Atoms & Molecules

Matter
Anything that has mass and occupies space is called matter. A matter is made up of Tiny particles
these particles are invisible to Naked eye.

• Maharishi kanada, Postulated that if we go on dividing matter, we shall get smaller and smaller
particle ultimately, a stage will come, when we shall come across the smallest particles beyond
which Further division will not be possible.
• Atom(uncut): Is the smallest particle of an element that take part in chemical reaction.
“The Basic Building Block of Matter”
• Molecules: Molecule is made up of group of atoms. Molecules are formed by combination of
atoms of same (homoatomic) or different (Heteroatomic) element.
• Antoine L. Lavoisier laid foundation of chemical sciences by establishing two important laws
of chemical combination.
“Father of chemistry → Antoine L. Lavoisier”
Law of chemical Combination
1. Law of Conservation of Mass (Lavoisier)
“Law of conservation of mass states that mass can neither be created nor be destroyed in a
chemical reaction” that is total mass of product remain equal to the total mass of reactant.
mass of 𝑨 + mass of 𝑩 → mass of 𝑨𝑩
(Reactant) (Product)
𝑺 + 𝑭𝒆 →−−−−−−−−→ 𝑭𝒆 𝑺
𝟑𝟐 𝒈 𝟓𝟔 𝒈 𝟖𝟖 𝒈

2. Law of Constant Proportions (Joseph Proust)

“In a chemical substance, the elements are always present in definite proportion by mass.”
Pure water obtained from different sources such as river, well, sea etc. always contain
hydrogen and oxygen combined together in the ratio 1 ∶ 8
“If 𝟗 𝒈 of water is decomposed, 𝟏 𝒈 of hydrogen and 𝟖 𝒈 of oxygen are always obtained”

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory
In 1808, Dalton Provided the Basic theory about the Nature of matter known as Dalton’s Atomic
theory. According to Dalton atomic theory, all matter whether an element, a compound or a mixture
is composed of small particles called atoms.

Postulates of Dalton Atomic Theory

• All matter is made of very tiny particles called atoms, which participate in chemical reaction.
• Atoms are the ultimate particles of matter and cannot be further sub-divided into smaller
particles.
• Atoms of a given element are identical in mass and chemical properties.
• Atoms of Different elements have different masses, sizes and also chemical properties.
• Atoms combine in the ratio of small whole number to form compounds.
• The relative number and kinds of atoms are constant in a given compound.

Drawback of Dalton’s Atomic Theory

• Atoms have been found to be made of sub-atomic particles. The important out of these are
electrons protons and neutron.
• Atoms of different element may not always combine in simple whole number ratio to form
molecule of a compound.
Example:

Sugar Simple Ratio

𝑪𝟏𝟐𝑯𝟐𝟐𝑶𝟏𝟏 𝑪∶𝑯∶𝑶
𝟔 ∶ 𝟏𝟏 ∶ 𝟓. 𝟓

Atom
“An atom is the smallest particle of an element that take part in chemical reaction.”

Relative Size of Atom

• Atoms are very small, more than millions of atoms when stacked would make a layer as
thick as this sheet of paper.
• Hydrogen atom is the smallest.
• The Radius of Hydrogen atom is Nearly 1×10–10 m
• Atoms are so small that these cannot be seen even by the most powerful microscope.

Symbols of Elements
• Dalton was the first scientist to use the symbol for elements

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 Symbol for some elements as proposed by Dalton
• In the Beginning, the names of elements were derived from the name of the place, where
they were found for the first time.
Iron Fe Ferrum

Sodium Na Natrium

Copper Cu Cyprus

Potassium K Kalium

• Some names are taken from the Specific Colour

• Example : Gold → yellow
• Now; IUPAC approves names of element, symbol and units.
• First letter of a symbol is always written as a capital letter and second letter as a small
letter
Name of Name of
Symbol Symbol
Element Element
1 Hydrogen H 16 Sulphur S
2 Helium He 17 Chlorine Cl
3 Lithium Li 18 Argon Ar
4 Beryllium Be 19 Potassium K
5 Boron B 20 Calcium Ca
6 Carbon C 21 Barium Ba
7 Nitrogen N 22 Bromine Br
8 Oxygen O 23 Cobalt CO
9 Fluorine F 24 Gold Au
10 Neon Ne 25 Iodine I
11 Sodium Na 26 Iron Fe
12 Magnesium Mg 27 Lead Pb
13 Aluminium Al 28 Uranium U
14 Silicon Si 29 Zinc Zn
15 Phosphorus P

