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Estimating rates of decompression from

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DOI: 10.1130/G32948.1

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Estimating rates of decompression from textures of erupted ash
particles produced by 1999–2006 eruptions of Tungurahua volcano,
Ecuador
Heather M.N. Wright1, Katharine V. Cashman2, Patricia A. Mothes3, Minard L. Hall3, Andrés Gorki Ruiz3,
and Jean-Luc Le Pennec4
1
U.S. Geological Survey, MS 910, 345 Middlefield Road, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
2
Department of Geological Sciences, 1272 University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon 97403, USA
3
Instituto Geofìsico, Escuela Politècnica Nacional, Apartado 2759, Quito, Ecuador
4
IRD, R 163, Laboratoire Magmas et Volcans, 5 rue Kessler, 63038 Clermont-Ferrand cedex, France

ABSTRACT
Persistent low- to moderate-level eruptive activity of andesitic
volcanoes is difficult to monitor because small changes in magma
supply rates may cause abrupt transitions in eruptive style. As direct
measurement of magma supply is not possible, robust techniques for
indirect measurements must be developed. Here we demonstrate that
crystal textures of ash particles from 1999 to 2006 Vulcanian and
Strombolian eruptions of Tungurahua volcano, Ecuador, provide
quantitative information about the dynamics of magma ascent and
eruption that is difficult to obtain from other monitoring approaches.
We show that the crystallinity of erupted ash particles is controlled
by the magma supply rate (MSR); ash erupted during periods of high
magma supply is substantially less crystalline than during periods
of low magma supply. This correlation is most easily explained by
efficient degassing at very low pressures (<<50 MPa) and degassing-
driven crystallization controlled by the time available prior to erup-
tion. Our data also suggest that the observed transition from intermit-
tent Vulcanian explosions at low MSR to more continuous periods
of Strombolian eruptions and lava fountains at high MSR can be
explained by the rise of bubbles through (Strombolian) or trapping
of bubbles beneath (Vulcanian) vent-capping, variably viscous (and
crystalline) magma.
(e.g., Geschwind and Rutherford, 1995; Hammer and Rutherford, 2002).
Eruption models that incorporate estimates of changing crystal and bub-
ble concentrations with magma ascent thus require accurate predictions
of this evolution path (e.g., Melnik and Sparks, 1999; Diller et al., 2006).
TUNGURAHUA VOLCANO, ECUADOR
Tungurahua is a stratovolcano in the eastern cordillera of Ecuador
(Fig. 1). The most recent phase of magmatic activity began on 5 October
1999 (Smithsonian Institution, 2002–2004) and continues to the time of
this writing. Activity has included gas emissions, Vulcanian and Strombo-
lian eruptions and lava fountains, and sub-Plinian eruptions (Arellano et
al., 2008); an anomalously large event occurred in August 2006, produc-
ing an ash column 17 km high (volcanic explosivity index = 3; Eychenne
et al., 2012). Erupted ash, scoria, and ballistics are andesitic in composi-
tion (~58 wt% SiO2), with the exception of minor silicic andesite (~62
wt% SiO2) erupted in August 2006 (Samaniego et al., 2011). SO2 emis-
sions over this time period have exceeded, by two orders of magnitude,
estimates of dissolved sulfur in the erupted magma volume; 90% of these
emissions have been through passive degassing (Arellano et al., 2008).
Ash emitted from the volcano during all explosive activity records volume
accumulations through time (Ruiz et al., 2006; Le Pennec et al., 2012).

