GCSE Edexcel Physics Self-Studying Textbook

GCSE Edexcel Physics
Self-Studying Textbook
Thank you to these people who helped make this resource possible
Aimua Igbenehi
Damilola Olatunji
Faran Ahmad
James San
Ohm Joshi
Sulaiman Galaria
1
Contents Page
Topic 2 – Motion and Forces [Mechanics]……………………………………5

Topic 3 – Conservation of Energy…………………………………………...17
Topic 4 – Waves………………………………………………………………21
Topic 5 – Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum………… …………..…31
Topic 6 – Radioactivity……………………………………………………….39
Topic 7 – Astronomy…………………………………………………….……51
Topic 8 – Energy (Forces Doing Work) ………………………………….…60
Topic 9 – Forces and Their Effects….……………………………………….61
Topic 10 – Electricity and Circuits…………………………………………..65
Topic 11 – Static Electricity…………………….……………………………73
Topic 12 - Magnetism and the Motor Effect………………………………..79
Topic 13 - Electromagnetic Induction……………………………………….83
Topic 14 – Particle Model……………………………………………………89
Topic 15 – Forces and Matter………………………………………………..95
PS: there is no Topic 1 for Edexcel Physics as it’s simply converting

between different SI units e.g kg to g and hours to minutes.
2
Contents Page
3
Foreword
Although I was pleased with my results, the lockdowns had shut out education for many
students. Tens of thousands of schoolboys and schoolgirls had fragmented knowledge with
regards to their syllabus. They had internet issues. The recommended school textbooks were
expensive. It was not their fault.
Earlier in the February of 2021, my laptop had broken down. The solder that connects the
power button to the motherboard had snapped off, so I had some minor problems with online
school. Fortunately, I was able to use my phone to hear what the teacher was saying and still
learn during my lessons.
For others, they are not so fortunate. Fuelled with a sense of responsibility, I decided to
embark on a project alongside the best students at my school.
A team of seven of the top students at WCGS helped to synthesise this free ‘GCSE Edexcel
Self-Studying Physics Textbook’ and the ‘GCSE Edexcel Self-Studying Biology Textbook
over the duration of summer we began working the week after our exams had finished. We
had read through all the specification points and have completed a myriad of past paper
questions and mark schemes to ensure that the knowledge delivered to you is correct.
Please use this book in supplement to practice questions. I hope that you will be inspired to
do the best for yourself in education because it is a powerful tool that will leverage you
through the difficulties and to the heights.
Warm wishes,
Ken Tu
(L6 2021-2022)
4
5
Edexcel GCSE Physics: Topic 2 - Motion and Forces [Mechanics] written by Ken Tu
What is Mechanics?
In short, mechanics is the study, branching in the domain of physics, concerned with the
movement of physical objects often seeking to explain the relationship between force and
motion (speed, direction, momentum etc. you hear and be able to understand these terms
later on.)
The hot air balloon, in the photo on the left, has a weight
which is a force that acts towards the centre of the Earth due to
gravity. However, at the same time, the hot air balloon is
rising because the upward force from the gases provides
more force than the weight. Hence resulting in the hot air
balloon rising.
As weight is a quantity (measured in Newtons), it also has a

magnitude (size) and because it acts towards the centre of the
Earth, it has a direction. Quantities that have both a magnitude and a specific direction are
called vector quantities. Some quantities only have a magnitude, and these are called scalar
quantities.
Below is a table of scalar and vector quantities you should know.
Vector Scalar
Displacement Distance
Velocity Speed
Force Energy
Weight Mass
Acceleration Time
Momentum
Instead of memorising them, try to explain why each quantity is either a scalar or a vector. If
you are having trouble understanding what the quantities actually are, e.g., momentum, you
will understand later.
6
Reading Distance/Time Graphs

Obviously the faster an object moves, the higher the value of the speed. The average speed
can be worked out from the following formula:
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑚)
average speed (m/s) =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑠)
By using this equation, you can
rearrange it to find the distance.
The speed of an object is

obtained from the gradient of the
line at a given time point.
Therefore, you can infer that the
steeper the gradient, the higher
the speed. If the gradient is zero
i.e., the line is horizontal, then
the object is not moving at all.
Straight lines imply the object is

traveling at a constant velocity.
In the diagram on the right, the

graph on the left shows a car
(blue) with uniform (constant)
velocity throughout the entirety
of the journey whilst the car on the right (purple) changes velocity when time is 1 and when
time is 3.
Acceleration
Acceleration is a change in velocity i.e., the speeding up or slowing down of an object.
Acceleration is calculated by the following equation:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚/𝑠)

Acceleration (m/s2) =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 (𝑠)
𝑣−𝑢
This is also often written as 𝑎 = , where:
𝑡
a = acceleration
v = final velocity
u = initial velocity
t = time taken for the change in velocity
Below is another formula linking, acceleration, change in velocity and distance,
[final velocity (m/s)]2 - [initial velocity (m/s)]2 = 2 × [acceleration (m/s2)] × [distance (m)]
v2 − u2 = 2 × a × x; again, you can rearrange to find the distance.
7
Velocity/Time Graphs
Velocity/Time graphs demonstrate the relationship between the velocity the object is
travelling at and the time that passes. These two in combination can imply the distance
travelled and show how much the object is accelerating.
The graph shows an object, it can be a car, a

van, or a person on a skateboard, moving. From
A to B, the velocity is the same therefore the
object is not accelerating but moving at a
constant velocity of 4 m/s. From B to C, the
object accelerates (increases velocity) from 4
m/s to 12 m/s. From C to D, the object
decelerates (velocity decreases) from 12 m/s to
7 m/s. Finally, from D to C, the velocity
remains constant at 7 m/s.
Finding the Gradient

The gradient shows the acceleration of the
object in m/s2. To calculate the gradient of the
red line you do the following equation.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚/𝑠)

= acceleration
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝑠)
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑌
= acceleration
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑋
12−4
= acceleration
10−5
8
= acceleration
5
Constant acceleration = 1.6 m/s 2
Notice how the line is straight, not curved, this is called constant acceleration. If you wish
to go beyond your specification, ask your physics teacher for information on general
acceleration where the line begins to curve upward.
8
Finding the Distance Travelled

Continuing from the graph example, questions can come up. For example, find the total
distance travelled. Do to so, distance is the velocity time therefore the distance is the area
underneath the line.
The following graph highlights the

areas so here we’re going to use the
1
formula for a trapezium, (a+b)×h, to
2
calculate the two middle trapeziums.
Therefore, the total calculation for the

total distance travelled should look
like this.
1 1
(4 ×5) + [ (4+12)5] + [ (12+7)6] + (4 ×7) = distance travelled
2 2
= 127.5 m
Quick caveat, if the velocity ever goes below the x axis i.e., becomes negative, simply this
means that the object is going in the opposite direction.
Methods of Calculating Velocity

Laboratory methods of calculating the speed of objects are a required practical. Equipment
often used are data loggers (devices that record data e.g., time) and light gates (gates will
detect when an object has passed it using light). Often two light gates are used, one closer to
the object to detect the speed of the initial velocity and one towards the end to detect the
speed of the final velocity.
9
Common Speeds
These are speeds you will need to recall from common knowledge.
Task Speed(m/s)
Walking 1.5
Running 3
Cycling 6
Sound (in air) 330
You also need to know that acceleration due to gravity i.e., imagine an object in free fall
with no air resistance, is 10m/s .
2
Newton’s First Law

Newton’s three laws of motion describe the relationship between the motion of an object and
how forces of an object affect its motion.
Newton’s First Law states that (a) where the resultant force on a body is zero, i.e. the body
is moving at a constant velocity or is at rest and (b) where the resultant force is not zero, i.e.
the speed and/or direction of the body change(s).
So, the resultant force is the overall force vector

when there are multiple forces (often of different
magnitudes) acting on an object in different
directions.
Let’s call the sky diver Bob. Bob exits the plane
and begins to fall due to the force of gravity
accelerating him to the earth at 10 m/s . Hence
2
there is a line downward indicating the direction

of the force acting on Bob’s body denoted F . The
g
longer the line, the greater the magnitude of

force. As Bob falls, wind hits his face producing
wind resistance indicated by the small arrow
denoted F .
d
However, Bob is still falling because the force of

gravity MINUS the drag force is overall
producing a greater force to the earth therefore,
he continues to accelerate.
But when the Drag Force is equal to the force of his weight (downward force from gravity)
he moves at a constant velocity even though the overall forces are in equilibrium i.e., equal to
zero. This therefore demonstrates Newton’s First Law.
10
Newton’s Second Law

Newton’s Second Law of motion states that Force = Mass Acceleration.
Force (newton, N) = Mass (kilogram, kg) × Acceleration (metre per second squared,
m/s2)
F=m×a
Essentially, the acceleration an object will experience in the direction of a resultant force is
affected by two factors:
• The magnitude of the force exerted on an object (assuming the mass remains constant
therefore the bigger the force exerted, the faster the acceleration)
• The mass of the object (assuming the same force is applied therefore the more mass
an object has, the less acceleration it will experience)
Imagine you tried to move a 100kg iron cube block in the vacuum of space. You exerted 10
newtons of force onto the iron block. Therefore, the block begins to accelerate at 0.1 m/s 2
F = ma
𝐹 10𝑁
a= →a= → a = 0.1m/s2
𝑚 100𝑘𝑔
If you exerted the same 10N force onto a 10kg iron block instead of 100kg,
𝐹 10𝑁
a= →a= → a = 1m/s2
𝑚 10𝑘𝑔
The block would begin accelerating at 1m/s instead. Faster acceleration than when the block
2
had 100kg. This brings me nicely onto the next point of inertial mass.
Inertial Mass
Inertial mass is a measure of how difficult it is to change the velocity of an object (including
when it's at rest). The example above illustrates that perfectly where the inertial mass in
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
kilograms is given by the ratio of force/acceleration → mass =
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Weight and Gravity

The weight of an object is given by the following equation:
weight (newton, N) = mass (kilogram, kg) × gravitational field strength (newton per
kilogram, N/kg)
W=m×g
You need to understand that weight is the force given when a mass exists within a
gravitational field. Of course, gravitational forces are different on different planets e.g., Earth
has a lower gravitational field strength acting on an object than on Jupiter. Therefore, if you
take a 10kg iron cube on Earth it will weigh less than the same iron block on Jupiter.
11
Weight is measured on a force meter which has a scale in newtons. When an object with
mass is placed onto these blocks, the springs in the force meter are compressed due to the
force of the weight allowing the weight to be read by how much the spring compresses.
Circular Motion
What if an object is moving in a circular motion as opposed
to a linear motion? In that case, the object will experience a
force towards its centre axis of rotation i.e., its pivot point.
When an object is moving in a circular motion, the object’s

velocity can be described as changing because although its
speed is the same, the direction it's moving in, is constantly
changing.
And the resultant force is towards the centre of rotation.

This force is called the centripetal force.
Newton’s Third Law

Newton’s Third Law states that when two objects interact,
they exert an equal and opposite force onto each other.
When two objects are interacting, this can be a contact
force (a force exerted where two objects physically contact each other) or a non-contact
force (a force exerted where they do not physically contact e.g., the gravitational forces
between the Moon and the Earth).
The pair of forces is often called action-

reaction forces.
In the example diagram on the right, the

person pulling the large apple.
Simultaneously, the apple is pulling onto the
person exerting an equal force on the man and
he is to the apple.
Another action-reaction mechanism is where

a footballer headers a ball.
12
As the ball collides with the person’s head, his head will
exert a force onto the ball, meanwhile the ball exerts an
equal force and opposite on the footballer’s head.
What’s important to note is that although the magnitude of

the forces exerted onto the ball and the person’s head are
the same, the effects are not the same because the ball has
less mass than the person therefore the ball accelerates off
faster than the person as it has a lower inertial mass than
the person.
Action-reaction forces are NOT the same as having

balanced forces on an object. Balanced forces are where
all the forces acting on the same object equal 0 therefore
the object remains at rest if it began at rest or continues to
move at a constant velocity (Newton’s First Law).
Action-reaction forces have the same magnitude but act in different directions and on
different objects. In the example of collision, the ball exerts a force onto the head whilst the
head exerts a force onto the ball.
Linear Momentum
Momentum is a measure of the tendency of how hard it is to keep an object moving in the
same direction which in turn can also be described as a measure to quantify how hard it is to
stop an object moving in the same direction. It is calculated using the following formula:
momentum (kilogram metre per second, kg m/s) = mass (kilogram, kg) × velocity (metre
per second, m/s)
p=m×v
Additionally, when moving objects collide, the momentum is conserved. This means that the
total momentum of the object before the collision is equal to the sum of the momentum after
the collision. This is called the conservation of momentum. Momentum is a vector quantity
meaning that it has a magnitude and direction. Therefore, when two objects collide, you must
take into consideration their direction too. If the two objects are opposite directions and then
collide, one of them has a negative sign whilst the other has a positive sign.
13
It is beyond the specification, but it can be calculated using the follow equation when two
objects collide:
m1v1 + m2v2 = m1v1′ + m2v2 ′
The subscript 1 or 2 just represents the
object i.e., object A or object B. The dash
on top “ ′ ” signals that it’s the object after
the collision and it is called “prime”. So, F ′
is called “F prime”.
This equation represents the conservation

of momentum. You do NOT need to know
this for GCSE.
Momentum and Acceleration

Forces be found from the following equation involving momentum and acceleration:
𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐮𝐦 (𝐤𝐢𝐥𝐨𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐦 𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐫𝐞 𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝, 𝐤𝐠 𝐦/𝐬)

force (newton, N) =
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 (𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝,𝐬)
𝐦(𝐯−𝐮) 𝐦𝐯−𝐦𝐮
F= →F=
𝐭 𝐭
Where the variables are the following:
F = force (N)
v = final velocity (m/s)
u = initial velocity (m/s)
t = time (s)
Example Question
A 2.5 ton van accelerates from 5m/s2 to 18 m/s2 in 5 seconds. What is the resultant force
generated by this acceleration?
𝐦(𝐯−𝐮)
F=
𝐭
𝐦𝐯−𝐦𝐮)
F=
𝐭
(2500kg ×18m/s )−(2500kg × 5m/s)
F=
5s
F = 6500N
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How does Force Applies to the Braking of a Car?

You are driving a car and suddenly a fox jumps out of the bushes. So, you slam on the brakes,
stopping just meters in front of the fox as it then pounces away to the other side of the road.
What’s happening is that the fox jumping out is a stimulus. This requires your body to take
time to react to seeing the fox before you push the brakes. This is called thinking
distance. The period of time where you are braking is called the braking distance.
Therefore, the total time to brake or the stopping distance is the sum of the thinking distance
+ the braking distance.
Of course, there are a range of factors that could affect the stopping distance like the
following:
a. Mass of the vehicle

b. Speed of the vehicle
c. Driver’s reaction time
d. State of the vehicle’s brakes
e. State of the road
f. The amount of friction between the tyre and the road surface
You can figure these out intuitively.
Why Can It Be Dangerous If a Car Decelerates too Quickly?