Name of Element Latin Name Symbol

Silver Argentum Ag
Copper Cuprus Cu

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 Gold Aurum Au
Iron Ferrum Fe
Potassium Kalium K
Sodium Natrium Na
Lead Plumbum Pb
Antimony Stibium Sb
Tungsten Wolfram W

Atomic Mass
Atom is so small in size that it may not be possible to isolate single atom and then weigh it. The
mass of the atom of an element is also extremely small, so gram or kilogram is a very big unit to
express the mass of an atom of a particular element.
“The mass of an Atom of an element is called it’s atomic mass.”

Atomic mass Unit (Amu)

Atomic masses are very small. To express atomic mass (amu) unit called atomic mass unit is
commonly used but according to latest IUPAC recommendation it is now written as u(unified
mass)
“The atomic mass unit is defined as the quantity of mass equal to 1/12th of mass of an atom of
carbon–12”
1 amu=1/12𝑡ℎ (mass of one C–12 atom)
Mass of and C–12 atom is =1.99×10–23 g
1
(1.9910− g ) =1.66×10–24
23
1 amu=
12
1 amu=1.66×10–27 kg
Element Atomic Mass
Hydrogen 1𝑢
Carbon 12 𝑢
Nitrogen 14 𝑢
Oxygen 16 𝑢
Sodium 23 𝑢
Magnesium 24 𝑢
Sulphur 32 𝑢
Chlorine 35.5 𝑢
Calcium 40 𝑢

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Q. Why Carbon – 12 isotope was chosen as the standard reference for measuring
atomic mass? NCERT Exercise

Sol. Initially, Scientists used 1/16 of the mass of an atom of Naturally occurring oxygen
because

i) Oxygen reacted with a large number of element to form compound

ii) This gave the masses of most elements as whole number.
However, in 1961 Carbon – 12 isotope is considered as standard reference for measuring
atomic mass. Reasons for choosing C – 12 as our ref.
i) C – 12 isotope is very Abundant in Nature
ii) Least Reactive
iii) C – 12 = 99% on earth crust.

How Do Atom Exist

• Atoms of most elements are not able to exist
independently; because atoms of most of the elements
are very reactive.
• Only the atoms of Noble gases (He, Ar, Kr, Xe) are
chemically unreactive and can exist in the free state as
single atom.
• Atoms of all other element Combine together to form
molecule or ion.

Molecules
“Group of two or more atoms that are chemically Bonded together”
A molecule can be defined as the smallest particle of an element or a
compound that is capable of an independent existence.

Example: 𝐻2𝑂 is the smallest particle of water which shows all the
properties of water.
• Hydrogen gas consists of 𝑯𝟐 molecule
• Nitrogen gas exist in the form of 𝑵𝟐 molecule
• Oxygen gas exist in the form of 𝑶𝟐 molecule
• Chlorine gas exist in the form of 𝑪𝒍𝟐 molecule

Atomicity
“The number of Atoms in a molecule of an element is called its atomicity”
• Atomicity of inert gases (𝑯𝒆, 𝑵𝒆, 𝑨𝒓, 𝑲𝒓) and metals like 𝑳𝒊, 𝑵𝒂, 𝑲, 𝑪𝒖 etc. is 1 (one)

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 • Molecules of some elements contain 2 atoms these are diatomic, i.e. their atomicity is 2
Example: 𝑯𝟐, 𝑶𝟐, 𝑵𝟐, 𝑪𝒍𝟐 etc.
• The ozone (𝑶𝟑) molecule containing 3 atoms and so, it’s atomicity is 3. (Triatomic)
• Phosphorus molecule (𝑷𝟒) are tetra atomic, its atomicity is 4 (Tetraatomic)

Molecules of Compounds
“Atoms of different elements join together in definite proportion to form molecules of
compound.”
Compound Combining Elements Ratio by Mass
Water (𝐻2𝑂) Hydrogen, Oxygen 1∶8
Ammonia (𝑁𝐻3) Nitrogen, Hydrogen 14 ∶ 3
Carbon dioxide (𝐶𝑂2) Carbon, Oxygen 3∶8

