
separate additional solids from the water. During filtration, the clear water passes through filters
that have different pore sizes and are made of different materials (such as sand, gravel, and
charcoal). These filters remove dissolved particles and germs, such as dust, chemicals,
parasites, bacteria, and viruses. Activated carbon filters also remove any bad odors.
Water treatment plants can use a process called ultrafiltration in addition to or instead of
traditional filtration. During ultrafiltration, the water goes through a filter membrane with very
small pores. This filter only lets through water and other small molecules (such as salts and tiny,
charged molecules).
Disinfection
After the water has been filtered, water treatment plants may add one or more chemical
disinfectants (such as chlorine, chloramine, or chlorine dioxide) to kill any remaining parasites,
bacteria, or viruses. To help keep water safe as it travels to homes and businesses, water
treatment plants will make sure the water has low levels of the chemical disinfectant when it
leaves the treatment plant. This remaining disinfectant kills germs living in the pipes between
the water treatment plant and your tap.
In addition to or instead of adding chlorine, chloramine, or chlorine dioxide, water treatment
plants can also disinfect water using ultraviolet (UV) light or ozone . UV light and ozone work
well to disinfect water in the treatment plant, but these disinfection methods do not continue
killing germs as water travels through the pipes between the treatment plant and your tap.

Q.Advantages and disadvantages of aerobic and anaerobic processes

Aerobic treatment has some distinct advantages over the anaerobic treatment process. These
include reduced odor (due to non-production of hydrogen sulfide or methane) and better nutrient
removal efficacy (facilitating direct discharge into surface waters or disinfection). However,
aerobic treatment does have several disadvantages. Oxygenation is an energy-intensive
process severely increasing the overall energy consumption, utility and maintenance costs of
this process. Solid wastes that the microbes are unable to digest often settle out as bio-solids.
These bio-solids require appropriate disposal adding to the utility and maintenance costs.
Anaerobic wastewater treatment processes, on the other hand, have a number of advantages
over aerobic treatment processes. The biogas produced during an anaerobic treatment process
can be used as a source of renewable energy (natural gas/methane). This also produces very
low sludge that is de-waterable and fully stabilized for disposal. This makes it less expensive,
simple, and flexible when compared to most aerobic treatment processes.
Since both of these methods have their own advantages and disadvantages, often a
combination of anaerobic and aerobic treatment processes are employed to achieve efficient
treatment of wastewater. The wastewater going into the aerobic reactor will often undergo
pre-treatment in an anaerobic reactor to fulfill wastewater standard discharge requirements in
an energy efficient and cost-effective manner.

Q.SUSPENDED GROWTH SYSTEMAND ATTACHED GROWTH SYSTEM?

suspended growth processes

Wastewater treatment processes in which the microorganisms and bacteria treating the wastes
are suspended in the wastewater being treated. The wastes flow around and through the
suspended growths. The various modes of the activated sludge process make use of
suspended growth reactors. These reactors can be used for BOD (biochemical oxygen demand)
removal, nitrification, and denitrification.
ATTACHED GROWTH SYSTEM
attached growth processes
Wastewater treatment processes in which the microorganisms and bacteria treating the wastes
are attached to the media in the reactor. The wastes being treated flow over the media. Trickling
filters and rotating biological contactors are attached growth reactors. These reactors can be
used for BOD removal, nitrification, and denitrification.

Explain the different mechanisms of filtration?

Mechanical Straining:
The suspended particles in water whose size are bigger than the voids in the filter media cannot
pass through them and therefore get arrested in the top portion of the filter media thus making
the water free from suspended impurities.

2. Sedimentation and Flocculation:

It has been found that the filters remove the particles whose size is smaller than the size of the
voids. This can be explained by assuming that the voids of the filter-media act as tiny
coagulation and sedimentation tanks. The colloidal particles act as a gelatinous mass and
therefore attract finer particles these finer particles then settle down in the voids and get
removed.

3. Biological Filtering:
Certain bacteria and micro-organisms are generally present in the voids of the filter. They may
either reside initially as a coating in the sand grains or they may be caught in the initial process
of filtration. Nevertheless, the organisms need biological impurities such as algae, plankton, etc.
as their food for survival. These organisms, therefore, utilize this impurity and convert them into
harmless compounds by the process of biological metabolism.