INTRODUCTION
A primary goal in volcanology is to understand the relationship
between magma supply rate (MSR) and eruption style. Although recent
Ν
advances in volcano monitoring techniques have greatly improved our
ability to accurately predict where, and sometimes when, volcanic erup-
tions will occur (e.g., Swanson et al., 1983; Sparks, 2003), predicting what
will happen is more difficult, and relies primarily on field studies of past
activity (e.g., Nakada, 2000). Recent studies of ash emitted before (Cash- 2°N
man and Hoblitt, 2004) and during (Taddeucci et al., 2002; Miwa et al.,
2009) eruptions suggest that ash samples may provide important informa- 0°
tion about both ascending magma composition and physical conditions of Tungurahua
ascent. Here we extend this approach to assess conduit processes that have 2°S
Ecuador
controlled the ongoing eruption of Tungurahua volcano, Ecuador, by (1)
quantifying groundmass crystallinities preserved in ash particles, (2) link- 4°S 200 km

ing crystallinity changes to varying rates of magma ascent as interpreted
from time-averaged magma eruption rates, (3) comparing our results
to experimental studies of crystallization, and (4) using these results to
explain observed transitions in eruption style.
Experimental and theoretical models demonstrate that the evolution
of bubble and crystal populations during degassing and magma ascent
changes the physical properties of the ascending magma (e.g., Geschwind
and Rutherford, 1995; Melnik and Sparks, 1999; Mangan and Sisson,
2000). Water exsolution from ascending volatile-saturated melts triggers
extensive crystallization at low pressures (e.g., Blundy and Cashman,
2001). The efficiency of crystallization depends on the rate of magma
ascent and the duration and pressure of shallow storage prior to eruption
81°W 79°W 77°W
Figure 1. Ash sampling sites shown on shaded relief map of Tungu-
rahua volcano, Ecuador (masl—meters above sea level). Inset: Loca-
tion map of Tungurahua volcano in Ecuadorean Andes.
METHODS
Ash samples (n = 14) from Vulcanian eruptions at Tungurahua were
collected from solar panel surfaces, roof tops, and plastic collection mats
at nine sample sites from 2000 to 2004. A single sample was also collected
from the largest eruption of the sequence in August 2006. Each ash sample
contains material erupted over 1–2 days. Textural variations among ash

GEOLOGY, July 2012; v. 40; no. 7; p. 619–622; doi:10.1130/G32948.1; 4 figures; Data Repository item 2012181.
GEOLOGY
© | July Society
2012 Geological 2012 | of
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America. For permission to copy, contact Copyright Permissions, GSA, or editing@geosociety.org. 619
particles in each sample were determined using backscattered electron
(BSE) images of ash particles (Appendix DR1 in the GSA Data Reposi-
tory1). Groundmass glass and feldspar compositions were analyzed using
a Cameca SX50 electron microprobe at the University of Oregon with a 12
keV electron beam at 20 nA. Dissolved water concentrations of ground-
mass glasses were analyzed by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spec-
troscopy using band assignments, absorption coefficients (ε), and densi-
ties (ρ) appropriate for dacite glass (Table DR2 in the Data Repository).
Path length was corrected from wafer thickness using microlite crystallini-
ties calculated for each sample, with a resultant error of as much as 50%.
RESULTS
Most classifications of ash particles rely on optical discrimination of
glassy (sideromelane), crystalline (tachylite), lithic (either dense juvenile
clasts or altered accidental clasts), and crystal fragments (e.g., Taddeucci et
al., 2002, 2004; Andronico et al., 2009; Miwa et al., 2009). BSE examina-
tions of sieved ash mounts from Tungurahua show that each ash sample
is composed of grains of variable crystallinity. To determine an average
crystallinity for each sample, we classified each ash particle as belong-
ing to one of five textural categories based on microlite crystallinity, φm
(crystals <35 µm in length), and glass composition (glass K2O is inversely
correlated with crystallinity; Fig. 2). Class I particles contain the lowest
percentage of microlites in the groundmass (average 29%), with tabular
feldspar microlites 10–25 µm long, sparse mafic microlites <5 µm across,
and glass SiO2 concentrations from 60 to 66 wt% (Fig. 2A). Class II parti-
cles contain more feldspar and mafic microlites (<10 µm; average 38% φm)
and between 64 and 68 wt% SiO2 in groundmass glass (Fig. 2B). Class III
particles contain abundant feldspar and mafic microlites (average 45% φm)
and from 66 to 69 wt% SiO2 in groundmass glass (Fig. 2C). Class IV par-
ticles contain little analyzable glass (average 57% φm). Moreover, the high
SiO2 content of groundmass glass (69.4 wt%) decreases the brightness
contrast between feldspar microlites and glass (Fig. 2D). Class V particles
are the most crystalline (average 67% φm), with abundant feldspar mafic
microlites and an average groundmass glass with 70.4 wt% SiO2 (Fig. 2E).
The average crystallinity (or glass composition) of each ash sample
is calculated by multiplying the proportion of each particle class by the
average φm (or silica content) of that class. Average ash crystallinities from
2000 to 2004 samples are 36%–60%, with corresponding silica contents
of 65.0–69.2 wt% (Table DR2). To test the effect of transport distance and
size class on ash componentry, we analyzed 2 samples from 20 January
2005, using multiple particle size classes (φ sizes 1–4). These compari-
sons show that ash samples from the same event have the same charac-
teristics, regardless of distance from the vent (at least for events lacking
pyroclastic flows; cf. Eychenne et al., 2012) or particle size.
FTIR analyses of erupted pyroclasts indicate that the groundmass
glass of all 2000–2004 pyroclasts is degassed, with a maximum H2O
content of 0.4 wt%; none of the analyzed samples contain detectable dis-
solved carbon dioxide (>10 ppm). These low volatile contents record vola-
tile equilibration at pressure, P ≤ 5 MPa (10 MPa at the high end of the
error range).