As mentioned before, force exerted can be how fast a change in momentum occurs via the
𝐦(𝐯−𝐮)
equation, F = .
𝐭
Imagine a car, 1500kg, at a velocity of 20m/s. It decelerates at a red traffic light to 0m/s in
0.5s.
The force exerted would be,
𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎(𝟎−𝟐𝟎)
F=
𝟎.𝟓
F = -60,000N; the minus symbol indicates that is the force exerted back onto the car.
This is dangerous as it could cause whiplash or other injuries.
Cars also have crumple zones in the front and sometimes the back of the car which, as
implied by the name, crumple to increase the time taken so less overall force is generated
onto the driver.
15
Energy and Forces

When a force is used to accelerate an object, energy is transferred from the source to the
kinetic energy of the object (kinetic energy because the object begins to move). The energy
transferred is called work done. Calculated using the following equation:
Work done (J, Joules) = Force (N, Newtons) Distance moved in the direction of the force
(m, metres)
So, the energy transferred by a force acting over a certain distance is called work done. How
much work will it take to move an object from A to B as it were.
When a car is moving, its energy is in the form of kinetic energy calculated by the formula
below.
kinetic energy (joule, J) = mass (kilogram, kg) × velocity2 [(metre/second)2, (m/s)2)]
𝟏
KE = 𝒎𝒗2
𝟐
When a car has kinetic energy i.e., it’s moving, the work done to stop its velocity (make it
stop moving) is equal to the kinetic energy of the car because when kinetic energy is zero the
car no longer moves.
Imagine a 1600kg car is moving with a velocity of 15m/s. A braking force of 10,000N is
applied. For how far does the car travel before stopping?
1
Kinetic Energy = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
1
Kinetic Energy = × 1600 × 152
2
Kinetic Energy = 180,000 J
Work done (J) = Force (N) × Distance (m)
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 (𝐽)

Distance =
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁)
180,000 𝐽
Distance = : 180,000 joules of work done must be used to reduce the Kinetic
10,000 𝑁
energy to 0
Distance = 18m
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17
Edexcel GCSE Physics: Topic 3 - Conservation of Energy written by Ken Tu
What is Energy?
To put into abstract terms, energy is a quantitative property which enables actions to occur.
Everyday examples of energy can include walking; that requires energy or the fuel in a car to
make it move - that is an example of a store of energy.
Energy can come in a myriad of forms. They are stated below alongside some examples in
which energy can be found.
• Chemical energy (Found in batteries, fuel for cars)
• Kinetic energy (When objects move, they have kinetic energy)
• Electrical energy (When electrons move within a wire due to potential difference)
• Thermal energy (Objects with heat)
• Gravitational potential energy (Objects in a high area relative to a gravitational
field)
• Nuclear energy (Energy holding the bonds between atoms)
• Light energy (Electromagnetic radiation e.g., light for photosynthesis has energy)
One form of energy can transform into another form of energy. A simple example of this is
imagine a ball from the top of your cupboard. It isn’t moving but at that height, it has
gravitational potential energy. If the ball were to fall, its gravitational potential energy would
convert into kinetic energy as it falls. Assuming no energy is dissipated (no energy is wasted
and purely transferred from GPE to KE) then all the energy at the beginning is the same as
energy as the end.
Conservation of Energy
In physics, a system is an environment where physicists describe something changing. The
law of conservation of energy states that within an isolated system, energy cannot be
created or destroyed only transformed from one form into another. The example of a light
bulb being turned on is a good example of this.
The diagram on the above is called a Sankey diagram and it displays how energy from
electricity is transferred to heat as well as light energy. Notice that the sum of all the energy it
transformed into is the same as the initial energy input into the system.
Therefore, the law of the conservation of energy implies that when there are energy transfers
within a closed system, there is no net change to the total energy of that system.
18
Energy Waste
When energy is transferred from one form of energy to another, not all of the energy goes
into a useful outcome. In the previous example of a light bulb, 10J of electrical energy is
converted into 6J of heat energy and 4J of light energy. A light bulb’s purpose is to produce
light therefore the 6J of heat energy is not useful whilst the light energy is useful.
So, the efficiency can be calculated as the following:
𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒄𝒆

Efficiency =
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒄𝒆
(100 for the efficiency percentage)
4𝐽
Efficiency of this lightbulb = × 100
10𝐽
= 40% efficient.
How to Reduce Heat Dissipation

In mechanical processes, such as a bike converting mechanical energy into kinetic energy,
energy is dissipated by friction or thermal energy. Although the mechanical energy is
converted into kinetic energy (to make the bike move), the heat energy is also produced as a
result. This increases the temperature of the surroundings near the bike.
To reduce the energy wasted, you will have to reduce the amount of friction and by extension
this will reduce the heat energy released. Hence using lubrication works to reduce friction
and energy dissipating in the form of heat. Very common 2 marker.
Another way to reduce unwanted heat loss from a beak of hot water is to add a lid which acts
as a thermal insulator. It reduces the amount of heat energy leaving the system.
19
Keeping Warm
Heat energy can be transferred in different ways.
Conduction transfers heat is where vibrating particles collide against each other in a solid.
Metals are good thermal conductors whilst solid materials like wood are poor thermal
conductors.
Conventions in fluid i.e., gases or liquids transfers
heat by having hot air rise creating a convection
current.
Heat is also transferable via radiation. Radiation

is the only way that energy can be transferred in a
vacuum. Examples can be via infrared radiation.
In order to keep warm, you must slow the rate at

which heat energy is lost within a system.
Insulation slows the rate at which energy is
transferred out of the system. For example, the
reason why, most houses use straw as insulators is
that it is a weak thermal conductor meaning that
heat energy does not get transferred well within
the system. The straw prevents convection currents
from forming therefore less energy is easily transferred.
Increasing the thickness of the wall can increase the distance which heat loss via conduction
has to occur to lose heat. Hence the building cools at a slower rate.
Energy Changes in a System

The stores of energy can change from electrical to light like in the example of a light bulb.
Here are some more examples of changes in an energy system which you should understand.
a. an object projected upwards or up a slope.
As the ball goes up the slope, the kinetic energy decreases, slowing down the speed of the
ball. It reaches a peak where the ball’s velocity is zero and at that point all the ball’s energy is
in GPE. Then as the ball falls down the slope, the GPE begins converting into kinetic energy
causing the ball to roll down the slope.
b. a moving object hitting an obstacle
c. an object being accelerated by a constant force
d. a vehicle slowing down
20
e. bringing water to a boil in an electric kettle
See if you can explain the energy changes in the rest of the scenarios.
21
Edexcel GCSE Physics: Topic 4 - Waves written by Ken Tu
What are Waves?

Sea waves transfer energy when the wave breaks at the shore. Waves involve the transfer of
energy (and information) without transferring matter.
In short, waves can be

transverse or longitudinal.
Longitudinal waves move

parallel (back and forth) to
the direction of energy
transfer. Additionally,
longitudinal waves can only
travel in a medium such as
air. Transverse waves do not
require this.
A main example of a
longitudinal wave of sound
as the air particles vibrate
back and forth parallel to the
direction of energy transfer.
Transverse waves move

perpendicular (up and
down) to the direction of energy transfer, and they can travel in a vacuum.
Examples of transverse waves are electromagnetic waves: light, radio waves, microwaves.
These don’t need a medium to travel through
You will also come across seismic waves which are produced by earthquakes and explosions.
Seismic waves come in the form of transverse S-waves and longitudinal P-waves. The
presence of the letter “S” in transverse reminds me that S-waves are transverse.
All longitudinal P-waves can travel through solid, liquid, gas whilst transverse S-waves
cannot travel through liquid.
This idea of seismic waves is elaborated later on.
Wave Terminology
• Note that from one trough to another trough, that length is called the wavelength.
• The amplitude of a wave is the height of the wave from its rest position see diagram
above.
• The frequency of a wave is how many waves are passing a single point per second.
This is measured in hertz (Hz). 1 Hz means one wave passing through that point per
second.
• The wave velocity is obviously the speed of the wave in the direction it’s travelling
measured in (m/s).
• A period is the length of time it takes for one wave to pass through a given point. It
can be found given the frequency. Period (s) = 1/frequency.
22
The formulae for calculating wave speed are below.
wave speed (metre/second, m/s) = frequency (hertz, Hz) × wavelength (metre, m)

v = f × λ (pronounced lambda)
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 (𝒎)

wave speed (m/s) =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 (𝒔)
Measuring the Speed of Waves

Questions always love to ask you how to measure the speed of sound in air and how to
improve experiments.
To measure the velocity speed in air you do the following:

1. Stand a far distance away from someone generating the sound e.g. a clap.
2. Record the distance you are from the person generating the sound.
3. When you see the person clap, begin the stopwatch/timer.
4. When you hear the sound, stop the timer
5. Record your results and use equation speed = distance/time to find the speed.
6. Repeat the experiment until you find an average.
Mark schemes will always condone a “repeat the experiment to obtain an average” kind of
thing to again one mark.
To measure sea waves/ripples it’s the same thing except you watch the same wave reach a
certain distance as opposed to hearing a sound. You can take the distance as points between
two fixed points e.g., two buoys.
To improve the experiment, you may say that to reduce human error (error caused by being
a human) you can use a data logger to record the time instead more accurately.
23
Calculating Depth
Question can often be like the following:
You are on a boat and want to calculate the depth of the water. You emit a sound wave from
the bottom of the boat. The time it takes for the sound wave to bounce off the seabed and
back is 0.088s. The speed of sound in water is 1500m/s.
Calculate the depth of the water.
Wave velocity = distance travelled/time
Distance travelled = wave velocity × time
1500 (m/s)
D=
0.088 (s)
D = 132m:
This is the distance travelled by the wave

i.e., to the sea bead and back to the boat
therefore we must half the distance to
find the depth. Many students forget this
part me included.
D = 132/2
Depth = 76m Note: Sonar equipment emits ultrasound to detect depths.
Waves Hitting Boundaries

When a wave hits an interface (boundary
between two mediums) it can do the
following things:
a. Reflection - the wave “bounces” off

the interface
b. Refraction - the wave is passes into
the medium by changed direction it was
travelling in
c. Transmission - the wave goes
through medium and out the medium
d. Absorption - where the wave’s
energy is transferred to the medium
When light hits a denser medium, the speed

of light slows down and closer towards the normal.
24
Technically light photons (particles of light) don’t slow down but the propagation of light
slows down because in denser mediums there are more molecules the photons collide with
therefore the effect is that this slows the light getting from A to B.
The reverse is also true. When light hits a less dense medium, the speed of light speeds up
and bends away from the normal. The normal is the dash line. In the previous diagram.
Longitudinal Sound Waves Hitting Boundaries

What is interesting about this, is that the converse is true for sound waves. When longitudinal
sound waves hit a denser medium, the sound waves bend away from normal, speeding up.
However, when a sound wave transmits through a less dense medium, the waves bends
towards the normal, slowing down.
When light waves hit an object, the way you see the object is that the light is reflected off of
that object and into our eye for us to see. When light hits a light-coloured object, more light is
reflected back than light hitting a dark object. When light hits a dark object, more light is
absorbed.
When sound waves hit softer surfaces, they absorb

more sound. The material in the image on the right is a
soft sponge-like material designed to absorb sound.
Hence there are less echoes. Whilst if sound were to hit
a hard flat surface, more sound would be reflected and
therefore cause an echo (a reflected sound wave).
Transmitting Sound
Sound waves are longitudinal waves. Sound is the result
of particles in a solid, liquid or gas oscillating back and
forth colliding with the neighbouring particles to
propagate the “sound” energy. Denser objects will
cause the sound to travel faster as the particles are more
compact therefore transmit the vibrations faster. Hence
why sound waves in solids tend to travel the fastest.
Important note: v = f × λ, however whenever a wave goes through a new boundary and
refracts, the frequency does not change but only the wavelength does. Hence when the
velocity of the wave decreases, the wavelength of the wave decreases.
25
Hearing Sound
Humans hear sound when the sound waves enter the ear canal. Those vibrations get
converted into electrical impulses which are sent to the brain to be interpreted as sound.
The diagram on the right has many extra terminologies you do not need to know. All you
need to know are the terms underlined in blue. Tympanic membrane is the medical term for
the eardrum. The cochlear nerve is also called the auditory nerve.
The way a human processes sound is as follows (use the numbers on the diagram as
reference): PS - it’s a very common 6 marker
1. Sound waves enter the ear canal.

2. The vibrations from the sound exert a force onto the eardrum causing it to vibrate.
3. The vibrations from the eardrum are transmitted to the tiny bones in the ear to
amplify the vibrations.
4. The vibrations are passed onto the cochlea where liquid gets moved inside.
5. Tiny hairs inside the cochlea detect vibrations and create impulses (electrical
signals).
6. These impulses travel through the nerve cells and into the auditory nerve to be sent
to the brain.
Cochlea
The cochlea is the snail-like structure that contains liquid inside the ear. When you unravel
the cochlea, the base (side closest to the bones) is responsible for detecting higher
frequencies of sound whilst the furthest part (around 15,000 -20,000Hz), the apex is
responsible for detecting low frequencies of sound (around 200Hz). The thickness of the
membrane allows for the frequencies of sound to vibrate best hence the middle of the
membrane, which detects vibrations at 3000 Hz, is thicker than both the membrane at the
apex and the base. Generally, though, the thicker membrane (base) detects higher
frequencies whilst the thinner membrane (apex) detects the lower
frequencies. Thousands of tiny hairs are along the membrane which vibrate in accordance
with the frequencies received. They are attached to neurons sending impulses back to the
brain.
Human’s range of hearing is between 20Hz - 20kHz because as different materials (i.e our
membrane) convert different frequencies into vibrations, humans are limited by all the
structures of our hearing system such as the size and shape of the ear. However, some
animals can hear higher frequencies than humans e.g., dogs.
Ultrasound and Infrasound

Ultrasound is sound above 20,000 Hz. Infrasound is sound below 20 Hz. Many animals,
such as dolphins and bats, use ultrasonic waves (ultrasound) to communicate with one
another. Actually, bats when living in caves use them to detect how far objects are via
echolocation. Infrasound is used by whales to communicate with each other and also
produced from seismic waves - waves released from earthquakes. These can be used to
investigate the internal structure of our planet.
26
Foetal Ultrasound Scanning

Ultrasound can be used to produce images of things
inside the body. A prenatal scanning of a foetus is
where ultrasound waves pass through the belly of the
mother but when they reach the boundary, part of the
ultrasound is absorbed, and part of the ultrasound is
reflected back into the probe. The boundaries are the
baby’s skin and the amniotic fluid. The timings and
distribution of the waves received back by the probe
are processed by a computer and are used to produce
and image/videos of the foetus.
Oftentimes, gel is placed onto the mother’s belly to act as a lubricant and to also stop the
ultrasound from just reflecting off the skin.
Seismic Waves
Sounds with a frequency below 20 Hz are called infrasound. Seismic waves are produced as
a result of volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, anything that is powerful enough to vibrate the
earth. Sometimes explosions too. They are also below 20 Hz. The vibrations (energy)
released from these waves can travel through the earth as the following:
a. Longitudinal P-waves / (compressional wave) [speed: 1-14km]

