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PAPER 1
Marks: 150
Time: 2½ hours
Learners must answer all 3 questions.

TOPICS MARKS PAGE

1. Reproduction in vertebrates ……………………………………….. 8 35
2. Human reproduction ……………………………………………...... 41 37
3. Responding to the environment (humans) ………………………. 54 42
4. Human endocrine system and Homeostasis ……………………. 34 52
5. Responding to the environment (plants) …………………………. 13 59

PAPER 2
Marks: 150
Time: 2½ hours
Learners must answer all 3 questions.

TOPICS MARKS PAGE

1. DNA: Code of life ……………………………………….…............. 27 2
2. Meiosis ………………..…………………………………………...... 21 7
3. Genetics and inheritance ………………………………………….. 48 13
4. Evolution ……………………………………………........................ 54 22
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DNA: CODE OF LIFE (27 marks) REMEMBER

Nucleic acids Nucleus,

ribosome and
Two types: - DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) and
mitochondria are
- RNA (Ribonucleic acid)
organelles
- Both DNA and RNA made up of nucleotides

DNA (monomers or building blocks of DNA and RNA)

Location:
- In the nucleus: Nuclear DNA
Make up most of the DNA
Works with proteins to form chromatin network or chromosomes
- In the mitochondria: Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
Extranuclear DNA is DNA found outside nucleus eg mtDNA
Structure of DNA: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C1CRrtkWwu0
- DNA is a nucleic acid
- It is double stranded
- natural shape of DNA is double helix
- consisting of building blocks called nucleotides
- The three components of a nucleotide are as follows:
• Phosphate portion (P)
• Deoxyribose sugar (S) portion (in DNA)
• 4 Nitrogenous bases are Adenine (A),
Thymine(T), Cytosine(C) and Guanine(G)

o adenine always bonds with thymine (A)=(T)

o cytosine always bonds with guanine (C)=(G)
o by weak hydrogen bonds

Functions of DNA
- Sections of DNA forms genes that carry hereditary information
- DNA contains coded information for protein synthesis
RNA
Location of RNA:

- mRNA is formed in the nucleus and functions on the ribosome.
 mRNA carry coded message from DNA to the ribosome for translation
Triplets of nitrogenous bases on mRNA are called codons
- tRNA is located in the cytoplasm.
 tRNA brings the required amino acid to the ribosome
 Triplets of nitrogenous bases on tRNA are called anticodons
- RNA plays a role in protein synthesis
- Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) produced by nucleolus; forms ribosomes in cytoplasm

Structure of RNA:
- A single-stranded molecule
- is made up of nucleotides
- Each nucleotide is made up of phosphate group, a ribose sugar, and a nitrogen base
- Four nitrogenous bases of RNA: adenine (A), uracil (U), cytosine (C), guanine (G)
- The phosphate group and nitrogenous base is attached to the ribose sugar
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Functions of RNA
- Play a role in formation of proteins (Protein synthesis)

Similarities between DNA and RNA

- Sugar alternates with phosphate
- Nitrogenous bases: Adenine, Guanine and Cytosine
- Play a role in protein synthesis
Differences between DNA and RNA
DNA RNA
Is double stranded Is single stranded
Has deoxyribose sugar Has ribose sugar
Has Thymine Has Uracil
It is a long strand It is a short strand
DNA replication
- Is a process whereby DNA makes an identical copy of itself.
Where in the cell does it takes place?
- It occurs in the nucleus of a cell
When in the cell cycle it takes place?
- It occurs during Interphase before cell division (mitosis and meiosis) starts.
The significance of DNA replication
- It ensures correct equal number of chromosomes in daughter cells and also with the
original cell in mitosis
- it ensures that each daughter cell gets an identical copy of DNA after mitosis

Process of DNA replication

- DNA double helix unwinds
- Weak hydrogen bonds break
- to form two separate strands
- Both DNA strand are used as a template to form a new DNA strand
- by attaching free DNA nucleotides from the nucleoplasm
- to form complementary strands i.e. A-T and C-G
- Each DNA molecule now consists of 1 original strand and 1 new strand
- The result is two genetically identical DNA molecules
- The entire process is controlled by enzymes

DNA PROFILING
DNA profiling is method of identifying
an individual by comparing his/her
DNA profile with another known DNA
profile

If the bars of a DNA profile of a person

matches the bars of another DNA
profile sample,
(then the sample is his)
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Uses of DNA profile
- Identification of criminals
- Paternity testing
- Establishing family relations
- Identification of unrecognized dead bodies
- Diagnosis of inherited disorders e.g. Haemophilia
- Matching tissues for organ transplants

Debates against DNA profiling

- It is expensive poor people may not afford it,
- Human error in laboratory can lead to false results
- It may reveal personal information such as HIV/AIDS that can be
used against the person
How DNA profiling can be used to confirm paternity

- The DNA profiles of the possible father, mother and child are determined
- A child receives half of his/her DNA from his/her father
- A comparison of the DNA bands of mother and child is made
- The remaining DNA bands are compared to the possible father’s DNA
- If the remaining DNA bands on child’s DNA profile matches that of the possible father, the
- man is the biological father of the child
- If the remaining DNA bands on child’s DNA profile does not matches that of the possible
father, the man is not the biological father of the child

Brief history of the discovery of the DNA molecule (Watson & Crick, Franklin &Wilkins)
o James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the structure of DNA after conducting an
investigation on the structure of DNA.
o They found out that thymine always pair with adenine, guanine with cytosine,
complementary pairs.
o Watson and Crick used an x-ray diffraction pictures of DNA from Rosalind Franklin,
submitted by Wilkins.

o These x-ray DNA diffraction pictures assisted them in determining the helical shape of DNA.
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PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Occur in three stages: Transcription,
movement of mRNA out of nucleus
Translation.
The involvement of DNA and RNA in protein synthesis
Transcription (formation of mRNA)
- The double helix DNA unwinds.
- The weak hydrogen bonds break to form two separate strands.
- ONE strand is used as a template to form mRNA
- using free RNA nucleotides from the nucleoplasm.
- The mRNA is complementary to the DNA.
- mRNA now has the coded message for protein synthesis.
Movement of mRNA out of the nucleus
through the nuclear pore into the cytoplasm where it attaches to the ribosome

Translation – using information from mRNA to form protein

- Each tRNA carries a specific amino acid.
- When the anticodon on the tRNA
- matches the codon on the mRNA
- then tRNA brings the required amino acid to the ribosome.
- Amino acids become attached by peptide bonds
- to form the required protein.
- The process is called translation.

Describe how a gene mutation may result in the formation of

the same protein a different protein
- A gene mutation change the sequence of - A gene mutation change the sequence of
nitrogen bases in DNA nitrogen bases in DNA
- Resulting in a changed mRNA codon - Resulting in a changed mRNA codon
- Different tRNA will bring the same amino acid - Different tRNA will bring a different amino
to match the changed codon acid to match the changed codon
- the sequence of amino acid in the protein will - the sequence of amino acid in the protein will
not change change
forming the same protein forming a different protein
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CASE SCENARIO 1 CASE SCENARIO 2

The table below shows some RNA codons The table below shows the RNA codons
and the corresponding amino acids that code for different amino acids

A section of mRNA has the following
base sequence and is read from left to
right:
GAU CUC GAC AGC AUG ACC
A mutation occurred which resulted in
the following base sequence on the
mRNA molecule:
GAU CUC GAC AGU AUG ACC
The DNA base triplets 1, 2 and 3 below
is read from left to right:
GTC AAG CCT
A mutation occurred which resulted in
the following base sequence on the
DNA molecule:
GTC TAG CCT

Q 1: Identify the mutation that occurred. Q 1: Identify the mutation that occurred.
Q 2: Explain the effect that the mutation Q 2: Explain how this mutation will affect
will have on the resulting protein. (3) the protein that will be formed. (3)
Answer: It codes for the same amino Answer: A different amino acid
acid (serine) (isoleucine) will be coded for
The amino acid sequence will not change instead of phenylalanine
Therefore the same protein is formed The amino acid sequence will change
Therefore, a different protein is formed
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MEIOSIS (21 marks)

Meiosis is a special type of cell division that halves the number of chromosomes.
Four genetically different haploid daughter cells are formed from one diploid cell.

Structure of a cell Centriole

Cell membrane produces spindle fibres
(Assists in equal distribution
Cytoplasm of chromosomes in
daughter cells)
Spindle fibres
Nucleus pull chromosomes to
opposite poles

Nucleolus
Chromatin network Nuclear pore
- unwind to become
chromosomes Nuclear membrane
- contains DNA
Nucleoplasm
TERMS
Chromosome – is made of DNA and histone protein (on which DNA wraps itself)

Somatic cells: are all the cells that make up an organism except gametes.
Gametes: are reproductive cells (sperm cells and egg cells)
Diploid: having TWO sets of chromosomes in a nucleus of a cell.
Haploid: having ONE set of chromosomes in a nucleus of a cell.
Bivalents: A pair of homologous chromosomes involved in crossing over.

Diploid (2n) Haploid (n) Diploid (2n) Haploid (n)

4 chromosomes 2 chromosomes 2 chromosomes 2 chromosomes

Human sperm has 23 chromosomes (n) and the egg cell has 23 chromosomes (n).
After fertilization, the zygote will have 46 chromosomes (2n).
Zygote has TWO sets of chromosomes: one set of chromosomes from father and
one set of chromosomes from mother.
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Homologous chromosomes:
are a pair of a chromosomes that

- carry genes for the same trait at the same loci

- have the same centromere position
- are equal in length
- one is from father and one is from mother

Karyotype: a representation of the number, shape and arrangement of a full set of

chromosomes in the nucleus of a somatic cell

Human karyotype
o chromosome pair 1 to 22 are called autosomes (there are 44 autosomes)
o chromosome pair 23 are gonosomes / sex chromosomes ( 2 gonosomes)
 two types of gonosomes: X (is larger) and Y (is smaller)
 females has XX chromosomes i.e. 44 autosomes + XX gonosomes
 males has XY chromosomes i.e. 44 autosomes + XY gonosomes

Cytokinesis is the process of division during which the cytoplasm of a single cell
divides into two daughter cells.
Non disjunction: when homologous chromosome pairs fail to separate in meiosis
Chiasma: point where two chromatids overlap during crossing over
Bivalents: A pair of homologous chromosomes involved in crossing over.

Where does meiosis occur?

