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Source to sink: A review of three decades of

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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Sedimentary Geology
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / s e d g e o

Source to sink: A review of three decades of progress in the understanding of

volcaniclastic processes, deposits, and hazards
V. Manville a,⁎, K. Németh b, K. Kano c
a
GNS Science, Wairakei Research Centre, Private Bag 2000, Taupo, New Zealand
b
Institute of Natural Resources, Massey University, PB 11-222, Palmerston North, New Zealand
c
Geological Survey of Japan, AIST, Tsukuba Central 7, 1-1 Higashi 1-chome, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8567, Japan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Volcaniclastic sediments, broadly defined as clastic deposits derived from the transport, deposition and/or
Accepted 1 April 2009 redeposition of the products of volcanic activity, have long been a Cinderella of the geosciences. This status is
a function of the inherent complexity of the fragmentation, transport and depositional processes that operate
Keywords: in volcanically-impacted environments and the comparatively recent development of the discipline as a
Volcaniclastic sedimentation
specialist area. Volcaniclastic studies are truly interdisciplinary, drawing on many elements of physical
Explosive volcanism
Stratigraphy
volcanology, fluid dynamics, classical clastic sedimentology, hydrology and geomorphology.
Sedimentology In the past 30 years volcaniclastic studies have blossomed, partly in response to a number of catastrophic and
Natural hazards high-profile volcanic eruptions, including Mount St. Helens in 1981, Nevado del Ruiz in 1985 and Pinatubo in
1991, and partly due to integration with the maturing science of fluid dynamics and an increased
understanding of the behaviour of particulate dispersions and two-phase granular flows. These historical
events have demonstrated that the sedimentary repercussions of volcanic eruptions can have more severe,
far-reaching, and prolonged impacts than the initial volcanism. In parallel, studies of well-preserved
examples from the geological record have extended our understanding of landscape and environmental
responses to styles and scales of volcanism that have not been recorded historically, such as the impacts of
caldera-forming eruptions from silicic calderas. As a consequence, studies have expanded beyond classical
stratigraphic and sedimentological studies of ancient successions in a variety of plate tectonic settings to a
more dynamic focus on process. Ultimately, volcaniclastic successions are the product of the interplay
between the volcano, in terms of the style, magnitude and explosivity of the eruption, and the environment,
as expressed by physiography, hydrology, energy, and accommodation space.
© 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction periods, developments in volcaniclastic process sedimentology have

Volcanic activity is the surface expression of thermal processes in the
interior of a planet that discharge gaseous, liquid, and solid components.
Although volcanoes, the sites where this material reaches the surface,
occupy only a small fraction of the Earth's surface, are mainly restricted
to plate margins, and are active for only a tiny proportion of their
existence, they have enormous geological significance. An estimated
27% of post-Archaean sediments derive from the erosion and reworking
of primary eruptive products to produce volcaniclastic rocks (Fisher and
Schmincke, 1984). Recognition of the volumetric importance of
volcaniclastic materials dates back to the development of plate tectonics,
and study of ancient volcanic arcs and their marginal facies (Dickinson,
1974a,b). Although primary volcanic processes occurring during erup-
tions have always attracted more attention than the sedimentary
processes that occur after the tephra has settled, or during repose
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: v.manville@gns.cri.nz (V. Manville).
mirrored those in physical volcanology, in terms of late development as
an independent discipline during the 1960's, and then at an accelerating
pace following high profile eruptions during the 1980's and 90's (Fig. 1).
The year 1991 in particular was a turning point in volcaniclastic studies,
with the publication of thematic volumes by Sedimentary Geology (Cas
and Busby-Spera, 1991) and the Society for Economic Paleontologists
and Mineralogists (Fisher and Smith, 1991), and the century's largest
explosive eruption at Mt. Pinatubo in the Philippines (Newhall and
Punongbayan, 1996). Other important works include overview chapters
in sedimentology or volcanology textbooks in which volcaniclastic
sediments are discussed in terms of plate tectonic setting, process, and
volcano-type (Cas and Wright,1987; Orton,1996; Leyrit and Montenant,
2000) and other special volumes on, for example volcaniclastic
sedimentation in lacustrine settings (White and Riggs, 2001), particu-
late gravity currents (McCaffrey et al., 2001) and subaqueous explosive
volcanism (White et al., 2003b). Subaerial pyroclastic density currents
(Druitt, 1998) or subaqueous eruption-fed density currents (White,
2000) that result directly from the generation of particulate material by
eruptive activity are key components of volcaniclastic sedimentation.