These P-waves can travel through liquid, solid and gas.
b. Transverse S-waves / (shear wave) [speed: 1-8km]

However, these transverse S-waves require a medium to travel and can only travel through
solids NOT liquids.
Context: During an earthquake, the longitudinal wave is the initial vibration felt. It causes
the ground to shake forwards and backwards. These P- waves travel faster than S-waves
even though they’re longitudinal. Typically, when we think of transverse waves we think of
light, therefore it must always be faster than longitudinal, but it’s important to keep in mind
that transverse waves simply have the waves movement perpendicular to the propagation
direction of the wave. The P-waves are often the light shaking felt.
27
S-waves are slower than P-waves. S-waves are the second vibration felt and they cause a
much larger jolting. The waves
shake the ground up and down
perpendicular to the direction
the wave’s energy is travelling.
All seismic waves can be

detected using a seismometer,
an instrument that responds to
the ground vibrations.
P-waves and S-waves may not

always travel in straight lines as
there’s a change in wave speed
when P-waves travel from solid-
liquid/ when S-waves travel
from one solid medium to
another composition of rock as
a result they both can change
direction refracting.
28
Exploration of the Earth’s Core

As the P-waves can travel through all solid, liquid and gas, whilst S-waves can only travel
through solid, they can be used to determine the structure of the Earth’s core.
S-waves can only travel through solids;

therefore, scientists can only detect them
from a certain angle to the epicentre. When
the S-waves contact the core, scientists
cannot detect the wave on the opposite
side of the Earth as no S-wave is
transmitted. Consequently, scientists
theorised that the core of the Earth is made
of liquid.
The area where no S-waves can be detected

is called the S-wave shadow zone.
Similarly, P-waves form a band around the

Earth where no P-waves can be detected -
although with P-waves, they can be detected
directly opposite the point where they were
initially produced. The area where P-waves
cannot be detected is called the P-wave shadow zone.
The S-waves and the P-wave travel at

different speeds. As the P-waves travel
faster than the S-waves this difference in
time to arrive at the same place where
they’re detected is called the (S-P) time.
Scientists can use this to estimate how far
an earthquake is.
29
Triangulation
In order to find the exact location of an earthquake, seismic stations may record the arrival of
earthquakes.
1. Data from the S-wave and P-

wave times are recorded from
multiple seismic stations.
2. You can calculate the distance

epicentre from the station
from the S wave minus the P
wave time [(S-P) time].
3. When the signal is received,

the source of the epicentre is
within the radius of one
seismic station.
4. When this is repeated from

multiple locations, the circle
formed from the earthquake
may overlap.
5. The intersection where more than three circles, where more than three station’s radii
overlap, indicate that the location of the earthquake is within that area.
6. The more powerful the earthquake, the closer the epicentre is to the focus point i.e.,
where close to the surface is the focus point.
30
31
Edexcel GCSE Physics: Topic 5 - Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum
written by Ken Tu
What is a Ray Diagram?

To illustrate the behaviour of a light ray, we can use a ray
diagram.
Reflection
When a light ray hits a surface, it reflects off of the
surface. The dotted line between the Incident Ray and the
Reflected Ray is called the normal. The light ray about to
contact the mirror is called the incident ray and when it
reflects off of the surface, it is called the reflected ray.
When light reflects off the mirror, the angle between the
incident ray and the normal is called the angle of
incidence whilst the angle between the reflected ray and
the normal is called the angle of reflection.
The law of reflection states an observation that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection. In other words, Anglei = Angler .
Refraction
When a light hits a boundary e.g., a
different material with a different
density than the one it is current
travelling in, it can either speed up or
slow down.
The angle of incidence is the same as
aforementioned but the angle of
refraction is the angle as shown in the
diagram. It is also called the refracted
ray.
When light enters a new medium, the
light ray changes direction. If the light
wave is going from a less dense
medium into a more dense medium, the
propogation of light will slow down and
bend towards the normal. If the light
wave is going from a more dense
medium into less dense medium, the
propogation of light will speed up and bend away from the normal.
The inverse is true for sound waves as they speed up in more dense mediums.
32
written by Ken Tu
Total Internal Reflection

When light passes from the air into water for example, with small incidence angles, i.e., the
nearly perpendicular to water, most of the light rays with pass through. When you increase
the incidence angle, less of the light ray will penetrate through and more of the light ray will
be reflected. If the angle of incidence increases then more of the light will be reflected off
until there reaches an angle where all of the light it reflected back. This angle is called the
critical angle and the observation where all the light is reflected back is called total internal
reflection.
At (a) a small amount of light is reflected back into the medium but the majority of it has left
the boundary as the angle of incidence is too small.
At (b) the critical angle is equal to the angle of incidence resulting in the light ray passing
along the boundary with some light reflecting back in.
At (c) the angle of incidence is must greater than the critical angle and therefore all of the
light is reflected interally hence total internal reflection.
Two Types of Reflection

When light reflects off a surface, the surface may
be smooth or rough. This will results in slight
differences in out the human eye perceives the
object.
Specular reflection is where the reflection is
perfect due to a reflection from a smooth surface.
Diffuse reflection is where the reflection is
imperfect due to a rough/unsmooth surface.
33
written by Ken Tu
What is Colour and How Do We Percieve It?

White light is the colour of light that comes from the sun and it contains all the colours of the
visible light so red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet (ROY G BIV, red being the
longest wavelength and violet being the shortest).
If white light passes through a prism, all of the colours are revealed as they all individually
have different wavelengths and travel at different speeds in the prism hence they disperse.
When white light hits a coloured surface, the white light is absorbed alongside all of its colours
aside from the colour the object is. And the object will solely reflect the colour it is allowing
you to perceive it as that specific colour. A yellow object will reflect yellow light but absorb
all other colours.
When light is transmitted through a coloured filter, the filter will only allow the colour it is to
be transmited through whilst all the other colours are absorbed. A blue filter will transmit blue
light but block all other colours of light.
Lenses
Lenses are used to refract light in a
particular way. The more powerful the
more powerful a lense the more
magnification power it has.
The converging lense (convex) is
thicker in the middle as to converge the
after they have passed through it.
The diverging lense (concave) is thinner
in the middle to diverge the rays.
In the diagram of the convex lens, we
can see the light rays actually converge
onto a point. This forms a real image.
However in the diverging lens, the focal
point, the light rays when continues the light rays virtually converge. This will form a virtual
image.
Here’s a link to a video for a better
explanation and more diagrams. Let’s just
hope the video does not get taken down
*insert face with sweat emoji*.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S_NH9-
E1GDQ
34
written by Ken Tu
What Are Electromagnetic Waves?

All electromagnetic waves are tranverse waves meaning that they can travel in vaccum.
They also travel at the speed of light in a vaccum, 3.0 × 108 m/s. Electromagnetic waves can
transfer energy to the observer e.g., you see the colour of an object because the energy of that
wave as been transferred to your eyes for them to interpret as a colour.
Core Practical
In this core practical you will need to be able to recall how to investigate refraction in a
rectangular block. This is a common 6
marker.
1) Place a glass block on onto a piece of
paper alongside a ray box which will
produce a ray of light into the block.
2) Draw around the glass block with a
pen/pencil
3) Draw a line perpendicular to the incident
point against the glass block. This is our
normal to the incident ray.
4) With a pen/pencil leave a mark on the
point of incidence and the emergent point
too.
5) When you remove the block you will need
to connect the two points, the incident point
and the emergent point. This will allow you
to find the angle of refraction
6) Record your data for the angle of incidence, angle of refraction and the angle of
emergence and repeat the experiment but change the angle of incidence.
Back to Electromagnetic Waves

Unfortunately the GCSE requires you to recall the order of the electromagnetic waves
from longest to shortest. So here it is: radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible
(including the colours of the visible spectrum), ultraviolet, x-rays and gamma rays.
You’ve heard of “ROY G BIV” but what about this.
Rabbits, Mate, In, Very, Unusual, eXpensive, Gardens.
Long wavelength --------------------------------------> Short wavelength
35
written by Ken Tu
Electromagnetic Radiation
Electromagnetic radiation that has a lower frequency than visible light is called infrared
radiation (IR). Infrared radiation is basically a fancy word for heat so when we feel the sun
“heating/warming” us up, we feel infrared radiation being transferred to our body. All
objects emit energy by infrared radiation but the intensity of it depends on their
temperature. The higher in temperature an object is, the more infrared radiation it emits.
By extension, if an object’s temperature is constant, the amount of energy the object absorbs
must be the same as the amount of energy the object radiates. Using this principal, we can
imply that person will cool when the amount of energy they absorb is less than the amount
they radiate. A person will become warmer when the amount of energy they absorb is greater
that they amount they radiate.
How is the Earth’s Temperature Affect By Radiation?

The Earth receives a certain
amount of energy from the Sun
within a given time. This is the
power absorbed from the sun
measured in
Watts (J/s) [1W = 1J/s].
For the Earth to have a balanced
temperature, the amount of energy
we radiate to space must be the
same as we absorb.
Gases in our atmophere e.g.,
carbon dioxide, absorb the heat
energy from the sun resulting in
more heat energy, more infrared
radiation in our atmostphere and
less being transmitted into space.
This leads to the greenhouse gas
effect where the Earth warms up as
a result because less radiation is
reflected back into the
atmostphere.
36
written by Ken Tu
Core Practical
Aim: to investigate how the nature of a surface affects the amount of thermal energy radiate
or absorbed.
Basically different surfaces will absorb,
reflect, emit heat better than others.
1) Cover boiling tubes in different surfacec
material, black, grey, and white.
2) Pour the same volume of the same
temperature of hot water into the tubes.
3) Insert a lid and thermometer to see how
the temperature will change over time.
4) Use a stopwatch to record the
temperature at regular intervals until you
have done it over 20 minutes or so.
5) Repeat the experiment to obtain an average.
You should have found that the black material cooled the fastest whilst the water cooled the
slowest. This is because the colour black is the best emitter of infrared radiation and white
is the colour that best reflects it.
How Can Electromagnetic Radiation Affect You?

Electromagnetic waves with very short waves lengths such as
gamma rays can be dangerous as they can have enough
energy to strip electrons from the atoms in your body. They
have the potential to ionise your body and penetrate it. This
would cause damage to the cells in your body (internal body
damage).
See Topic 6 – Radioactivity for more information elaborating
on this.
Some harmful effects of excessive exposure to electromagnetic
radiation include the following:
(1) Microwaves – internal heating of body cells.
(2) Infrared – skin burns.
(3) Ultraviolet - damage to surface cells and eyes, leading to skin cancer and eye conditions.
(4) X-rays/Gamma rays – mutation/damage to cells in the body.
37
written by Ken Tu
Applications of Electromagnetic Waves

a) Radio Waves: including broadcasting, communications and satellite transmissions
b) Microwaves: including cooking, communications and satellite transmissions
c) Infrared: including cooking, thermal imaging, short range communications, optical
fibres, television remote controls and security systems
d) Visible Light: including vision, photography and illumination
e) Ultraviolet: including security marking, fluorescent lamps, detecting forged bank notes
and disinfecting water
f) X-rays: including observing the internal structure of objects, airport security scanners and
medical x-rays
g) Gamma rays: including sterilising food and medical equipment, and the detection of
cancer and its treatment
How does a radio transmitter work?

Radio transmitters transmit radio waves across long distances. This is done by the
transmitting aerial where the current will oscillate and this can induce an oscillating curent
in the receiving aerial.
A limiter of how far the radio waves can travel is the distance. This exists because
radiowaves travel in straight lines. Imagine station A and that it becomes so far from
station B that the radiowave would have to bend in order to reach it. This is not possible as
radiowaves travel in straightlines unless it is refracted/reflected.
If radio waves reach the ionosphere (uppermost part of the atmostphere) at a suitable angle,
they may be reflected back, remebering from the total internal reflectioin, this is similar to
that.
Microwaves are not refracted in the Earth’s atmophere.
You will learn more about how unstable atoms can release radiation in
Topic 6 – Radioactivity. This includes EM light like in Neon isotopes!
38
39
Edexcel GCSE Physics: Topic 6 - Radioactivity written by Ken Tu
Atomic Models
Atoms are described as having a positively charged nucleus,
consisting of neutrons and protons surrounded by negatively
charged electrons.
The mass of both a proton and neutron are 1 amu (atomic mass unit).
Whilst the mass of an electron is often described as negligible. It is

so small that its mass does not affect the overall mass of the atom
1
however it is roughly 2000 amu.
𝟏𝟑
𝑪 , the number on the top (13) represents the nucleon number AKA mass number. This is
𝟔
the total mass of the protons + total mass of neutrons. The bottom number, 6, represents the
atomic number - the number of protons in the nucleus. From the two, you can deduce that the
number of neutrons is the mass number - the atomic number, 13 - 6 = 7 neutrons.
Each element in the periodic table will have a different number of protons whilst the number
of neutrons may vary. When this occurs, the element can be an isotope. This means that the
mass number of the atoms, although they are the same element, can differ. This is because the
number of protons two isotopes have been the same, but the number of neutrons is
different.
As mentioned earlier, the charge of the proton is +1 (positive 1), the neutron is 0 and the
electron is -1 (negative 1).
The diagram on the right

shows the nucleus (red)
with electrons flowing
around the nucleus (blue).
Each shell, the circular

shape surrounding the
nucleus, can only hold a
certain number of
electrons. The first (the
closest one to the nucleus) can hold a maximum capacity of 2 electrons, second - 8 electrons
and the third - 8 electrons. This is only the knowledge required for GCSE.
40
Plum pudding model

J.J. Thomson (1856 - 1940) carried out some experiments and
concluded the existence of subatomic particles, electrons, protons, and
neutrons within the atom. He used this evidence to conclude that the
atom looked like a large positive proton with negative electrons inside -
see diagram on the right.
However, between 1909 and 1913, a man called Ernest Rutherford led a
team to conduct the gold foil experiment. In the experiment, they shot
radioactive alpha particles (a helium nuclei/ a combination of 2 neutrons
and two protons) through a thin gold foil. First, the vast majority of
alpha particles shot straight through the gold foil;
Rutherford discovered that atoms mainly consisted
of empty space hence disproving the idea that a
large solid plum-pudding model was possible.
Secondly, some alpha particles were deflected

(changed direction as they passed through the foil)
therefore demonstrating that the centre of atoms was
positively charged as the positively charged alpha
particles were repelled by the same positively
charged centre.
Lastly, some alpha particles bounced directly back.