Gender Location/site Gamete Special meiotic process

In plants Male Anther Pollen grain
Female Ovary / ovule Egg cell / ovum
In animals female Ovary Egg cell Oogenesis
Male Testes Sperm cells Spermatogenesis
 9 for 2022 SH
Events of interphase
• Is a period between two consecutive cell divisions/ it occurs before meiosis start.
• DNA replication takes place
• DNA replication double the genetic material so that it can be shared by the new cells arising
from cell division
• Chromosomes which are single threads, become double stranded
• Each chromosome will now consist of two chromatids joined by a centromere
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The events of the phases of Meiosis I / First meiotic division

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• Prophase I
o homologous chromosomes are in pairs
o crossing over occurs
o centrosome splits into two centrioles and move to opposite poles
o nuclear membrane and nucleolus starts to disappear
Description of crossing over
o It occurs in prophase 1 of meiosis
o Homologous chromosomes pair off
o Chromatids of each homologous chromosome pair
overlap
o Point of overlap is called chiasma
o A break occurs at chiasma
o Each chromosome now have a piece of chromatid
from its partner
Crossing over
(of Bivalents)
• Metaphase I
o Homologous chromosomes arranged in pairs at the equator of the cell randomly
o Spindle fibres attached to centromere of each chromosome
• Anaphase I
o Homologous chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles when
o the spindle fibres contract
• Telophase I
o Chromosomes reach poles
o Nuclear membrane reappears
o Two haploid daughter cells are formed
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The events of the phases of Meiosis II / Second meiotic division

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• Prophase II
o Single chromosomes with two chromatids are present
o centrosome splits into two centrioles and move to opposite poles
o nuclear membrane and nucleolus starts to disappear
• Metaphase II
o Single chromosomes arranged at the equator of the cell randomly
o each chromosome attached to spindle fibre at the centromere
• Anaphase II
o Chromatids are pulled to opposite poles when centromere splits and
o the spindle fibres contract
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• Telophase II
o chromatids reach the poles and form new nuclei
o cytoplasm divides in each cell to form 2 daughter cells in each
o four haploid, genetically different daughter cells are formed

Important: As Meiosis II took place in TWO

cells, there will now be FOUR haploid,
genetically different daughter cells.
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Differences between Meiosis I and Meiosis II

Meiosis I Meiosis II
Crossing-over takes place in Prophase I No crossing-over in Prophase II
Homologous chromosomes in pairs at equator Single chromosomes at equator in Metaphase
in Metaphase 1 2
Whole chromosomes are pulled to opposite Chromatids are pulled to opposite poles in
poles in Anaphase 1 Anaphase 2
Chromosome number is halved during meiosis I Chromosome number does not change during
meiosis II
Results in two cells Results in four cells

The importance of meiosis:

o It produces haploid gametes
o It introduces genetic variation through crossing over and random arrangement of
chromosomes at equator.
o The halving effect of meiosis overcomes the doubling effect of fertilisation, thus maintaining a
constant chromosome number from one generation to the next.
Similarities between mitosis and meiosis
o DNA replication takes place
o The nucleus divides
o The cytoplasm divides
o New cells are formed

Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
o No crossing over o Crossing-over takes place during prophase I
o Forms somatic cells o Forms sex cells
o One nuclear division o Two nuclear division
o Two cells formed with same number of o Four cells formed with half the number of
chromosomes as parent chromosomes as the parent
o Two cells genetically identical to each o Four cells genetically different from each other
other and to the parent and to the parents

Abnormal meiosis
The following abnormalities may occur during meiosis:
o In anaphase I: one or more homologous pairs of chromosomes may not separate
o In Anaphase II: sister chromatids of one or more chromosomes may not separate
o The above abnormalities are together called non-disjunction and may lead to aneuploidy or
polyploidy
o Aneuploidy: gametes have one less (Monosomic) or one more (Trisomic) chromosome
o Polyploidy: gametes have one extra set of chromosomes (3n) or two extra sets of
chromosomes (4n)

DOWN SYNDROME:
o Non-disjunction of chromosome pair 21 during Anaphase I in humans to form
abnormal gametes with an extra copy of chromosome 21
o The fusion between an abnormal gamete (24 chromosomes) and a normal
gamete (23 chromosomes) may result is a zygote with THREE copies of chromosome
number 21, leading to Down syndrome
Symptoms of D own s yndr ome (NOT F OR EXAM)M ental r etardati on, H earing l oss , H eart defects , D ecreas ed mus cle tones, U pwardl y slanti ng eyes, Small mouth and nos e, Abnormal ear shape, D epr ess ed nas al s hape T her e is no c ure for Down s yndr ome. Symptoms ar e tr eated.
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A B
Telophase I Prophase II – centrioles moves to opposite
poles
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GENETICS AND INHERITANCE (48 marks)

 Heredity: characteristics passed from one generation to the other through the
information coded in DNA
 Variation: differences between individuals within a population. These differences
may be due to heredity or environment (e.g. nutrition, soil type). Evolution is
concerned only with genetic or heritable variations.
 Mutation: a change in the nucleotide sequence of a gene, resulting in a new allele.
 Diploid: cells contain a complete set of genetic material (2n). Chromosomes
appear as homologous pairs. This means a diploid cell may have
two different alleles for a single characteristic.
 Haploid: cells contain half a set of genetic material (n) in each nucleus.
Chromosomes are unpaired. Only one allele is present for each characteristic.
 Gene pool: the total collection of genes making up all the individuals in a
population (i.e. every gene of every member of the population).
 Genome: full complement of genes present in an organism.
 Gene: a short piece of DNA containing a particular nucleotide sequence carrying a
specific trait e.g. tallness.
 Locus: the particular position occupied by a gene on a chromosome.
 Allele: alleles are alternative forms of a gene localised on the same locus on
homologous chromosomes.
 Genotype: the genetic makeup of an individual.
 Phenotype: the physical appearance, behaviour and physiology of an individual
due to the expression of genes. (i.e. phenotype is determined by the genotype)
 Dominant allele: an allele that is always expressed in the phenotype.
 Recessive allele: an allele that is expressed in the phenotype if not accompanied
by a dominant allele.
 Homozygous/Pure breeding/True breeding: when both alleles controlling a
particular trait in an individual are the same.
 Heterozygous/Hybrid: when the two alleles for a particular trait in an individual
are different.
 Monohybrid cross: cross involving the inheritance of one characteristic
 Dihybrid cross: cross involving the inheritance of two different characteristics
MENDEL’S LAWS:
Law of Segregation: states that, for each characteristic, a plant possesses two
alleles which separate during meiosis so that each gamete contains only one
of these alleles.
Law of Dominance: states that when two individuals with pure breeding contrasting
characteristics are crossed, the individuals of the F1 generation all display the
dominant characteristics. An individual that is heterozygous for a particular
characteristic will have the dominant trait as the phenotype.
Law of Independent assortment: states that the various alleles controlling the
different characteristics (height, colour etc) are separate entities, not influencing
each other in any way, and sorting themselves out independently during
gamete formation.
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TYPES OF DOMINANCE
 Complete dominance – one allele is dominant and the other is recessive, such that the effect
of the recessive allele is masked by the dominant allele in the heterozygous condition.
 Incomplete dominance – none of the two alleles of a gene is dominant over the other,
resulting in an intermediate phenotype in the heterozygous condition.
 Co-dominance – both alleles of a gene are equally dominant whereby both alleles express
themselves in the phenotype in the heterozygous condition

 Monohybrid crosses for complete dominance:

- To represent alleles  A letter is chosen according to the dominant allele
 The upper case of the letter (B) will represent dominant allele
 The lower case of the letter (b) will represent recessive allele
- Genotype is expressed with letters = BB or Bb or bb
- Phenotype is expressed with words = black, white, tall, attached earlobe

GENETIC CROSS 1 complete dominance

genotype phenotype genotype phenotype

The allele for black fur is dominant over the allele for white fur in rabbits.
A homozygous black rabbit (B) is crossed with a homozygous white rabbit (b).
Determine the possible phenotypes and genotypes of the offspring.
dominant allele recessive allele

Key Colour: B – Black b – white

P1 Phenotype: Black x White
Genotype: BB x bb
Meiosis
Gametes: B;B x b;b
Fertilisation
F1 Genotype: Bb Bb Bb Bb
Phenotype: Black , Black , Black , Black
Phenotypic %: 100% black; 0% white

GENETIC CROSS 2 complete dominance

A heterozygous black rabbit (B) is crossed with a homozygous white rabbit (b).
Determine the possible phenotypes and genotypes of the offspring
Key Colour: B – Black b – white
P1 Phenotype: Black x White
Genotype: Bb x bb
Meiosis
Gametes: B;b x b;b
Fertilisation
F1 Genotype: Bb Bb bb bb
Phenotype: Black , Black , White , White
Phenotypic 2 Black : 2 White
ratio: =1 Black : 1 White
Phenotypic %: 50% black; 50% white
 15 for 2022 SH
GENETIC CROSS 3 Monohybrid crosses for incomplete dominance
In an incomplete dominance cross, a homozygous black rabbit (B) is crossed with a homozygous
white rabbit (W).
Determine the possible phenotypes and genotypes of the offspring.
P1 Phenotype: Black x White
Genotype: BB x WW
Meiosis
Gametes: B;B x W;W
Fertilisation
F1 Genotype: BW BW WW WW
Phenotype: Grey , Grey , Grey , Grey
Phenotypic %: 100% Grey; 0% white

GENETIC CROSS 4 Monohybrid crosses for codominance

In a codominance cross, a homozygous black rabbit is crossed with a homozygous
white rabbit. Determine the possible phenotypes and genotypes of the offspring.
P1 Phenotype: Black x White
Genotype: BB x WW
Meiosis
Gametes: B;B x W;W
Fertilisation
F1 Genotype: BW BW WW WW
Phenotype: Black and White, Black and White, Black and White, Black and White
Phenotypic %: 100% Grey; 0% white
BLOOD GROUPING - The inheritance of blood groups in humans
 Blood grouping is an example of multiple alleles
 There are three alleles IA, IB and i.
 An individual can have only two of the three alleles making up his or her genotype
 The i allele is recessive to IA and IB alleles.
The combination of IA and i or IB and i is inheritance of complete dominance.
 The IA and IB are co-dominant to each other since they are equally dominant and equally
displayed in the phenotype.
 Different combinations of these alleles result in four
blood groups: A, B, AB and O
Blood group A B AB O
Genotype(s) IAIA or IAi IBIB or IBi IAIB ii

GENETIC CROSS 5 blood grouping

A man homozygous for blood type A married a woman heterozygous for
blood type B. Determine the possible genotypes and the phenotypes of the offspring and
proportion of children with blood group O.

