PR1 A REVIEWER

MELC 1
Case Study:
•A case study is an in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, event, or phenomenon. Researchers often use case
studies to understand complex issues and explore the nuances of a particular situation. Case studies typically involve multiple
sources of data and may use different methods of data collection such as interviews, observations, and document analysis.

Ethnography:
•Ethnography is a type of study that focuses on understanding the culture, beliefs, and practices of a particular group or
community. Ethnographers often conduct fieldwork, immersing themselves in the community being studied to gain a deep
understanding of its customs, values, and social dynamics. Ethnography typically involves multiple methods of data collection
such as interviews, observations, and document analysis.

Historical Study:
•A historical study involves the examination of past events, ideas, or social phenomena to gain insight into current issues or to
understand the evolution of a particular subject over time. Researchers may use a variety of sources, such as primary sources
(e.g. original documents) and secondary sources (e.g. academic literature) to conduct a historical study.

Grounded Theory:
•Grounded theory is a qualitative research method that involves developing a theory or explanation for a particular
phenomenon based on the data collected from participants. Researchers begin by collecting data through interviews,
observations, or document analysis, and then analyze the data to identify patterns or themes. These patterns or themes are
used to develop a theory or explanation for the phenomenon being studied.

Phenomenology:
•Phenomenology is a type of study that focuses on understanding the subjective experiences of individuals. Researchers aim to
understand how people make sense of their experiences, and how they interpret the world around them. Phenomenology
typically involves conducting in-depth interviews with participants and analyzing the data to identify common themes or
patterns in their experiences.
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MELC 2
•In research, sampling is a word that refers to your method or process of selecting respondents or people to answer
questions meant to yield data for research study. The chosen ones constitute the sample through which you will derive facts
and evidence to support the claims or conclusions propounded by your research problem.

Types of Probability Sampling

1. Simple Random Sampling –this is the best type of probability sampling in which all the members has the opportunity to be
chosen. Simple random sampling happens through any of these two methods: (Burns 2012) Have a list of all members of the
population; write each name on a card, and choose cards through a pure – chance selection.

2. Systematic Sampling – for this kind of sampling chance and system are the ones to determine who should compose the
sample. For instance, if you want to have a sample of 150, you may select a set of numbers like 1 to 15, and out of a list of
1,500 students, take every 15th name on the list until you complete the total number of respondents to constitute your sample.

3. Stratified Sampling – the group comprising the sample is chosen in a way that such group is liable to subdivision during the
data analysis stage. A study needing group by group analysis finds stratified sampling the right probability sampling to use.

4. Cluster Sampling – this is a probability sampling that makes you isolate a set of persons instead of individual members to
serve as sample members. For example, if you want to have a sample of 120 out of 1,000 students, you can randomly select the
three sections with 40 students each to constitute the sample.

Types of Non- Probability Sampling

1. Quota Sampling - to use this kind of sampling means you definitely know the characteristics of the target sample. With this,
you directly choose that set of persons for you already believe that their characteristics is suited or closely related to your study.

2. Voluntary Sampling – selection process is not needed since, your target sample are the ones who willingly present
themselves to participate in the study.

3. Purposive Sample or Judgmental Sample – selection is based in the judgment of the researcher. They are the people with
interest in the study, and possess capability and experiences in the said topic.

4. Availability Sampling – the willingness of each person is the measurement of this sampling. You can choose people walking
along the street by approaching them, people eating inside the canteen and any available persons as long as they are willing to
respond in your questions. They automatically belong as your respondents of the study.
5. Snowball Sampling –the name itself directly presents the meaning of this sampling. This is rolling or it could be strolling
anywhere. There is no specific set of sample and data could freely obtained to various group of people like vendors, street
children, call center workers, drug dependents and etc. You have the freedom to choose and increase your sample.(Harding
2013)
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MELC 3
Observation – is a technique of gathering data whereby the researchers personally look into, interact, or communicate with the
subjects of your research. (Meng 2012).

•Types of Observation

1. Participant Observation - the researchers takes part in the activities of the individual or group. They could directly obtained
the firsthand knowledge about the subjects’ behavior and they could record their experiences through descriptive observation
and narrative account.

2. Non – Participant or Structured Observation – this observation completely detaches you from the target observation, all you
need to do is to listen and watch them and have your own checklist. Methods of Observation.

1. Direct Observation – this observation method makes you see or listen to everything that happens in the area of observation.

2. Indirect Observation – this method is also called archaeology because here you observe traces of past events to get
information or a measure of behavior, trait, or quality of your subject.

Interview – is a data gathering technique that makes you verbally ask the subjects or respondents questions to give answer to
what your research study is trying to look for.

•Types of Interview

1. Structured Interview – this requires the use of an interview schedule or list of questions answerable with one and only item
from set of alternative responses.

2. Unstructured Interview – the respondents answer the questions based on what they personally think and feel about it.
There are no suggested answers.

3. Semi – Structured Interview – this is a combination of the first twotypes of interview. Here you prepare a list of questions
with responses, then you can ask the respondents of their reasons or explanations. In doing an interview, there are three
approaches that you can follow; Individual Interview, Group Interview, and Mediated Interview.

