CHAPTER I

1. INTRODUCTION:

Combination of mechanical properties of aluminium alloys such as durability, heat

conductivity and beneficial properties at low temperatures dictates its wide applications in air
craft, transport, pressure vessel and marine industries [1,2]. Recent advances in automobile
industries are more confined on light material applications because of challenges being
imposed by fuel consumption and pollution act. Added advantage of being cheaper and easy
availability of aluminium and its alloys compared to other non-ferrous materials becomes to
stand as one of the unique materials in automobile and aircraft industries. Furthermore, this is
one of the most abundantly available materials next to steel in the earth crust [3–10]. It is
hardship to conceive any product without weld joints in light metals. Manufacturability is one
of the open end scenarios in production and aluminium alloys are nothing to exception. The
present investigation is based on two aluminium alloys AA2124 and AA7075 which are
widely used in air craft industries [11]. Pin hole porosity formation, shrinkages, formations of
blow holes, silicides, co-efficient of thermal expansion, high thermal conductivity, dross
forming tendency, high solidification temperature range and solubility of hydrogen in molten
state offers challenge to adopt fusion based welding of aluminium alloys [12,13]. But few
investigations have successfully reported that TIG can be adopted for fabricating aluminium
alloys. Thus, here an attempt
has been made to bring out the concept of manufacturability and fusion based welding
in particular for aluminum alloys. It is known that porosity has been the main challenge in
welding of aluminium alloys but when FSW process is applied on the dissimilar materials
2024 and 7075 aluminium alloys, it has been found that there was no porosity and
macroscopic defects were eliminated. The micro hardness values increases in both the 2024
and 7075 sides and decreases after 2 mm from center of weld zone. The FSW joints exhibited
very good ductile properties and the ultimate tensile stress obtained were high [14]. da Silva
etal. investigated mechanical and micro properties including material flow characteristics in
dissimilar 2024 and 7075. It has been proved that HAZ/TMAZ to stir zone witnessed
minimum hardness and fractures value in advance side compared to retreating side of 2024
[15]. Youbao Song et al. carried out welding combinations of (top) 2024/7075 (bottom) and
vice-versa to investigate the defect features and
mechanical properties of joints. The hook geometry has been altered with welding speed and
joint combinations.7075/2024 joint shows higher failure load than 2024/7075 joint at lower
welding speed while the opposite result appears at higher welding speeds [16]. The FSW
defects comprises of onion skin microstructure, tunnel voids, porosity, defective tightness,
excessive flash defects and crack-like root flaws due to these defects the welding parameters
of FSW are suitable for processing of one series aluminium alloys differ considerably from
those suitable for other series alloys. While porosity is the main effect of EBM and the arc
welding promotes crack formationso by comparing this TIG welding is suitable for most of
the aluminum alloys [17]. It is found that during fusion process liquation cracks were found
in the partially melted zone of base material which leads to solidification cracks. The fusion
welding for aluminium alloys the generated heat which supports the joining of the metals can
lead to micro segregation of alloying element such as Cu, Mg, Si and Mn [18]. Mechanical
strength of both fusion and heat effected zones of laser beam weldments were lowered
compared to alloy subjected to friction welding process. These defects can be overcome by
correct preparation of materials to be welded and the use of protective atmosphere. The
mechanical strength and ductility can also be improved by tailored pre and post welding
thermal heat treatments [19]. Ji-Kun Ding et al. concluded that the post weld heat treatment
significantly improved yield, ultimate tensile strength, elongation and average hardness. It
indicated that PWHT was able to enhance the tensile, hardness properties and fatigue strength
[20]. AA2219 aluminium alloy square butt joints without filler metal addition were fabricated
using gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), electron beam welding (EBW) and friction stir
welding (FSW) processes. The effects of three welding processes on the tensile, fatigue and
corrosion behaviour were studied. It is found that the friction stir welds show lower corrosion
resistance than GTA welds [21]. Alternate current flux zoned tungsten inert gas welding
process increases weld penetration and also obtain perfect weld surface [22]. Influence of
pulsed welding parameters like peak current, base current, welding speed and frequency on
mechanical properties such as ultimate tensile strength, yield strength and hardness has been
improved after planishing which is caused by relieving of internal stresses in the weld [23].
Tensile strength of weldments made of 7075-T6 dissimilar joints has been increased due to
the effect of post weld aging treatment on mechanical properties [24]. M. Sivashanmugam
investigated on weldment of AA7075 using GTAW and GMAW with argon as a shielding
gas, it has been proved that welded joints fabricated by GMAW process have lower strength
compared to GTAW values and the improvement in strength value is approximately 28%.
Hardness is lower in the weld metal (WM) region as compared to the HAZ and BM regions
[25]. The mechanical and metallurgical properties of TIG, MIG and FSW dissimilar
weldment consisting 6061-T6 and 5083-O aluminum alloy has been evaluated. Tensile
properties of welded dissimilar joints are influenced by welding process and post weld aging
treatment. The micro hardness values are high in the weld region of FSW joints compared to
MIG and TIG welded joints
1.1. WELDING INTRODUCTION

Welding is a manufacturing process of creating a permanent joint obtained by the fusion of

the surface of the parts to be joined together, with or without the application of pressure and a
filler material. The materials to be joined may be similar or dissimilar to each other. The heat
required for the fusion of the material may be obtained by burning of gas or by an electric arc.
The latter method is more extensively used because of greater welding speed.