4. Electrolytic Changes:
The purifying action of the water can also be explained by the theory of ionization. According to
this theory, a filter helps in purifying water by changing the chemical characteristics of water.
This can be explained by the fact that the sand grains and the filter media carry some electric
charges opposite in nature. When these oppositely charged particles and the impurities come in
contact, they neutralize each other and therefore change the chemical characteristics of water.
After some time, interval the electric charge of the filter media gets exhausted and has to be
restored by replacing the top layer of the filter media.
Q.INSPECTION CHAMBER AND MANHOLES
Manholes (MH) are the largest chambers providing access to a sewer or drain for maintenance
equipment, and, in some cases, for operatives to enter the system itself. The minimum internal
dimensions of a manhole are 600x900mm and they can be of any depth, although most modern
manholes tend to be at least 1 metre deep with inspection chambers used for shallower depths.
Inspection chambers (often abbreviated to IC) are larger than access chambers, typically a
minimum 450mm diameter. Again, they provide access for maintenance equipment, but tend to
have more branches/spurs feeding into them and are often up to 1000mm deep.

Q.GRIT CHAMBER AND SKIMMING TANK?

Grit chamber is the second unit operation which is used in the primary treatment of wastewater.
Grit chamber is used to remove sand and other heavy matters (grit) which are inert inorganic
such as metal fragments, rags etc. If not removed in preliminary treatments, grit in primary
settling tank can cause abnormal abrasive wear and tear on mechanical equipment's and
sludge pumps, can clog by deposition and can accumulate in sludge holding tanks and
digesters. Therefore grit removal is necessary to protect the moving mechanical equipment and
pump elements from abrasion.

Q. OXIDATION POND AND LAGOONS

Oxidation pond refers to the stabilization pond stabilizing the domestic, trade, industrial wastes
etc., by the microbial interaction (primarily bacteria and algae). It seems like a large shallow
pond with 2-6 feet height of water body. Oxidation pond requires the presence of sunlight and
oxygen for the secondary treatment of domestic and trade wastes.
LAGOONS
Lagoons are deep waste stabilization ponds -like bodies of water or basins designed to receive,
hold, and treat wastewater for a predetermined period of time by artificial means of aeration.In
the lagoon, wastewater is treated through a combination of physical, biological, and chemical
processes.

What Is an Electrostatic Precipitator?

An electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is defined as a filtration device that is used to remove fine
particles like smoke and fine dust from the flowing gas. It is the most commonly used device for
air pollution control. They are used in industries like steel plants, and thermal energy plants.
In 1907, chemistry professor Frederick Gardner Cottrell patented the first electrostatic
precipitator used to collect sulphuric acid mist and lead oxide fumes emitted from various
acid-making and smelting activities.
Catalytic converter
A catalytic converter is an exhaust emission control device that converts toxic gases and
pollutants in exhaust gas from an internal combustion engine into less-toxic pollutants by
catalyzing a redox reaction. Catalytic converters are usually used with internal combustion
engines fueled by gasoline or diesel, including lean-burn engines, and sometimes on kerosene
heaters and stoves

Q.QUALITY OF WATER
Water Quality
Clean, safe and sufficient freshwater is vital for the survival of all living organisms and smooth
functioning of ecosystems, communities and economies. Water quality refers to the basic
physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water that determine its suitability for life or
for human uses.
The parameters for water quality are determined by the intended use. Work in the area of water
quality tends to be focused on water that is treated for human consumption or in the
environment.
Human consumption
Contaminants that may be in untreated water include microorganisms such as viruses and
bacteria; inorganic contaminants such as salts and metals; organic chemical contaminants from
industrial processes and petroleum use; pesticides and herbicides; and radioactive
contaminants.
Environmental water quality
Toxic substances and high populations of certain microorganisms can present a health hazard
for non-drinking purposes such as irrigation, swimming, fishing, rafting, boating, and industrial
uses. These conditions may also affect wildlife which use the water for drinking or as a habitat

Q. primary and secondary pollutants?

Primary pollutants and secondary pollutants: Primary pollutants are substances that are
directly emitted into the atmosphere from sources. Primary pollutants are those that are emitted
directly from identifiable sources. Secondary air pollutants are those that are produced in the air
by the interaction of two or more primary air pollutant.
Primary Air pollutants:-
(i) Fine (less than 100μ) and coarse (more than 100μ) suspended particulate matter
(ii) Oxides of sulfur
(iii) Oxides of nitrogen
(iv) Carbon monoxide
(v) Halogens
(vi) Organic compounds
(vii) Radioactive compounds
Secondary Air pollutants:-
(i) Ozone
(ii) PAN (peroxi aceyl nitrate)
(iii) Photochemical smog
(iv) Acid mists