0037-0738/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2009.04.022
 V. Manville et al. / Sedimentary Geology 220 (2009) 136–161
Fig. 1. Annual publication rate of journal papers in which the term ‘volcaniclastic’ appears in the title, abstract, or keywords of journal articles referenced by the online search engine
Scopus (www.scopus.com). Following introduction of the term in the late 1960's, its usage has grown at a linear rate over the past 3 decades.
These new terms and related concepts are replacing conventional ideas
about pyroclastic flows and surges (Fisher, 1966, 1979; Sparks et al.,
1973; Sparks, 1976) and their subaqueous equivalents (Fiske and
Matsuda, 1964; Fisher, 1984) and have been discussed elsewhere by
White (2000), Branney and Kokelaar (2002) and others, and therefore
are not examined in this paper.
Volcanic terrains are the most complex on Earth, reflecting the
addition of wholly new mass, in the form of volcanic ejecta, to the
planet's surface, succeeding transport and deposition, and the
diversity and dynamism of volcanic environments that encompass
all imaginable terrestrial and subaqueous setting from mountain-tops
to the bathyal ocean. Sediment supply is not limited by rates of
weathering, erosion, or production of biogenic material, but can be
introduced effectively instantaneously and in enormous volumes,
both locally and as regionally distributed material, overwhelming pre-
existing transport systems. As a result, standard techniques of vertical
sequence analysis are difficult to apply, and a more holistic under-
standing of the facies and their associations is required (Orton, 1995).
Understanding how the environment adapts to such influences is one
of the key goals of volcaniclastic sedimentology. In this paper, we
examine the specialist terminology that has evolved, albeit borrowing
heavily from pre-existing terms through redefinitions, before moving
on to a summary of the stratigraphic record of volcanism as a variable-
term response to a largely episodic and ephemeral process. The main
body of the paper discusses emergent themes of the past 30 years of
volcaniclastic studies, while the discussion and conclusion sum-
marises the main controls on volcaniclastic sedimentation revealed by
a synthesis of this research.
2. Terminology
The complexity of volcaniclastic processes, sediments and succes-
sions has given rise to a similar complexity in their terminology
(Orton, 1996; White and Houghton, 2006). A number of classification
schemes exist, with all having their strengths and weaknesses and
relying to varying extents on recycling or re-application of words
developed in other contexts with pre-existing connotations (Table 1).
The first scheme is based on grain origin (Fisher, 1961), with terms
such as pyroclastic fragments (produced by explosive fragmentation),
hyaloclastic (quench fragmentation), and autoclastic (mechanical self-
fragmentation) applied to both individual grains and their deposits
(Fisher and Schmincke, 1984). Deposits emplaced directly by volcanic
processes are primary, reworked units are secondary. Epiclastic is
137
restricted to fragments derived by weathering and erosion of ‘pre-
existing rocks', and excludes reworking of particles from non-welded
or unconsolidated materials. The terms tuff and tuffaceous are applied
to volcanic sandstones with a greater or lesser volcanic component.
Cas and Wright (1987) shifted the emphasis, so that pyroclastic is
restricted to material generated, transported and deposited by
subaerial explosive volcanism and its direct effects, such as atmo-
spheric ashfall and pyroclastic density currents. However, the system
breaks down when subaqueous volcanic activity is considered, or
when pyroclastic density currents cross the air/water interface
(Whitham, 1989; Cashman and Fiske, 1991; Kokelaar and Busby,
1992; Kano, 1996, 2003; White, 2000) because all deposits from water
are defined as non-primary. All facies deposited by normal sedimen-
tary surface processes irrespective of fragment origin are referred to as
epiclastic, so that as soon as an ash particle comes into contact with
running water it ceases to be a pyroclast. There is also a substantial
grey area surrounding deposits of syn-eruptive processes such as
eruption-triggered lahars and debris avalanches (Pierson, 1997a;
Capra et al., 2002), and phenomena caused by the transformation of
primary pyroclastic density currents following interaction with water
(Whitham, 1989; Freundt, 2003). McPhie et al. (1993) attempted to
address this by using both grain origin and transport/depositional
process. Pyroclastic usage follows Cas and Wright (1987), while
epiclastic or volcanogenic sediments is after Fisher (1961), extended to
cover material derived from unlithified volcanic material. A unified
scheme for all primary volcaniclastic deposits proposed by White and
Houghton (2006) is based on the initial depositional mechanism, and
a refinement of grains-size terminology. Key points are: (i) all primary
volcaniclastic rocks receive primary volcaniclastic names such as tuff
(ash, if unlithified) or lapilli tuff (lapilli ash) (Table 1); (ii) all deposits
that do not involve temporary storage of material are primary; (iii) no
deposits directly related to eruptions are epiclastic; and (iv) volcani-
clastic is no longer used for all deposits with a volcanic component,
irrespective of origin, but instead replaces pyroclastic in its broadest
sense of particles and deposits formed by volcanic eruptions. Pyro-
clastic, autoclastic, hyaloclastic or peperitic are thus interpretative
deposit types applied as a second step after the rock has been given its
basic descriptive grains-size name rather than particle types. Hence,
sedimentary rocks formed from particles released by the erosion and
weathering of volcanic rocks are no longer considered volcaniclastic,
but receive a sedimentary name with or without a volcanic modifier.
Additional descriptive modifiers include componentry, sorting and
clast morphology (White and Houghton, 2006). The main merit of this
 138
Table 1
Alternative terminological schemes for primary volcanic (pyroclastic) deposits and volcaniclastic sediments, according to depositional process and timing with respect to a volcanic eruption.