P1 Phenotype: Blood group A x Blood group B

Genotype: IAIA x IB i
Meiosis
Gametes: IA ; IA x IB ; i
Fertilisation
F1 Genotype: IAIB IAi IAIB IAi
Phenotype: Blood group AB, Blood group A, Blood
group AB, Blood group A
Phenotypic %: 50% Blood group AB; 50% Blood group A
0% Blood group O
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SEX DETERMINATION IN HUMANS
 Every human body cell has 23 pairs of chromosomes.
 The 22 pairs are autosomes and 1 pair is sex chromosomes (gonosomes)
 Males have XY chromosomes and females have XX chromosomes
 There is a 50-50 chance of an offspring being a male/female.
GENETIC CROSS 5 Sex determination
P1 Phenotype: Male x Female
Genotype: XY x XX
Meiosis
Gametes: X;Y x X;X
Fertilisation
F1 Genotype: XX XX XY XY
Phenotype: Female, Female, Male, Male,
Phenotypic %: 50% Female; 50% Male
Describe how sex is determined in human
 Females have XX chromosomes,
therefore all egg cells will have the X chromosome
 Males have XY chromosomes
 therefore the sperm cell carry X chromosome or Y chromosome
 If the sperm cell with X chromosome fertilises an egg cell with X chromosome,
then a girl is produced
 If the sperm cell with Y chromosome fertilises an egg cell with X chromosome,
then a boy is produced
 The father’s gametes determine the gender of the child
 There is always a 50% chance of having a baby boy or girl

THE INHERITANCE OF SEX-LINKED CHARACTERISTICS

Sex-linked characteristics traits that are carried in the sex chromosomes
Genes for most bodily characteristics are located on 22 pairs of autosomes
The 23rd pair contains sex chromosomes. The sex chromosomes also contain genes for certain
bodily characteristics called sex-linked characteristics.
The X and Y chromosomes are different.
In some cases, if an allele for a particular trait is on the X chromosome only, there is no allele for
the same trait on the Y chromosome because Y chromosome is smaller in size.
Certain sex-linked genetic disorders are carried on the allele found on the
X chromosome only. Two of these disorders are colour blindness and haemophilia.
Haemophilia and colour blindness are two examples of sex-linked genetic disorders.
Haemophilia
Colour-blindness and haemophilia is caused by the recessive allele on the
X chromosome normally shown as (Xb) for colour-blindness and (Xh) for haemophilia
There are THREE possible genotypes for females and TWO for men
Female’s genotypes Phenotype Male’s genotypes Phenotype
XHXH Normal female XHY Normal male
XHXh Normal female carrier XhY Haemophiliac male
XXh h Haemophiliac female
Explain why the chances of men having a sex-linked disorder is much higher than it is for women.
 The allele for the trait is carried on the X-chromosome.
 The Y-chromosome does not carry the allele for the trait.
 Males only have one X-chromosome
 A male only needs one recessive allele to be affected, whereas for a female
to be affected both alleles must be recessive
 17 for 2022 SH
GENETIC CROSS 7 sex-linked characteristics
A normal male marries a female with haemophilia. Determine the possible genotypes and
phenotypes of their children.
Key Normal blood: XH Haemophiliac: Xh
P1 Phenotype: Normal male x Haemophiliac female
Genotype: XHY x X hX h
Meiosis
Gametes: XH ; Y x Xh ; Xh
Fertilisation
F1 Genotype: XHXh XHXh XhY X hY
Phenotype: Normal female, Normal female, Haemophiliac
male, Haemophiliac male,
Phenotypic %: 50% normal; 50% Haemophiliac

Colour-blindness
Various types exists. The most common type is red-green colour-blindness, where a person
cannot distinguish between red and green
It is inherited in exactly the same way as haemophilia
Colour-blindness and haemophilia are caused by a recessive allele

DIHYBRID CROSSING
It involves inheritance of two different characteristics e.g. height and shape, colour and shape etc.
OR
Dihybrid crosses involve two pairs of alleles representing two different characteristics,
Gregor Mendel crossed pure breeding plants having seeds that are round and yellow with pure
breeding plants with wrinkled and green seeds. Round was dominant (R) over wrinkled (r) and
yellow (Y) dominant over green(y).

His experiment for the dihybrid crosses can be represented as follows:

Key Shape: R – round r - wrinkled

Colour: Y – yellow y - green
P1 Phenotype: Round and yellow x Wrinkled green
Genotype: RRYY x rryy
Meiosis
Gametes: RY RY RY RY
ry RrYy RrYy RrYy RrYy
ry RrYy RrYy RrYy RrYy Fertilisation
ry RrYy RrYy RrYy RrYy
ry RrYy RrYy RrYy RrYy
F1 Genotype: RrYy
Phenotype: All 16 offspring round and yellow
 18 for 2022 SH
Key Shape: R – round r - wrinkled
Colour: Y – yellow y - green
P2 Phenotype: Round and yellow x Round and yellow
Genotype: RrYy x RrYy
Meiosis
Gametes: RY Ry rY ry
RY RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy
Ry RRYy RRyy RrYy Rryy Fertilisation
rY RrYY RrYy RrYY rrYy
ry RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy
F2 Genotype:
Phenotype: 9 Round and yellow
3 Round and green Identify the
3 Wrinkled and yellow wrong
1 Wrinkled and green genotype(s)
Phenotypic ratio: 9 : 3 : 3 : 1
Based on the two above experiments, Gregor Mendel developed the
Law of Independent Assortment.

PEDIGREE DIAGRAMS
A pedigree diagram is used to study the inheritance of characteristics in a family over a number of
generations. It represents parents, grandparents, great-grandparents and beyond

Uses of pedigree diagrams

 To learn how different traits are passed from parents to offspring
 To determine the probability of an offspring in a family having a particular genetic disorder
 To show dominant or recessive trait in a family and whether it affects males only or both
males and females
Steps to follow when interpreting pedigree diagrams
Step 1 Study any key and opening statement/s and look for dominant and recessive characteristics
and phenotypes.
Step 2 Write in the phenotypes of all the individuals as given in the problem.
Step 3 Fill in the genotype of all the individuals with the recessive condition – it must have two
recessive alleles (two lower case letters, e.g. ff).
Step 4 For every individual in the diagram that has the recessive condition, it means that each allele
was obtained from each of the parents. Work backwards and fill in one recessive allele for
each parent.
Step 5 If the parents showed the dominant characteristic, fill in the second letter which represents
the dominant allele (a capital letter, e.g. F).
Step 6 Any other individual showing the dominant characteristic will most likely be homozygous
dominant (FF) or heterozygous dominant (Ff).
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Mutation
Mutations refer to sudden change in the sequence of nitrogen bases of DNA of an
individual.
Effects of mutations
(1) Harmful mutation results in genetic disorders that decrease the survival of an organism
(2) Harmless mutation has no effect on the organism.
(3) Useful mutation contributes to genetic variation and natural selection
Types of mutations
(1) Gene mutations result in a change in the sequence of nitrogen bases DNA in a single
gene
The two types of gene mutation
• Point mutation: replacing one base of a codon with another
- Small change that may possibly result in one amino acid changing in a protein
• Frameshift mutation: addition or deletion of one or more bases of a codon
- resulting in changing the sequence of all the bases of the codons
- resulting in forming a different protein with different functions
(2) Chromosomal mutations/aberrations are changes in the normal structure of
chromosomes
Mutations lead to altered characteristics in each of the following genetic disorders.
Genetic disorders

(i) Haemophilia: Blood does not clot because the protein for blood clotting is not
produced
(ii) Colour blindness: The person cannot differentiate between different colours due
to the absence of the necessary protein for photoreception.
(iii) Down syndrome: The person has an extra copy of chromosome 21 due to non-
disjunction during meiosis.
Importance of genetic counselling
- To determine the chance of having a child with the disorder
- To help couples to make informed decision about having a child or not.
- To help couple to evaluate whether they would cope with a child with the disorder.

Genetic engineering :
- Refers to changing the genetic makeup of an organism artificially
- Genetic engineering uses biotechnology to satisfy human needs
- Biotechnology is: manipulation of biological processes to satisfy human needs .
Stem cell research
- Stem cells are undifferentiated dividing cells with the power to become any type
of a cell.
(a) Sources of stem cells
1. Embryo; 2. Blood in umbilical cord/cord blood
3. Placenta; 4. Bone marrow
(b) Arguments for use of stem cells
- Provide replacements for tissues damaged by disease such as leukaemia
- Used for research to see whether it can cure different diseases
- Stem cells from e.g. the blood from the umbilical cord can be stored when needed
in future, because it would not be rejected by the body's immune system.
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(c) Arguments against use of stem cells
- It is expensive, research money could be used for other basic needs
- The dangers of using stem cells are unknown and may be a risk
- Moral objection because we are destroying a human life
- Interfere with religion, we cannot play God
- Can lead to illegal trade in embryos to make money
- Embryos conceived and then aborted to use the stem cells from the placenta
Genetically modified organisms GMOs
(organisms whose DNA have been changed by inserting a gene from
another organism).
How Genetic Modification is done
Gene of interest is identified and is cut using enzymes and inserted in the DNA of
desired organism using bacteria, virus or gene gun.
Benefits of genetic modification
- Allows a faster production time to meet the local and international demand
- Increased resistance to diseasesto drought, to pests, to herbicides
- Improved quality of crops
-
Using specific genes to improved yield of products
-
- Selecting genes to increase shelf life of plant productsto reduce waste
- Selecting genes that delay ripening of fruits
- Production of medication/resources cheaply
Introduction of genes to improve human health

Cloning: process of producing genetically identical organisms (with desired characteristics).

Briefly outline of cloning process

- The nucleus of an ovum is removed and

- replaced with the nucleus of a somatic donor cell to become a zygote
- The zygote is stimulated to divide by mitosis and form an embryo
- The embryo is the placed into the uterus of an adult female
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Benefits of cloning
- Cloning can produce organisms with desired characteristics
- Cloning can be used to produce organs for transplants
- Cloning can save endangered species
-
Produce offspring for parents that cannot have offspring
Paternity testing
The role of blood grouping and DNA profile in paternity testing:
(1) How Blood grouping can be used to confirm paternity

- The blood groups of the mother, father and the child must be compared
- If this shows that it is not possible that these parents can produce
a child with his/her blood group, then this man is not the father
-
If this shows that it is possible that these parents can produce
- a child with his/her blood group, then he may or may not be the father
because other males have the same blood group

(2) How DNA profiling can be used to confirm paternity

- The DNA profiles of the possible father, mother and child are determined
- A child receives half of his/her DNA from his/her father
- A comparison of the DNA bands of mother and child is made
- The remaining DNA bands are compared to the possible father’s DNA
- If the remaining DNA bands on child’s DNA profile matches that of the possible father, the
man is the biological father of the child
- If the remaining DNA bands on child’s DNA profile does not matches that of the possible
father, the man is not the biological father of the child

Genetic links
- Mutations in mitochondrial DNA is used in tracing female ancestry
- Analysis of mutations on mtDNA indicate that all humans evolved from a common
female ancestor who lived east of Africa around 150 000 years ago.

How are Mutations, Natural Selection and Evolution related?

• Mutations contribute to variations

• Mutations results in changed genotypes leading to new phenotypes
• Only organisms with advantageous mutations are able to survive
• This is called natural selection
• The organisms pass their favourable traits to the next generation
• Speciation occurs as a result of natural selection
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EVOLUTION (54 marks)

Theory: an explanation that can be supported by facts, laws and tested hypothesis, for
something that has been observed in nature
Theory of Evolution: states that everything we see today arose from something that existed in
the past, but they look different because things change over a long period
of time.
Biological evolution: refers to change in the characteristics of species over time.
Biological evolution results in the formation of new species
Hypothesis: - is a proposed solution to a problem
- testable statement that can be accepted or rejected
- an informed assumption that provides an explanation of
a specific phenomenon that can be tested.
The Theory of Evolution is regarded as a scientific theory since various hypotheses relating to
evolution have been tested and verified over time
Species: is a group of organisms that have similar characteristics
that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring
Variation : the variety of appearance shown by organisms of the same species

SOURCES OF VARIATION IN A SPECIES

Describe how each of the following contributes to variation amongst individuals of the same species
 Crossing-over: during meiosis, homologous chromosomes exchange genetic material
which causes a different mix of maternal and paternal genetic material

in meiosis
in each chromosome.
 Random arrangement of chromosomes at the equator during metaphase
Allows for different combinations chromosomes to enter each new cell during meiosis,
making cells to be dissimilar.
.
 Mutation: Sudden, random changes in the sequence of nitrogen bases of DNA
of an organism change the genotype which can be inherited and also change the
phenotype of the offspring.
 Random fertilisation: different gene combinations from different gametes are formed
with each fertilization process which increases variation in species.
 Random mating: ensures that there is greater variation of offspring
because different individuals form genetically different gametes.

