Philosophical and Sociological

Perspectives of the Self

Understanding The Self - Week 2
Intended Learning Outcomes:
• Understand the different philosophical concepts
and perspectives on the nature of self, including
theories from various philosophers throughout
history;
• Develop the ability to critically analyze various
philosophical theories about selfhood,
comparing and contrasting their strengths,
weaknesses, and implications;
Intended Learning Outcomes:
• Demonstrate an understanding of major
sociological theories related to the self, such as
symbolic interactionism, socialization, and the
construction of identity; and,
• Analyze how societal factors, including culture,
social norms, institutions, and social interactions,
shape the development and construction of
individual and collective identities.
PHILOSOPHICAL
PERSPECTIVES
Socrates (470-399 BC)
• Nosce te ipsum (Know thyself)
• Every human being possesses an
immortal soul that survives the death of
the physical body.
• “I know that I know nothing.”
• “An unexamined life is not worth
living.”
• The ultimate goal of life is to be happy.
 Self

Physical Realm Ideal Realm

Immortal Soul
Physical Body (Visible)
(Invisible)

• changing • unchanging
• immortal
• imperfect • survives the death
• dies of the body
Socrates (470-399 BC)
• Virtue and knowledge are intrinsic to the
human person and can be accessed through
self-examination.
• “The goal of life is to know thyself and to
improve our souls through virtuous living.”
• Socratic method of inquiry – the dialogue
between the soul and itself. In between a
student and his teacher (role of a questioner)
– to discover the truths.
Plato (428-347 BC)
• The concept of two worlds: the world of
Forms (non-physical ideas) and the world
of Senses (reality)
• The soul is an entity distinct from the body.
• Theory of the soul as being tripartite,
consisting of three distinct elements:
reason (logos), spirit (thumos), and
appetite (epithumia)
 Self

Reason Spirit Appetite

head chest abdomen

Enables a person to Basic emotions (i.e. Basic biological

think deeply, make wise
love, anger, ambition, needs (e.g. hunger,
choices, and achieve a
true understanding of
aggressiveness, thirst, sexual
eternal truths empathy) desires)
Plato (428-347 BC)
• Justice in the human person can only be
attained if the three parts of the soul are
working harmoniously with one another.
• “The self is an immortal soul.”
• All knowledge is recollection.
• Beauty goes beyond the body or the world of
material things.
• The highest goal of self in education is the
Form of the Good.
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
• “Man is a rational animal.”
• “The soul is the essence of the self.”
• The concept of hylomorphism. “Hyle”
means matter, and “morphe” means form.
• Three levels of soul: (1) vegetative soul, (2)
sensitive soul, and (3) rational soul.
• The self is created for a purpose.
• Eudaimonia (Human Flourishing)
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
• The self is inherently social and finds its
fullest expression within a community or
society.
• Happiness is the final pursuit (chief end) of
human aspirations and desires.
St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
• Theory of Self-knowledge states that
one’s knowledge about himself is
dependent on his experience of the
world around him.
• The problem of self-opacity occurs
when an individual experiences difficulty
when trying to fully understand himself.
St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
• Human beings possess both natural
reason and divine revelation.
• Reason is a unique and defining
characteristic of the human self.
• Rational thinking and the study of nature
enable the self to attain a deeper
understanding of God and achieve
salvation.
St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
• Three theological virtues – faith, hope,
and charity
• Four cardinal virtues – prudence,
temperance, justice, and fortitude
• The goal of self-existence is union and
eternal fellowship with God.
St. Augustine (354-430 BC)
• The body is united with the soul, so man may
be entire and complete.
• Two realms according to St. Augustine: (1)
the intelligible realm and (2) the sensible
realm
• Humankind is created in the likeness and
image of God.
• Existence of free will
• Human beings are inherently sinful due to
the original sin of Adam and Eve.
St. Augustine (354-430 BC)
• The self is known only through knowing
God.
• “I am doubting, therefore I am.”
• The self exists in time, which is subjected
to change and mortality.
• The tripartite nature of the self:
Memory, Intellect, and Will
 Self