Welding is extensively used in fabrication as an alternative method for casting or

forging and as a replacement for bolted and riveted joints. It is also used as a repair medium
e.g. to reunite a metal at a crack or to build up a small part that has broken off such as a gear
tooth or to repair a worn surface such as a bearing surface.

1.1.1 History

Welding, a metal joining process can be traced back in history to the ancient times. In
the Bronze Age, nearly 2000 years ago, circular boxes made of gold were welded in lap joint
arrangement by applying pressure. Later on in the Iron Age, Egyptians started welding pieces
of iron together. But welding as we know nowadays came into existence only in the 19 th
century.

Sir Humphrey Davy produced an electric arc using two carbon electrodes powered by
a battery. This principle was subsequently applied to weld metals. Resistance welding finally
developed in the year 1885by Elihu Thomson. Acetylene gas was discovered in 1836 by
Edmund Davy, but it could not be used in welding application due to lack of a proper welding
torch. When the require welding torch was invented in 1900, oxy-acetylene welding became
one of the most popular type of welding mainly due to its relatively lower cost. However in
the 20th century it lost its place to arc welding in most of the industrial applications.

Advance welding techniques like Plasma Arc Welding, Laser Beam Welding, Electron
Beam Welding, Electro-Magnetic Pulse Welding, Ultrasonic Welding, etc. are now being
extensively used in electronic and high precision industrial applications.

1.2. Weld Processes

 The welding processes may be broadly classified into the following two groups:
1. Welding processes that use heat alone i.e. Fusion Welding.
2. Welding processes that use a combination of heat and pressure i.e. Forge Welding.

1.2.1. Fusion Welding

In case of fusion welding the parts to be joined are held in position while the molten
metal is supplied to the joint. The molten metal may come from the parts themselves i.e.
parent metal or filler metal which normally has the same or nearly similar composition as that
of the parent metal. Thus, when the molten metal solidifies or fuses, the joint is formed. The
fusion welding, according to the method of heat generated, may be classified as:

1. Thermite Welding
2. Gas Welding
3. Electric Arc Welding
1.2.2. Forge Welding

In forge welding, the parts to be joined are first heated to a proper temperature in a
furnace and then hammered. Electric Resistance Welding is an example of forge welding. The
principle of applying heat and pressure, either sequentially or simultaneously is widely used
in the processes known as Spot, Seam, Projection, Upset and Flash Welding.

1.3. Welded Joints

The welding joint geometry can be classified primarily into five types. This is based
on the orientation between the material surfaces to be joined. The various joints are shown in
the figure 1 below:

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)

Fig 1: Types of Welded Joints

(i) Lap Joint

 (ii) Butt Joint
(iii) Corner Joint
(iv) Edge Joint
(v) T-Joint

The main considerations involved in the selection of a particular welded joint are
given below:
1. The shape of the welded component required,
2. The thickness of the plates to be welded, and
3. The direction of the forces to which the finished object will be subjected to in the
actual working conditions.

1.4. Metallurgy of a Welded Joint

Metal is heated over the range of temperature up to fusion and followed by cooling
ambient temperature. Due to differential heating, the material away from the weld bead will
be hot but as the weld bead is approached progressively higher temperatures are obtained,
resulting in a complex micro structure. The subsequent heating and cooling results in setting
up internal stresses and plastic strain in the weld.
Depending upon the slope of temperature gradient three distinct zones as shown in
Fig. 2 can be identified in welded joint which are:
1. Base metal
2. Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)
3. Weld metal

Fig 2: Zones in a welding joint

A joint produced without a filler metal is called autogenous and its weld zone is
composed of re-solidified base metal. A joint made with a filler metal is called weld metal.
Since central portion of the weld bead will be cooled slowly, long columnar grains will
developed and in the out ward direction grains will become finer and finer with distance.

So the ductility and toughness decreases away from the weld bead. However strength
increases with the distance from the weld bead. The original structure in steels consisting of
ferrite and pearlite is changed to alpha iron. The weld metal in the molten state has a good
tendency to dissolve gases which come into contact with it like oxygen, nitrogen and
hydrogen.

So during solidification, a portion of these gases get trapped into the bead called
porosity. Porosity is responsible for decrease in the strength of the weld joint. Cooling rates
can be controlled by preheating of the base metal welding interface before welding.