V. Manville et al. / Sedimentary Geology 220 (2009) 136–161

Names marked with asterisks are for recognisably epiclastic deposits. (after Orton, 1996; White and Houghton, 2006).
 V. Manville et al. / Sedimentary Geology 220 (2009) 136–161
scheme is that it considers the complexity of fragmentation, transport
and depositional processes arising during subaerial and subaqueous
volcanic eruptions: deposits with an obvious volcanic origin thus
avoid being called just “sand” or “gravel” until the interpretive section,
and it saves all the deposits of underwater eruptions from being called
reworked. The main weakness is that is abandons forty years of
application of the term volcaniclastic to deposits of volcanic material
released by weathering from older volcanic, including volcaniclastic,
rocks. Regardless of the terminology used, it should recognize the
inherent complexity of volcanic environments and processes, distin-
guish primary from secondary deposits, and be granulometrically
accurate.
3. Plate tectonic setting of volcaniclastics
The majority of volcanoes, and hence their corresponding
volcaniclastic sediments, are located along plate boundaries (Fig. 2).
Of active subaerial volcanoes c. 80% are associated with convergent
plate boundaries and 15% with divergent margins, whether mid-ocean
ridges or intracontinental rifts: the remaining 5% occur in intraplate
settings (Fisher and Schmincke, 1984).
3.1. Convergent margins
At convergent margins two tectonic plates composed of oceanic or
continental lithosphere or both move in opposition with one being
subducted beneath the other. Volcanic arcs developed on the over-
riding plate can contain hundreds of individual volcanoes spaced at
distances of 20–50 km and stretching for thousands of kilometres.
Convergent margins dominate the global flux of volcaniclastic
material due to their typically high relief and eruption of volatile-
rich evolved magmas. This material can accumulate in a diverse suite
of depocentres located within and adjacent to the volcanic arc (Fig. 2),
including oceanic trenches at the subducting margin, trench-slope
basins formed between fault-bounded segments of the accretionary
prism (which itself may be dominated by volcaniclastic sediments),
fore-arc basins, intra-arc basins developed within the arc between
volcanic topography or in extensional grabens, and retro- or back-arc
basins on thinned and stretched oceanic or continental crust. Further
complications commonly arise from spatial migration of the arc
Fig. 2. Principle plate tectonic settings of volcaniclastic sedimentation (shaded stipple). Annual volumetric magmatic production rates (cubes) are after Fisher and Schmincke (1984).
Subaerial and subaqueous volcanoes are surrounded by volcaniclastic ring-plains that may merge into linear aprons. Over time, a convergent margin can undergo intra-arc extension,
potentially resulting in rifting and emplacement of new oceanic crust at a spreading centre. Repeated episodes of rifting can produce a series of remnant arcs separated by back-arc
marginal basins. Intracontinental rifting can also culminate in sea-floor spreading.
139
through time and frequent, rapid and reversible changes in the
regional stress regime of the plate boundary (Smith and Landis, 1995).
Trenches that are isolated from the arc by an uplifting accretionary
