The Energy Management Systemfor Solar Electric
VehiclesUsing A Combined Estimation Method
Tran Cong Binh, Ngo Manh Dung, Nguyen Quang Nam, Nguyen Huu Phuc
Faculty of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Ho Chi Minh CityUniversity of Technology
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
tcbinh@hcmut.edu.vn, nmdung@hcmut.edu.vn, nqnam@hcmut.edu.vn, nhphuc@hcmut.edu.vn
Abstract—This paper describes a proposed energy
management system for solar electric vehicles (SEVs) using lead-
acid battery. In an internal combustion engine vehicle, a fuel
gauge is an important part for displaying the remaining fuel in
the fuel tank of vehicle. It helps predict the remaining energy
available to the vehicle and how far the vehicle can travel before
running out of energy. For SEVs, energy is supplied by a battery
bank and a photovoltaic (PV) array. Therefore, available energy
status of the vehicle is determinedfrom the state of charge (SOC)
of the battery and theinstantaneous available energy from the
PV.The energy management system (EMS) measures the SOC of
the battery, PV power, and power consumption of the electrical
load (mainly the electrical motor)under specific mechanical load
and speed of the vehicle. For a givenoperating condition, the
EMS estimates and displays remaining run-time and driving
range. This information may be used to adjust driving strategy in
order to extendthe available driving distance while providing
more energy from the PV array. The EMS continuously estimates
and updates the dashboard to provide the newly estimated
remaining driving distance when the driver adjusts the vehicle
speed. Experimental tests and results are presented to validate
the proposed EMS for solar electric cars.
Keywords—solar electric vehicles; energy management system
(EMS); lead-acid battery; state of charge (SOC); driving range
NOMENCLATURE
SOC State Of Charge of battery
SOCN Nominal SOC
CN Nominal capacity of battery (in ampere-hours)
(I) Current efficiency of charging or discharging
VBatt Terminal battery voltage
IBatt Battery current
IS Solar charge current
IG Grid charge current
IM Vehicle motor discharge current
VEMF Equilibrium voltage
Voc Open circuit battery voltage
EMF Electromotive Force
EMFmin EMF voltage at empty battery (zero SOC)
EMFmax EMF voltage at full battery (SOC=1)
A0 Slope of the SOC-VEMF curve
Savg Average speed of the vehicle (km/h)
Tr Remaining available run-time (hours)
Dr Remaining available driving range (km)
This work was sponsored by the Ho Chi Minh City University of
Technology, under grant number T-DDT-2012-77
I. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, transportation and environmental problems are
some of the primary challenges for the world, especially for
developing countries. Recently, the increasing awareness of
global warming has lead to the increasing demand for clean
energy. As a consequence, there is a continuous shift towards
electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles. Among different
types of electric vehicle, the solar electric vehicle (SEV) might
be a solution to the transportation and environmental problems.
The SEV is supplied energy by two sources, the photovoltaic
array and the battery bank. PVroof panels are installed to
supply more energy to electric vehiclemotor, while a smaller
battery bank is used to store redundant energy or provide
additional energy, andan energy management system (EMS) is
used for energy monitoring and management [5]. This paper
presents an implementation of the EMS on the solar electric
vehicle.
The EMS can extendthe run-time per discharge cycle and
the attainable number charging/discharging cycles for the
battery. This is achieved by monitoring the state of charge
(SOC) of the battery in the charging and discharging process.
The energy system in an SEV is subject to frequent change in
operating condition, leading to a complicated model of the
energy system. Therefore, it is proposed to recalibrate the
SOC-Voc relationship whenever the battery has been rested for
a long enough period (for example, after being fully charged at
night for a few hours). Between successive recalibrations, the
SOC will be determined by ampere-hour counting method,
under continuously varying operating conditions. The EMS can
protect the battery from damage by warning the driver of too
low SOC of deep cycle battery. The EMS also estimates and
updates current battery capacity and gives early notification for
the battery replacement.
In a traditional vehicle, the driver looks at energy meter on
dashboard to predict the remaining driving range. But on the
SEV, energy is added while it is running from solar panels.
Thus, energy status of the solar electric vehicle must be
determined by EMS from not only battery but also solar power.
Furthermore, the EMS also measures power consumption of
motor. Under the same loading condition and speed of the
vehicle, the EMS estimates remaining run-time and driving
range and display them on the dashboard [2]. When the SEV