The heat affected zone is within the base metal itself. It has a microstructure different from
that of the base metal after welding, because it is subjected to elevated temperature for a
substantial period of time during welding. In the heat affected zone, the heat applied during
welding recrystallizes the elongated grains of the base metal, grains that are away from the
weld metal will recrystallizes into fine equiaxed grains.

1.5. DISSIMILAR WELDING

Joining of dissimilar metals has found its use extensively in power generation,
electronic, nuclear reactors, petrochemical and chemical industries mainly to get tailor-made
properties in a component and reduction in weight. However efficient welding of dissimilar
metals has posed a major challenge due to difference in thermo-mechanical and chemical
properties of the materials to be joined under a common welding condition. This causes a
steep gradient of the thermo-mechanical properties along the weld.
A variety of problems come up in dissimilar welding like cracking, large weld
residual stresses, migration of atoms during welding causing stress concentration on one side
of the weld, compressive and tensile thermal stresses, stress corrosion cracking, etc. Now
before discussing these problems coming up during dissimilar welding, the passages coming
below throw some light on some of the causes of these problems.
In dissimilar welds, weldability is determined by crystal structure, atomic diameter
and compositional solubility of the parent metals in the solid and liquid states. Diffusion in
the weld pool often results in the formation of intermetallic phases, the majority of which are
hard and brittle and are thus detrimental to the mechanical strength and ductility of the joint.
The thermal expansion coefficient and thermal conductivity of the materials being joined are
different, which causes large misfit strains and consequently the residual stresses results in
cracking during solidification.

1.6. Stresses for Welded Joints

The stresses in welded joints are difficult to determine because of the variable and
unpredictable parameters like homogeneity of the weld metal, thermal stresses in the welds,
changes in physical properties due to high rate of cooling, etc. In design problems, these
stresses are obtained on the following assumptions:
1. The load is distributed uniformly along the entire length of the weld, and
2. The stress is spread uniformly over its effective section.

1.6.1. Residual Stress

Residual stress is a tension or compression that exists in a material without any
external load being applied, and the residual stresses in a component or structure are caused
by incompatible internal permanent strains. Welding, which is one of the most significant
cause of residual stress, typically produces large tensile stresses, the maximum value of which
is approximately equal to the yield strength of materials that are joined by lower compressive
residual stresses in a component. The residual stress of welding can significantly impair the
performance and reliability of welded structures

Two of the major problems of any welding process are residual stress and distortion.
Residual stress is primarily caused by the compressive yielding that occurs around the molten
zone as the material heats and expands during welding. When the weld metal cools it
contracts which causes a tensile residual stress, particularly in the longitudinal direction.

After welding a residual tensile stress remains across the weld centreline and causes a
balancing compressive stress further from the weld zone. The tensile residual stress on the
weld line reduces the fatigue strength and the toughness, particularly when combined with
any notches or defects associated with the weld bead.

To relieve some of the residual stresses caused by the welding process, the structure deforms,
causing distortion. There are several modes of distortion, but the one that is most common,
particularly in thin welded structures is buckling distortion, which is caused by the
compressive stress in the parent material. The residual stress developed after welding is
shown in Fig 3 (b)
1.6.2. Thermal Stresses
In dissimilar metal welding, one of the metals in contact at the weld metal interface is
constrained by expansion or contraction of the other. The two metals being welded possess
different coefficient of thermal expansion. The metal having a higher coefficient of thermal
expansion, with its tendency to expand more than the other is constrained by the fixed
boundary.
As a result of which compressive thermal stress is developed in the metal having a
higher coefficient of thermal expansion while tensile thermal stress is developed in the metal
with the lower coefficient of thermal expansion. The thermal stress developed during the
welding is shown in Fig 3 (a).

Figure 3: Stress in welds (a) thermal stress during & (b) residual stress after welding.
 CHAPTER II
2. LITRAURE REVIEW :
Chengwu et al. [1] in their work on weld interface microstructure and mechanical
properties of copper-steel dissimilar welding, the microstructure near the interface between
Cu plate and the intermixing zone was investigated. Experimental results showed that for the
welded joint with high dilution ratio of copper, there was a transition zone with numerous
filler particles near the interface.

However, if the dilution ratio of copper is low, the transition zone is only generated
near the upper side of the interface. [1] At the lower side of the interface, the turbulent
bursting behaviour in the welding pool led to the penetration of liquid metal into Cu. The
welded joint with lower dilution ratio of copper in the fusion zone exhibited higher tensile
strength.

Jiang and Guan [2] studied the thermal stress and residual stress in dissimilar steels.
They suggested that large residual stresses are induced by welding in the weld metal and heat
affected zone (HAZ), which superimpose and increase the thermal stress.