This shows that the centre had a concentrated
mass located in the middle of the atom, we now call
this the nucleus. The plum-pudding model could
not explain this phenomenon.
The deflected alpha particles would be detected by the detector which would scintillate if a
charged alpha particle hit it. It is important to note that the experiment was carried out in a
vacuum.
This led to the creation of the widely accepted atomic model: the
Bohr model. See diagram on the right.
Electrons and Orbits

Electrons can only exist within certain orbits of the shells. The
further away the electron is from the nucleus, the more easily the
electron can change its energy level. This is because the further
away the outermost electron is from the nucleus, the weaker the
force of attraction between the nucleus and the electron. E.g., if a light wave hits the
outermost electron, the light wave gives the electron enough energy to leave its orbit and
enter a higher energy level. When this occurs, the atom emits energy back into the
surrounding area in the form of a particular wavelength of visible light. This release of energy
can be called electromagnetic radiation.
41
A great example of electromagnetic radiation is neon light. Inside

the lit tubes of glowing light are gases which have neon atoms of
whose electrons are constantly changing energy levels. Different
orbit changes will release electromagnetic radiation which has a
different wavelength of light. Different wavelengths of light
translate to different colours of visible light to the human eye. This
emission of different wavelengths is called the emission
spectrum.
Sometimes an atom can receive vast enough amounts of energy to

allow the electron to escape its orbit. This is called ionisation
whereby the atom, with a neutral charge, becomes positively
charged as it loses an electron whilst the number of protons stays
the same. An atom that loses or gains an electron is called an ion.
Radiation
Radiation is the emission/transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through
space. Heat/thermal energy can be involved as well as nuclear energy. Elements in space
want to be as stable as possible, meaning that they may release energy in order to balance the
surplus of energy in the internal nucleus. When an atom is unstable (has excess of energy) it
is radioactive.
When atoms are radioactive, they decay, releasing energy out, often out of the nucleus to
become more stable. The types of radioactive decay for GCSE are alpha decay, beta-minus
decay, beta-plus decay, and gamma decay.
NOTE: Radioactive decay is completely random. Scientists cannot predict exactly when a
nucleus will decay; however later on in the notes, the half-life of a radioactive element
explains the patterns regarding finding out when an atom decays.
Alpha Decay
Alpha particles contain 2 protons and 2 neutrons which accumulate to mass of 4amu and 2+
charge. This particle is released from the nucleus of an atom. It can be written as 𝝰 or
4 2+
𝐻𝑒 - a helium nucleus.
2
Beta-plus Decay
In the nucleus, a proton changes into a neutron and releases a high energy positron (the
antiparticle of the electron; mass: negligible, charge: 1+).
p→n+e +
Note: when an electron and positive collide with each other as they are attracted to the
opposite they respectively have, they will annihilate each other releasing 2 gamma rays in the
opposite direction.
High energy electrons/positrons released from radiation are sometimes called Beta particles.
They can be denoted by the symbol β- , for high energy electrons, or β+ for high energy
positrons.
42
Beta-minus Decay
In the nucleus, a neutron becomes a proton and releases a high energy electron.
-
n→p+e
Note: when we say high energy, we mean that the particle is ejected from the nucleus with
high amounts of kinetic energy and is likely to collide with another particle in space.
Gamma Decay
When the subatomic particles in the nucleus are rearranged, this may release energy in the
form of a gamma wave denoted by the symbol 𝛄. The mass number and atomic number all
remain the same.
The gamma ray has no charge and is high frequency. Often it can also be released as a
product of excess alpha and beta-plus decay.
Neutrons may also be emitted from the nucleus of the atom if an isotope has too many of
them.
Ionising and Penetrating Power

Particles with high ionisation energy have a high charge either negatively or positively. This
can cause the particle they collide with to change charge as its electrons can be taken from
the hit particle or donated.
The penetrating power illustrates how transmittable the particle is through a certain
material. Waves/particles with a high frequency tend to penetrate through thicker and denser
material than lower frequencies.
Particle/wave Ionising Power Penetrating Power

from Decay
Alpha particle α2+ Highly ionising - the 2+ charge Can only travel a few centimetres in air
can easily attract electrons. but can be stopped by a sheet of paper:
Weak penetrating power
Beta-minus Moderately ionising - the 1- Can travel a few metres in air but can
particle β- charge can be donated to a be stopped a few centimetres of
cation. aluminium:
Moderate penetrating power
Gamma ray 𝛄 Weakly ionising: a gamma ray Can travel a few kilometres in air but
has no charge at all. can be stopped by a few centimetres of
lead:
High penetrating power
43
Background Radiation
As we go about our lives, humans are constantly exposed to low levels of ionising radiation.
This can come from naturally existing things in our world from a variety of sources including
the radiation from hospitals, rocks in the ground or even the potassium in bananas. Naturally
existing radioactive substances are called background radiation.
Examples include the following.

• Radon gas: some rocks contain uranium which radioactively decays into radon
• Hospital treatments e.g., X-rays, gamma-ray scans, cancer treatment
In space radiation is also emitted from the Sun in the form of cosmic rays although these do
not enter the Earth as our ozone layer “filters” this out. However, UV radiation can still enter
the Earth.
Radiation can be measured using a Geiger-Müller (GM) tube.
The ionising radiation that enters the tube will ionise the gas
particles inside allowing there to be free electrons which permits
a short pulse of current to flow. The GM Tube can be connected
to a counter where each tick represents the radiation. The more
ticks the more radiation is present.
Another method is by using photographic film. This film

becomes darker and darker when exposed to more radiation.
Healthcare workers, who often work with radiation will use a
dosimeter badge to indicate how much exposure they have
received when interacting with a contaminated patient
Nuclear Equations
When a radioactive isotope goes under nuclear decay, it can change elements. For example, if
uranium-328 goes under alpha decay, so its nucleus loses 2 neutrons and 2 protons, the
product is the alpha particle being released and thorium-234.
328 324 4
𝑈→ 𝑇ℎ + 𝐻𝑒 2+
92 90 2
The uranium's mass number decreased by 4 and the atomic number decreased by 2. A similar
equation can be formed from Beta-plus or Beta-minus decay.
44
Particle Symbol
Alpha
α 4𝐻𝑒2+
2
Electron
β− 0
𝑒
−1
Positron
β+ 0𝑒
1
Neutron: in nuclear fission, high energy neutrons can collide with large uranium
isotopes causing them to split up 1
n 𝑛
0
Half-life
As a radioactive element decays, it becomes more and more stable. The activity of any
radioactive elements can be described in terms of the number of nuclear decays per second.
1 nuclear decay per second is called 1 Becquerel (Bq). The half-life of a radioactive isotope
is the time taken for the undecayed radioactive nucleus to half - half of the radioactivity’s
life.
Note: the rate at a particular nucleus decay, cannot be predicted however by using the half-
life it enables a large volume of radioactive isotopes average decay rate to be predicted.
In the diagram on the left, as the time

goes on the half-life remains a
constant time whilst the activity of
the nuclei decreases.
45
Uses of Radiation
In the GCSE specification it asks that you know the following uses:
• House-hold smoke alarms
Smoke alarms contain a radioactive element called americium-241 and a detector which has
an air gap between two electric plates. As the isotope goes under alpha decay, the radioactive
nuclei release the highly ionising alpha particle which ionises the surrounding air molecules
that make current flow through - it connects the circuit. However, in the presence of smoke,
the flow of current slows down and if the current drops below a certain threshold, the smoke
alarm will sound.
• Irradiation
By using gamma decay, equipment/food can be sterilised. In the content of food, the
microorganisms can be killed therefore making the food safe to eat. In addition to the use of
gamma rays, they can also be used to sterilise hospital equipment like a scalpel.
• Tracing and gauging thickness
Radioactive isotopes can be used as a tool to trace the flow of a substance. A pipe leakage for
example. A gamma decaying source will be added to the water and as the water flows, it will
emit gamma rays. A Geiger-Müller tube will follow the pathing of the underground pipe and
the area which experiences a leakage will have higher levels of radiation detected than the
areas that do not have a leakage.
As mentioned earlier, a beta particle will travel a few millimetres through paper before it is
stopped. A sheet of paper’s thickness can be detected by firing beta particles through the
paper. On the other side of the paper is a detector which will scan for the number of
collisions. The more detections, the thinner the paper is and vice versa. As the paper is
flattened, the roller may have rolled the paper too thin so when the detector finds out that the
number of collisions of beta particles is too high, it will communicate with the roller to exert
less force on the paper to create thicker sheets.
Radioactivity in Medicine
Gamma rays can be used as tracers. Since they have a high penetrating power and low
ionising radiation, gamma ray emitting sources of radiation can safely be ingested into the
body without causing too much harm to healthy nearby tissues. When diagnosing a tumour,
the tracers containing the decaying source will be taken into the patient’s bloodstream and
circulate throughout the body. Often the source of radiation comes in the form of radioactive
glucose so when the body’s cells respire it will emit gamma rays to a gamma camera to be
detected. Abnormal areas which have very high concentrations of emitted gamma rays can
indicate the presence of a tumour as cancer cells take in more of the glucose than other cells.
46
This method of diagnosis can be achieved with the

beta-plus decay where the electron-positron
annihilation emits two gamma rays in opposite
directions. In turn these can be detected by the gamma
camera. The detector in a (positron emission
tomography) PET scan will move around the body
producing a detailed 3D image of the gamma rays
emitted from the body to diagnose the patient’s health.
Note: in order to minimise the tissue damage ionising

radiation can cause, all the medical tracers must have a
short half-life i.e., lose their radioactivity quickly.
The isotopes used in PET scans must be produced quickly and close by the hospital otherwise
they would lose the effects of its radioactivity.
Radiotherapy
Internal radiotherapy, as the name suggests, radiation emitted inside the body/very close to
the tumour to kill the tumour cells. A beta emitter such as iodine-131 can be used. The patient
would stay in the room by themselves to avoid unintentionally exposing other people nearby
to ionisation.
External radiotherapy is, you guessed it, radiation treatment given outside of the body.
Examples can include gamma knives which shine a beam of gamma rays directly at the
tumour. The tumour absorbs all the energy and kills the cancer cells while doing limited
damage to the healthy cells nearby.
Dangers of Radioactivity
Long amounts of exposure to ionising radiation can cause tissue damage as electrons are
stripped from their cells. An example is radiation burns where the skin
turns red. This completely ruins the subatomic structure of the cells
when happening on a large scale consequently resulting in the cells
malfunctioning. If small amounts of ionising radiation are given over
long periods of times, this can alter the DNA in a cell. This is called a
mutation. Sometimes this can cause uncontrolled cell division (cancer)
as the DNA encoding apoptosis (programmed cell death) fails to occur.
Radiation is a hazard as it can inflict harm on humans. We are exposed

to background radiation all the time however those who always work
with radioactive materials will have to take precautions to ensure their
safety by reducing the exposure. When handling radioactive sources, the
intensity of the radiation decreases with more distance away from the source hence why
sources are always handled with tongs. Similarly, the ionisation emission can be reduced if
the radioactive substance is contained in a lead-lined container. Lastly of course, is to reduce
the time spent working with radioactive sources to reduce the ionisation contact to your skin.
Nuclear accidents are where radioactive isotopes are accidently released. This can cause a
hazard as people nearby/ecosystems can be irradiated or contaminated. If one is irradiated,
it means they are exposed to alpha particles, beta particles or gamma radiation nearby.
As soon as the person is away from the source, the irradiation stops affecting them. E.g., their
clothes became irradiated. They took off their clothes and now they’re no longer affected.
47
Contamination is where the ionising radiation gets in contact with the skin or enters into their
body. This means they will be exposed to that decay until the unstable isotopes become
stable. In the event that the isotope has a long half-life, the hazard poses a greater threat than
those isotopes with shorter half-life.
Nuclear Energy
Nuclear fuels store much more energy per kilogram than typical energy sources, for example
the combustion of hydrocarbons. What’s great about nuclear energy is that they do not need
oxygen to burn like combusting hydrocarbons and they do not release carbon dioxide. This
makes nuclear energy useful for powering large vessels like naval ships even NASA is
looking for ways to implement nuclear fuel in their spacecraft.
However, uranium, a typical source of nuclear fuel, is a non-renewable resource meaning that
it will one day run out. Nuclear power plants are used to generate electricity without releasing
greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide) into the air. This is advantageous in comparison to
conventional power stations because they produce energy by burning fossil fuels. Of course,
carbon dioxide is a large contributor to climate change.
A disadvantage of nuclear power plants is that they are difficult to decommission (dismantle
safely) due to the high radioactive presence from when it was being used.
In the process of radioactive decay, this transfers nuclear energy from the strong force in the
nucleus to other forms of energy - often thermal energy. There are two main types of nuclear
reactions which can be used to release energy.
Nuclear Fission
This is where a high energy neutron collides with a large radioactive isotope, typically
uranium-235. The uranium nuclei will absorb the higher energy neutron and split into two
smaller daughter nuclei. These two daughter nuclei, if you search up the diagrams, can be
barium-141 and krypton-92. The two daughter nuclei released are radioactive and 2 or more
neutrons are released. These subatomic particles, both the two daughter nuclei and the ejected
neutrons have high kinetic energy. The high energy neutron released would then go on to
collide with more uranium isotopes and could cause an uncontrolled chain reaction causing
them to split and so on. The high kinetic energy transfer translates into energy transfer by
heat.
The equation for the reaction between a uranium nucleus and being absorbed by a high
energy neutron can be written as the following:
235 141 92
n+ 𝑈→ 𝐵𝑎 + 𝐾𝑟 + 3n
92 56 36
48
Nuclear fission can occur inside a nuclear

reactor. In the diagram on the right, the
uranium fuel rods are inserted into the
nuclear reactor to decay. As this occurs,
high energy neutrons will collide into
other radioactive uranium nuclei causing
that chain reaction mentioned earlier.
During the fission reaction, control rods
can be inserted into the moderator - the
medium the reaction takes place in, and it
is often referring to natural fresh water. In
the case of the diagram, it is the yellow
area. The moderator’s purpose is to reduce
the kinetic energy of the thermal neutrons,
slowing them down in the process.
Control rods are designed to absorb
neutrons so that less energy is released
therefore less neutrons are absorbed by the uranium nuclei. Consequently, if more control
rods are inserted, the rate of fission will decrease and vice versa. This can be used to
increase/decrease the chain reaction. The thermal energy produced by this high emission of
kinetic energy can be used to produce steam which in turn can be used to transpose cool
water into warm water in the heat exchanger. Alternatively, the steam released can be used to
power turbines which turn a generator to produce electricity.
Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear fusion is when smaller nuclei combine under higher pressure and high temperature
and to form larger nuclei. Fusion reactions typically occur all the time in the centre of the
sun. The sun in our solar system fuses hydrogen nuclei into helium nuclei in the form of hot
plasma. Plasma is often known as the fourth state of matter where in the Sun, the
superheated matter of hydrogen and helium are so hot that the electrons are ripped away
from the atoms forming ionising gas.
The equations which can be used to express hydrogens fusing together are demonstrated
below.
“→” means the fusion reaction occurs.
1
1
𝐻 +11𝐻 → 21𝐻 + e+,
2
1
𝐻 + 11𝐻 → 32𝐻𝑒 + 𝜸 ray is released as energy.
Hydrogen has three isotopes:

Protium → 1𝐻 (most high abundance in the universe)
1
Deuterium → 2𝐻
1
Tritium → 3𝐻
1
49
For the nuclei to fuse, they must overcome the strong electrostatic force of repulsion. Hence
why in entities like our Sun, the pressures that the nuclei experience in order to fuse must be
extremely high to overcome this force. The high pressures are the surrounding forces
exerting onto the nuclei enabling them to combine. For fusion to occur, you also need high
temperatures to provide the nuclei with enough kinetic energy to fuse. Even then higher
temperatures increase the likelihood of two hydrogen nuclei colliding as faster moving nuclei
results in more collisions occurring at a single time. When nuclei are traveling fast enough or
close enough, they can overcome the electrostatic repulsion from their respective hydrogen
cation and fuse.
When trying to replicate the conditions for nuclear fusion to occur, the fusion reactor will use
a power magnetic field to prevent the nuclei from contacting the reactor’s surface, otherwise
the reactor would melt and explode.
These conditions are difficult and dangerous to maintain.
Theoretically, nuclear fusion can produce more energy than nuclear fission as well as being
less radioactive. This means that there are fewer problems with disposing radioactive waste
material than fission reactors.
50
51
Edexcel GCSE Physics: Topic 7 - Astronomy written by Faran Ahmed, edited by Ken Tu
What is the Solar System?