DISCUSSION
Crystallinity variations of erupted pyroclasts are most likely con-
trolled by changes in conditions of magma ascent. To test this hypothesis,
we calculate the time-averaged MSR (e.g., Scandone and Malone, 1985)
from the cumulative bulk volume of magma emitted from Tungurahua
between 1999 and 2004 (Fig. 3; also see the Data Repository). Ash emis-

30
Cumulative volume erupted (×106 m3)

1 November 17 July
2003 2004
25 4 August 2002 6 September
2 November 2001
2003
20 18 June 2003
15 April 2001 5 April 2002
14 May 2000
15 1 November 2003
Cumulative volume
erupted (x106 m3)

25.4
25 September 2000 25.2
10 25.0
24.8
24.6
5 24.4
1 Sept. 1 Oct. 1 Nov.
13 November 1999
00 01 02 03 04
20 20 20 20 20
Figure 2. A–E: Ash classification scheme for particle counts (I–V); ry ry ry ry ry
ua ua ua ua ua
Jan
backscatter electron image of each particle type. Corresponding
silica content and crystallinity of corresponding ash particle are Jan Jan Jan Jan
shown. F: Additional classification created for low-crystallinity par- Figure 3. Cumulative volume emission data points (A.G. Ruiz, unpub-
ticles in August 2006 sample; black—vesicles, dark gray—feldspars, lished data) with average supply rate (lines) preceding ash sample
light gray—glass, white—mafic crystals. dates. We use a 2 month data window so that linear fits use more
than 2 data points for all samples (no data are available over the 2
month period preceding 15 April 2001, so we used regression for vol-
1
GSA Data Repository item 2012181, supplementary methods, Table DR1 ume emission data points at end of 2000). For the 2 month time peri-
(ash grain counts, feldspar compositions, glass compositions, and FTIR results), ods during which rate of ash accumulation changed abruptly (slope
and a translated excerpt from unpublished Ruiz et al. manuscript, is available online changed), we use slope corresponding to data most closely preced-
at www.geosociety.org/pubs/ft2012.htm, or on request from editing@geosociety ing sample date (minimum 5 day window); see inset example of rate
.org or Documents Secretary, GSA, P.O. Box 9140, Boulder, CO 80301, USA. calculation where slope changed over this interval (1 November 2003).