Memory Intellect Will

• Experiences, The power to

thoughts, emotions, Rational thought,
direct one's
and sensory logical reasoning,
perceptions
desires and
and intellectual
• Personal history affections toward
inquiry
and self-awareness various objects
Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
• Knowledge is power.
• Two independent elements of knowledge:
experience and reason
• To arrive at knowledge, the self must study
natures with the intention of grasping their
forces.
• Human mind is a crooked mirror.
• The human mind must be free from all
prejudices (idols) and pre-conceived attitudes.
 Idols of the Mind
• Idols of the Tribe (Idola Tribus) – common to all
individuals
• Idols of the Cave (Idola Specus) – individual
prejudices
• Idols of the Marketplace (Idola Fori) – language-
based misunderstandings
• Idols of the Theater (Idola Theatri) – errors
resulting from dogmatic beliefs
Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
• The human mind is fitted for knowledge of
nature and must derive it from observation,
not from abstract reasoning.
• The pursuit of knowledge should be guided by
ethical principles and aimed at practical
applications.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
• Human beings are inherently selfish and driven
by a desire for power.
• Two absolute postulates of human nature: (1)
postulate of greed, and (2) postulate of natural
reason
• The desire to preserve one’s own life and seek
personal pleasure while avoiding pain.
• Man’s life in the state of nature is solitary, poor
nasty, brutish, and short.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
• Human judgment is unreliable and needs to be
guided by science.
• Human beings are needy and vulnerable.
• Human beings are mechanical objects,
programmed to pursue their self-interest and
materialistic desires.
• Men form peaceful societies by entering into a
social contract.
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
• “If you would be a real seeker after truth,
it is necessary that at least once in your life
you doubt, as far as possible, all things.”
• “Cogito ergo sum” (I think, therefore I
exist)
• Self-awareness as the foundation of
knowledge.
• Self identity is mutually dependent on self-
consciousness.
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
• Mind-Body Dualism – The self is a
combination of two distinct entities: (a)
cognito or the mind, and (b) extenza or
extension of the mind
• The physical body is secondary to personal
identity.
• The thinking self connects with the physical
self through the pineal gland.
• Hyperbolical or metaphysical doubt
(methodological skepticism)
John Locke (1632-1704)
• Tabula Rasa – the mind is a blank slate at
birth
• Knowledge comes from direct sense
experience.
• The self is a thinking, conscious being.
• Consciousness is necessary for a unified
self-identity in different times and places.
• Personal identity is closely tied to memory.
John Locke (1632-1704)
• Concept of accountability
• The essence of self is its conscious
awareness of itself.
• Every aspect of the physical body
(substance) is integrated with one’s
personal identity.
• Society and culture play a crucial role in
shaping an individual's self-concept and
moral beliefs.
David Hume (1711-1774)
• Supported Locke’s empiricist belief that
knowledge is gained through direct sense
experience.
• Bundle Theory – the self is a bundle or
collection of fleeting perceptions and
experiences.
• There are only two distinct entities: (1)
impressions – basic sensations of the
experience, and (2) ideas – copies of
impressions.
David Hume (1711-1774)
• There is no self. “All ideas are ultimately
derived from impression. Hence, the idea of
persisting self is ultimately derived from
impression but, no impression is a persisting
thing. Therefore, there cannot be any
persisting idea of self.”
• Death is a person’s final destination.
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
• The view of the self is a response to Hume
• The self is transcendental.
• Knowledge connects the self and the
material things together.
• Apperception
• Two kinds of consciousness: (a)
consciousness of oneself and one’s
psychological states in inner sense, and (b)
consciousness of oneself and one’s states via
performing acts of apperception
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
• Three types of synthesis are required to
organize information:
1. Apprehending in intuition
2. Recognizing in concepts
3. Reproducing in the imagination
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
• The self is multitiered, divided among
conscious, subconscious, and unconscious.
• Great emphasis on the unconscious aspect
of the self
• Concept of defense mechanism
• Psychoanalytic Theory is based on the
notion that the unconscious self influences
the conscious and rational thought.
TOPOGRAPHICAL THEORY OF
THE HUMAN MIND
• Conscious – all the mental
processes an individual is aware
of
• Pre-conscious or Subconscious –
thoughts and feelings that an
individual is not aware of, but
can easily be brought into
consciousness
• Unconscious – a repository of
primitive wishes and impulses
STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN PSYCHE
• Id – It operates on the pleasure principle. It
is the impulsive (unconscious) part of the
mind that responds directly and immediately
to basic urges, needs, and desires.
• Ego – It operates according to the reality
principle, working out realistic ways of
satisfying the id’s demands, often
compromising or postponing satisfaction to
avoid negative consequences of society.
• Superego – It incorporates the values and
morals of society. It is the voice of
conscience and the source of self-criticism.
 Two Systems of the Superego