Our Solar System contains one star – the Sun. The rest is made up of everything which orbits
the Sun, including the following:
Planets – these are large objects which orbit a star. There are eight of them orbiting the Sun
(from the Sun outwards, they are Mercury 🡪 Venus 🡪 Earth 🡪 Mars 🡪 Jupiter 🡪 Saturn 🡪
Uranus 🡪 Neptune). They must be large enough to have ‘cleared their neighbourhood’. This
means that their gravity is strong enough to have pulled in any nearby objects apart from their
natural satellites.
You can remember the order as the mnemonic: My Very Eager Mother Just Served Us
Pizzas. It includes Pluto at the end even though it is no longer considered a planet.
Dwarf planets – these are planet-like objects which orbit stars but are too small to meet all of
the rules of being a planet.
Satellites – these are objects that orbit a second more massive object. They can be natural,
e.g., the Moon, or artificial, e.g., satellites that humans have built.
Asteroids – these are lumps of rock and metal which orbit the Sun. They’re usually found in
the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter.
Comets – these are lumps of ice and dust which orbit the Sun. An example is Halley’s
Comet. Comets are thought to be sourced from the Kuiper Belt and the Oort Cloud.
Gravity on other
Planets
The more mass a planet has,
the stronger its gravitational
field strength.
As the Moon as less mass

than the Earth, the
gravitational field strength
of the Moon is less than the
gravitational field strength
of the Earth. Hence why if
you were on the Moon, you
would weigh less because, → weight (N) = Mass (kg) × Gravitational Field Strength.
Technically when you ask someone how much they weigh,

they’re not 76kg, they’re 76(kg) × 9.8(m/s2) = 744.8N
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The Structure of the Solar System

Geocentric Model: One of the first models was Ptolemy’s
geocentric model. It suggested that the Earth was the centre of
the Solar System, and the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars all
orbited the Earth in perfect circles. An orbit is the path on which
one object moves around another. The geocentric model arose
because people on Earth didn’t have telescopes and saw the Sun
and Moon travelling across the sky in the same way every day
and night.
Heliocentric Model: (Helio means Sun in Latin)

Next up was Copernicus’ heliocentric model, which had the Sun
at the centre of the Solar System. It said that the Earth and all
of the planets orbited the Sun in perfect circles. Galileo used a
telescope to notice some stars in a line near Jupiter. When he
looked again, he saw these ‘stars’ never moved away from
Jupiter and seemed to carry along with the planet. This was
later proved as some of Jupiter’s moons and showed that not
everything was in orbit around the Earth, so Galileo disproved
the geocentric model.
Gradually, evidence for the heliocentric model increased due to

more technological advances. For example, using computers
and more advanced telescopes, astronomers noticed that
planetary orbits around the Sun were actually elliptical rather
than circular. Computers have further increased the speed and
detail with which information from telescopes can be analysed.
What are Orbiting Satellites?

An orbit is a balance between the centripetal force and the forward motion
(instantaneous orbital velocity) of the object. The object keeps accelerating towards what
it’s orbiting, but the instantaneous velocity (which is perpendicular to the centripetal force)
keeps it travelling in a circle. So, for a planet in a circular orbit, gravity leads to the velocity
of the planet constantly changing as the direction changes whilst its speed remains
constant.
53
Remember that the weight of an object depends on the gravitational field strength the
object is in
(Due to W = m × g). Gravitational field strength depends on:
• The mass of the object: The greater the mass of the object, the stronger its gravitational
field.
• The radius of the orbit: The closer you get to a star or planet, the stronger the
gravitational force. The stronger the force, the larger the instantaneous velocity needed
to balance it. Therefore, the closer to a star or planet an object gets, the faster it needs to go
to remain in orbit. As the radius of the orbit decrease, the instantaneous velocity must
increase in order to remain balanced and in orbit. Instantaneous velocity and radius are
inversely proportional. This is why satellites in low Earth orbits travel very fast, as these
orbits have the smallest radius towards the Earth.
Geostationary Orbits: Satellites in circular geostationary orbits remain over one point on the
Earth and are used for broadcasting. These satellites move at 3070 m/s.
Highly elliptical orbits: These are used for communication in parts of the Earth near the
poles.
Polar orbits: Satellites in polar orbits will eventually pass over all parts of the Earth (as
Earth rotates at an angle on its axis).
Low Earth orbits: These need the least fuel for launching satellites. These satellites move at
around 7500 m/s.
54
The Formation of Starts and Main Sequence Stars

Stars initially form from a cloud of
dust and gas (mainly hydrogen)
called a nebula. The force of gravity
makes the gas and dust spiral in
together to form a protostar. This
stage is not represented in the diagram
but it’s the sequence between the
Massive Star/Average Star and the
Stellar Nebula.
Gravitational attraction causes the

density of the protostar to increase
and particles within the protostar to
collide with each other more
frequently, so the temperature rises.
When the temperature and pressure

become high enough, hydrogen nuclei
begin to undergo nuclear fusion to
form helium nuclei in the core of the star. This releases massive amounts of energy as EM
radiation which keeps the core of the star hot. At this point, a star is born.
Smaller masses of dust and gas around the star

may also be pulled together by it to make planets
that orbit the star.
Once a star has been formed, it immediately

enters a long stable period. During this time, it is
described as being on the main sequence. The
energy released by the nuclear fusion
reactions provides an outward pressure that
tries to expand the star (thermal expansion),
which balances the force of gravity pulling
everything inwards. It is in equilibrium and so
does not expand or contract. In this stable period,
it is called a main sequence star.
55
The Death of Stars

The main sequence typically lasts several billion years, but the more mass a star has, the
shorter its time on the main sequence. This is because more massive stars use up fuel in
their cores much quicker than smaller stars, even though they contain more fuel than
smaller stars.
Eventually, the hydrogen in the core of a star begins to run out. The force due to gravity
becomes larger than the pressure of thermal expansion, so the star is in disequilibrium. It
is compressed until it is dense and hot enough that the energy released makes the outer
layers of the star expand.
A small to medium-sized star, with a mass similar to the Sun will expand into a red giant
when it starts to run out of hydrogen. It becomes red as the surface cools. It then becomes
unstable and ejects its outer layer
of dust and gas as a planetary
nebula. This leaves behind a hot,
dense solid core – a white dwarf.
As a white dwarf cools down, it

emits less and less energy and
eventually it will disappear from
sight.
Stars that are larger and have more

mass than our Sun expand into red
super giant when they start to run
out of hydrogen.
Red Super Giants are much

bigger and brighter than regular
red giants. They expand and
contract several times, forming
elements as heavy as iron in various nuclear reactions. Eventually, they run out of elements
to fuse and become unstable. They explode in a supernova, forming elements heavier than
iron and ejecting them into the Universe to form new planets and stars. The exploding
supernova throws the outer layers of dust and gas into space, leaving a very dense core called
a neutron star.
If the star is big enough, it will implode into a black hole instead – a dense singularity in
space that nothing can escape from not even light.
56
Optical Telescopes and the Evolution of Telescopes
Telescopes help you to see distant objects clearly and are used to observe the Universe. The
one you’re most likely to have seen is an optical telescope – telescopes that detect visible
light.
There are three main types of optical telescopes – refracting telescopes which use lenses,
reflecting telescopes which use mirrors and telescopes that use a combination of lenses
and mirrors.
The earliest type of telescope was the optical telescope. But from the 1940s onwards,
telescopes were developed to detect other wavelengths of the EM spectrum. These modern
telescopes mean that we can now ‘see’ parts of the Universe that we couldn’t see before and
learn more about the structure of the Universe. For example, X-ray telescopes detected
violent, high-temperature events like exploding stars.
Telescopes are constantly improving – bigger telescopes give us better resolution and can
gather more light, so we can see things we couldn’t before as they were too faint. Improved
magnification means that we can now look further into space, leading to more galaxies
being discovered.
Modern telescopes often work alongside computers. Computers help create clearer and
sharper images and make it easy to capture these pictures so they can be analysed later.
Computers also make it possible to collect and store large amounts of data, and make it
easier and quicker to analyse this data.
We also now have telescopes out in space in orbit of out planet such as the Hubble Space
Telescope.
Image Quality
The quality of the image produced by a telescope can be affected by the telescope itself. The
diameter of the objective lens (the telescope’s aperture) and its quality both affect image
quality – using a larger aperture or a higher quality lens will improve the image produced.
The location of the telescope can also affect image quality. The Earth’s atmosphere
absorbs a lot of the EM radiation coming from space before it can reach Earth-based
telescopes. To observe the wavelengths absorbed, you have to go above the atmosphere.
The atmosphere also distorts EM radiation that does reach Earth-based telescopes by
refracting it multiple times. Refraction of visible light is what makes stars appear to
‘twinkle’. The thinner the atmosphere there is above a telescope, the less distortion there is
in the image seen through the telescope.
On Earth, light pollution (e.g., light thrown up into the sky from street lamps, headlights
etc.) makes it hard to identify dim objects in the sky. Moreover, air pollution can reflect
and absorb light (and other EM radiation) coming from space. Therefore, to get the best
view possible on Earth, a telescope should be on top of a mountain (where the atmosphere
above it is thinner) and in a dark place away from cities (with lower light and air pollution).
57
What is the Doppler Effect?

You’ll have experienced the Doppler effect with sound waves. Imagine a police car is
driving towards you. As it moves towards you, its siren sounds higher-pitched than it would
if it was stationary. As it moves
away from you, its siren sounds
lower-pitched. This change in
frequency and wavelength is called
the Doppler effect.
A stationary police car’s siren would

have sound waves with equal
wavelengths, so that there is no
change in pitch.
However, if the police car is moving,

the sound waves in front of the car
would have shorter wavelengths
(hence a higher frequency) and the
sound waves behind the car would have longer wavelengths (hence a lower frequency).
This is why when a police car is travelling towards you, the shorter wavelengths of sound do
not have to travel as far between the car and you, hence the pitch sounds higher. The amount
of stretching and bunching together depends on the speed of the source.
What is Red-shift?
The Doppler effect happens with all EM waves like light. When we look at light from many
distant galaxies, we find that its wavelength is longer than it should be. The light that we
detect is shifted towards the red side of the visible light spectrum (which has the longest
wavelength, violent is the shortest).
In other words, the light that we detect from the galaxy appears to be redder than the actual
light emitted by the galaxy. This effect is called red-shift, and it shows that the galaxy the
light has come from is moving away from the Earth. The faster the galaxy is moving
away from us (called the speed of recession), the larger the red-shift. We interpret this
relationship to mean that the Universe is expanding.
You can measure red-shift by looking at absorption

spectra. These are patterns of dark lines in the visible
light spectrum that are caused by certain wavelengths
of light being absorbed. Each element absorbs
particular wavelengths of visible light, so the pattern
of lines it creates is always the same.
Scientists compare absorption spectra from distant

galaxies to absorption spectra in the lab to see how
much red-shift has occurred. They take a particular
pattern, e.g., the pattern made by helium, and look at
how far each matching absorption line has moved in
the galaxy’s absorption spectra. The scientists can measure the change in wavelength that
allows them to calculate red-shift.
58
The Expansion of the Universe and CMB radiation

As the light from the majority of distant galaxies has been red-shifted, this suggests that the
galaxies are moving away from us. Measurements of the red-shift indicate that most distant
galaxies are moving away from us with a fast speed of recession.
More distant galaxies have a greater red-shift than nearer ones, hence more distant galaxies
are moving away faster than nearer ones. This also suggests that all galaxies are moving
away from each other, which gives the conclusion that the Universe is expanding as a
whole.
Astronomers using radio telescopes in the 1960s

unexpectedly discovered low-frequency EM radiation
that was present in all of their measurements, no
matter the time of day. This radiation comes from all
parts of the Universe and its wavelength has
increased to be mainly in the microwave section of
the EM spectrum due to the expansion of the
Universe. It’s known as cosmic microwave
background (CMB) radiation.
The Big Bang Theory vs The Steady State Theory

Over time, there have been many theories to explain the origin of the Universe. The two
major theories are the Steady State theory and the Big Bang theory.
• The Steady State Theory says that the Universe has no beginning and no end. It has
always existed and always will. It is based on the idea that the Universe appears to look
the same in all directions from any point, i.e. it’s uniform on a large scale. The theory
says that as the Universe expands, new matter and galaxies are constantly being
created, so the density of the Universe remains constant.
• The Big Bang theory says that initially, all matter in the Universe occupied a
singularity which was very dense and very hot. It then ‘exploded’ – space started
expanding, and so got less dense, and the expansion is still going on. The Big Bang
expansion is described as the source of the velocity of galaxies as they move away from
each other. Moreover, the theory gives a finite age of the Universe - around 13.8 billion
years.
•
Red-shift can be used as evidence for both the Steady State and Big Bang theories. Both
theories account for the Universe expanding, so red-shift would be present in any
measurements taken in either model.
However, CMB radiation is theorised to be the remnants of radiation from an initial

expansion that has increased in wavelength over time. This suggests that the Universe had a
beginning, which provides evidence in support of the Big Bang theory whilst SST cannot
explain this. As there is currently more evidence to support the Big Bang theory than the
Steady State theory, the Big Bang theory is the currently accepted model of the origin of the
Universe.
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60
Edexcel GCSE Physics: Topic 8 – Energy (Forces Doing Work) written by Ken Tu
What is Work Done and Power?