runs slower, there might be more energy from the PV panels,
the newly estimated available distance is updated on the screen.
 II. STATE OF CHARGE ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES
The capacity of a battery can be considered as the product
of the current and the duration of the discharge. The state of
charge of battery (SOC) or remaining battery capacity is
determined from the previous capacity history and the capacity
charged or discharged. The SOC is then:
1 t
SOC = SOCN − ∫  I dt
CN t0 (I) Batt ()
where SOCN is the nominal SOC, CN is the nominal
capacity, IBatt is the battery current, and (I) is the current loss
coefficient (typically 0.98–1.0) [1].
A. SOC Estimation Based on Open Circuit Voltage
The electromotive force (EMF) voltage of battery varies
almost linearly to the battery SOC [1].
SOC% = A0 (VEMF − EMFmin ) ()
where VEMF the electromotive force voltage, EMFmin is the
EMF voltage at zero SOC, A0 is obtained from the values of
EMFmax and EMFmin at full battery (SOC%=100). EMFmax and
EMFmin are available from the manufacturers’ datasheets. So
determination of SOC is equivalent to the estimation of its
EMF.
The EMF can be determined from open circuit battery
voltage (Voc) of battery. However, EMF is only the same as Voc
when the batteries are disconnected from load and charger for a
length of time, such as several hours, to reach a steady state.
So, it is not posible to calculate the SOC of the battery during
solar electric vehicle operating or charging conditions based on
open circuit voltage [4]:
SOC% = A0 (Voc − EMFmin ) ()
Open circuit voltage method is a high precision and simple
method, but it has a higher demand of rest time. The battery
should be stalling for long time so that it can obtain the stable
value of open circuit voltage. It is only applicable to the
electric vehicle in the stop state, not for the dynamic battery
SOC estimation. Therefore, the measured open circuit voltage
is used to periodically correct the estimated SOC derived from
other techniques.
B. Ampere-hour Counting Method
Ampere-hour counting or Coulomb counting is a method to
measure a delivered current during charge or discharge. It
could present a change in battery capacity. The SOC of battery
can be estimated as [6]:
1 t
SOC(t) = SOC(0) − ∫  I (t)dt
CN t0 (I) Batt
()
where SOC(0) is the initial SOC value.
Ampere-hour counting is a convenient, stable and easily
implemented method, which can be used for all electric vehicle
battery. However, the current efficiency of charging and
discharging, the precision of the current measurement, self-
discharge and the time factor between measurements can cause
accumulated error results [3]. Therefore the initial SOC needs
to be reestimated and recalibrated regularly to ensure an
accurate SOC determination.
C. Updating Nominal Battery Capacity
After a number of charging/discharging cycles, the nominal
battery capacity will be reduced. Furthermore, the battery
capacity changes with temperature, which can cause error in
ampere-hour counting method (4). By combination the SOC
estimation based on open circuit voltage method (3) and
ampere-hour counting method (4), the maximum deliverable
capacity of battery should be observed. It is possible to
estimate the actual capacity by only partially charging or
discharging the battery using the ampere-hour counting
method,and the nominal battery capacity CN will be updated
frequently. When the nominal capacity is reduced by 50% of
the original value at the standardized temperature, the EMS
displays a warning message for the battery replacement.
III. REMAINING DRIVING RANGE ESTIMATION
The EMScan estimate the remaining run-time and driving
range from remaining battery SOC, additional solar power, and
power consumption of the vehicle motor.
A. Additional Solar Power
The solar electric vehicle is installed a photovoltaic array
on the roof to get more clean energy while it is running on the
street. This solution allows a reduction of battery capacity. By
the same battery capacity, the solar electric vehicle should have
longer driving range and battery life than traditional electric
vehicle. This approach however poses a problem, the working
condition is more complicated to be formulated, as the battery
could go through starting, charging, and discharging conditions
in a very short interval. It is much more complicated to
estimate the remaining energy of the vehicle battery. The
energy management system EMS (Fig. 1)will solve this
problem by measuring solar current supplied to the system,
then combining with battery SOC estimation and power
consumption of the motor to estimate the remaining run-time.
Furthermore, the remaining SOC of the battery is easy to be
estimated by ampere-hour counting method.
Fig. 1. Block diagram of a typical energy management system (EMS)
B. Remaining Run-time Estimation 100.00
With the SOC estimation of battery, the average solar
current, and the average motor current (under specific 80.00
mechanical load and speed conditions), the EMScan calculate