Formation of ions
A cation (Positively Charge ion) is Formed when an atom loses one or more electron and get
positive charge on it
Example: When sodium (𝑁𝑎) loses an electron, sodium ion is formed (𝑁𝑎+).
𝑵𝒂+ is a cation because it has positive charge on it.
An Anion (Negatively charged ion) is formed when an atom gain one or more
electrons and get negative charge on it.
𝑪𝒍(𝒈) + 𝒆− →−−−−−−−−−−→ 𝑪𝒍−(𝒈)
𝑪𝒉𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎 𝑨𝒏𝒊𝒐𝒏

Chemical Formula
“It is the Symbolic Representation of the composition of a compounds.”
Characteristics of Chemical Formula
• The charges on ion must balance.
• When, symbol of metal comes first
Example: 𝐶𝑎𝑂, 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
• When polyatomic ions are used, the ions are enclosed in Brackets before writing the
number to show the ratio
𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2, (𝑁𝐻4)2𝑆𝑂4
Valency
• A chemical compound is formed by the combination or more elements in a definite
proportion by weight the combining capacity of all the elements are not same.
• It is observed that one atom of an element combines with a definite number of atoms of
other elements to form a stable compound, valency is defined as combining capacity of
any element.
Valency can be used to find out how the atoms of an element will combine with the
atoms of another element to for chemical compound.

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Rules for writing Chemical Formulas
1. We have to first write symbols of elements which form a compound
2. Below the symbol of each element, we should write their valency.
3. Now cross over the valences of combining atom.
Non-
Polyatomic Symbol
Valency Name of ion Symbol metallic Symbol
ions
element
Sodium Hydrogen 𝐻+ Ammonium 𝑁𝐻+
1 𝑁𝑎+ 4

Potassium 𝐾+ Hydride 𝐻− Hydroxide 𝑂𝐻−

Silver 𝐴𝑔+ Chloride 𝐶𝑙− Nitrate 𝑁𝑂−
3

Copper (I)* 𝐶𝑢+ Bromide 𝐵𝑟

Hydrogen 𝐻𝐶𝑂−
Iodide 𝐼− 3
Carbonate
2 Magnesium 𝑀𝑔2+ Oxide 𝑂2− Carbonate 𝐶𝑂32−
Calcium 𝐶𝑎2+ Sulphide 𝑆2− Sulphite 𝑆𝑂32−
Zinc 𝑍𝑛2+ Sulphate 𝑆𝑂42−
Iron (II)* 𝐹𝑒2+
Copper (II)* 𝐶𝑢2+
3 Aluminium 𝐴𝑙3+ Nitride 𝑁3− Phosphate 𝑃𝑂43−
Iron (III)* 𝐹𝑒3+

Formula of Simple Compound

1. Formula of Hydrogen Chloride

2. Formula of Hydrogen Sulphide

3. Formula of Carbon tetrachloride

4. Formula of Magnesium Chloride

5. Barium Chloride

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 6. Calcium Nitride

7. Ferric Sulphide

8. Cuprous Sulphate

9. Potassium Carbonate

10. Aluminium Oxide

11. Ammonium Sulphate

Molecular Mass
It is the sum of atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule of that substance
Example: Molecular Mass of 𝐻2𝑂 = 2 × Atomic mass of Hydrogen +1 × Atomic
Molecular Mass of 𝐻2𝑂 = 2 × 1 + 16 × 1
= 2 × 16 = 32
Q. A gas containing 1.7 g of Ammonia gas. Calculate the molar mass of Ammonia gas.
NCERT Exercise
Sol. 𝑁𝐻3
= 14 + 3 × 1
=14 + 3 = 17 g
Q. Calculate the molecular mass of 𝑯𝑵𝑶𝟑. NCERT Exercise
Sol. 𝐻𝑁𝑂3
1 + 14 + 3 × 16 = 63u