When energy is transferred to an object by exerting a force to it, working is being done. This
called work done. E.g., imagine pushing a box in one direction. You are exerting a force
onto that object. The amount of “effort”/ energy requires to push an object in a certain
distance depends on the magnitude of the force and how far the object will be moved.
The following equation is used to calculate the relationship:
Work done (J) = Force (N) × Distance (m) moved in the direction of the force
E=F×d
Example Question
David is moving a box that weighs 500N and he moves it
5m along a flat floor using a force of 200N. Calculate the
work David did.
E=F×d
E = 200N × 5m (not 500 as that’s the weight of the box, not the force exerted on the box)
E = 1000J
What is Power?
Power is the rate at which energy is transferred. In other words, how much energy is
delivered within a given time. The equation is given below:
𝐸(𝐽)
P (W) =
𝑡 (𝑠)
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 (𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠)

Power (Watts) = => 1 Watt = 1 Joules/s
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛(𝑠)
Example Question
Kavi does 100 Joules of work in 5 seconds. How much power did he give out?
𝐸(𝐽)
P (W) =
𝑡 (𝑠)
100
P (W) =
5
P = 20 W → You may have to convert minutes into seconds and kJ into joules!
As a recall, you should know the equations below:
∆GPE = m× g ×∆h
1
KE = 𝑚𝑣2
2
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Edexcel GCSE Physics: Topic 9 – Forces and Their Effects written by Ken Tu
How Do Objects Affect Each Other?

When two objects interact, they be a contact force e.g., a collision, or a non-contact force,
e.g., gravity acting on an object.
Normal Contact Force

Two objects can exert a force on each other. As a result, an object may move due to the
friction. For example, imagine walking. Your foot exerts a force onto the ground as you can
move due to the friction on the ground. When you step onto the floor, the ground exerts a
force back onto you (recalling Newton’s Third Law that every action has an equal and
opposite reaction).
Imagine a scenario where a boat is floating. The contact force of
upthrust is caused by the contact force of water. But the upthrust is
balanced by the non-contact force of gravity which pulled the boat
down. The force of gravity does not need to contact the boat in order
to affect it.
Non-contact Force
Non-contact forces are forces which often act at a distance from the
object they are affecting. They do not have to physically touch the
object to affect it. Examples can include, gravity, electrostatic forces
of attraction from Coulomb force, or magnetic fields.
The pair of forces can be used to draw a vector diagram.
What is a Vector Diagram?

A vector diagram is used to illustrate the forces acting on an
object. For example, in the diagram on the right, there is a boat
which is in equilibrium as the magnitude of the upthrust is
the same as the force of gravity.
The longer the lines, the greater the magnitude of the force
has.
In the example with the ball, imagine a ball is thrown with
wind resistance acting in the opposite direction to the force.
There is a resultant force acting on the ball.
When all the forces in all the directions are in
equilibrium, the object will remain stationary if it
began stationary or remain travelling at a constant
speed (Newton’s First Law)
62
How to Draw a Resultant Force Diagram

In the example, we have a ship that
has two forces acting on it in two
different directions. To find the
resultant force you must do the
following:
(1) Draw a dashed line as it follows.
From the tip to tail. They are often
parallel to the orginal force vector.
(2) Do this to both of force vectors.
(3) Then where the two dotted lines met is the overall direction of force.
(4) Draw a line from the starting point to where the dotted lines converge and that will give
you the overall force vector.
(5) If the F1 and F2 had magitudes to scale, you then measure the length of Fr to find the
magnitude of the force.
Rotational Forces
Spanners in tools can be used to exert a turning force.
This turning force is called a moment.
It is calculated as the following equation:
moment of a force (newton metre, Nm) = force (newton,
N) × distance normal to the direction of the force (metre,
m)
Example Question
Danny uses a spanner and has a moment of 24Nm. The force he exerts is 40N. What is the
distance from his hand to the end of the spanner?
moment of a force = force × distance normal to the direction of the force
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
distance normal to the direction of the force =
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
24
distance normal to the direction of the force =
40
3
distance = m
5
= 0.6m
63
How To Calculate Equilibrium in a Rotational System

The diagram on the right is a
rotational force system where it
will be balanced with the
moment of force on the left of
the pivot is equal to the moment
of force to the right of the pivot.
You can think of it like a
seesaw.
A rotational system is said to be
in equilibrium when the following is true:
The Sum of the Anti-Clockwise Moment = The Sum of the Clockwise Moment
Example Question
In the above diagram, let the following be true:
F1 = 50N
D1 = 0.3m
D2 = 0.8m
F2 = ?
It is given that the seesaw is balancing so what is the force exerted on F2 for the seesaw to be
in equilibrium.
F1 D1 = D2 F2
F1 D1
= F2
𝐷2
50×0.3
= F2
0.8
F2 = 18.75N must be exerted in order for the seesaw to be in equilibrium.

How to Calculate Gears
When a large gear is paired with a smaller gear,
the ratio of the small gear’s teeth: big gear’s teeth will determine how many times the small
gear will turn each times the big gear has turned once.
20
E.g., small: big → 5:20 → ratio = = 4 → each time the big gear does one full turn, the
5
small gear will turn 4 times.
64
65
Edexcel GCSE Physics: Topic 10 - Electricity and Circuits
written by Ohm Joshi, edited by Ken Tu
Atomic Structure
Recalling from Chemistry or Physics radioactivity knowledge, all matter in the universe is
made up of atoms. The subatomic particles, protons and neutrons reside in the nucleus
whilst the electrons orbit around.
Neutrons: charge → neutral (0); mass (relative to the proton) - 1

Protons: charge → +1; mass (relative to the proton) - 1
1
Electrons: charge → -1; mass (relative to the proton) -
1836
What is Electricity?
Electricity is the flow of charge from point A to point B, however, it is important to note that
electric current is the rate flow of charge - so positive or negative charge - whilst in metals,
current is the flow of electrons as the metal cations are held in a fixed lattice structure.
Circuit Components and Symbols

Below lists the following circuit symbols you are required to know how to draw from
memory. In a cell/battery, the shorter line always denotes the negative terminal i.e., where the
flow of charge is going towards. Therefore, the longer side is the positive terminal.
66
Series Circuits
In a series circuit, all the components are connected
in one line and current can only flow in one
direction through one route and every component in
the circuit is reliant on one another therefore if a
wire is accidently cut, current can no longer flow
through the circuit and the rest of the components
will fail.
The diagram on the right illustrates a series circuit

connected to the lamp alongside an ammeter and a
voltmeter.
Note/Context: a voltmeter is always connected in parallel to the rest of the circuit and
ammeters are connected in series. Whenever the current wants to travel from point A to
point B, it will travel along the path of least resistance. Voltmeters are designed to have high
resistance therefore current is less likely to travel through the voltmeter path and more likely
to travel along the main path which has less resistance. This allows for a more accurate
reading of the potential difference.
Parallel Circuits
In a parallel circuit, there are junctions which can
split the circuit into different “lanes” for the current to
take. The diagram on the right illustrates how the flow
of charge (current) can split at a junction and cause the
two lamps to light up.
An example where parallel circuits are superior to

series circuits can be seen in the diagrams below of the
circuits, both with three lamps. One is in series and the
other is in parallel.
There is only one switch for all of the 3 lamps in the

series circuit so all of them must be on at the same
time. By contrast, there are 3 separate switches for
each separate lamp in the parallel circuit meaning that any of them can be powered on
without the others needing to be powered. If wire were to be
faulty in the series circuit, the whole circuit would be broken
whilst if wire between the two junctions that contains the lamp is
broken, the other two lamps would still function.
In other words, the components in the parallel circuit can operate

independently from each other.
67
What is Current?
Current is the flow of electrical charge in a circuit and flows as a result of a force (voltage)
in a closed circuit. Electric current is the rate of flow of charge. Current is measured in
amps using an ammeter. They are always wired in series in order to measure the current
passing through a specific component.
Conservation of Current
In a series circuit, the amount of current remains constant. The current leaving the positive
terminal is the same amount as when it re-enters from the negative terminal. The same
applies for a parallel circuit where when the current splits at a junction, the amount of current
going into all the junctions is the same as it would be coming out on its way back to the
negative terminal of the cell. This is called conservation of current.
What is Charge?
[An electric charge is measured in coulombs (C). One coulomb is one charge that passes a
point in a circuit when the current is one amp per second. Remember that
current is the rate at which charge flows through a point in a circuit?
Therefore:
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 (𝑪)
Current (A) = ⁄𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔)
⇒ Charge (C) = Current (A) × Time (s)
68
What is Voltage?
Voltage (potential difference) is force required to “push” electrons around a circuit, or the
energy transferred per coulomb of charge. The cell transfers energy to the charge in the
circuit, so the charge then has the potential to transfer energy to other components such as a
lamp. There is a potential difference of 1 volt whenever 1 joule of energy is transferred to
each coulomb of charge, meaning 1 volt is 1 joule per coulomb.
The equation for this is:

[E] Energy (joules) = [Q] Charge (coulombs) [V] Voltage
(volts)
E = QV
Voltage is measured using voltmeters, always connected in parallel to measure the potential
difference across the circuit or component.
What is Resistance?
Resistance is the measure of opposition to current flowing in a circuit, and makes it harder
for current to flow through, meaning a larger voltage is required to be able to push electrons
and produce current. Resistance is created in a circuit through the use of resistors.
It is measured in ohms (Ω) and calculated using the equation:

Voltage (volts) = Current (amps) Resistance (ohms) → (V = IR)
A higher resistance means there is less current passing through the circuit. In
series, there is a total resistance if there are multiple resistors after another as
current can only flow through one path. Meanwhile in parallel, the opposite is true. The
overall resistance of the circuit is less as there are more paths for current to take and less
current would be reduced by a single resistor and overall resist less current.
Variable resistors are used to change the current in a circuit instead of changing the power
cell.
The amount of current flowing through certain circuit

components varies with different potential
differences. The graph shows how 3 different
components present differing amounts of current in
relation to voltage.
Where the fixed resistor has a direct proportion

(current increases at the same increment).
The filament lamp and diodes have a non-linear

proportionality relative to current and potential
difference. This is because the resistance of the fixed resistor stays the same with increased
voltage, while the resistance is changing for the other components.
69
Filament Lamp
Potential difference across the filament lamp causes a current to flow through, which causes
it to heat up and light up. A larger PD means a larger current flows through and it becomes
hotter and brighter. But as the lamp heats up, its resistance
increases and reduces the flow of some current through the lamp,
meaning that in the lamp, the PD and current are not directly
proportional.
Diodes
Diodes have a very high resistance in one direction of the circuit
to prevent the current moving backwards. Hence when there is
greater flow of charge, there is a larger PD as more charge exists
on one side of the diode than the other.
Resistance of an LDR varies with light intensity. The higher the

light intensity, the lower the resistance.
Thermistors have higher resistance at lower temperatures and lower resistance at higher
temperatures.
Energy in Circuits
When there is current in a resistor, there is an energy transfer as a result of electrical work
being done, transferring into thermal energy and making the resistor warm. This kind of
heating effect causes useful energy to be dissipated to the surroundings by heating as
thermal energy is not very useful in a circuit, while it would be useful in an electric heater or
kettle where electrical energy is transferred into useful thermal energy for heating things up
intentionally.
The internal structure of a resistor consists of a lattice

of vibrating ions. As current flows and electrons are
pushed into the resistor, they collide with the ions. The
more collisions the harder it is for electrons to pass
through, and these collisions cause an overall increase
in thermal energy. Apologies for the rough diagram
lmao - Ken.
Using low resistance metals for wire, such as copper,

allow for resistance to be decreased and less energy to be wasted. Thicker wires also have
lower resistance due to their increased space and cross-sectional area for the electrons to flow
with less collision.
To calculate the energy transferred by heating in a circuit this equation is used:
Energy (joules) = Current (amps) × Time (seconds) × Voltage (volts)

→ (E = ITV).
70
Power is the amount of energy transferred every second, measured in watts, with the
equation:
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 (𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔)
Power (watts) = → (P = E/T).
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔)
The transfer of power in a circuit is related to the potential difference in a circuit and current
in it, shown with the equation:
Power (watts) = Current (amps) × Voltage (volts) → (P = IV)
This equation can be linked to the Voltage = Current × Resistance equation and give the
equation for:
Power (watts) = Current² (amps²) × Resistance (ohms) → (P = I²R)
Energy in a battery or an A.C. mains is transferred to motors or heaters by electricity. For

example, in a fan, the mains will transfer energy through electricity and store it as kinetic
energy in the fan as it spins. Some energy is lost by heating in the wires and overall, all of the
energy is being dissipated into the surroundings as the fan spins.
A.C. (Alternating Current) & D.C. (Direct Current)

Direct current (D.C.) is the movement of charge in only one direction
and cells and batteries supply direct current.
The electrons move around the circuit in a circle from the positive
terminal around to the negative and repeat this path.
Alternating Current (A.C.) is the backward and forward

movement of charge where they vibrate along their path. The voltage
also constantly changes, reaching a peak of 230V in one direction, reverting to 0, then
reaching a peak of 230V in the other direction and repeating. There are 50 of these cycles per
second, so the frequency is 50 Hz. In the UK, the domestic supply for mains is alternating
current.
71
Mains Plugs and Features

The brown live wire in a main’s plug connected an appliance to the generators at power
stations. This wire has a voltage of 230 Volts.
The green and yellow earth wire is for safety and connects the metal parts of the appliance
to metal which is pushed into the ground. Being in the ground allows for the current to not
remain in a metal and possibly electrocute
someone who touches it. This wire would be
at 0 volts.
The blue neutral wire completes the circuit,

making electricity flow in from the live wire
and out through the neutral. This wire has a
voltage of 0 Volts.
Fuses are safety features in circuits which

have a thin wire inside through where current
passes. Fuses have different capacities for
how much current can pass through and if it
surpasses the amount then the fuse overheats
and melts which breaks the circuit to ensure
that other components which could be
dangerous with excessive amounts of current
do not receive it.
Circuit breakers are also useful for safety

which detect changes in the current flowing through a circuit and can break the circuit
automatically. The only difference is that circuit breakers are like an automatic switch and
do not have to be replaced. To turn them back on they just need to be switched on manually,
while fuses which have melted need to be replaced.
Switches and fuses are connected in the live wire of a domestic circuit because that is where
the current is flowing through and would be where the current would need to be stopped for
the circuit to be broken.
72
73
Edexcel GCSE Physics: Topic 11 – Static Electricity
written by James San, edited by Ken Tu
What is Static Charge?