Ee

For most high-rise designs, piping systems can be specified and installed using very standard
piping and fittings. Sanitary and vent
piping and storm water piping within these buildings are mostly hub less cast iron, selected
primarily for availability and quiet
operation. Underground sanitary and rainwater piping is hub and spigot cast iron with gasket
joints. In some instances, particularly
horizontal, large-diameter drainage piping below grade, the piping is ductile iron with
mechanical type joints. This type of piping
system is used widely because of its suitability to flow and pressure, availability, and quiet
operation, and because it is typically
made of post-consumer product, so it is very “green” in application.
Water systems for high-rise buildings are typically Type L copper. Tubing sizes 2 inches and
smaller are typically assembled
using 95-5 solder; for larger diameter tubing, we usually leave the contractor the choice to braze
or use mechanical joints with roll
groove fittings. Medical gas distribution is typically Type L copper with brazed joints as outlined
by NFPA. Except for extremely
tall buildings, these materials generally give good service over a wide pressure range and are
within maximum pressure limits by
significant amounts. As buildings get taller, many water systems can exert pressures that
exceed the safe working pressure of
copper tubing. In some areas, stainless steel light wall pipe (Schedule 10) or standard pipe
(Schedule 40) is a reasonable alternative
to increase safe working pressures. Both of these materials can be joined using roll groove
mechanical joints.

EE

The plumbing system installed in the building has two main objectives to be served. They are:
Supply of water for the human use
To get rid of human waste
The plumbing system of a building will include the water distribution pipes, the fixture and the
fixture traps, the waste, soil and the vent pipes, the building drain and building sewer, storm
drainage system with their connected devices, connections and appurtenances within the
building and outside, that is within the property line.
When considered systems of plumbing, there are four categories. They are:

1. Single stack system

2. Partially vented single stack system
3. One-pipe system
4. Two-pipe system
1. Single Stack System

Fig.2: Single Stack System in Plumbing

This is the simplest form of plumbing system among the four categories mentioned. The figure-2
shows the basic arrangement of a single stack system. This system of pipes carries waste water
from the wash basin, bathrooms, sinks and the foul matters from the water closets. This is
connected to a final single pipe. The pipe will terminate as the vent pipe at its top. A single stack
system will need the use of traps that are filled with 75mm water seal.

2. Partially Vented Single Stack System

Fig.3.Partially Vented Single Stack System

This is a single stack system where the vent pipe provides ventilation to the traps of the water
closet. Here the traps of the wash basin and the sinks are not connected to the vent pipes. The
figure-3 shows a partially vented single stack system.

Read More On: Types of Toilets Based on Style

3. One Pipe System

Fig.4: One-Pipe System

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Here the system uses a single stack and the vent pipe will receive the connections from all the
traps. This will not be the only trap of closets, but also for the sinks, wash basins etc. The figure
-4 shows a one pipe system.

4. Two Pipe System

Fig.5: Two-pipe system

This system will make use of separate pipes for connecting the water closets and for the
discharges from the basin, baths, sinks etc. Here both pipes are separately ventilated. This
system forms a four-pipe connection system. The figure-5 shows the two-pipe system. Most of
the multistoried buildings prefer this system.

Q
How does plumbing work in a high-rise building?
Sometimes, buildings let gravity do the work for them; water is pumped up from the city
municipal water supply to a reservoir on the roof, and then it descends back down through the
building piping using gravitational force. Newer towers tend to hide their reservoirs inside and
often use multiple tanks housed throughout the building (New York’s One World Trade Center
has 16 water tanks).

If a high-rise doesn’t feature a water reservoir, a series of pumps will help raise the water
pressure to reach those high places. However, if low water pressure is a problem, a
professionally installed water booster system can help. Water is pumped into an airtight tank
that contains air, which is then compressed by the water entering the tank, forcing it upwards.
This is far safer than increasing the psi (pound per square inch) on a traditional system.
Exceeding city water pressure restrictions can result in burst pipes and a whole host of
problems.

Q
Noise pollution refers to any unwanted and unpleasant sound that brings discomfort and
restlessness to human beings. Like air and water pollution, noise pollution is harmful to human
and animal life.