Differentiate between continuous and discontinuous variation

Continuous variation Discontinuous variation
- There is a range of different phenotypes for - There is no range of different phenotypes for a
a particular characteristic particular characteristic.
- There are no distinct phenotypes - There are distinct phenotypes / there are no in
between traits
Examples: height, skin colour Examples: blood groups
Polygenic inheritance Monogenic inheritance
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EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION

1.1. Fossil record : Palaeontology is the study of fossils

The history of life on earth is based on fossils and the rock layers in which the fossils are found.
a) Fossils are traces or remains of organisms that lived in the past
b) Radiometric dating is a method of finding out the age of fossils using radioactive
chemicals
c) Uses of fossils / role of fossils in understanding ancient life
- They tell us about the time when life forms first forms
- They tell us about the appearance of today’s life forms as compared to those that
existed in the past
1.2. Modification by descent (Homologous structures)
a. Homologous structures refers to structures or body parts that are the similar but have
different functions.
OR
b.

c. [Organs with the same fundamental structure and same embryonic development
modified to perform different functions].
The fact that all vertebrates have same basic plan of their (pentadactyl) forelimb (human,
dolphin, dog and bat) suggests that all vertebrates originated from a common ancestor. i.e.
organisms with homologous structures share a common ancestor.

1.3. Genetics
The following features show possible common origin of different organisms.
These organisms are related to each other and not the organisms that evolved from each
other.
 Identical DNA, i.e. [Double stranded - twist into a helix], [nucleotides made of sugar,
phosphate ion and a nitrogen base],[same nitrogen bases and pairing of bases]
 Similar sequence of genes
 Similar portions of DNA with no function.
 Identical protein synthesis {all organisms form proteins in a similar way, using mRNA,
tRNA, ribosome and the same 20 amino acids}.
 Similar respiratory pathways
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1.4. Biogeography
The study of distribution and adaptation of all living organisms in different biomes.
 The effect of continental drift on biogeography is that it provides evidence for evolution
of ancient species.
 Biogeography also provides evidence that many modern species have evolved from a
common ancestor.
 Similar organisms exist in places that are geographically isolated from each other
indicating that they probably arose from a common ancestral species.
 Modern distribution of different species of flightless birds in the southern hemisphere
continents suggests that they probably evolve from a common ancestor that was present
before Gondwana split.

Origin of an idea about origins (A historical development)

Names of three explanations for evolution in the order in which they were developed
1. Lamarckism 2. Darwinism 3. Punctuated Equilibrium
1. Lamarckism (Jean Baptiste de Lamarck - 1744 – 1829)
Describe what is meant by each of the following ‘laws’ used by Lamarck to explain evolution
1.1 The law of use and disuse:


- Organs became modified/adapted according to frequency of use

- Frequently used organs became bigger, stronger or changed so that it can work better
- Disused organs became smaller and smaller until they totally disappear

1.2 The inheritance of acquired characteristics:

- Characteristics developed during the life of an individual are passed on to
their offspring.
1.3 Provide reasons for Lamarck’s theory being rejected
o There is no evidence to show that acquired traits are inherited
o Organisms did not evolve because they want to evolve /
Lamarck’s theory is deterministic

1.4 However, Lamarck was the first person to indicate that something is passed from parent to
offspring.
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2. Darwinism (Charles Darwin -1809-1882)
2.1 Describe Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection as follows:

o Organisms produce a large number of offspring.

o There is variation amongst the offspring.
o Some have favourable characteristics and some do not.
o When there is a change in the environmental conditions or
if there is competition
o Organisms with favourable characteristics survive
o Organisms with unfavourable characteristics die.
o The organisms that survive, reproduce
o and thus pass on the allele for the favourable characteristic to their offspring
o The next generation will therefore have a higher proportion of individuals with the
favourable characteristic.
o This is called natural selection

2.2 State the observations upon which Darwin based his theory:
o Organisms of a species produce a large number of offspring
o The offspring show a great deal of variation
o Of the large number of offspring produced, only a few survive
o Characteristics are inherited from surviving parents to offspring

2.3 Tabulate differences between Lamarckism and Darwinism.

Lamarckism
1. Variation of the offspring occurs when
individuals in the population change
2. Change occurs because of Law of use and
disuse
3. Individuals in the population change
4. Acquired characteristics are inherited by
offspring
Darwinism
1 Variation in the offspring is inherited
2 Natural selection – individuals best suited to
the environment survive
3 The whole population changes
4 Characteristic are passed on from
generation to generation to enable
individuals to survive in the environment

Describe (specifically) the long necks of giraffes in terms of Lamarckism.

- The original population of giraffes had short necks
- Some giraffes used their necks frequently to reach tree tops
- Their necks became longer
- They passed this acquired characteristic of long necks to their offspring
Describe (specifically) the long necks of giraffes in terms of Natural selection.
- The was a genetic variation in the neck size of giraffes
- Some had favourable long necks
- Some had unfavourable short necks
- When competition for food on tree tops occurs
- Giraffes with short necks die since they cannot reach food
- Giraffes with long necks survive and reproduce since they can reach food
- Giraffes that survive pass the allele for long necks to their offspring
- The next generations had a high proportion of giraffes with long necks
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General account on natural selection Specific account on natural selection

(no example) (use example)
There is variation in the offspring There is variation in the colour of
kingsnakes
Some have favourable characteristics Some kingsnakes are bright in colour
Some have unfavourable characteristics Some kingsnakes are dull in colour
Those with unfavourable characteristics Those with dull colours are killed by
die predators
Those with favourable characteristics Those with bright colours are not eaten,
survive and reproduce so they survive and reproduce
They pass the allele for the favourable They pass the allele for bright colour
characteristic to their offspring to their offspring
The proportion of offspring with The proportion of offspring with bright
favourable characteristics increase over colours increase over many
many generations generations

ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
 Is a deliberate breeding of plants and animals for desired characteristics that would not
necessary benefit the survival of offspring but benefit humans.

1. Artificial selection e.g. meat production

o Organisms of a particular species show a great deal of variation
o Humans select organisms with desirable characteristic and interbreed them with other
organism with same desirable characteristic
o to improve this characteristic further in offspring
o They also choose organisms with different desirable characteristics to get offspring with
a combination of these desirable characteristic.
i Maize seeds for the next generation are selected only from the individuals with the most
desirable traits. This selection repeated over a number of generations, and then the quality
of crops will increase.
ii By selecting and crossing cows and bulls which produce large amounts of milk and whose
mothers and grandmothers were also high milk producers will develop cows that produce
more milk than their ancestors.
 List similarities between natural and artificial selection
o In both natural and artificial selection, phenotypes of population changes after a number of
generations
o Both depend on the variation in all organisms
o Both involve an organisms characteristics being determined by how much they are
favoured
o Favourable characteristics are passed to the next generations in both.
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 Tabulate differences between natural and artificial selection

Natural selection
1. The nature is the selective force
2. Characteristics selected according
to suitability to the environment
3. Involves only one species
Artificial selection
1. Humans represent the selective force
2. Characteristics selected
to satisfy human needs
3. May involve more than one species

PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM and Darwinism ( Compare )

Darwinism Punctuated equilibrium

- Evolution occur gradually over long
period of time
- New species formed slowly over
long period
- Supported by many transitional
fossils which show gradual change
over time
- Evolution involves long period of time where species do
not change or change very little (known as equilibrium)
- This alternates with short period of time where rapid
changes occur through natural selection
- New species formed quickly within short period
compared to the long period of little or no change
- Is supported by the absence of transitional fossils
indicating the period of rapid change

Organisms change rapidly

in a short period of time

2.4 Evolution in present Times

Show that natural selection and evolution is still occurring in present times by describing any ONE
of the following examples:
 Use of DDT and consequent resistance to DDT in insects which can be explained in terms of
natural selection
o There is genetic variation amongst the mosquitoes.
o Some mosquitoes are resistant to DDT and some are not.
o When sprayed with DDT, many non-resistant mosquitoes died
o DDT resistant mosquitoes survive and reproduce
o and thus pass on the allele for the DDT resistance to their offspring
o The next generation will therefore have a higher proportion of
DDT resistant mosquitoes
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 Development of resistant strains of tuberculosis-causing bacteria (MDR and XDR) to antibiotics

due to mutations (variations) in bacteria and failure to complete antibiotic courses
o There is genetic variation amongst the bacteria due to mutations.
o Mutated bacteria are resistant to antibiotics and others are not.
o Non resistant bacteria are killed by antibiotics.
o Mutated resistant bacteria survive and reproduce
o and thus pass on the allele for antibiotic resistance to their offspring.
o The next generation will therefore have a higher proportion of resistant bacteria
 HIV resistance to anti-retroviral medication
o There is genetic variation amongst the virus due to mutations.
o Mutated virus are resistant to ARVs and others are not.
o Viruses that are non-resistant ARVs died.
o ARVs resistant virus survive and reproduce
o and thus pass on the allele desirable characteristic to their offspring.
o The next generation will therefore have a higher proportion of ARVs resistant virus
Bill (beak) and body size of Galapagos finches

SPECIATION: FORMATION OF NEW SPECIES

1. Through geographic isolation 2. Reproductive isolation mechanisms

TERMS
(Biological)species: similar organisms that are capable of interbreeding to produce fertile
offspring
Speciation: formation of a new species, it increases biodiversity since a new species added
Extinction: when all members of a species are dead in the wild and in captivity, it reduces
biodiversity since a species is removed.
Population: A group of organisms of the same species that lives together in a defined area at a
given time and interbreeding can take place.

1. General account on speciation THROUGH GEOGRAPHIC ISOLATION as follows:

o The original population of a single species becomes separated
by a geographical barrier (sea, river, mountain, lake),
o the population splits into two populations.
o There is no gene flow between the two populations.
o Each population is exposed to different environmental conditions,
o natural selection occurs independently in each of the two populations
o Individuals of the two populations become very different from each other
genotypically and phenotypically.
o When the two populations mix, no interbreeding occurs leading to the formation of new species

 Speciation through geographic isolation using Galapagos finches as an example.

o The original finch population becomes separated into separate islands

o The sea acted as a geographical barrier
o There is no gene flow between the populations.
o Each population is exposed to different environmental conditions,
o Natural selection occurs independently on each island
o Individuals of the two populations become very different from each other
genotypically and phenotypically.
o When the two populations mix, no interbreeding to occurs
leading to the formation of new species of finches.
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 Speciation through geographic isolation using Galapagos tortoises as example

o The original tortoise population becomes separated into separate islands
o The sea acted as a geographical barrier
o There is no gene flow between the populations.
o Each population is exposed to different environmental conditions,
o Natural selection occurs independently on each island
o Individuals of the two populations become very different from each other
genotypically and phenotypically.
o When the two populations mix, no interbreeding occurs
leading to the formation of new species tortoises.

 Describe speciation through geographic isolation using Baobabs in Africa and

Madagascar as an example.
o Due to continental drift
o The original population of baobabs was separated into different continents
o The sea acted as a geographical barrier
o Reproduction occurs independently on different continents
o Each population is exposed to different environmental conditions
o Natural selection occurs independently on each island
o Individuals of the two populations become very different from each other
genotypically and phenotypically.
o When the two populations mix, no interbreeding occurs
leading to the formation of new species of baobabs.

2. REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION MECHANISMS (KEEPING SPECIES SEPARATE)

Describe how each of the following mechanisms help in keeping species separate:

 Breeding at different times of the year, one species is fertile when the other is not.
 Species-specific courtship behaviour, courtship behaviour of one species will not attract
other species.
 Adaptation to different pollinators, pollinator of one species is not adapted to pollinate
another species.
 Infertile offspring, a new species cannot form because they cannot produce fertile
offspring. Mules are an example.
 Prevention of fertilisation, different copulatory organs in closely related species.
The sperm cannot fertilise the female’s egg.

Law of use and disuse

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HUMAN EVOLUTION

Our place in the animal kingdom

Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Invertebrates Vertebrates

Class Fish Mammals Amphibians Aves Reptiles

Order Primates

Sub-order Anthropoidia Prosimi

Family Hominidae Pongidae Hylobitidae

Orangutans, Tarsiers
Humans gorillas and Gibbons and
chimps lemurs

Characteristics we share with other

primates
1. Upright posture
2. - Large brains compared to their body mass
- Reduced sense of smell
- Parts of the brain that process information
from the hands and eyes are enlarged

3. Long upper arms

4. Eyes in front/binocular vision/stereoscopic vision
5. Eyes with cones/colour vision
6. Two mammary glands only
7. Freely rotating arms
8. Elbow joints allowing rotation of forearm
9. Flat nails instead of claws/bare finger tips
10. Opposable thumbs which work in opposite direction to their
fingers for power and precision grip
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Characteristics that makes us DIFFERENT from other primates

Homo sapiens Other primates

1 Larger cranium 1 Smaller cranium
2 Flat face 2 Face sloping
3 Foramen magnum in a more forward 3 Foramen magnum at the back of the skull
position of the skull
4 Brow ridges poorly developed 4 Brow ridges well developed
5 Smaller canines 5 Larger canines
6 Smaller spaces between the teeth 6 Larger spaces between the teeth
7 Palate is smaller and semi-circular 7 Palate is long and rectangular
8 Less protruding jaws / prognathous 8 More protruding jaws / prognathous
9 Lower jaw has a well developed chin 9 Lower jaw has poorly developed chin
10 Are bipedal 10 Are quadrupedal
with • S-shape spine with • C-shaped spine in apes
• short and wide pelvis • long and narrow pelvis in apes
11 No cranial ridges 11 Cranial ridges across the top of the skull

A B C D

EXPLAIN THREE ADVANTAGES OF BIPEDALISM

- Frees the arms so that they could carry babies

- Allows ability to see further to spot danger
- Efficient locomotion allows to travel longer distances
- Exposes a large surface area for thermoregulation
- Expose the genitals to attract opposite sex

How the foramen magnum, pelvic girdle and spine contributed to bipedalism in humans.
1. Foramen magnum moved to amore forward position of skull to allow the spinal cord to
enter vertically
2. Pelvic girdle is short and wide to support the upper body
3. Spine is S-shaped to absorb shock

How do the size of brow ridges, canines, jaws and cranial ridges are related to diet.
- Apes have larger canines and jaws which makes the skull prognathous indicating that the
ape-like beings eat raw food requiring a great amount of chewing
- humans had smaller teeth and jaws which makes the skull less prognathous indicating that
the human beings eat cooked food that require little amount of chewing
- The well-developed cranial ridges in apes allow for attachment of muscles of chewing
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Evidence that support the idea of common ancestors for living hominids including humans:
1. Genetic evidence: mitochondrial DNA
Humans are closely related to Chimpanzees than gorillas. There is only 1,4% difference in the
DNA nucleotide sequence of humans and chimpanzees. Similarities in mutations present on
mitochondrial DNA are also used to trace ancestors of all modern humans
2. Cultural evidence: tool-making and language show advances in human development.
3. Fossil evidence: Evidence from fossils of different ages show that the anatomical
characteristics of organisms changed gradually over time.

Changes in structure that characterise human evolution

Bipedalism (Shift of foramen magnum to a more forward position) (3)
A more rounded skull and increased cranium size (1)
A flatter face due to:
less sloping forehead (2)
less protruding jaws (decreased prognathous)
a more developed chin (8)
A more rounded jaw
Increased size of skeleton which mean increased height
Change in dentition

• Emphasis on evolutionary trends provided by the anatomical features of fossils of the following
three genera:  Ardipithecus
 Australopithecus
 Homo
as well as:
- The age of each fossil found/time-line for the existence of the three genera
- The fossil sites where they were found: emphasis on the fossil sites that form a part of the
Cradle of Humankind
- The scientists who discovered them

Major phases in hominid evolution

The table showing the characteristics of different hominids (according to study of their fossils on
human evolution). The fossils are dealt with in the order in which they appeared on Earth.
Organism Time existed Fossil site Discovered by
Ardipithecus ramidus 5 – 4 mya North-East Ethiopia Tim White
Brain size: 300–350 ml; Heavy brow ridges
More protruding jaws;
Characteristics
Forward position of foramen magnum
Pelvis structure: bipedal and tree climbing
Organism Time existed Fossil site Discovered by
Australopithecus afarensis 4 – 2,7 mya Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania Donald Johanson
Brain size: 375–550 ml; Heavy brow ridges
Very prognathous
Characteristics
Forward position of foramen magnum
Canines large and pointed; No cranial ridge
Organism Time existed Fossil site Discovered by
Australopithecus africanus 3 – 2 mya Taung; Sterkfontein Raymond Dart
Brain size: 428–625 ml; Brow ridges
Prognathous; Forward position of foramen magnum
Characteristics
Teeth large, canines not long
Long arms; No cranial ridge
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Organism Time existed Fossil site Discovered by

Australopithecus sediba 1,9 – 1,8 mya Malapa Cave – in the Lee Burger
cradle of humankind
Brain size: 420 ml; Brow ridges
Characteristics Less prognathous; Large teeth, canines not long
Long arms; No cranial ridge
Organism Time existed Fossil site Discovered by
Homo habilis 2,2 – 1,6 mya Tanzania Louis and Mary Leakey
Brain size: 650 ml; Less prognathous
Characteristics Less pronounced brow ridges
Human-like teeth – smaller canines; Long arms
Organism Time existed Fossil site Discovered by
Homo erectus 2 – 0,4 mya Java in Indonesia and then Swartkrans Eugene Dubois
Brain size: 900 ml
Characteristics Prognathous; Cranial ridges
Short canines; Longer legs and shorter arms
Organism Time existed Fossil site Discovered by
Homo sapiens 200 000 years Makapansgat in Limpopo; Border Cave in Tim White
ago – present KZN; Blombos Cave in the Western Cape
Brain size: 1200–1800 ml; No brow ridges
Characteristics
Small teeth; Short arms

ADVANTAGES OF HAVING LARGE CRANIAL CAPACITY OF HOMO SAPIENS
- Large cranium accommodate a bigger brain
which allows - development of speech,
- higher intelligence,
- complex behaviour,
- quick processing of information,
- process large amounts of information

The “Out of Africa’ hypothesis states that modern humans originated from
Africa and moved to other continents.
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The EVIDENCE to support the “Out Of Africa” Hypothesis
1. Fossil Evidence
According to most scientists, the world’s oldest and richest concentration of fossils of early
humans is Africa.
- Fossils of Ardipithecus, Australopithecus and Homo habilis were found only in Africa.
- The oldest fossils of Homo erectus and Homo sapiens were found in Africa
- The younger fossils of Homo erectus were found in other parts of the world
- This suggests that modern humans originated in Africa and migrated out of Africa
Fossils related to human evolution
Scientist Fossil Place Year
Toumai
Michael Brunet Chad 2001
(Sahelanthropus tchadensis)
Donald Johanson, Yves Lucy
Ethiopia 1974
Coppan and Tim White (Australopithecus afarensis)
Taung child
Raymond Dart South Africa 1924
(Australopithecus africanus)
Mrs Ples 1947
Robert Broom South Africa
(Australopithecus africanus)
Nutcracker man
Mary and Louis Leakey Tanzania 1959
(Paranthropus boisei)
Robert Broom Paranthropus robustus Kroomdraai, SA 1938
Mary Leakey Laetoli footprints Tanzania
Stephen Motsumi and Little foot (Stw 573)
Sterkfontein, SA 1994
Nkwane Molefe (Australopithecus africanus)
Handy man
Peter Nzube Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania 1959
(Homo habilis)
Karabou
Mathew Burger Cradle of Humankind, SA 2008
(Australopithecus sediba)
Tim White Ardipithecus ramidus North-East Ethiopia
Java in Indonesia and then
Eugene Dubois Homo erectus
Swartkrans
Ethiopia; Border Cave
Tim White Homo sapiens
(KZN, Blombos Cave in W. Cape)

2. Genetic Evidence for the ‘out of Africa’ hypothesis (mitochondrial DNA)

•mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is passed only from mother to child
• By following mutations in mtDNA, we can trace our female line of descent.
• Analysis of mitochondrial DNA link every human to ancestral female who
lived in East Africa about 150 000 years ago.
All humans have been linked to a common ancestor called African or Mitochondrial Eve.
A transitional fossil shows intermediate characteristics of two genera/species
shows characteristics of both a primitive and a recent species
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DIVERSITY OF REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES IN VERTEBRATES (8 marks)
Strategy How it works? What is its advantage?
External The sperm fertilises the egg outside Water prevents the eggs from drying out
Fertilisation the body of the female, usually in and allows the sperm to swim towards the
water. egg.
Large quantities of eggs and sperms
e.g. Frogs produced to increase the chance for
fertilization
Internal The male deposits its sperm inside the Allows terrestrial animals to reproduce in
Fertilisation reproductive organs of the female and a dry environment without the need for
fertilisation occurs inside the female’s water.
reproductive organs. Internal fertilisation is more certain than
e.g. Humans external fertilisation.
THREE TYPES OF EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT
Ovipary Eggs are laid and hatching takes place Egg provides nutrition for the developing
outside the mother’s body. embryo
Eggs fertilised internally before being laid or Egg protects the embryo.
externally after being laid A shelled egg frees these animals from
Parental care is needed to protect the eggs the need to reproduce in water.
Ovovivipary Eggs are retained and hatch in the Embryos obtain their nutrients from the
female body egg yolk.
and The eggs are protected from predators
the young are born live. until hatching occurs inside the mother.
Fertilisation is internal Young are born alive.
Vivipary The young develop inside the uterus of More efficient development of the embryo
the mother after the eggs are fertilised as nutrients are received for a longer
internally. period from the mother’s blood through a
placenta.
Embryo is protected in the body of the
mother.