620 www.gsapubs.org | July 2012 | GEOLOGY

sion volumes were determined using observed ash plume heights (from
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Volcanic Ash Advi-
sory Center Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite imagery)
and thermal plume equations; the calibration was tested using known
volumes of well-preserved August 2001 eruptive deposits (Le Pennec et
al., 2004; Ruiz et al., 2006). We estimate the average MSR that preceded
each analyzed eruption by calculating the slope of the resulting cumulative
volume emission curve over a 2 month window (Fig. 3). In cases where
the rate of ash accumulation changed abruptly (the slope changed) shortly
before an eruption, we use the slope corresponding to eruptions most
closely preceding the sample date (minimum 5 day window; e.g., Fig. 3,
inset). MSR rates determined in this way vary over 4 orders of magnitude,
from 6.5 × 10−4 to 2.8 m3/s, for the 14 ash-producing eruptions included in
our analysis. These MSR estimates represent minimum values; Le Pennec
et al. (2012) showed that eruptive volume is underestimated by ash cloud
methods alone, because ballistic volumes can approach plume-generated
volumes in small eruptions (i.e., total volume is twice the ash volume).
Our data show that the average particle crystallinity in a given ash
sample correlates with the MSR that fed the eruption (Fig. 4). This cor-
relation suggests that the MSR (i.e., magma decompression rate) controls
the extent of syn-ascent groundmass crystallization in response to gas
exsolution from the melt (recorded by the uniformly low dissolved volatile
concentrations preserved in quenched groundmass glass). The associated
variability in crystallinity indicates time (and rate) dependent crystalliza-
tion, as observed in experiments (e.g., Geschwind and Rutherford, 1995;
Hammer and Rutherford, 2002). The range of textures present in indi-
60
Crystallinity (%)
40
20
0 60
-6 -4 -2
log dP/dt (MPa/s)
Class
1 gurahua samples have rhyolitic groundmass compositions. Magma rheol-
2 ogy controls not only the deformation properties of the magma, but also
3 20
4 the ability of volatiles to migrate through the conduit. We might therefore
5 expect a direct relationship between the MSR and eruption style (Cash-
10
-3.5 -2.5 -1.5 -0.5 0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5
Volume supply rate log (m3/s) - 2 month average
Figure 4. Magma volume supply rate versus microlite crystallinity
of samples. Open symbol corresponds to sample for which no data
points exist over 2 month window used to calculate magma sup-
ply rate (period ending 15 April 2001). Large symbols correspond
to samples for which break in volume accumulation slope occurred
over 2 month interval and therefore shorter interval was used to
calculate supply rate; star corresponds to 18 August 2006 inferred
magma supply rate; ±1.5 orders of magnitude based on extrapola-
tion error inherent in relationship. Shaded bars represent percent-
ages of each textural class for each sample (to show heterogene-
ity). Inset: Crystallinity versus log-integrated decompression rate for
Soufrière Hills experimental samples (single decompression experi-
ments) with varying annealing pressures (P; t is time) (diamonds:
125 MPa; squares: 100 MPa; circles: 75 MPa; triangles: 50 MPa;
Couch et al., 2003), Arenal experimental samples at 60 MPa anneal-
ing pressure (filled circles; Szramek et al., 2006), and Tungurahua
ash samples assuming 10-m-diameter conduit (x symbols). Offset
between Soufrière Hills and Arenal curves suggests that composi-
tion and temperature exert strong controls on resultant textures.
Conduit diameter of 20 m shifts calculated decompression rate by
factor of 10–0.6 MPa·s.
GEOLOGY | July 2012 | www.gsapubs.org
vidual ash samples suggests recycling of ash from one eruption to the next
(e.g., Taddeucci et al., 2004) and/or simultaneous eruption of particles
with different crystallization histories.
A relationship between microlite textures and eruption rate has been
observed at several volcanoes (e.g., Gardner et al., 1998; Nakada and
Motomura, 1999; Hammer et al., 2000; Taddeucci et al., 2004; Miwa et
al., 2009). Experimental data of Couch et al. (2003) on Soufrière Hills
groundmass rhyodacite show that bulk crystallinity increases with both
decreasing decompression rate (from 0.03 to 0.00003 MPa·s) and decreas-
ing equilibration pressure (from 125 to 50 MPa; Fig. 4). If we assume a
conduit diameter of 10 m and bulk density of 2000 kg/m3 with magma-
static pressure in the conduit, the Tungurahua samples show a parallel