Questionnaire – it is a paper containing a list of questions including the

specific place and space in the paper where you write the answers to the
questions. (Babbie 2013)

•Types of Questionnaire

1. Postal Questionnaire – this type of questionnaire goes to the respondent through postal service or electronic mail.

2. Self - Administered Questionnaire – this makes you act as the interviewer and the interviewee at the same time. First, you
ask questions either in person or through phone; then, you write his/her responses on a piece of paper. (Barbour 2014)
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MELC 5

OBSERVATION
Observation is a technique of gathering data whereby you personally watch, interact, or communicate with the subjects of your
research. It lets you record what people exactly do and say in their everyday life on Earth. It is also used in the social sciences as
method for collecting data about people, processes and culture.Some say this element of subjectivity makes observation
inferior to other techniques. (Meng 2012).

Types
1. Participant Observation
The observer, who is the researcher, takes part in the activities of the individual or group being observed. Your actual
involvement enables you to obtain firsthand knowledge about the subjects’ behavior and the way they interact with one
another. To record your findings through this type of observation, use the diary method or the logbook.

2. Non-participation or Structural Observation

This type of observation completely detaches you from the target of your observation. You just watch and listen to them do
their own thing, without you participating in any of their activities. Recording
of non-participation observations happens through the use of a checklist. Others call this checklist as an observation schedule.
Methods of Observation
1. Direct Observation
This observation method makes you see or listen to everything that happens in the area of observation. For instance, things
happening in a classroom, court trial, street trafficking, and the like, come directly to your senses. Remember, however, that to
avoid waste of energy, time and effort in observing, you have to stick to the questions that your research aims at answering.

2. Indirect Observation
This method is also called behavior archaeology because, here, you observe traces of past events to get information or a
measure of behavior, trait, or quality of your subject. Central to this method of observation are things you listen to through
tape recordings and those you see in pictures, letter, notices, minutes of meetings, business correspondence, garbage cans,
and so on.

Methods of Indirect Observation

1. Continuous Monitoring
Here, you observe to evaluate the way people deal with one another. As such, this is the main data gathering technique used in
behavioral psychology, where people’s worries, anxieties, habits, and problems in shopping malls, play areas, family homes, or
classrooms serve as the focus of duties in this field of discipline.

2. Spot Sampling
This focuses on researching the extent of children’s nervous habits as they would go through their regular personality
development. For a continuous or uninterrupted focus on the subjects, you record your observations through spot sampling in
an oral manner, not in a written way.

•Named also as scan sampling or time sampling, spot sampling comes in two types: time allocation (TA) and experience
sampling. In TA sampling, what goes into the record are the best activities of people you observed in undetermined places and
time. Experience sampling, on the other hand, lets you record people’s responses anytime of the day or week to question their
present activities, companions, feelings, and so on.
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QUALITATIVE VS QUANTITATIVE

Qualitative Research:
Qualitative research is a type of research method that focuses on understanding and exploring the subjective experiences,
perspectives, and meanings of individuals or groups. This method typically involves collecting data through methods such as in-
depth interviews, focus groups, observations, and document analysis. Qualitative research is often used to explore complex
phenomena, generate new ideas or theories, and gain a deep understanding of social, cultural, and psychological processes.

Quantitative Research:
Quantitative research is a type of research method that focuses on measuring and quantifying numerical data and analyzing it
statistically. This method typically involves collecting data through methods such as surveys, experiments, and observations.
The data collected is often analyzed using statistical techniques such as regression analysis, correlation analysis, and hypothesis
testing. Quantitative research is often used to test hypotheses, make predictions, and establish cause-and-effect relationships
between variables.

Qualitative and quantitative research have different strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of method depends on the
research question being addressed and the context of the study. Qualitative research is often more flexible and exploratory,
while quantitative research is often more structured and objective. Both methods have their own unique contributions to
research, and combining them can provide a more comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon.

Characteristics Description
Natural setting Study of behavior as it occurs naturally in specific contexts.

Direct data collection Researcher collects data directly from source.

Rich narrative descriptions Detailed narratives that provide in-depth understanding of

contexts and behaviors.

Process orientation Focus on why and how behavior occur.

Inductive data analysis Generalizes induced from synthesizing gathered information.

Participant perspective Focus on participants' understanding and meaning.

Socially structured meaning Knowledge is based on experience and social interactions

with others.

Emergent research design Research design evolves and changes as the study takes
place.
 Quantitative Qualitative
Methods include focus groups, in-depth interviews, and Surveys, structured interviews & observations, and reviews of
reviews of documents for types of themes records or documents for numeric information

Primarily inductive process used to formulate theory or Primarily deductive process used to test pre-specified
hypotheses concepts, constructs, and hypotheses that make up a theory

More subjective: describes a problem or condition from the More objective: provides observed effects (interpreted by
point of view of those experiencing it researchers) of a program on a problem or condition

Text-based Number-based
More in-depth information on a few cases Less in-depth but more breadth of information across a large
number or cases

Unstructured or semi-structured response options Fixed response options

No statistical tests Statistical tests are used for analysis

Can be valid and reliable: largely depends on skill and rigor of Can be valid and reliable: largely depends on the
the researcher measurement device or instrument used

Time expenditure lighter on the planning end and heavier Time expenditure heavier on the planning phase and lighter
during the analysis phase on the analysis phase

Less generalizable More generalizable

Develops theory Tests theories

Meaning of concepts Measurement of variables

Uniqueness Generalization