Noise pollution is also an important environmental hazard, which is becoming growingly

injurious in many parts of the world. Noise beyond a particular level or decibel (unit of noise)
tends to become a health and environmental hazard.
Measures to Control Noise Pollution
Noise Pollution can be controlled at the source, in the transmission path, and by using
protective equipment.

Noise Control At the Source

Designing Quieter Machines: Quieter machines should be designed, built, and used to replace
noisy machinery.
Lubrication And Maintenance: Machine lubrication and maintenance should be improved.
Soundproof Room: Placing loud devices which can cause noise pollution in a soundproof room
is another way to control noise at the source.
Vibration Damping: Vibration damping is the process of adding a layer of damping material
(rubber, neoprene, cork, or plastic) beneath a vibrating machine to reduce the noise it produces.
Usage of Silencers: Silencers are used to reduce noise from autos, ducts, exhausts, and other
conveying systems having ends that open into the atmosphere.
Usage of Perforated Metal: For mechanical protection, glass wool or mineral wool is covered
with a sheet of perforated (having holes) metal.
Usage of Acoustic Enclosure: In a room or a chamber, an acoustic enclosure (also known as a
soundproof enclosure, sound enclosure, or noise enclosure) encloses noisy equipment.
Thus to reduce noise, noise-producing machine elements are covered with a sound-absorbing
acoustic enclosure.
Noise measurement
Noise level is measured in decibels (dB). The louder the noise, the higher the decibels. Decibels
can be adjusted to human hearing. Noise level is thus described in decibels A (dBA). The
effects of noise vary with the noise to which a person is exposed. Prolonged exposure to loud
noises (75 dBA over eight hours a day for years) can lead to hearing loss. The body can also
respond to lower noise levels: sleep can be disturbed by an outdoor noise of 40 dBA.

What Is Integrated Solid Waste Management?

Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) is a comprehensive waste prevention, recycling.

composting, and disposal program. An effective ISWM system considers how to prevent,
recycle, and manage solid waste in ways that most effectively protect human health and the
environment. ISWM involves evaluating local needs and conditions, and then selecting and
combining the most appropriate waste management activities for those conditions. The major
ISWM activities are waste prevention, recycling and composting, and combustion and disposal
in properly designed, constructed, and managed landfills (see Figure 1). Each of these activities
requires careful planning, financing, collection, and transport, all of which are discussed in this
and the other fact sheets.
Waste Prevention, Waste prevention-also called "source reduction-seeks to prevent waste from
being generateid. Waste prevention strategies include using less packaging, designing products
to last longer, and reusing products and materials Waste prevention helps reduce handling,
treatment, and disposal costs and bltimately reduces the generation of methane

Recycling and Composting. Recycling is a process that involves collecting, reprocessing and for
recovering certain waste materials (eg, gles, metal, plastics, paper) to make new malenals or
products. Some recycled organic materials are rich in nutrients and can be used to improve
soils. The conversion of waste materials into soil additives is called composting Recycling and
composting generate many environmental and economic benefits. For example, they create
jobs and income, supply valuable raw materials to industry produce soil-enhancing compost,
and reduce greenhouse gas emissions and the number of landfills and combustion facilities.

Disposal (landfilling and combustion). These activities are used to manage waste that cannot be
prevented or recycled. One way to dispose of

waste is to place it in properly designed, constructed, and managed landfills, where it is safely
contained. Another way to handle this waste is through combustion Combustion is the controlled
burning of waste, which helps reduce its volume. If the technology is available, properly
designed, constructed, and managed landfills can be used to generate energy by recovering
methane. Similarly, combustion facilities produce steam and water as a byproduct that can be
used to generatenergy

Ee

The plumbing system installed in the building has two main objectives to be served. They are:
Supply of water for the human use
To get rid of human waste
The plumbing system of a building will include the water distribution pipes, the fixture and the
fixture traps, the waste, soil and the vent pipes, the building drain and building sewer, storm
drainage system with their connected devices, connections and appurtenances within the
building and outside, that is within the property line.
When considered systems of plumbing, there are four categories. They are:

1. Single stack system

2. Partially vented single stack system
3. One-pipe system
4. Two-pipe system
1. Single Stack System

Fig.2: Single Stack System in Plumbing

This is the simplest form of plumbing system among the four categories mentioned. The figure-2
shows the basic arrangement of a single stack system. This system of pipes carries waste water
from the wash basin, bathrooms, sinks and the foul matters from the water closets. This is
connected to a final single pipe. The pipe will terminate as the vent pipe at its top. A single stack
system will need the use o