Gyun Na, Kim and Lim [3] studied the residual stress and its prediction for dissimilar
welds at nuclear plants using Fuzzy Neural network models. The factors that have an impact
upon fatigue strength are residual stress, stress concentration, the mechanical properties of
the material, and its micro and macro structure.

Gyun Na et al. [3] stated that residual stress is one of the most important factors but
its effect on high-cycle fatigue is of more concern than the other factors. Residual stress is a
tension or compression that exists in a material without any external load being applied, and
the residual stresses in a component or structure are caused by incompatible internal
permanent strains.

Welding, which is one of the most significant causes of residual stress, typically
produces large tensile stresses, the maximum value of which is approximately equal to the
yield strength of materials that are joined by lower compressive residual stresses in a
component. [3] The residual stress of welding can significantly impair the performance and
reliability of welded structures. The integrity
of welded joints must be ensured against fatigue or corrosion during their long use in welded
components or structures.

On stress corrosion cracking Gyun Na et al. [3] stated that stress-corrosion cracking
usually occurs when the following three factors exist at the same time: susceptible material,
corrosive environment, and tensile stress including residual stress. Thus, residual stress
becomes very critical for stress-corrosion cracking when it is difficult to improve the material
corrosiveness of the components and their environment under operating conditions.

Khan et al. [4] studied laser beam welding of dissimilar stainless steels in a fillet joint
configuration and during the study metallurgical analysis of the weld interface was done.
Fusion zone microstructures contained a variety of complex austenite ferrite structures. Local
micro-hardness of fusion zone was greater than that of both base metals.

The welding fusion zone microstructure consists of mostly primary ferrite dendrites
with an inter-dendritic layer of austenite. [4] This austenite forms through a peritectic–
eutectic reaction and exists at the ferrite solidification boundaries at the end of solidification.
Some lathy ferrite morphology is also observed in this zone. This is due to restricted diffusion
during ferrite–austenite transformation that results in a residual ferrite pattern.

Khan et al. [4] came to the conclusion that formation of ferrite along the austenite
grain boundary in the heat affected zone on austenite side is observed. At the same time,
microstructures are composed of two-phase ferrite and martensite with intra-granular carbide
on ferrite side. Also the variation in local micro-hardness observed across the weld depends
on the fraction intermix of each base metal and the redistribution of austenite- and ferrite-
promoting elements in the weld.

Itoh et al. [5] got a patent on the joined structure on the dissimilar metallic materials.
This invention relates generally to a joined structure of dissimilar metallic materials having
different characteristics. More specifically, the invention relates to a joined structure of a
current carrying contact or arching contact which are used for, e.g., a power breaker, or a
coating end structure of a metal base and a coating material for improving conductivity and
heat resistance.

Delphin, Sattari-Far and Brickstad [6] studied the effect of thermal and weld residual
stresses on CTOD (Crack Tip Opening Displacement) in elastic-plastic fracture analysis.
They stated that structures may fail because of crack growth both in welds and in the heat
affected zone (HAZ). The welding process itself induces residual stresses in the weld and
HAZ, which contribute to crack growth.

Delphin et al. [6] used a non-linear thermoplastic finite element model to simulate the
circumferential weld in a relatively thin-walled stainless steel pipe. After the pipe had cooled
down after welding a circumferential surface crack was introduced. The crack, located in the
centre of the weld, was subjected to two types ofloads. Firstly, the welded pipe was subjected
to a primary tensile load, and then to a secondary thermal load.

Delphin et al. [6] stated that the choice of hardening model is important. It is believed
that kinematic hardening is a better choice than isotropic hardening in low cycle simulations
i.e. in a few-pass welding process, as in the present study.

For the case of weld residual stresses in combination with high thermal stresses, it is
found that the plasticity induced by the thermal stresses is not sufficient to suppress the
influence of weld residual stresses on CTOD, even for very high thermal loads. The residual
stresses can be relaxed by unloading from a primary tensile load.

Mai and Spowage [7] did their work on characterisation of dissimilar joints of steel-
kovar, copper-steel and aluminium-copper. It was stated in their work that joining of
dissimilar materials is one of the challenging tasks facing modern manufacturers.

Dissimilar metal welding technologies find application in many sectors such as micro-
electronics, medical, optoelectronics and microsystems. [7] The tiny geometry of the joints
and the different optical and thermal properties of the materials makes laser welding one of
the most suitable production methods.

Also high temperature gradients in a welding may result in martensitic reactions

leading to excessive hardness in the fusion zone. [7] The X-ray stress analysis technique was
unable to resolve the stress variations generated by the different processing parameters used.
In similar steel welds the residual stress at the centre of the weld pool has been reported to be
close to the material yield strength.

Colegrove et al. [8] studied the welding process impact on residual stress and
distortion. Their work seeks to understand the relationship between heat input, fusion area,
measured distortion and the residual stress predicted from a simple numerical model, and the
residual stresses is validated with experimental data.