trend with higher overall crystallinities. The offset in slope is likely due
to differences in bulk composition and temperature; experimental decom-
pression data for Arenal basaltic andesite from 60 MPa closely follow the
trend of the Tungurahua data (Szramek et al., 2006; Fig. 4).
We use our calibration for crystallinity and MSR to evaluate condi-
tions that led to the climactic eruption of 16 August 2006. Most of the ash
particles in this sample are less crystalline than our lowest crystallinity
category (I). With the inclusion of a new category (φm = 4%), we deter-
mine an average φm of 19% for this sample, which corresponds to an MSR
of 1000 m3/s (star in Fig. 4), orders of magnitude larger than the largest
previously sampled eruption. This estimate is consistent with an estimated
bulk supply rate of 2000 m3/s based on independent reconstructions (J.
Eychenne, 2011, personal commun.), the high measured SO2 output for
this eruption (~35,000 t/day; Carn et al., 2008), and the large volume of
erupted magma (20 × 106 m3; Arellano et al., 2008). The very rapid ascent
(13 m/s) implied by an MSR of 1000 m3/s suggests that, for this unusually
large eruption, the ash crystallinity records the rapid syneruptive down-
ward propagation of a fragmentation wave rather than the pre-eruptive rise
of magma within the conduit.
70 Our study thus suggests that the rate of shallow magma supply to
Tungurahua volcano has varied from <0.001 to 1000 m3/s over the course
Microlite crystallinity (%)
of the 10 yr eruption. At the same time, eruptive styles have included Vul-
0
canian, Strombolian, and violent Strombolian activity. We have shown
50 that the MSR correlates with the extent of syneruptive magma crystalliza-
tion. The extent of crystallization, in turn, affects the magma rheology, by
40 increasing both the particle-particle interactions (Ji, 2004) and the silica
content of the residual melt (Shaw, 1972); the highest crystallinity Tun-
30
man, 2004); at Tungurahua, this relationship is manifested by Strombolian
activity (enhanced gas transport) during times of elevated magma supply
(low crystallinity), as observed in August 2001 (e.g., Arellano et al., 2008;
Le Pennec et al., 2012). In the extreme case of very high magma supply
(e.g., July–August 2006), gas retained within the magma exsolves rapidly
during decompression, causing extensive fragmentation. It is interesting
that the threshold MSR inferred for the transition from Strombolian (~1
m3/s) to sub-Plinian (~103 m3/s) activity at Tungurahua overlaps with other
estimates for the transition from violent Strombolian to sub-Plinian activ-
ity (Pioli et al., 2009).
CONCLUSIONS
Vulcanian, Strombolian, and violent Strombolian eruptions at Tun-
gurahua volcano, Ecuador, produce short-lived eruptions of ash and are
fed by variable magma supply rates. The MSR controls the time avail-
able for crystallization during magma ascent, thereby controlling the
extent of shallow crystallization (microlite crystallinity). This study pro-
vides the first quantitative assessment of the relation between ash textures
and magma supply rates. We conclude that syn-ascent crystallization of
magma occurred at varying decompression rates in response to volatile
621
equilibration to low pressures. We infer rates of magma supply for the
August 2006 eruption using our calibration of average MSR and crys-
tallinity over several eruption intervals; the correspondence between our
MSR estimate and that made independently by Eychenne et al. (2012)
indicates that ash crystallinity provides a good approximation of pre-
eruptive magma supply. The results of the study suggest that the future of
petrologic monitoring is promising; we can use the microlite textures of
ash samples collected at a safe distance from the volcanic vent as a tool
to monitor magma supply rates at ongoing eruptions at Tungurahua, or at
other low-volume, low-flux eruptions in the world. We can further analyze
ash deposits preserved in the rock record to infer eruptive conditions in
the volcano’s past.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was funded by National Science Foundation grants EAR-0207362
and EAR-0510437 to Cashman. We thank C. Martel, J. Hammer, C. Gardner,
T. Sisson, T. Miwa, and anonymous reviewers for constructive reviews.
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Manuscript received 21 October 2011
Revised manuscript received 1 February 2012
Manuscript accepted 6 February 2012
Printed in USA
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