Advantages of vivipary and ovovivipary:

• Young ones born active
• Internal fertilisation increases chances of
offspring being produced

Amniotic egg
• It is found in reptiles and birds
• The amniotic egg is covered by a shell
• It has four membranes: Amnion, Chorion,
Allantois and Yolk Sac
Amnion
• It encloses amniotic cavity with amniotic
fluid
• It protects the embryo against mechanical
shock
Chorion
• Allows gaseous exchange

Yolk sac
• Provides food to the embryo
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Allantois
• Stores waste from the embryo
• Allows gaseous exchange to occur like chorion
Egg shells
• reduce dehydration.
Mammals do not have an egg shell. Embryos are adapted to avoid dehydration by developing
within their mother

PRECOCIAL AND ALTRICIAL DEVELOPMENT

In young birds (chicks) depending on availability or absence of predators
Precocial development Altricial development

Many predators No predators

Eggs produced with lot of energy
to allow for greater development of the
chick before hatching
so that it can be more independent after
hatching
- Eyes open
- Soft feathers called Down’s feathers
- Can move around soon after hatching
- Able to feed themselves
- Not dependant on their parent
- Brain size and intelligence remains the
same throughout their lives.
e.g. Chicken and Turkeys
Eggs produced with less energy to resulting
in hatchling being poorly develop after
hatching.
Chick require high degree of parental care
after hatching
- Eyes closed
- No Down’s feathers
- Unable to move around
- Unable to feed themselves
- Dependant on their parent
- Brain size and intelligence increases
a lot after hatching.
In 60% of birds e.g. finches, crows etc.

Parental care increases chances of survival of the young

BY:- Building of nests and burrows
- Care of eggs
- Provision of food for unborn/un-hatched young
- Provision of food for born/hatched young
- Protection of the young
- Providing social assistance to mature offspring
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HUMAN REPRODUCTION (41 marks)

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The human life cycle Structure of the male reproductive system

- G : Testes that produce sperms (by spermatogenesis) and secrete testosterone.

- F : The scrotum - protects the testes
- holds the testes “outside” the body, at 2°C lower than body temperature or
at 35°C which is necessary to produce healthy sperm cell.
If a man wear tight underwear, the temperature of the testes will be higher than normal,
resulting in production unhealthy sperm cells, low sperm count and reducing fertility.
- Tubes which carry spermatozoa to the outside
• D - Epididymis: Stores sperms temporarily
• B - Vas Deferens/Sperm duct: Carries sperms from epididymis into urethra
• C - Urethra is a passage of semen and urine
- Accessory glands ((K) seminal vesicle, (J) prostate gland and (H) Cowper’s gland):
• J - Prostate gland – secretes milky alkaline fluid that protects the perm by neutralizing the
acidity of the vagina and urethra.
– secretes fluid that aids sperm motility
• K - Seminal vesicle - secretes fluid that supply the spermatozoa with nutrients
• H - Cowper’s gland - Secrete fluid that lubricates the vagina during copulation.
- (E) Penis deposits sperm cells into vagina during copulation

PUBERTY in males under the influence of testosterone

o Growth of hair in pubic region, armpits, face and chest hair.
o Sperm production begins.
o Stronger muscular developments.
o Penis and testis enlarge.
o A deep voice (because they have a larger larynx and thicker vocal cords)
o Growth spurt may happen.
SPERMATOGENESIS is the process responsible for producing sperm cells/spermatozoa.
- Under the influence of testosterone
- Diploid cells in the seminiferous tubules of the testes undergo meiosis
- to form four haploid sperm cell
Spermatozoa is divided into head, middle piece and tail
- Head of sperm contain the haploid nucleus with the father’s DNA.
>The nucleus has 22 autosomes and 1 gonosome (X or Y chromosome)
- Acrosome contains enzymes to penetrate the outer layers of the ovum.
- Neck contains mitochondria that provide energy for movement of tail.
- Tail responsible for movement of sperm.
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FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

1 Fallopian tubes are the site of fertilisation
and they conduct eggs into uterus.
2. Ovaries - produce ovum (by oogenesis)
- secrete sex hormones (oestrogen and progesterone).
3 Uterus (womb) is the place where foetus
implants, develops and is protected.
4 Vagina receives sperm during copulation,
receives penis and serves as birth canal.
5 Cervix allows sperm cells to enter and
menstrual blood to leave uterus.
8 Vulva is the external opening of the vagina.
6 Endometrium The lining of the uterus which
is richly supplied with blood vessels

Oogenesis (is the process responsible for producing ova from germinal epithelium of ovaries)
• Under the influence of FSH
• diploid cells in the ovary undergo MITOSIS
• to form numerous follicles.
• One cell inside a follicle enlarges and undergoes MEIOSIS (in a Graafian follicle).
• Of the four cells that are produced, only one survives to form a mature, haploid ovum.

The structure of an egg cell

Puberty in females
- Main changes that occur in female characteristics during puberty
under the influence of oestrogen
o Breast development
o Growth of hair in pubic region and armpits
o Widening of pelvis and the hips.
o Menstruation occurs.
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Menstrual cycle
Describe the hormonal control of the menstrual cycle (ovarian and uterine cycles) with reference to
the action of FSH, oestrogen, LH and progesterone
- Menstrual cycle involves ovarian cycle and the uterine cycle
- It takes an average of 28 days
- The hypophysis secretes FSH
- FSH stimulates the development of a primary follicle into Graafian follicle in the ovary
- The Graafian follicle secretes oestrogen
- Oestrogen stimulates the endometrium to become thicker and glandular
- Around day 13 hypophysis secretes LH
- LH cause ovulation to occur every 4 weeks
- LH stimulates the remains of the Graafian follicle to develop into the corpus luteum
- Corpus luteum secretes progesterone
- Progesterone continues to stimulates the endometrium to become more thicker
in order to increase the chance for implantation of fertilized egg.
- High levels of progesterone in blood inhibits the production of FSH by hypophysis
so that the ovaries are no longer stimulated to produce another follicle
- If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates and stops producing
progesterone
- The hypophysis start secreting FSH and a new follicle develops
- The thick endometrium is no longer maintained and menstruation takes place
When a female stops releasing ova, she stops menstruating is called Menopause (Between 45
and 55 years)
Describe the negative feedback mechanism involving FSH and progesterone in controlling
the production of ova
- If fertilisation occurs high levels of progesterone from corpus luteum enters the blood
- The high levels of progesterone inhibits the production of FSH by hypophysis
- Low levels of FSH stop the development of an ovum inside a Graafian follicle
(No ovulation occurs when the individual is pregnant)
- If fertilisation does not occur the corpus luteum disintegrates
- progesterone levels decrease which stimulate the hypophysis to secrete more FSH
- more FSH stimulate another follicle is produce to produce another egg
The Ovarian Cycle
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FERTILISATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ZYGOTE INTO A BLASTOCYST
Fertilization (State where and describe how fertilisation occurs)
- Sperm moves up vagina, through cervix and into uterus.
- Fertilisation occurs in the fallopian tube
- When the sperm cell reaches ovum,
it releases the enzymes from the acrosome which breaks the membrane of egg cell.
- Head of sperm penetrates membrane and the tail lost
- Haploid nucleus from sperm fuses with haploid nucleus of ovum – this is called fertilisation
- And this process produces a diploid zygote
The development of zygote into a blastocyst
- The zygote divides by mitosis
- to form a ball of cells called the morula
- More mitotic divisions of the morula occurs to form a hollow ball of cells
- called a blastocyst
- The blastocyst attaches to the endometrial lining
- The outer wall of the blastocyst, called the chorion,
develops projections called villi
- chorion villi implants into the uterine wall

The cells of the embryo continues to divide and differentiate

to form the different organs and limbs and is now called a foetus

GESTATION = PREGNANCY
Is the period during which the embryo develops inside the mother’s uterus until the time the
baby is born.
After implantation,
the blastocyst develops two extra-embryonic membranes around itself: Amnion and Chorion

Amnion
• It has amniotic cavity filled with amniotic fluid.
Functions of amniotic fluid
- Protects the embryo from dehydration
- Allows free foetal movement for growth and development
- Protects the foetus against temperature fluctuations
- Protection of embryo from mechanical injury / acts as a shock absorber
Chorion forms chorion villi
• The chorionic villi are finger-like projections
• The chorionic villi together with the uterus wall in which the villi are inserted
makes up the placenta.

FUNCTIONS Placenta
- Physical attachment of the foetus to the wall of the uterus
- Exchange of soluble materials (food, waste, gases) between the mother and foetus.
- Protect the foetus from the mother’s immune system
- Secretes progesterone after 12 weeks
The umbilical cord has umbilical artery and umbilical vein
• Umbilical artery: Carries deoxygenated blood with nitrogenous waste from
the foetus to the placenta
• Umbilical vein: Carries oxygenated blood with dissolved food from placenta
to the embryo
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Birth
 Name the three stages of the natural birth process
o Labour:
- uterus contracts,
- head pushed against cervix,
- membranes break,
- cervix dilates
o Expulsion of baby:
- baby forced through vagina,
- umbilical cord is cut,
- baby handed to mother
o Release of the afterbirth:
- placenta becomes loose,
- placenta pushed out as ‘afterbirth’

Cross-section through a testis

THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
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RESPONDING TO THE ENVIRONMENT (HUMAN) (54 marks)

Introduction
• The nervous system (involving nerves) and endocrine system (involving hormones)
are two components that help us respond to the environment
• Stimulus is a detectable change in the external or internal environment
HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
The need for a nervous system in humans:
• Reaction to stimuli (stimuli can be external and internal)
• Coordination of the various activities of the body

Nervous system

Central nervous system Peripheral nervous system

The brain and spinal cord All nerves outside the central nervous system

Autonomic nervous system Somatic nervous system

Parts of the nervous system that controls All parts of nervous system that enables the
the internal environment body to react to changes in the external
environment

Sympathetic nervous system Parasympathetic nervous system

Central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)
• The brain and spinal cord are protected by meninges and the Cerebrospinal fluid
• Meninges are membranes that surround and protect the central nervous system
• Cerebrospinal fluid functions acts a shock absorber and prevents dehydration

Cerebrum Hypothalamus
 controls all voluntary actions  Control centre for
 versa
receives and interprets all body temperature,
sensation from sense organs blood pressure,
 controls all the higher thought sleep, appetite, thirst
processes such reasoning and emotions

Corpus callosum
Pituitary gland connect the two
hemispheres of the
brain
Medulla oblongata
• controls involuntary actions
such as breathing and Cerebellum
heartbeat.  Co-ordinates all
• It conducts impulses voluntary movements
between the spinal cord and Spinal cord e.g. walking
brain - It conducts impulses between  Maintains muscle tone,
• It allows impulses to cross on the brain and the receptors and balance and equilibrium
the other side results in left effectors
side of the brain controlling the - It serves as a centre for
right side of the body and vice reflex actions
versa
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Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
o Includes all nerves outside the brain and spinal cord (cranial and spinal nerves)
o Transmits impulses from the body to the CNS and from the CNS to the body
o PNS forms the somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system
o Somatic nervous system – receives information form sensory organs and the brain
o Autonomic nervous system – controls involuntary actions
Autonomic nervous system
o Consist of the sympathetic and parasympathetic system
o Sympathetic nervous system – prepare the body for the stress or emergency by
increasing the heart rate and breathing rate
o Parasympathetic nervous system – slows down the body activities by decreasing the
heart rate and breathing rate
o The sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system work
antagonistically (work against each other)
o Each organ will have nerves both sympathetic and parasympathetic systems and this is
called Double innervation.