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Formula Unit Mass
The molecular of some substances are made up of ion. e.g. 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 is made up of 𝑁𝑎+ and 𝐶𝑙− in
these compound, we can also use the term formula unit mass in place of molecular mass.
Example: A formula unit of sodium chloride (𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙)
has formula unit mass = (23 + 35.5)
= 58.5 𝑢
A unit of Potassium carbonate (𝐾2𝐶𝑂3) has formula unit = (2 × 39 + 12 + 3 × 16) = 138 𝑢
Q. Calculate the formula unit mass of 𝑪𝒂𝑪𝒍𝟐. NCERT Exercise
Sol. Atomic mass of Ca + 2 × Atomic mass of Cl
40 + 2 × 35.5 = 111 u
= 14 + 3 = 17 g
Mole Concept
A group of 6.022 × 1023 particles of a substance is called one mole of that substance.
1 mole of Atoms = 6.022 × 1023 atoms
1 mole of molecules = 6.022 × 1023 molecules
Avogadro’s Hypothesis
“According to Avogadro’s Hypothesis, under the same conditions of temperature and
pressure equal volumes of all gases contain the same number of molecules”.
Avogadro’s Number
“The Number of particles present in one mole of a substance is known as Avogadro’s
Number.”
It is equal to 6.023 × 1023; It is represented by No and it is named in honour of Italian scientist
Amedo Avogadro
Relationship between mole, Avogadro number and mass
1. 1 mole of carbon atom = 6.022 × 1023 atoms of carbon and 6.022 × 1023 atom of carbon
= 12𝑔 of carbon atom
2. 1 mole of hydrogen atoms = 6.022 × 1023 of hydrogen = 1 𝑔 of Hydrogen atom
3. 1 mole of any particle = 6.022 × 1023 no.
4. 1 mole of molecule = 6.022 × 1023 number of molecule
= Molecular mass in grams

Formulas
Given mass
1. No. of moles =
Molar mass
Given mass
2. No. of Atoms/molecules = ×N
Molar mass A

N
3. No. of moles =
N0

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 Important NCERT Questions
Q1. Calculate the number of moles for the following:
i. 𝟓𝟐 𝒈 of 𝑯𝒆 (finding mole from mass)
ii. 𝟏𝟐. 𝟎𝟒𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 number of 𝑯𝒆 atoms (finding mole from number of particles).

Sol. No. of moles = n

Given mass = m
Molar mass = M
Given number of particles = N
Avogadro number of particles = N0
i. Atomic number of 𝐻𝑒
Molar mass of 𝐻𝑒
Thus, the number of moles
Given mass
=
Molar mass
m 52
⇒𝑛= = = 13
M 4
ii. we know,
1 mole = 6.022 × 1023
given number of particles
=
Avogadro number
23
N 12.044×10
=𝑛= =
N0 23 = 2
6.022×10

Q2. Calculate the mass of the following:

i) 𝟎. 𝟓 mole of 𝑵𝟐 gas (mass from mole of molecule)
ii) 𝟎. 𝟓 mole of 𝑵 atoms (mass from mole of atom)
iii) 𝟑. 𝟎𝟏𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 number of 𝑵 atoms (mass from number)
iv) 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 number of 𝑵𝟐 molecules (mass from number)

Sol. i) mass = molar mass × number of moles

⇒ 𝑚 = 𝑀 × 𝑛 = 28 × 0.5 = 14 𝑔
ii) mass = molar mass × number of moles
⇒ 𝑚 = 𝑀 × 𝑛 = 14 × 0.5 = 7 𝑔
iii) The number of moles, 𝑛
given number of particles N
= =
Avogadro number N0
23
3.011×10
= 23
6.022×10
23
3.011×10
⇒ 𝑚 = 𝑀 × 𝑛 = 14 × 23
6.022×10
= 14 × 0.5 = 7 𝑔
N
iv) 𝑛 =
N0
10
 23
N 6.022×10
⇒ 𝑚 = 𝑀 × N = 28 × 23
0 6.022×10
= 28 × 1 = 28 𝑔

Q3. How many moles of oxygen atom are there in 𝟑𝟐 𝒈 of oxygen?

Sol. 16 𝑔 of oxygen = 1 mole

32 𝑔 = 2 moles

Q4. Convert into moles:-

i) 𝟏𝟐 𝒈 of oxygen gas
ii) 𝟐𝟐 𝒈 of carbondioxide
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Sol. i) mole =
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Molar mass of oxygen gas (𝑂2) = 16 × 2 = 32
12
= = 0.375
32
given mass
ii) mole =
Molar mass
Molar mass of 𝐶𝑂2 = 44 𝑔
22
= = 0.5 moles.
44
Q5. Which of the following correctly represents 𝟑𝟔𝟎 𝒈 of water ?
i) 𝟐 moles of 𝑯𝟐𝑶
ii) 𝟐𝟎 moles of water
iii) 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 molecules of water
iv) 𝟏. 𝟐𝟎𝟒𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓 molecules of water
a) only (i) b) (i) and (iv)
c) (ii) and (iii) d) (ii) and (iv)
Thinking Process
𝟏 mole = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 atoms/molecules/ions of a substance = gram molecular
mass
Sol. (ii) and (iv) points correctly represent 360 𝑔 of water.
(ii) From point,
∵ 1 mole of water = molar mass of water = 18 𝑔
∴ 20 moles of water = 18 𝑔 × 20 = 360 𝑔
(iv) From point,
∵ 6.022 × 1023 molecules of water = 1 mole = 18 𝑔 of water
25
18 𝑔×1.2044×10
∴ 1.2044 × 1025 molecules of water = = 360 𝑔
6.022×1023
Therefore, points (ii) and (iv) represent 360 𝑔 of water.
Students can check other points also, as
Students can check other points also, as