Residual stress is caused by the compressive yielding that is occurring around the
molten zone when the material is heated and its expansion during welding. [8] When the weld
metal cools it gets contracted which results to a tensile residual stress, primarily in the
longitudinal direction.

After the welding is over, a residual tensile stress is present across the weld centreline
which causes a balancing compressive stress away from the weld zone. [8] The tensile
residual stress on the weld centreline decreases the fatigue strength and toughness, especially
when combined with any of the notches or other defects related to the weld bead.

The other main finding of Colgrove et al. [8] is that the heat input and distortion go
with each other in nearly a linear relationship. The results obtained for the residual stress
show that the width of the peak tensile increases with heat input. Finally the residual stress
measurements indicate how the tensile peak widens up with

increasing the heat input. There is a very small difference in the magnitude of the peak tensile
for the different welding processes.

Arunkumar, Duraisamy and Manikandan [9] studied the mechanical properties of

dissimilar metal tube welded joints and named some of the alloying elements that improve
the weldability or the welded joint. Alloy Steels such as that contain chromium and
molybdenum. This composition delivers good weldability and high hardenability for the
above stated alloys.

Chromium provides improved oxidation and corrosion resistance. And molybdenum

increases strength at elevated temperature. [9] The combination of chromium and
molybdenum also increases resistance to high temperature hydrogen attack and to creep.

Arunkumar et al. [9] also stated that excessive penetration of a weld root can be
rectified by proper alignment of tubes in root of weld joint; concentric bore at ends, correct
welding current. Porosity in welded joint can be reduced by using low hydrogen welding
process, increasing shielding gas flow, increasing heat input and using clean joint faces.

Chung et al. [10] studied microstructure and stress corrosion cracking behaviour of
the weld metal in dissimilar welds and susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking in terms of
ductility loss is dependent in increasing order of severity is; undiluted weld metal, the
transition zone and the weld interface. This means that susceptibility to stress corrosion
cracking is more related to the case of brittle fractures.

Chung et al. [10] stated that interface cracking is often associated with a hardened
interface region in the weld, implying that the weld interface plays an important role in
determining SCC susceptibility.

Chung et al. [10] also observed that the microstructures near the weld interface are
complicated, consisting of martensite and carbides. Apparently, their presence caused inter-
granular cracking and significantly reduced the SCC resistance of the weld. Additionally, the
structural discontinuity at the interface also increases the SCC susceptibility of the weld
interface specimen.

One of the very important inferences from the study of Chung et al. [10] was that the
presence of alloying elements in the heat affected zone and fusion zone varied with distance
from the weld interface, as a result, the SCC susceptibility changed accordingly. The more Ni
and Cr contents, the less the specimen would be susceptible to SCC.

Lundin [11] did his research on dissimilar welds with its emphasis on carbon
migration, stress/strain state of welds and transition joint failure mechanism. The study stated
that the majority of failures have been associated with austenitic stainless steel filler metal
joints, and it is considered that the failure mode exhibited by the

12
nickel-based filler metals is fundamentally different than that with the austenitic stainless
fillers.

Lundin [11]said that the cracking most often initiates at or near the outside surface. The
cracking results directly from void linkup, grain boundary separation or tearing. It is generally
parallel to the weld interface. The cracking is associated with or exacerbated by oxidation-
oxide notching. The relative expansion coefficients of the various weld metal regions are
extremely important with regard to thermal stress generation.

Increasing the Ni content of the filler metal alters carbon solubility, makes carbides less
stable, changes diffusivity and in general retards carbon migration from the ferritic material.
[11] The influence of time, temperature and material composition influences the nickel rich
weld metals reduces carbon migration. Further, the use of stabilizing elements in the ferritic
component is effective in combatting migration but neither so easily employed nor ultimately
effective for long time exposure.

B.Y. Kang et.al [1] study of the experimental investigations of weld characteristics for a single
of shielding gases (Ar) and (Ar+67%He) of shielding gas in austenite stainless steel GTA
Welding on the material of Stainless Steel 304 by used the specimen of 200L x 100w x 12 thick
.and analysed. The effect of both shielding gas on same input parameter. after comparison study
the conclude that Ae+67%He show same welding effect. cause cost cutting possible.

Dr. Simhachalam et al [2]. has performed a welding experiment on stainless steel -316 (18Cr-
8N). The specimen size is 40X15X5mm for experiment and welding is perform by TIG
welding. In that performance selecting input parameters such as welding current, voltage, speed
and time against response of mechanical properties like tensile strength and hardness the
required parameter is achieved by using MINITAB software and find that significant effect was
occurred by varying current same effect found when filler rod change but current give more
effect
Abhimanyu Chauhan [3] perform a tungsten inert gas welding on 5mm thick plate. Without
using filler material. the welding performed by maintaining completely different gap between
plates to be welded. The tensile strength and weld bead geometry of the weld has been
investigated here. It is noted that, with maintaining a minimum gap full penetration welding of
the plate can be done which gives strength which is almost similar to the base material and
maximum depth of penetration was acquired with parametric combination of maximum current
and minimum welding speed.