Structure and functioning of a nerve

o Nervous tissue is made up of nerve cells called Neurons
o Impulses always travel from the dendrites to the cell body then to the axon
o The axon is covered (insulated) by the myelin sheath.
o Myelin sheath – surrounds (insulates) the axons of a neuron in order to
accelerate the speed of transmission of an impulse
o Nucleus – controls all the cell’s functions
o Cell body – consists of the cytoplasm with a nucleus
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Type Structure Function

Carry impulses
Sensory
from receptor to
neuron
interneuron

carry impulses towards cell body Impulse direction

Carry impulses
from
Interneuron
sensory neuron to
motor neuron

Impulse direction

Carry impulses
from
Motor
interneuron
neuron
to
effector
carry impulses away
Impulse direction from cell body
o

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SENSORY NEURON AND MOTOR NEURON

Sensory Neuron Motor Neuron

- Has only one dendrite - Has many dendrites
- Shorter axon - Longer axon
- Dendrite and axon are both myelinated - Only the axon is myelinated.
- Found in dorsal root. - Found in ventral root
- Carries impulse from receptor to interneuron - Carries impulse from interneuron to effector
Synapse/synaptic gap
- Synapse is a point where an impulse passes
from the end of one neuron to the dendrite of
the next
- Therefore the neurons never touch
each other.
Significance of a synapse
- The synaptic gap insures impulses can only
travel in one direction and it prevents
continuous stimulation of the neurons

The simple reflex arc

o Reflex action – is a rapid, automatic (involuntary) response to a stimulus
received by a receptor or an organ.
o Reflex arc – the path taken by an impulse in bringing about a response to a
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stimulus during a reflex action.

o Sensory neurons enter the Dorsal root of the spinal nerves, while interneurons are situated
in the spinal cord and motor neurons leave the spinal cord through the Ventral root
o Dorsal root ganglion contains cell bodies of sensory neurons
o White matter consist of myelinated axons of numerous neurons and
o Grey matter consist of cell body and dendrites of numerous neurons

Describing a reflex action

o Receptors in the skin receive the stimulus
o Stimulus is converted into a nerve impulse
o The sensory neuron carries the impulse from the receptor to the interneuron / connector
neuron, via the dorsal root of the spinal nerve
o The connector neuron transmits the impulse from sensory neuron to the motor neuron
o The motor neuron carries the impulse from interneuron to the effector /
muscle via the ventral root of the spinal nerve
o The effector contracts and pulls the hand away.
o The impulse is conducted from one neuron to the next across a synapse
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o The reflex action provides a quick response to the stimulus so injury is minimised
Examples of reflex action
 Blinking
 Coughing
 Sneezing
 Knee-jerk
 Pulling your hand away from a hot object
Significance of a reflex action
o Helps to protect the body (from further harm) by involuntarily reacting quickly to stimulus
(without involving the brain)
o If the brain is involved, reaction will be delayed resulting in further damage to the body
(So reflex action allows the person to respond rapidly without thinking to stimulus to prevent
damage to the body.)

Disorders of the CNS

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) Multiple sclerosis

• An irreversible neuro-degenerative disease
that damages the mental and intellectual
functioning of the brain
• Usually occurs in older people but is not part
of normal aging process
• Occurs when the body’s own immune
system destroys the myelin sheath.
A person with multiple sclerosis has
problems with sensation, movement and
mental abilities

• Symptoms include memory loss, confusion • Symptoms include muscle weakness, speech
and loss of judgment difficulties and visual problems

RECEPTORS
Receptors are specialized cells that detect a variety of different stimuli and convert them into
nerve impulse
Sense organs are a concentration of receptors with the same function

Stimuli detected by receptors

 Light  Sound  Temperature  Pressure  Pain  Chemicals (taste and smell)

HUMAN EYE
 The receptors that detect light stimuli are known as photoreceptors (the rods and cones)
and are concentrated in the retina of the eye
 The front of the eye is covered by a thin membrane called the Conjunctiva
 Receptors in conjunctiva are stimulated by dust resulting in blinking
 Each eye also has six muscles to move the eye in all directions

Binocular vision
 Humans have binocular vision (stereoscopic vision) in which we
 Binocular vision means using two eyes to see and each eye produces a slightly different
image of the same object and allows us to judge distance, depth and size of an object.
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Structures of the human eye: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=syaQgmxb5i0

How light travels in the eye

 Light enters the eye through the cornea which refracts the light
 Light then passes through the aqueous humour and the pupil
 The size of the pupil is adjusted by the iris to regulate the amount of light that enters
the eye
 The light then passes through the lens which also refracts the light
 Light then passes through the vitreous humour and reaches the retina
 The retina has the photoreceptors which convert the light stimulus into a nerve impulse
 Nerve impulse travels using the optic nerve to the cerebrum
Pupillary mechanism
The pupillary mechanism (or pupil reflex) regulates the amount of light entering the eye by
adjusting the size of the pupil.
 48
Bright light
 Radial muscles of the iris relax
 Circular muscles of the iris contract
 Pupil constricts (gets smaller)
 Less light enters the eye
for 2022 SH
Dim light
 Radial muscles of the iris contract
 Circular muscles of the iris relax
 Pupil widens (gets bigger/dilates)
 More light enters the eye

Accommodation
Accommodation is the adjustment of the shape of the lens to see objects clearly whether they are
far away or close by.
Distant vision (objects further than 6m)
- Ciliary muscles relax
- Suspensory ligaments tighten
- Tension on lens increases
- Lens is less convex (flatter)
- Light rays are refracted (bent) less
- Light rays are focused onto the retina
Near vision (objects closer than 6m)
- Ciliary muscles contract
- Suspensory ligaments slacken
- Tension on the lens decreases
- Lens becomes more convex
- Light rays are refracted (bent) more
- Light rays are focused onto the retina

Structural suitability of a lens

- Lens is elastic therefore can change shape to allow for accommodation
- Lens is transparent to allow light rays to pass through
- Lens is biconvex to refract light rays
The nature and treatment of visual defects
(1) Short sightedness/Myopia (2) Long sightedness/Hyperopia
Description Can see near objects clearly Can see clearly objects that are far away
Inability of lens to become more flat Inability of lens to become
Eyeball is longer than normal more convex
Nature of Lens bends light too much Eyeball is shorter than normal
defect
Light falls in front of the retina Lens does not bend light rays enough
Light falls behind the retina
Corrective
Glasses with concave lens Glasses with a convex lens
measure
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Eyeball is longer than normal Eyeball is too rounded

Light falls in front of the retina

Light falls in behind the retina
Diagram

Biconcave lens Convex lens

near-sightedness can be corrected long-sightedness can be corrected by

by using concave lenses using convex lenses

(3) Astigmatism - when the curvature of the lens or cornea is uneven

resulting in distorted images.
- Corrected with glasses shaped to correct distortion
(4) Cataracts - when the lens becomes cloudy and opaque.
- Corrected by surgery to replace the lens with a synthetic lens.

HUMAN EAR
The ears are sense organs and contain two types of sensory receptors
One is sensitive to the stimulus of gravity and the other one is sensitive to sound
The ear consist of three regions: an External air-filled region; a middle air-filled region and an
inner fluid-filled region.

Outer ear

o Consist of the pinna and an

auditory canal

o The auditory canal contains

Cerumen (wax) and hairs that
prevent small organisms from
entering the ear
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Middle ear
o Consist of the tympanic membrane, ossicles,
oval window and round window
o Ossicles are the Hammer, Anvil and Stirrup
(H.A.S)
o Ossicles amplify sound vibrations
o The hammer is attached to the tympanic
membrane, the anvil lies between the
hammer and stirrup while the stirrup is
attached to the oval window
o The middle ear is connected to the pharynx
(part of the throat) by the Eustachian tube

Inner ear
Vibrations causes pressure waves in the liquid of the perilymph in the inner ear
Pressure waves cause the Organ of Corti to convert the stimulus into an impulse
Round window prevents pressure accumulating and echoes

Hearing
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Describe hearing
o The sound waves were directed by the pinna through the auditory canal to the
tympanic membrane
o the tympanic membrane vibrates
o The vibrations of the tympanic membrane are transferred to the ossicles in the middle ear
o Ossicles amplify the vibrations
o Vibrations of the ossicles cause the oval window to vibrate
o This set up pressure waves in the cochlea
o This stimulated the Organ of Corti in the cochlea to convert this stimulus into a nerve
impulse
o The nerve impulse is then transmitted along the auditory nerve and interpreted in the
cerebrum
- Excess pressure in the inner ear is eased through the Round window
- Excess pressure in the middle ear is eased through the Eustachian tube
Balance
o A change in the direction and speed of the body causes the movement of endolymph fluid
in the semi-circular canals,
which stimulates the cristae in the ampulla
o A change in the position of the head stimulated the maculae in
the utriculus and sacculus
o The stimuli were converted into impulses and transported via the auditory nerve to
cerebellum to be interpreted
o Cerebellum then send impulses to the muscles via motor neurons
to restore balance and equilibrium

Consequences of a blocked Eustachian tube or infection in the Eustachian tube

Eustachian tube will no longer equalise pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane
since air cannot enter or leave. Tympanic membrane will not vibrate freely, this may lead to
the tympanic membrane bursting and therefore could lead to hearing loss/ deafness/pain
Consequences of fused ossicles
Ossicles will not be able to vibrate and transfer vibrations to the oval window and hearing will
be affected
Structural suitability of the tympanic membrane and oval window to amplify sound
Tympanic membrane has a larger surface area than the oval window. Therefore the
incoming sound waves are concentrated on to a smaller area thus amplifying the sound
Hearing defects
Hearing defect Causes Treatment
• Bacterial infection
• Eustachian tube is blocked by fluid. - Inserting a
Middle ear • Pressure builds up in the middle ear grommet
infection
• causing hearing loss because the tympanic
- Antibiotics
membrane cannot vibrate freely
- Injury to parts of the ear
- Hearing aids
- Injury to parts of the brain responsible for hearing
Deafness - Cochlear
- Hardened wax
implants
- Fused ossicles

Grommet
- Allows air to enter the middle ear thereby taking over the function the Eustachian tube
- Allows excess fluid to drain from middle ear
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Hearing aid amplify sound waves to the tympanic membrane

Cochlear implants
- Stimulate any functioning auditory nerve inside the cochlea with an electric field
- It is done surgically

HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (34 marks)

o It works with nervous system and its sense receptors to respond to changes in the
environment
o The human endocrine system is a chemical messenger system made up of glands that
secretes hormones directly into the blood stream
o Hormones are organic chemical messengers secreted directly into blood.
o Hormones cause target organs to perform specific function.
o The body has both endocrine and exocrine glands

Difference between an endocrine and exocrine glands

Exocrine glands Endocrine glands

Description Exocrine glands are glands that secrete
substances into ducts into body cavities
or to external environment
Example Sweat glands, mammary glands, liver,
salivary glands and pancreas
Endocrine glands has no ducts and
they secrete hormones directly into
blood
Hypothalamus, hypophysis, thyroid
gland, islets of Langerhans in the
pancreas, ovary, testes
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Differences between endocrine and nervous system
Endocrine system Nervous system
o Made up of glands o Made up of nerves
o Produces hormones o Produces nerve impulses
o Hormones are transported by blood o Impulses are transmitted along the nerves
o Effects are slower and more general o Effects are very quick and very specific
o Hormones control long term changes like o Nerves control short term changes like sneezing
growth
Similarities between hormones and nerves
o They respond to internal and external stimuli
o They protect organisms
How the endocrine glands function
o The endocrine glands works in conjunction with the nervous system
o The endocrine system is responsible for chemical coordination and regulating the
functioning of all organs in the body
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ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Gland Hormone Functions of hormones