Electrical conductors are materials in which electrical charge can easily move through. This
is especially true for metals, as delocalised electrons flow in between a lattice of metal
atoms. In contrast, electrical insulators are materials in which electrical charge cannot easily
move through. Examples include plastics and rubbers.
The charges mentioned in the above paragraph are not static since the electrons can move. A
static charge is an electrical charge that cannot move, and it is often found on electrical
insulators because electrical charge, in general, cannot move through them easily. Static
charges can be positive or negative and can accumulate on insulators if there is no route for
them to flow elsewhere.
Remember that friction is a force between two objects that rub against each other. When two
electrical insulators are rubbed together, the friction produced causes electrons to move from
one insulator to the other. A common misconception is to say that protons move between
insulators - they cannot since they are locked with neutrons in the nuclei of the insulators’
atoms by the strong nuclear force (an A level concept). The insulator that loses electrons has
a positive static charge, whereas the insulator that gains electrons has a negative static charge.
In the diagram, you can see two different rods rubbing on a duster, with electrons being
transferred between the duster and the rods.
For the polythene rod, electrons move from the duster to the rod. Therefore, the polythene rod
becomes negatively charged and the duster becomes positively charged.
For the cellulose acetate rod, electrons move from the rod to the duster. Therefore, the
cellulose acetate rod becomes positively charged and the duster becomes negatively charged.
74
Electrostatic phenomena
Remember from Unit 10 (Electricity and circuits) that two objects with opposite electric
charges become attracted to each other, whereas two objects with the same electric charge
will repel each other. This can be shown with rods. When a rod with a known electric charge
is suspended and another rod with the same electric charge is brought closer, the suspended
rod will swing away from it. If another rod with an opposite electric charge is brought closer,
the suspended rod will swing towards it.
Electrostatic attraction can also happen between a charged object and an uncharged object by
a process called induction.
If a negative static charge is brought closer to a neutral object (an object with no overall
charge - a common misconception is to say that neutral objects simply have no charge), the
negative charges of the neutral object are repelled by the static charge. This leaves the
positive charges on the surface of the neutral object, which will be electrostatically attracted
to the negative static charge.
If a positive static charge is brought closer to a neutral object,

the negative charges of the neutral object are attracted to the
static charge and move towards the surface. This creates a
negative charge on the surface of the neutral object, which will
attract the positive static charge.
For example, imagine that you rub your hair against a balloon.
Electrons from your hair move to the balloon, creating a
negative static charge on the balloon. When the balloon is
brought near a neutral wall, the negative charges of the wall are
repelled. This leaves the positive charges on the surface of the
wall, which attract the negatively charged balloon (it sticks to
the surface of the wall).
75
Uses of static electricity

Electrostatic sprayers are used in various industries to give an even coat of whatever’s
being sprayed. The spray gun is charged, so that the droplets it sprays all gain a static charge.
As all of the droplets have the same charge, they repel each other, creating a fine, even spray.
For example, insecticides are chemicals that are sprayed onto crops to kill insects. Insecticide
sprayers use static electricity to get a wider, more even distribution of insecticide on crops.
Often, crops are sprayed with insecticides from a low-flying aeroplane. This creates some
problems, as the insecticide may fall unevenly onto the crops, so different areas of a field
receive different concentrations of the chemicals. By using an electrostatic sprayer, the
insecticide spray spreads out evenly above the crops, giving them an even coverage. The
insecticide is also attracted to the plants, due to attraction by induction, meaning less will be
blown away by the wind. It’s also more economical, as less insecticide falls to the ground.
Bicycle frames are painted using

electrostatic paint sprayers. The
spray gun is charged, which charges
the paint droplets as they are sprayed
out of the gun. The frame is given the
opposite charge to the gun. This is
easy to do as the frame is usually
made out of metal (an electrical
conductor) and means that the paint
is attracted towards the bicycle
frame. This prevents paint being
wasted and means that parts of the
bicycle frame pointing away from the spray gun still receive paint, i.e., there are no paint
shadows.
Filters in chimneys work by passing smoke through an electrically charged grid. The
particles in the smoke gain electrons from the grid and become negatively charged. The sides
of the chimney have positively charged plates, which attract the negatively charged smoke
particles. The particles stick to the plates instead of travelling out of the chimney and into the
atmosphere.
76
The dangers of static electricity

The Earth has no potential difference, i.e., it is at 0 V. Therefore, when static charge
accumulates on an object, the potential difference between the object and the Earth increases.
At some point when the potential difference is large enough, electrons can move from the
charged object to the Earth in a spark. Electrons can also move from the charged object to
any other object that is connected to the ground.
For example, imagine that you are walking around and open a door with a metal handle. As
you walk, friction between your shoes and the floor transfers electrons to your shoes, creating
a negative charge. When you touch the
metal handle, electrons move from you to
the metal, and you feel a static shock.
One of the largest potential differences we

can see is lightning, which is an
accumulation of static electricity in
clouds. As the raindrops and ice
fragments in the cloud bump into each
other and transfer electrons, the top of the
cloud becomes positively charged and the
bottom becomes negatively charged. The
lightning that you see is hence the sparks
of electrons moving across clouds. If the
potential difference is particularly large,
the electrons can move from the clouds to
the ground.
Static charges can also accumulate when

refuelling vehicles, especially large tankers, and planes, which can be very dangerous. Sparks
can cause the fuel to ignite, causing a fire or even an explosion. As fuel flows out of a filler
pipe into a fuel tank, a static charge can build up on the fuel. This causes a potential
difference which eventually could lead to a spark. For large vehicles like aircraft where lots
of fuel flows into the tank in a short time, chemicals are added to the fuel to make it more
conductive, so it is less likely to build up a static charge. There is also a danger from any
static charges on the surface of a vehicle. A static charge accumulates on a plane as it flies, so
before aircraft can be refuelled, this static charge must be removed.
77
What is Earthing?
Dangerous sparks can be prevented by connecting a charged object to the ground using a
conductor, e.g., a copper wire. This is called earthing. Earthing provides a low-resistance
route for electrons to travel between the object and the ground. This removes any excess
charge that could give you a shock or make a spark. The electrons flow down the conductor
to the ground if the object is negatively charged, and flow up from the ground to the
conductor if the object is positively charged.
Electric fields
An electric field is the region where an electric charge experiences a non-contact force.
Electrically charged objects produce their own electric fields. When a second charged object
comes into the field, both objects will experience the non-contact force.
Electric fields around objects are normally shown with field lines, which show the direction
of the non-contact force that a positively charged object would experience. The lines hence
point away from positive charges and towards negative charges. Field lines become closer
together and more concentrated nearer to the object, which shows that the strength of the
electric field increases closer to the object.
The diagram on the right shows field

lines around an isolated point charge, i.e.,
a charged object that is not interacting
with another object.
78
You also need to be able to draw the electric field between two
oppositely charged parallel plates. The field between parallel
plates is a uniform field, which means that it has the same
strength everywhere (this only stops being true at the very
edges of the plates). You can see this in the diagram on the left
- the field lines are straight, perpendicular to the plates, from
positive to negative and evenly spaced, so the strength of the
field is the same everywhere.
Here are the diagrams for the interactions between two positively charged objects; two
negatively charged objects; and one positively charged object and one negatively charged
object:
Linking electric fields to electrostatic phenomena

Electric fields help to explain electrostatic events like attraction by induction. When an object
becomes statically charged, it generates an electric field. This field interacts with the electric
fields of nearby electrons in other objects. This interaction causes an attractive electrostatic
force - the two objects move towards or stick to each other (like the charged balloon and
wall).
This also explains how electrostatic sprayers work - in the bicycle frame example, the electric
field created around the bicycle frame interacts with the fields around the negatively charged
paint droplets. The field lines ‘join up’ and the droplets and the frame are attracted to each
other. The droplets of paint are free to move, so they follow the field lines of the electric field
produced by the bicycle frame, until they touch the frame.
Electric fields can also be used to explain sparks. Remember that sparks are caused when
there is a high enough potential difference between the charged object and the Earth (or an
earthed object). A high potential difference causes a very strong electric field between the
charged object and the earthed object. The strong electric field interacts with the electric
fields of electrons in air particles. This creates a force so strong that it removes electrons from
the air particles (a process known as ionisation). Air is normally an insulator, but when it is
ionised, it is much more conductive, so charge can flow through it. This is the spark - the
flow of charge through the ionised air.
79
Edexcel GCSE Physics: Topics 12 (Magnetism and the Motor Effect) & Topic 13
(Electromagnetic Induction) written by Dami, edited by Ken Tu
What is a Magnet?
Firstly, magnetism is the observation of one of the fundamental forces of nature, electrostatic
attraction AKA Coulomb force. This is where positives and negative particles attract whilst
the same particles repel each other. An object demonstrates magnetic properties if the
magnetic domains (tiny regions of atoms in the material) “line up” i.e., face once direction.
When the domains align, a magnetic field

will be induced. This is where you will later
come across terms like temporarily
induced magnetism (where the domains
were originally unaligned but become
aligned in the presence of a permanent
magnet) and how one material can be found
permanently magnetised (the domains were
innately aligned).
Permanent and Temporary

Magnets
Same poles on magnets repel each other and
opposite poles attract each other (12.1). Permanent magnets are magnets that are always
magnetic such as a bar magnet. Temporary magnets (or temporarily induced magnets)
however are magnets that are only magnetic during and/or after being in a magnetic field and
eventually lose their magnetism (12.3). These metals can be cobalt, steel, iron, and nickel
(however iron is normally the most used as it loses its magnetism immediately when the
magnet induction stops i.e., you move the permanent magnet away.) (12.2)
A way of showing is the paperclip example.
1) When an iron bar is placed within the magnetic field of a permanent magnet, it
becomes magnetised.
2) This means if you attach paper clips to this, they will be attracted to the iron
bar.
3) However, if you remove the iron bar from this magnetic field the iron bar will
be demagnetised, and the paperclips will fall.
80
A magnetic field is shown by field lines drawn around the magnet

in the shape of the field. The higher the concentration of lines
in a certain area, the higher the strength of the magnetic field
in that area (12.4)
The section in the middle of the two magnets has the highest
magnetic field strength as there’s the highest concentration of
lines there.
(12.5) The shape of a magnetic field can be found by using a

plotting compass with 4 steps:
• Place plotting compass at the north pole of the magnet
• Plot a point where the needle of the magnet is facing
• Reposition the compass after the point you plotted
• Repeat until you have either gone off the page or reached
the south pole of the magnet
Compasses have a magnetic tip which is attracted to magnetic

poles. When a compass is not around a magnet, it still points a
certain way at all times showing that the earth has a magnetic
field and poles (12.6)
Electromagnetism
Another way of creating a temporary magnet is through passing current through a wire as this
induces a magnetic field around the wire. Around this wire the magnetic field can either
move clockwise or anticlockwise depending on the direction
of the current through the wire.
A way of figuring out the direction of the magnetic field is

with the right-hand rule (12.7). By holding your hand in
the shape shown on the right then pointing your thumb in
the direction of the current, your curled fingers will
show you the direction of the magnetic field.
The strength of the magnetic field depends on the amount

of the
current within the wire (12.8) - the higher the current, the
stronger
the magnetic field. The magnetic field is also stronger when
it is closer to the wire compared to further away.
81
Solenoids
When the wire is coiled it becomes a solenoid (or an electromagnet if current runs through
it) where all the different magnetic fields interacting
with each other form an overall magnetic field as
shown on the right. The fields on the inside of the coil
create a strong magnetic field on the inside of the
solenoid and on the outside of the fields from one side
of the coil cancel out the other side, meaning the field
is weaker on the outside. (12.9)
By putting an iron bar within this coil of wire the

electromagnet becomes stronger as the iron bar
becomes a temporary magnet.
The Motor Effect

When a wire is between two permanent magnets it induces a force on the wire. (12.10) This
is because the current in the wire induces a magnetic field which interacts with the magnetic
fields of the permanent magnets
(The field lines of the wire and the magnets cross each
other, causing the force) (12.11). The force on the wire is
equal and opposite to the force on the magnets. The way
of figuring out this force is through
Fleming's left-hand rule (12.12). When using this put

your
hand in the position on the right and point your pointer
finger in the direction of the magnetic field (from north to
south). Next point your middle finger in the direction of the
current.
(When it is on a page: If it is a cross then the current is

going into the page and if it is a dot then it is leaving the page).
Your thumb will then show you the direction of the force. For example, if you point at the
dotted circle, the one on the right, your finger indicates the direction of current, i.e., going
away from your body.
Please keep in mind that in a North and South pole magnet, the magnetic field lines always
go from North to South.
82
To calculate this force, you can use the equation:
Force (Newtons) = Magnetic Flux Density (Tesla) × Current (Amperes) × Length

(Metres) (12.13) or F = BIL
This fact is used in electric motors as the force can cause rotations (12.14).
• A current run through the wire

between the two magnets, inducing
a magnetic field around the wire.
Current will flow towards the
negative terminal.
• This magnetic field of the wire
interacts with the permanent
magnet’s magnetic fields, applying a
force onto the wire that causes it to
rotate
• The split ring commutator ensures
the force on the coil turns in the
same direction every time by
switching the connections every
half turn so the current changes direction
Recap of the Motor Effect

A simplified diagram can be seen on the left of what essentially goes on. This is the applied
principle of the Fleming’s left-hand rule in a motor where electrical energy is converted
into kinetic energy.
83
What is Electromagnetic Induction? (Topic 13)

Electromagnetic induction is the process of inducing an electric current by moving an
electrical conductor (e.g., a wire/solenoid) through a magnetic field.
Additionally, changing magnetic fields can induce a voltage or potential difference in a

wire, causing current to flow through the wire. As well as this, if the wire is moved in a
magnetic field, it will have the same effect. Normally the wire will be coiled up in order to
have more wire in the magnetic field therefore more current will flow. A coiled-up wire is
called a solenoid.
As the permanent bar magnet goes into the coil, a potential difference is induced resulting in
current.
Please note that if the magnet stops moving, there will no longer be a potential difference and
when the magnet moves out of the coil, the potential difference induced will cause the current
to go in the opposite direction.
To increase the size of the induced potential difference in the wire, you can implement the
following factors (13.2):
• Increasing the number of turns in the coil of wire

• Increase the strength of the magnetic field e.g., using a more powerful magnet
• Increasing the speed, the magnetic field changes/ moves past the coil e.g., you move
the permanent magnet in and out faster
Preface: the fundamental principle of a generator is to convert kinetic energy i.e., when you
rotate the wires, into electrical current. This current can exist in the form of alternating
current or direct current. Direct current is the flow of charge (electrons) in only one
direction whilst alternating current is the flow of charge which periodically reverses
direction. This can also be described as a time-varying voltage source. Most modern-day
applications use AC.
Motors in topic 12, particularly the one described in the learning material, converted direct
current into kinetic energy/movement/ mechanical power.
84
Examples of where EM induction is used are below.

Alternators (13.3)
1. A generator has a coil of wire between two permanent
magnets.
2. As the coil turns from mechanical input, a voltage is
induced in the wire due to the field lines of the permanent
magnets and the coil crossing each other, causing a
potential difference to be induced.
3. Electrical contact is created with an external circuit using
carbon brushes which press on the slip rings and pass the
current to the circuit, lighting the light bulb.
4. An alternating current is produced from this generator.
Dynamo
1. A dynamo also has a coil of wire between two
permanent magnets.
2. As the coil turns a voltage is induced in the wire due
to the field lines of the permanent magnets and the
coil cross each other, causing a potential difference
to be induced.
3. Electrical contact is created with an external circuit
using carbon brushes which press on the split rings
and pass the current to the circuit.
4. The split ring commutator swaps the connections
of the carbon brushes every half-turn of the coil to
produce a direct current instead of an alternating
current
5.
Microphone (13.4)
1. Sound waves cause variations in air pressure.
2. The pressure causes the diaphragm to
vibrate.
3. The diaphragm then moves the coil of
wire back and forth, inducing a current
in the coil of wire as the coil is wrapped
around a permanent magnet.
4. This current is then sent to a computer to
be stored as information.
Loudspeaker
1. A current is passed into the wire wrapped
around a permanent magnet in the
speaker.
2. This causes a magnetic field to be induced around the coil of wire.
3. The magnetic field of the permanent magnet and the coil of wire interact, causing a
force to be induced on the coil and make it vibrate up and down along the magnetic
field.
85
4. This causes the diaphragm to vibrate, producing sound waves.
You can think of the loudspeaker as essentially the reverse process of a microphone.
What Is a Transformer and How Do They Work?