Indira Rani et. al [4] investigated the mechanical properties of the weldments of AA6351
during the GTAW /TIG welding with nonpulsed and pulsed current at different frequencies.
Welding was performed with current 70-74 A, arc travel speed 700-760 mm/min, and pulse
frequency 3 and 7 Hz. From the experimental results it was concluded that the tensile strength
and yield strength of the weldments is closer to base metal. Failure location of weldments
occurred at HAZ and from this we said that weldments have better weld joint strength

Brijesh K. Mauryal et.al [5] Experimentak analysis of dissimilar metal welds of mild steel and
stainless steel by Brijesh Kumar Maurya1, Balwant Pratap2, Avaneesh Kumar3, Gopal Rana41
2 3 4 Students. In this paper they cleared that ultimate tensile strength is always same for 12
and 18 PSI gas pressure.This suggest that if increasing the gas pressure than required value the
the strength of weld joint decreases and strength for weld joint is best for average gas pressure

2.2 Problems statement :

1. Understanding Structure-Property Relationships: Investigating the relationship
between the microstructure of metals and alloys and their mechanical, thermal,
electrical, or other properties. This could involve studying the effects of composition,
processing conditions, and heat treatment on the resulting material properties.
2. Enhancing Mechanical Performance: Developing methods to improve the
mechanical performance of metals and alloys, such as increasing strength, ductility,
toughness, or fatigue resistance. This could involve exploring new alloy
compositions, processing techniques, or surface treatments.
3. Corrosion and Environmental Degradation: Addressing the challenges
associated with corrosion and degradation of metals and alloys in various
 environments, such as understanding corrosion mechanisms, developing protective
coatings, or finding corrosion-resistant alloy compositions.
4. Alloy Design and Optimization: Designing new alloys with tailored properties
for specific applications, considering factors such as strength, corrosion resistance,
heat resistance, electrical conductivity, or magnetic properties. This could involve
utilizing computational modeling, alloy optimization techniques, or advanced
materials characterization.
5. Sustainability and Recycling: Investigating methods to improve the sustainability
and recyclability of metals and alloys, such as developing eco-friendly manufacturing
processes, exploring alternative raw materials, or studying the environmental impact
of alloy production and usage.
6. Additive Manufacturing and New Processing Techniques: Exploring the
challenges and opportunities associated with emerging manufacturing techniques like
additive manufacturing (3D printing), investigating the effects of process parameters
on the microstructure and properties of printed alloys, or optimizing the performance
of alloys for specific additive manufacturing processe

2.3 objective of the project :

The primary objective of this work is to ensure the feasibility in welding of AA6061
andAA5083 dissimilar process. Similarly, this research work also concentrates on identifying
suitable weld process parameters for obtaining better mechanical and nugget dimensions for
weldments
1.. The individual investigation includes A. An experimental investigation has been carried out
on welding of AA6061and AA5083 dissimilar
B. To ensure the quality of dissimilar welding, machining tests such as drilling, Milling
 CHAPTER III
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS:
Based on the inference from the objectives and methodologies discussed in the third
chapter, the experimental methods to be deployed and followed are framed and discussed in an
elaborate manner. This current chapter emphasizes the material selection and the base materials
preparations for welding. It further discusses in depth about the welding machine, welding
procedure followed and the welding process parameters incorporated in this research work.
The different mechanical testing machines used for various tests like the Drillinga dn milling
test and their necessary appropriate ASTM standards are used for the preparation of the
sample’s has been put forth in this chapter

3.1. Materials Selection:

In this work AA 6061 and AA5083 (Al) was selected as base materials for this
investigation because they are widely used in automobile and household applications.

In this work AA 6061 and AA5083 ( selected as base materials for this investigation
because of they are widely applied in different engineering industries and their
corresponding chemical composition and mechanical properties are tested and
tabulated in Tables 4.1 and 4.2 respectively.