SOC (%)
60.00
the remaining run-time(Tr) of the vehicle when it is running.
40.00
SOC∗C𝑁
T𝑟 = () 20.00
𝐼𝑀 −𝐼𝑆 −𝐼𝐺 SOC% = 27.429(Vemf- 47.577)
0.00
The driver can then reduce vehicle speed to decrease motor 47.5 48.5 49.5 50.5 51.5
current IM andthe available run-time Tr will be therefore longer.
So, the SEV can get more solar energy for the longer time, and EMF (V)
the driving range can be significantly increased.
C. Remaining Driving Range Estimation Fig. 2. SOC – EMF characteristic
The EMScan estimate the remaining distance (Dr) that the While the SEV is running, the ampere-hour counting
vehicle can still travel using the relationship between the method is used to estimateSOC of battery (Fig. 3, 4, 5). The
average vehicle speed andthe electric motor current, Savg(IM), EMS will display a message warning driver of too low battery
without a speed sensor, as shown in (6). condition when SOC reaching to 20%. Furthermore, to extend
the life of deep cycle lead-acid battery, the vehicle should
D𝑟 = S𝑎𝑣𝑔 (I𝑀 ) ∗ T𝑟 () notrun with SOC lower than 20% of nominal battery capacity.

If a speed sensor is available, the average speed Savg of the 100 Vbatt Ibatt SOC (%)
vehicle can be measured, and the EMScan also estimate the 90
remaining driving range under current energy condition by (7): 80
70
60
D𝑟 = S𝑎𝑣𝑔 ∗ T𝑟 () 50
40
30
Under sunlight condition, the SEV can get more energy 20
from the solar power. Thus, the remaining distance can be 10
extended if the vehicle runs more slowly. So the driver can 0
reduce vehicle speed to travel a longer distance. -10 0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Time (s)

IV. EXPERIMENTAL VALIDATION AND RESULTS

Fig. 3. SOC of battery under discharging, without solar power
The following data are obtained from an experimental set-
up of 4-seat solar electric vehicle: no-load weight 556kg,
maximum weight 825kg, LWH = 3070x1150x1940mm. The 100 Vbatt (V) Ibatt (A) SOC (%)
SEV uses a 48V battery bank (4 x 12V/30Ah VRLA batteries), 90
80
a 48V/340Wp photovoltaic array (4 x 12V/85Wp solar panels), 70
and a 48V/2500W/1700rpm/30Nm DC motor. 60
50
A. SOC Estimation 40
30
The EMS reestimates the initial SOC using open circuit 20
voltage method (3), Fig. 2. Since a direct measurement of open 10
circuit voltage cannot be carried out under loading 0
-10
condition,especially in VRLA battery, where considerable
amount of times, such as several hours, are needed before 0 3000 6000 9000
battery reaching a steady state after loading or charging, it is Time (s)
proposed to reestimate the initial SOC at night, after a long
enough resting time. Hence, the initial SOC is reestimated
Fig. 4. SOC of battery under discharging, with solar power
everyday to ensure an accurate SOC determination, by
eliminating accumulated error due to the ampere-hour counting
From the above shown graphs, it is evident that with the
process during daytime.
additional solar power supply, the vehicle can run over a
significantly longer distance.
 The vehicle with the additional solar power supply has
100 Vbatt (V) Ibatt (A) SOC (%) longer remaining run-time. It is displayed on the dashboard by
90 the EMS while the vehicle is running (Fig. 8).
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10 0 5000 10000 15000
Time (s)

Fig. 5. SOC under charging

B. Updating Battery Parameters

Whenever the battery is empty, it is charged from grid until
full while the motor is stopped. The EMS will update the
nominal battery capacity CN by the SOC estimated. The
ampere-hour counting method will be recalibrated with its
parameter CN (4). If the nominal battery capacity is reduced to Fig. 8. Estimated remaining run-time being displayed on the dashboard
50% of the original in the standard temperature, the EMS will
then displays a warning message for the battery replacement. D. Remaining Driving Range Estimation
The EMS estimates the remaining driving range from
C. Remaining Run-time Estimation remaining run-time and the vehicle speed.

5000 Tr (s) SOC (*5000)

19 Remaining range (km) Running range (km)
4000
14
3000
2000 9
1000
4
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 -1
-1000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Time (s)
Time (s)

Fig. 6. Estimated remaining run-time, without solar power

Fig. 9. Estimated remaining driving range, without solar power

5000 Tr (s) SOC (*5000)

19 Remaining range (km) Running range (km)
4000
3000 14

2000 9
1000
4
0
0 3000 6000 9000 -1
-1000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
Time (s)
Time (s)

Fig. 7. Estimated remaining run-time, with solar power

Fig. 10. Estimated remaining driving range, with solar power
 According to the results obtained from experimental tests,
the remaining driving range estimation will approximately
represent the distance the car can travel.
V. CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents a proposed energy management system
for solar electric vehicles. The system continuously estimates
different factors during vehicle operation: SOC of battery,
remaining run-time, and remaining driving range for the
electric vehicle with the additional solar power. The SOC of
battery is determined by combining the SOC estimation based
on open circuit voltage method and ampere-hour counting
method. It helps the driver to evaluate the amount of remaining
charge capacity in battery in order to estimate how far the
vehicle can still travel, and avoid running condition with low
battery to extend the overall battery life. The EMS
continuously estimates and updates the required information to
the dashboard of the new remaining distance while the driver is
reducing the vehicle speed. This helps get more energy from
the solar panels for a longer driving range.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Fig. 12. The Energy Management System for Solar Electric Vehicle
The authors express their thanks to the colleagues and
students at the Faculty of Transportation Engineering and the
Green Power Laboratory for their valuable support during
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Fig. 11. The solar electric car at HCMUT, 2013