Conscience Ideal Self

The system that It is an imaginary

makes a person picture of how a
feels bad through person ought to
guilt. be.
Gilbert Ryle (1900-1976)
• The self is defined by a person’s behavior
and actions.
• He rejected the idea of Cartesian Dualism.
• He viewed the distinction between the
soul and the physical body as a
“categorical mistake”.
• The concept of “the ghost in the
machine”
Patricia Churchland (1943)
• The self is the brain.
• Consciousness and decision-making are just
functions of the brain.
• Science plays a significant role in
understanding how the brain and the self
have evolved over time.
• Science allows people to know.
• It is the free will that works when a person
makes decisions.
Paul Churchland
• The sense of “self” originated from the brain
and is a product of electrochemical signals
produced by the brain.
• Eliminative Materialism – people’s common-
sense understanding of mental states and
concepts may be fundamentally flawed and
should be eliminated in favor of a more
neuroscientific and materialistic account.
• Neuroscience is the key to understanding the
nature of the self.
Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908-1961)
• Embodied nature of the self (Embodied
Subjectivity)
• The body acts what the mind perceives
as a unified one.
• The idea of “perceptual intentionality,”
which states that perception is a
fundamental aspect of self-experience.
• The self is not isolated but is defined by
its social and relational context.
Socrates • Dualistic nature of the self (body and soul)
• Importance of self-knowledge in attaining a virtuous
and happy life
• Socratic method of inquiry
Plato • Dualistic nature of the self (body and soul)
• The immortal soul is the self.
• Tripartite nature of the soul – reason, spirit, and
appetite
• Collection and Division
Aristotle • Humans are rational animals.
• Hylomorphism (body and soul as two inseparable
entities)
• Eudaimonia (human flourishing)
St. Thomas Aquinas • Theory of Self-Knowledge and the Problem of Self-
Opacity
• Three theological virtues and Four cardinal virtues
Saint Augustine • Theory of Forms
• All knowledge leads to God.
• Tripartite nature of the self (memory, intellect, and will)
Francis Bacon • Power of knowledge
• Idols of the mind
Thomas Hobbes • Selfish nature of human beings (self-interest and
materialistic desires)
• Social contract
Rene Descartes • Methodical skepticism
• “I think, therefore I am.”
• Mind-Body Dualism
John Locke • Tabula Rasa
• Knowledge is derived from sense experience.
• The self consists of memories.
• Concept of accountability
David Hume • Self does not exist.
• Knowledge comes from sense experience.
• Bundle Theory
• Two groups of the mind’s perception (impressions and
ideas)
Immanuel Kant • The self is transcendental.
• Apperception
• Two components of the self (inner self and outer self)
Sigmund Freud • Importance of the unconscious self
• Psychoanalysis
• Topographical theory of the human mind (conscious,
subconscious, and unconscious)
• Iceberg theory of the human psyche (id, ego, superego)
Gilbert Ryle • “I act, therefore I am.”
• “the ghost in the machine”
Patricia and Paul Churchland
Maurice Merleau-Ponty
• The concept of the self originated from the brain.
• Importance of neuroscience in understanding the nature
of the self
• Empirical materialism (Paul Churchland)
• The self is an “embodied subjectivity.”
 REFERENCES
• Otig, V.S. et al. (2019). A Holistic Approach in Understanding the Self. Mutya
Publishing House, Inc.
• Ariola, M.M. (2018). Understanding the Self. Unlimited Books Library Services &
Publishing, Inc.
• https://philonotes.com/2022/05/socratess-concept-of-the-self
• https://www.pearsonhighered.com/assets/samplechapter/0/1/3/0/013048069X
.pdf
• https://philonotes.com/2022/05/platos-concept-of-the-self
• https://philonotes.com/2022/05/aristotles-concept-of-the-self
• https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/francis-bacon/
• https://iep.utm.edu/hobmoral/#H4
• https://www.simplypsychology.org/unconscious-mind.html