AA6061:

6061 Aluminium alloy

Constituent Minimum Maximum
element (% by weight) (% by weight)

Al 95.85% 98.56%
Mg 0.80% 1.20%
Si 0.40% 0.80%
Fe 0 0.70%
Cu 0.15% 0.40%
Cr 0.04% 0.35%
Zn 0 0.25%
Ti 0 0.15%
Mn 0 0.15%
0.15% total
(others) 0
(0.05% each
6061 aluminium alloy (Unified Numbering System (UNS) designation A96061) is
a precipitation-hardened aluminium alloy, containing magnesium and silicon as its
major alloying elements. Originally called "Alloy 61S", it was developed in 1935.[2] It has
good mechanical properties, exhibits good weldability, and is very commonly extruded (second
in popularity only to 6063). It is one of the most common alloys of aluminium for general-
purpose use.
It is commonly available in pre-tempered grades such as 6061-O (annealed), tempered grades
such as 6061-T6 (solutionized and artificially aged) and 6061-T651 (solutionized, stress-
relieved stretched and artificially aged)

Properties
The mechanical properties of 6061 depend greatly on the temper, or heat treatment, of the
material.[5] Young's Modulus is 69 GPa (10,000 ksi) regardless of temper.[6]
6061-O
Annealed 6061 (6061-O temper) has maximum ultimate tensile strength no more than 150 MPa
(22 ksi), and maximum yield strength no more than 83 MPa (12 ksi) or 110 MPa (16 ksi). The
material has elongation (stretch before ultimate failure) of 10–18%. To obtain the annealed
condition, the alloy is typically heat soaked at 415 °C for 2-3 hours.
6061-T4
T4 temper 6061 has an ultimate tensile strength of at least 180 MPa (26 ksi)[8] or 210 MPa
(30 ksi)[7] and yield strength of at least 110 MPa (16 ksi). It has elongation of 10-16%.
6061-T6
6061-T6 aluminium standard heat treating process
T6 temper 6061 has been treated to provide the maximum precipitation hardening (and therefore maximum yield
strength) for a 6061 aluminium alloy. It has an ultimate tensile strength of at least 290 MPa (42 ksi) and yield
strength of at least 240 MPa (35 ksi). More typical values are 310 MPa (45 ksi) and 270 MPa (39 ksi), respectively.
[10]
This can exceed the yield strength of certain types of stainless steel.[11] In thicknesses of 6.35 mm (0.250 in) or
less, it has elongation of 8% or more; in thicker sections, it has elongation of 10%. T651 temper has similar
mechanical properties. The typical value for thermal conductivity for 6061-T6 at 25 °C (77 °F) is around 152 W/m K.
The fatigue limit under cyclic load is 97 MPa (14 ksi) for 500,000,000 completely reversed cycles using a standard
RR Moore test machine and specimen.[12] Note that aluminium does not exhibit a well defined "knee" on its S-N
curve, so there is some debate as to how many cycles equates to "infinite life". Also note the actual value of fatigue
limit for an application can be dramatically affected by the conventional de-rating factors of loading, gradient, and
surface finish

Microstructure
Different aluminium heat treatments control the size and dispersion of Mg
2Si precipitates in the material. Grain boundary sizes also change, but do not have as important of an impact on

strength as the precipitates. Grain sizes can change orders of magnitude based upon stress and can have grains
as small as a few hundred nanometres, but are typically a few micrometres to hundreds of micrometres in diameter.
Iron, manganese, and chromium secondary phases (Fe

Grain boundaries in extruded plate 6061 aluminium alloy

Grain sizes in aluminium alloys are heavily dependent upon the processing techniques and heat treatment.
Different cross-sections of material which has been stressed can cause order of magnitude differences in grain
size. Some specially processed aluminium alloys have grain diameters which are hundreds of nanometres, [15] but
most range from a few micrometres to hundreds of micrometres
6061 is commonly used for the following:

 construction of aircraft structures, such as wings and fuselages, more commonly in homebuilt aircraft than
commercial or military aircraft.[17] 2024 alloy is somewhat stronger, but 6061 is more easily worked and remains
resistant to corrosion even when the surface is abraded. This is not the case for 2024, which is usually used
with a thin Alclad coating for corrosion resistance.[18]
 yacht construction, including small utility boats.[19]
 automotive parts, such as the chassis of the Audi A8 and the Plymouth Prowler.[20]
 flashlights
 Scuba tanks and other high pressure gas storage cylinders (post 1995)

6061-T6 is used for:

 bicycle frames and components[21]

 middle to high-end recurve risers
 many fly fishing reels.
 the Pioneer plaque
 the secondary chambers and baffle systems in firearm sound suppressors (primarily pistol suppressors for
reduced weight and improved mechanical functionality), while the primary expansion chambers usually require
17-4PH or 303 stainless steel or titanium.[22][23]
 the upper and lower receivers of many non mil-spec AR-15 rifle variants.
 many aluminium docks and gangways, welded into place.
 material used in some ultra-high vacuum (UHV) chambers[24]
 many parts for remote controlled model aircraft, notably helicopter rotor components.
 large amateur radio antennas.
 fire department rescue ladders

Welding
6061 is highly weldable, for example using tungsten inert gas welding (TIG) or metal inert gas welding (MIG).
Typically, after welding, the properties near the weld are those of 6061-T4, a loss of strength of around 40%. The
material can be re-heat-treated to restore near -T6 temper for the whole piece. After welding, the material can
naturally age and restore some of its strength as well. Most strength is recovered in the first few days to a few
weeks. Nevertheless, the Aluminum Design Manual (Aluminum Association) recommends the design strength of
the material adjacent to the weld to be taken as 165 MPa/24000 PSI without proper heat treatment after the
welding. Typical filler material is 4043 or 5356.