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 (i) 1 mole of water = molar mass of water = 18𝑔 of water.
∴ 2 mole of water = 18 × 2 = 360 𝑔
(ii) 6.022 × 1023 molecules of water = 18 𝑔 water.

Q6. The chemical symbol for sodium is

a) So b) Sd c) NA d) Na
Sol. The chemical symbol for sodium is derived from its Latin name ‘Natrium’. In a ‘two letter’
symbol, the first letter is the ‘capital letter’ but the second letter is the ‘small letter’.
Therefore, its symbol is ‘Na’.

Q7. Which of the following has maximum number of atoms?

a) 𝟏𝟖 𝒈 of 𝑯𝟐𝑶 b) 𝟏𝟖 𝒈 of 𝑶𝟐
c) 𝟏𝟖 𝒈 of 𝑪𝑶𝟐 d) 𝟏𝟖 𝒈 of 𝑪𝑯𝟒
Thinking Process
𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬
Number of atoms = × 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 × 𝑷
𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬
Where, P = number of atoms in the molecule
Sol. Option (𝑑) is the correct answer, i.e., 18 𝑔 of 𝐶𝐻4 has maximum number of atoms.
As,
18
a) Number of atoms in 18 𝑔 of 𝐻 𝑂 = × 6.022 × 1023 × 3
2 18
= 18.066 × 1023 = 1.8066 × 1024
18
b) Number of atoms in 18 𝑔 of 𝑂2 = × 6.022 × 1023 × 2
32
= 3.387 × 1023 × 2 = 6.774 × 1023
18
c) Number of atoms in 18 𝑔 of 𝐶𝑂 = × 6.022 × 1023 × 3 = 7.390 × 1023
2 44
18
d) Number of atoms in 18 𝑔 of 𝐶𝐻4 = × 6.022 × 1023 × 5 = 3.387 × 1024
16
Thus, 18 𝑔 of 𝐶𝐻4 contains the maximum number of atoms.

Q8. Which of the following represents a correct chemical formula? Name it.
a) 𝑪𝒂𝑪𝒍 b) 𝑩𝒊𝑷𝑶𝟒
c) 𝑵𝒂𝑺𝑶𝟒 d) 𝑵𝒂𝑺
Thinking Process
i) Option (a) has correct formula − 𝑪𝒂𝑪𝒍𝟐 − Calcium Chloride
ii) Option (c) has correct formula − 𝑵𝒂𝟐𝑺𝑶𝟒 − Sodium sulphate
iii) Option (d) has correct formula − 𝑵𝒂𝟐𝑺 − Sodium sulphide
Sol. 𝐵𝑖𝑃𝑂4, is the correct formula, its name is bismuth phosphate.

Q9. Write the molecular formulae for the following compounds

a) Copper (II) bromide b) Aluminium (III) nitrate
c) Calcium (II) phosphate d) Iron (III) sulphide
e) Mercury (II) chloride f) Magnesium (II) acetate

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Sol. a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
Q10. Which of the following symbols of elements are incorrect? Give their correct
symbols.
a) Cobalt 𝑪𝑶 b) Carbon 𝒄
c) Aluminium 𝑨𝒍 d) Helium 𝑯𝒆
e) Sodium 𝑺𝒐
Ans. a) Cobalt 𝐶𝑂 is incorrect symbol. Its correct symbol is 𝐶𝑜.
b) Carbon 𝑐 is incorrect symbol. Its correct symbol is 𝐶.
c) Aluminium 𝐴𝑙 is incorrect symbol. Its correct symbol is 𝐴𝑙.
e) Sodium 𝑆𝑜 is incorrect symbol. Its correct symbol is 𝑁𝑎. (It is derived from Latin name
‘Natrium’).
d) Helium, 𝐻𝑒 is the correct symbol.

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