Transformers are made using two coils of insulated wire wound onto an iron core. There is
no electrical connection between the two coils of wire. An alternating current is passed
into the primary coil of the transformer. The current must be alternating as it creates an
alternating magnetic field around the coil of wire. The iron core then channels the
alternating magnetic field to the secondary coil.
Step up and step-down transformers are used to increase or decrease, respectively, the voltage
for commercial use.
The path taken by electricity through the national grid is as follows (13.8/9):
1. Power station electricity has a potential difference of 25kV

2. Transformers increase voltage to 100kV to reduce the amount of energy wasted by
heating in the transmission lines
3. Transformers then reduce voltage to either 33kV or 11kV for factories
4. Transformers in local substations reduce voltage to 230V for homes, shops, and
offices
86
Transformers
There are two types of transformers - step up and step-down transformers. A step-up
transformer increases the voltage and decreases current while a step-down transformer
decreases voltage and increases current. This is done to reduce the amount of energy lost in
wires during transmission. (This is a very common 6 marker so listen close):
How do transformers make transmission more efficient? (13.10 + 13.11P):

• Transmission cables have a resistance within their wires
• This means when electricity flows through the cables heat is created
• The higher the current, the higher this energy loss as in the equation Power Loss =
Current x Resistance , recall from Topic 10, current and power loss are directly
2
proportional
• Step Up transformers increase voltage which decreases the current in the wires as
in the equation V x I = V x I , if V was increased I was decreased
1 1 2 2 1 2
• This reduces power loss in the cables as current has been decreases, allowing it to be
transmitted through the cables efficiently
• The voltage is then stepped down by step down transformers to make it safe for
homes to use
87
If there are more coils in the primary coil than the secondary coil it will reduce the
voltage. If there are more coils in the secondary coil rather than the primary coils the
voltage will increase.
The equation to work this out is the following: →
And of course, you can rearrange the equation accordingly

to find one of the values of the variables.
Another equation used to work out the change in voltage or the change in current is (13.10):
Voltage in Primary × Current in Primary = Voltage in Secondary × Current in

Secondary
OR
VP × IP = Vs × Is
88
89
Edexcel GCSE Physics: Topic 14 - Particle Model
written by Sulaiman Galaria, edited by Ken Tu
What is Density?
Density is a measure of the compactness of a substance.
density (kilogram per cubic metre, kg/m ) = mass (kilogram, kg) ÷ volume (cubic metre, m )
3 3
The “ρ” symbol is pronounced “rho”, a Greek letter representing the density.
Density varies depending on the type of material it's made of. The density determines
whether it floats or sinks. If a solid object has a higher density than the liquid, it sinks.
Finding the Density of Irregular objects

The following describes how to find the density of irregular objects e.g., a jagged rock.
1. Measure the mass of a solid using a weighing scale
2.
3. To measure the volume there are 2 main methods
a) Eureka Can - Fill it with water just before it begins to

overflow. Place the object within the can and the water is
displaced into a measuring cylinder. The amount shown on
the measuring cylinder is the volume.
This works because the volume of the object sinking

displaces the same volume of water.
b) Measuring cylinder - Fill a measuring cylinder to a fixed

amount. Place the object and find the change in the amount
of liquid.
90
Kinetic Theory and States of Matter

There are 3 States of Matter:
Solid:
• Strong forces of attraction hold the particles close together in a fixed arrangement.
• The particles don't have much energy in their kinetic energy stores so they can only
vibrate about fixed positions
Liquid:
• This state has weaker forces of attraction between the particles than the solid
• The particles are close to each other but can move
• They have more kinetic energy than the particles in the solid
• They can move in random directions
Gas:
• Almost no forces of attraction between the particles
• They have more kinetic energy than the liquid
• The particles are free to move and travel in random directions
91
Below is the table for the names of the changes from one state to another:
When an object changes state, its density changes but its mass always stays the same. This is
best shown within a closed system as particles cannot escape. The density changes due to a
change in volume that occurs when there is a change in state.
Specific Heat Capacity

The specific heat capacity of a substance is the measure of how much heat energy is
required to increase the temperature of 1kg of that substance by 1°C. For example, if you
wanted to increase the temperature of water weighing 1kg by 1°C, you would need more heat
energy to do so than increasing the temperature of 1kg of an iron block by 1°C. Water has a
specific heat capacity of 4,200 J/kg°C whilst iron has a specific heat capacity of 450 J/kg°C.
Q = heat energy - Joules (J)

m = mass - kilograms (kg)
c = specific heat capacity - J/kg°C
ΔT = change in temperature - degrees (°C)
The temperature is a way to measure the average internal energy of a substance as dictated by
kinetic theory. Materials need to gain lots of energy in order to warm up and also release
loads of energy in order to cool down.
92
How to find the Specific Heat Capacity of Water

1. Use a weighing scale to measure the mass of the empty polystyrene cup.
2. Fill the cup with water and reweigh the cup with water. The difference in the mass of
the filled cup and empty cup is
the mass of the water in the cup.
3. Connect an immersion heater

with a joulemeter and make
sure it is zero. (Set up apparatus
as shown) Place a lid on the
container to prevent heat loss.
4. Record the temperature of the

water and turn on the power.
5. Constantly check the

temperature of the thermometer
has increased, for example if it has increased by 10°C, note the energy on the
joulemeter.
6. Calculate the specific heating capacity by rearranging the equation.
7. Repeat 3 times and calculate average to prevent anomalous results.
Notice that in the diagram, you can do the same with a solid.
Specific Latent Heat

When heating a solid or liquid, heat energy is being transferred into kinetic energy making
the particles move faster. During the time a substance is boiling or melting the heat energy is
still being used to release the molecules from the force of attraction, therefore the heat
energy is not transferred to kinetic energy but to breaking these intermolecular bonds.
How to Experiment for Specific Latent Heat

1. Fill a beaker with ice cubes.
2. Record the temperature of ice using a thermometer.
3. Heat the beaker of ice with a Bunsen burner.
4. Record the temperature every 15 seconds and the state it has reached in its melting
process.
5. Continue this until the water starts to boil.
6. Plot a graph of the temperature against time.
93
The graph should look something like the one

on the right. Within the period where it’s
melting at 0°C, all the intermolecular bonds of
H O are breaking. This is where the heat
2
energy is converted into only breaking the

bonds. Then the temperature begins to rise
when all the molecules free to move. The same
thing happens during boiling where the weak
intermolecular forces between the liquid water
molecules break down to become gas
molecules with no/ very little force of
attraction.
Specific Latent Heat of a change of state of a

substance, is the amount of thermal energy
needed to change 1 kg of it from one state to
another.
Thermal Energy = Mass × Specific Latent

Heat
Q = mL
Q - joules (J)
m - kilograms (kg)
L - J/kg
Gas Temperature and Pressure

Gases contain small particles which are constantly moving. Particles in a gas move very
quickly as they have high amounts of kinetic energy, hence when they collide with a
surface, they exert a force. Therefore, within a closed system the outward gas pressure is the
total force exerted by all of the particles in the gas onto the container of the walls (assume
it’s at a 90° angle).
Particles move faster or slower depending on the kinetic energy of the gas. The kinetic
energy of the gas is higher when the temperature is higher. Therefore, the particles move
faster and they collide more frequently with the container. Hence the amount of force exerted
is also higher when the temperature is higher. Hence increasing the temperature, the pressure
within the gas also increases as pressure equals force/area. This here is all provided that the
volume the closed system it’s in remains constant.
The pressure can also decrease if the amount of volume of the gas increases as the particles
can spread out, so they collide less frequently with the container.
Pressure is inversely proportional to Volume. This means that when pressure increases, the
volume will decrease.
94
The formula used to relate the change in pressure/volume in each scenario is the following:
P1V1 = P2V2
Pressure (starting) × Volume (starting) = Pressure (final) × Volume (final)
(Pa [Pascals]) - Pressure
(m3 [metres]) - Volume
Absolute Zero
According to kinetic theory, the lowest the temperature of an object can be is -273 degrees
Celsius. This is known as absolute zero is also 0 Kelvin. Hence absolute zero is where the
Kelvin scale begins. At this temperature, particles do not move at all.
To convert from degrees Celsius (°C) to Kelvin (K), add 273

To convert from Kelvins (K) to degrees Celsius (°C), minus 273
Mechanical Work on a Gas

1. Doing work increases its internal energy which increases its temperature. This can be
mechanical, i.e., with a bike pump.
2. This transfers kinetic energy to particles, increasing the speed of the particles
within.
3. Hence the average speed of the particles increases resulting in an increase in
temperature.
95
Edexcel GCSE Physics: Topic 15 - Forces and Matter
Forces and Elasticity

When an object is stretched, compressed or it bends we can determine that there isn’t only
one force acting on it or it would move in the direction of the force.
Two terms you will need to know for this topic are Elastic Deformation and Inelastic
Deformation. Elastic Deformation simply means that once a force is removed it returns
back to its original shape and size - an example of this is when a spring is lightly pushed and
it returns back to its position. Whilst Inelastic Deformation means that once the force has
been removed from an object it no longer returns to its original shape and length - an
example of this is when a spring is pulled beyond its elastic limit and no longer goes back to
its original shape and distorts inelastically.
A formula you need to know is
F = k × x.
F - applied force in Newtons, N
k - spring constant in Newtons per metre, N/m
x - extension in Metres, m
The spring constant varies on the material that is being

stretched, usually materials which are stiffer have a
higher spring constant. This equation also shows us
that there is a directly proportional relationship with
force applied and the spring constant. However, this
stops when a limit has been reached to the amount of
force applied and the graph is no longer linear. The
object stretches more when the same force is applied.
After the elastic limit has been passed the object has
been permanently changed.
96
Core Practical
1. Measure the length of the spring when no external forces are acting on it. (Make sure
it’s in millimetres). Draw a table of results like below:
Mass (in grams) Length (in mm) Extension (change in length from initial)
0 (initial length of spring)
cont. cont.
2. Add a mass to the spring and wait for it

to stop moving. In a table of results, record the
mass and the new length. The extension is the
change in length.
3. Repeat this with more masses.
4. Plot a force-extension graph with your
results. Your graph should begin to curve (as
shown below). The reason the graph curves is
because the limit of proportionality is exceeded
Equation to calculate Work Done

There is an equation you can use to calculate
the work done as long as the object is not
stretched past its limit of proportionality, can
be calculated by:
E = ½ × k × x2
E → energy transferred whilst stretching (J)
k → Spring constant (N/m)
x → Extension (m)
97
Atmospheric pressure
• The atmosphere is air that surrounds the Earth. Atmospheric pressure is caused by
molecules in the air colliding with the surface. As the height (altitude) increases, the
atmospheric pressure decreases, because the atmosphere is less dense, hence it has
less molecules that don't collide with the surface as frequently.
Pressure in Fluids
• Pressure = Force/ Area
o Pressure is measured in Pascals (Pa)
o Force is measured in Newtons (N)
o Area is measured in m2
• Gases and liquids are both classified as fluids. And pressures within fluids are caused
by colliding particles on a surface.
• Fluid pressure always exerts forces at right angles to the surface in contact with the
fluid
Effects of Density and Depth

Density is the mass per unit volume of any object and is the same within liquids, however it
can vary in gases. A denser fluid would be more compact therefore it would have more
particles in each area than a less dense fluid. The pressure is higher within denser fluids
because there are more particles colliding.
As depth increases, the pressure is higher because the weight of the particles above that
point increases.
Pressure can be calculated from the following equation:
Pressure due to a column of liquid (Pa) = height of column (m) × density of liquid (kg/m^3) ×
gravitational field strength (N/kg)
Upthrust
When an object is in a fluid it is subject to a force known as upthrust due to the pressure of
the fluid. This pressure increases with depth. The upthrust is the resultant force upwards
and its magnitude is equal to the weight of fluid displaced by the object.
If the upthrust is equal to the weight of

the object, then the object floats.
However, if the object's weight is greater

than the upthrust it sinks.
An object that has a lower density than

the fluid floats because it displaces the
amount of fluid equal to its weight
resulting in the upthrust being equal to
its weight.
98
An object that is denser is not able to displace fluid to equal its weight and results in less
upthrust than required resulting in it sinking.
99
100

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GCSE Edexcel Physics

Topic 2 – Motion and Forces [Mechanics]……………………………………5

PS: there is no Topic 1 for Edexcel Physics as it’s simply converting

As weight is a quantity (measured in Newtons), it also has a

Below is a table of scalar and vector quantities you should know.

Reading Distance/Time Graphs

The speed of an object is

Straight lines imply the object is

In the diagram on the right, the

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚/𝑠)

Below is another formula linking, acceleration, change in velocity and distance,

v2 − u2 = 2 × a × x; again, you can rearrange to find the distance.

The graph shows an object, it can be a car, a

Finding the Gradient

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚/𝑠)

Constant acceleration = 1.6 m/s 2

Finding the Distance Travelled

The following graph highlights the

Therefore, the total calculation for the

Methods of Calculating Velocity

Sound (in air) 330

Newton’s First Law

So, the resultant force is the overall force vector

there is a line downward indicating the direction

longer the line, the greater the magnitude of

However, Bob is still falling because the force of

Newton’s Second Law

Weight and Gravity

When an object is moving in a circular motion, the object’s

And the resultant force is towards the centre of rotation.

Newton’s Third Law

The pair of forces is often called action-

In the example diagram on the right, the

Another action-reaction mechanism is where

What’s important to note is that although the magnitude of

Action-reaction forces are NOT the same as having

This equation represents the conservation

Momentum and Acceleration

𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐮𝐦 (𝐤𝐢𝐥𝐨𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐦 𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐫𝐞 𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝, 𝐤𝐠 𝐦/𝐬)

Where the variables are the following:

How does Force Applies to the Braking of a Car?

a. Mass of the vehicle

You can figure these out intuitively.

Why Can It Be Dangerous If a Car Decelerates too Quickly?

Energy and Forces

kinetic energy (joule, J) = mass (kilogram, kg) × velocity2 [(metre/second)2, (m/s)2)]

Kinetic Energy = 180,000 J

Work done (J) = Force (N) × Distance (m)

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 (𝐽)

So, the efficiency can be calculated as the following:

𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒄𝒆

How to Reduce Heat Dissipation

Heat is also transferable via radiation. Radiation

In order to keep warm, you must slow the rate at

Energy Changes in a System

a. an object projected upwards or up a slope.

b. a moving object hitting an obstacle

c. an object being accelerated by a constant force

d. a vehicle slowing down

e. bringing water to a boil in an electric kettle

What are Waves?

In short, waves can be

Longitudinal waves move