Extrusions
6061 is an alloy used in the production of extrusions—long constant–cross-section structural shapes produced by
pushing metal through a shaped die.

Forgings
6061 is an alloy that is suitable for hot forging. The billet is heated through an induction furnace and forged using a
closed die process. This particular alloy is suitable for open die forgings. Automotive parts, ATV parts, and industrial
parts are just some of the uses as a forging. Aluminium 6061 can be forged into flat or round bars, rings, blocks,
discs and blanks, hollows, and spindles. 6061 can be forged into special and custom shapes. [25]

Castings
6061 is not an alloy that is traditionally cast due to its low silicon content affecting the fluidity in casting. It can be
suitably cast using a specialized centrifugal casting method. Centrifugally cast 6061 is ideal for larger rings and
sleeve applications that exceed the limitations of most wrought offerings. [

The composition of 5083 aluminium is

Aluminium: balance

Chromium: 0.05-0.25% max

Copper: 0.1% max

Iron: 0.4% max

Magnesium: 4.0 to 4.9%

Manganese: 0.4 to 1.0%

Silicon: 0.4% max

 Titanium: 0.15% max

Zinc: 0.25% max

5083 aluminium alloy is well known for its exceptional performance in the most extreme
environments. The alloy displays high resistance to both seawater and industrial chemical
environments.

The product offers the highest strength of all the non-heat-treatable alloys but should not be
used in temperatures above 65°C.

GOOD WELDABILITY

With good overall mechanical properties, 5083 aluminium alloy benefits from good weldability
and retains its strength after this process. The material combines excellent ductility with good
formability and performs well in low-temperature service.

TYPICAL APPLICATIONS

Commercial applications for this engineering material include:

 Pressure vessels
 Vehicle bodies
 Shipbuilding
 Rail cars
 Tipper trucks bodies
 Mine skips & cages
TIG WELDING PROCESS:
The electrode in this process is non-consumable made from engineering material
Tungsten. This process involves striking an arc between a nonconsumable tungsten
electrode and the workpiece. The weld pool and the electrode are protected by an
inert gas is passed around electrode from the same torch. Inert gas usually argon,
helium, or a suitable mixture of these is used to prevent the atmospheric
contamination by garneting envelop around weld pool, molten metal and HAZ.

When the gar is supplied by the tank, then it gets ionized and an arc is generated in between electrode and work
piece. There is a
generation of heat that cause base metal weld with filler rod and filler metal fall on the heated joint. Positive
polarity of DC source
forming one of the workpieces. The electrodes connected to the negative polarity. The power source could be
constant voltage AC
or DC power source, with electrode negative and it yields a stable arc and smooth metal transfer with least spatter
for the entire
current range.
A. Equipment
The main equipments for TIG welding process are welding power source , high frequency unit and cables. For
doing Tig welding
process we also required welding torch , tungsten electrode and filler metals. To get best quality of welding we
also required inner
gas cylinder , pressure regulator and flow meter . Usually inert gas is used to prevent welded joints from
atmosphere contamination
and atmospheric gases also. Cooling water is also required for cooling the system and gas solenoid valve is also
main equipment for
TIG welding.
B. Applications
TIG welding can used for welding aluminum , magnesium , copper , nickel and their alloy , carbon , alloy and
stainless steel. TIG
welding is also used for welding sheet metal and thinner section . It is also used for transistor cases , instrument
diaphrahms and
can-sealing joints.
C. Advantages
No flux is used in TIG welding, that’s way there is no danger of flux entrapment if we welding refrigerator and air
conditioner
system components. During TIG welding process there is clear visibility of arc and job , so operator can execute a
better control on
the welding and can easily get best quality of welding. BY the use of TIG welding we can weld in all position
sound weld can
produced with less spatter. TIG welding is also suitable for the high quality welding joints of thin metals.

TIG WELDING EFFECTING PARAMETERS

TIG gives high quality of weld and weld deposition rate both are influenced very much by the various welding
parameters and joint
geometry. Proper execution of process and control of different numbers of parameters is essential for successful
and best output.
Normally a welded joint is produced by different combinations of welding parameters and joint geometries. The
weld bead
geometry, penetration depth and total weld quality depends on the following operating variables.
A. Electrode size, Welding current.
B. Arc voltage. Arc travel speed.
C. Welding position. Filler material size.
D. Gas Flow rate, Shielding Gas composition.
E. Electrode extension.