° Controls the level of water in the body by:
Hypothalamus
ADH - Controlling the permeability of the kidney tubules,
Underside of the - thus controlling the re-absorption of water in
brain the body
Thyroid ° Regulates the metabolic rate e.g. respiration
Thyroxin ° Affects growth and functioning of the heart and
Either side of the
trachea nervous system
° Stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete more
thyroxin when its level is low
TSH
° Stimulates the thyroid gland so to secrete less
Pituitary/
Hypophysis thyroxin when its level is high
FSH ° Stimulates the primary follicles to become
At the base of the Graafian follicle to form an egg cell in the ovary
brain, attached to ° Stimulates ovulation
LH
the hypothalamus
° Converts the Graafian follicle into a corpus luteum
Prolactin ° Stimulates the production of milk in the mother
Growth ° Controls the growth and development of the
hormone skeleton and the muscles
° Decreases blood glucose level by:
Pancreas - stimulating the conversion of glucose into
Insulin
Attached to the glycogen for storage in the liver and muscles
duodenum / in the - promoting the absorption of glucose into the cells
loop of the ° Increases blood glucose level by:
duodenum Glucagon
- stimulating the conversion of glycogen to glucose
° Prepares the body for an emergency by:
- Stimulating the conversion of glycogen to glucose
Adrenal Adrenalin - Increasing the breathing rate
- Increasing the heart-beat
On each kidney
- Increasing the metabolic rate
Aldosterone ° Regulates the amount of salt in the blood
° Works with ADH to bring about water balance
° Development of secondary sexual characteristics
in females
Ovaries Oestrogen ° Starts preparation for pregnancy by making the
endometrium thicker, more vascular and more
In the glandular
Pelvic region of the
abdominal cavity ° Continues the preparation for pregnancy by
Progesterone making the endometrium thicker, more vascular
and more glandular
° Maintains the endometrium during pregnancy
Testes in the ° Development of secondary sexual characteristics
Testosterone
Pelvic region in males
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HOMEOSTASIS THROUGH NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM

The regulation of thyroxin in the human body.

Thyroxin levels increase above normal limits Thyroxin levels decrease below normal limits

1: Pituitary gland is stimulated 1: Pituitary gland is stimulated

2: Pituitary gland secretes less TSH
3: Low TSH level stimulates the thyroid gland
4: The thyroid gland secretes less thyroxin
5: The thyroxin level thus decreases
6: Thyroxin level returns to normal
2: Pituitary gland secretes more TSH
3: High TSH level stimulates the thyroid gland
4: The thyroid gland secretes more thyroxin
5: The thyroxin level thus increases
6: Thyroxin level returns to normal

Thyroid disorders
Thyroid under secretion
o Less thyroxin is secreted by thyroid gland
o Metabolic rate decreases
o Heart beat rate decreases
o The energy levels decrease
o More glucose is stored as glycogen
o Weight gain
This condition is called Hypothyroidism
Goitre
Thyroid over secretion
o More thyroxin is secreted by thyroid gland
o Metabolic rate increases
o Heart beat rate increases
o All energy from food eaten will be used
o Hyperactivity may result in anxiety
o Weight loss
This condition is called Hyperthyroidism

o the thyroid gland requires iodine to function properly

o absence of iodine causes goitre
o goitre is the swelling of the neck as a result of enlargement of
thyroid gland

Blood sugar level

When the glucose level in the blood increases above normal levels
o Glucose levels in the blood increase above normal levels
o The pancreas is stimulated
o to secretes insulin into the blood
o Insulin travels in the blood to the liver
o where it stimulates the conversion of excess glucose to glycogen which is then
stored in the liver
o The glucose level in the blood now decreases and returns to normal
When the glucose level in the blood decreases below normal levels:
o Glucose levels in the blood decrease below normal levels
o The pancreas is stimulated
o to secrete glucagon into the blood
o Glucagon travels in the blood to the liver
o where it stimulates the conversion of stored glycogen to glucose which is then
released into blood
o The glucose level in the blood now increases and return to normal
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Diabetes mellitus
Causes Symptoms Management
o Inadequate section of insulin o Glucose in urine o Exercise
o Non secretion of insulin o Frequent urination o Eating diet suitable for
o Production of defective insulin o Extreme thirst diabetic person
o Body cells are resistant to action o Fatigue o Using prescribed
of insulin o Weight loss medication/drugs
o Inability of cells to use insulin o Blurred vision
efficiently o Non healing wounds

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

The regulation of carbon dioxide levels in the internal environment

When the CO2 level in the blood increases above normal levels:
o High CO2 levels in the blood stimulate the receptor cells in the carotid artery
o The stimulus is converted to an impulse
o and sent to medulla oblongata
o Medulla oblongata stimulates the heart to beat faster
o Bringing blood with CO2 quickly to the lungs
o Medulla oblongata stimulates the breathing muscles
o to increase the depth and rate of breathing
o More CO2 is quickly exhaled from the lungs
o The CO2 level in the blood decreases to normal

The regulation of WATER BALANCE in the internal environment (osmoregulation)

When the blood has less water than normal:

o Blood has less water than normal
o The osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus are stimulated
o Hypothalamus sends impulses to the pituitary gland to release more ADH
o more ADH is carried by blood to the kidneys
o ADH increases the permeability of the collecting ducts and the distal convoluted tubules
of the kidney
o More water is re-absorbed by osmosis and passed to
the surrounding blood vessels
o Concentrated urine is formed and excreted and less urine is released
o The water level in the blood increases to normal

When the blood has more water than normal:

o Blood has more water than normal

o The osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus are stimulated
o Hypothalamus sends impulses to the pituitary gland to stop releasing ADH
o no ADH is carried by blood to the kidneys
o less ADH decreases the permeability of the collecting ducts and the distal convoluted
tubules of the kidney
o Less water is re-absorbed by osmosis and passed to the surrounding blood vessels
o More water is lost as diluted urine
o The water level in the blood decreases to normal
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When the salt level in the blood decreases:

o The salt level in the blood decreases
o Receptor cells in the afferent and efferent arterioles of the kidney detect the low salt level
o The adrenal gland is stimulated to secret more aldosterone
o
Salt regulation

Aldosterone increases the re-absorption of salt from the renal tubules in the kidney into
the surrounding blood vessels
o The salt level in the blood vessels increases
and returns back to normal
When the salt level in the blood increases:
o The salt level in the blood increases
o Receptor cells in the afferent and efferent arterioles of the kidney detect the high salt level
o The adrenal gland is stimulated to stop secreting aldosterone
o This decreases the re-absorption of salt from the renal tubules in the kidney into the
surrounding blood vessels
o The salt level in the blood vessels decreases
o and returns back to normal

Thermoregulation
The structure of a skin

o The skin is adapted to aid in temperature regulation by having:-

 many blood vessels and capillaries
 numerous sweat glands
 fat tissue
 thermoreceptors – receptors that are sensitive to changes in temperature
 a large surface area
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Thermoregulation
HOT day
On a hot day, body temperature increases
above normal
- Heat receptors in the skin are stimulated by
high temperature
- Impulses are send to the Hypothalamus
- Hypothalamus sent impulses to the blood
vessels in the skin and to the sweat glands
- Vasodilation occurs
• More blood flows to the skin surface
• More heat is lost from the
body through radiation
•The sweat glands produce more sweat
• more heat is lost through evaporation of sweat • less heat is lost through evaporation of sweat
• the body temperature decreases to normal
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Cold day
On a cold day, body temperature decreases
below normal
- Heat receptors in the skin are stimulated by
low temperature
- Impulses are send to the Hypothalamus
- Hypothalamus sent impulses to the blood
vessels in the skin and to the sweat glands
- Vasoconstriction occurs
• Less blood flows to the skin surface
• Less heat is therefore lost from the
body through radiation
• The sweat glands produce less sweat
• the body temperature increases to normal
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PLANT RESPONSE TO THE ENVIRONMENT (13 marks)

Plant hormones are not true hormones because they work in the part of the plant where they
are produced.
Auxins
Is secreted at the tip of the stem and
tip of the root
FUNCTIONS OF AUXINS
• Promotes cell division
• Promotes cell elongation
• It causes phototropism and geotropism
• It is responsible for apical dominance
• Promotes development of fruits
• Promotes development of adventitious roots in cuttings
• Inhibits abscission of leaves
FUNCTIONS OF GIBBERELLINS
• Stimulate elongation of internodes of stems
• Stimulates germination of seeds
• It increases fruit size
• Stimulates root growth
• Stimulate development of flowers
• Promotes growths of dormant buds
• Delay ageing of leaves and fruits

ABSCISIC ACID (FUNCTIONS)

 Promotes dormancy of seeds
 Promotes dormancy of apical buds in winter
 Promotes ageing of leaves
 Promotes abscission in leaves and fruit
 Causes rapid closing of stoma during dry periods
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Role of plant hormones in Agriculture
 Auxin is used as weed killer, e.g. auxin base herbicides herbicide selectively kill weeds
and not maize.
 Auxins stimulate fruit development (seedless fruits)
 Gibberellins increases the fruit size.
 Gibberellins stimulates seed germination so seeds germinate at the same time
 Abscisic acid promotes dormancy of seeds
 Auxins promotes root formation in cuttings
Plant defence mechanism
1. Thorns – discourage grazers from feeding on plants in order to reduce water loss
2. Chemicals – protect plants against infections and being eaten by
herbivores by producing unpleasant taste or smell
TERMS
Tropism – growth movement of plant part in response to a stimulus
Phototropism – growth movement of plant parts in response to a stimulus of light
(Stems are positively phototropic and roots are negatively phototropic)
Geotropism – growth movement of plant parts in response to a stimulus of gravity
(Stems are negatively geotropic and roots are positively geotropic)
Direction of light :
1. UNILATERAL LIGHT – light received from ONE direction
2. UNIFORM LIGHT / EQUILATERAL LIGHT – light received from ALL directions
PHOTOTROPISM ( IN UNIFORM LIGHT ) GEOTROPISM ( UPRIGHT ROOT )
 Auxins produced at the tip of the stem  Auxins produced at the tip of the root
 Move evenly down the stem  Move evenly up the root
 Even distribution of auxins causes equal  Even distribution of auxins causes equal
growth on all sides of the stem growth on all sides of the root
 The stem will grow straight upwards  The root will grow straight downwards
PHOTOTROPISM ( IN UNILATERAL LIGHT ) GEOTROPISM ( HORIZONTAL ROOT )
 When the stem is exposed to unilateral light  When the root is placed horizontally
 Auxins produced at the tip of the stem move  Auxins produced at the tip of the root move to
away from lighted to shaded side the lower side due to gravity
 There will be high concentration of auxins  There will be high concentration of auxins
on the shaded side, promoting cell on the lower side, inhibiting cell elongation
elongation and growth and growth
 There will be low concentration of auxins on  There will be low concentration of auxins
the lighted side, inhibiting cell elongation on the upper side, promoting cell elongation
and growth and growth
 This uneven growth causes the stem to  This uneven growth causes the root to bend
bend towards the light. downwards.
 The stem is positively phototropic  The roots are positively geotropic