prism may receive volcaniclastic material only as distal tephra fall and
volcaniclastic turbidites (Ballance et al., 2000; Stewart, 1978; Under-
wood, 1986; Underwood and Karig, 1980; Underwood and Moore,
1995). Elsewhere high sediment-supply rates produce immense
submarine fan complexes, such as that infilling the Cascadia trench,
carrying variable contributions of volcanic materials from the
associated arc. Globally, fore-arc and back-arc basins host by far the
greatest volumes of volcaniclastic material, due to their width,
proximity to the volcanic arc, capacity for subsidence, and potential
longevity. They can host a variety of volcaniclastic depositional
environments, including terrestrial fluvial (Van Houten, 1976; Vessell
and Davies, 1981; Ballance, 1988; Mathisen and Vondra, 1983) and
fluvio-deltaic systems (Kuenzi et al., 1979), shallow marine shelves
(Kano and Takeuchi, 1989; Shane, 1990, 1991; Naish and Kamp, 1995;
Shane et al., 1998; Stow et al., 1998; Proust et al., 2005), and marine
slopes and submarine fans (Carter et al., 1978; Houghton and Landis,
1989; Aitchison and Landis, 1990; Briggs et al., 2004). Arc volcanoes
developed on oceanic lithosphere can be fringed by an extensive
volcaniclastic apron (Sigurdsson et al., 1980; Ballance et al., 2004;
Boudon et al., 2007; Yagi et al., 2009-this volume), similar to that
developed by intraplate island volcanoes (see below).
Along many convergent margins, extension within or behind the
volcanic front can result in the creation of intra-arc basins, either
between the topography created by stratovolcanoes, or in extensional
fault-bounded basins (Smith and Landis, 1995). Intra-arc basins de-
veloped on the arc massif may be marine (Ballance, 1974) or subaerial,
(Kano, 1991), with the rate of subsidence being matched or exceeded
by the supply of primary pyroclastic and secondary volcaniclastic
material (Breitkreuz, 1991; White and Robinson, 1992; Nakayama,
1996; Yamamoto, 2009-this volume). Basin fills can include the
extensive radial ring-plains or coalesced linear aprons of volcaniclastic
deposits that fringe stratovolcanoes (G.A. Smith, 1987, 1986; Palmer
and Walton, 1990; Palmer et al., 1993) fluvio-lacustrine sediments (R.
C.M. Smith et al., 1993), or material shed into deep water by collapse of
the stratovolcanoes themselves (Ballance and Gregory, 1991) or their
fringing apron (Allen, 2004). Where extension is significant, silicic
caldera-forming magmatism can develop within or behind the arc,
140 V. Manville et al. / Sedimentary Geology 220 (2009) 136–161
creating new depocentres in volcano-tectonic collapse structures that
can accumulate significant lacustrine (Larsen and Crossey, 1996;
Palmer and Shawkey, 1997; White and Riggs, 2001; Chipera et al.,
2008; Marx et al., 2009-this volume) or marine (Busby-Spera, 1988a,
b; Riggs and Busby-Spera, 1991; Busby and Bassett, 2007; Yamamoto,
2009-this volume) sedimentary fills.
Strike-slip basins can develop in obliquely convergent margins
(Cole and Ridgway, 1993). The enormous volumes of pyroclastic
material generated by large-scale explosive silicic eruptions and their
long-range dispersal in distal tephra fall-out and ignimbrites means
that depocentres outside the intra-arc region can also be impacted,
either directly by primary pyroclastics or by volcaniclastic material
transported via fluvial systems that in modern settings demonstrably
traverse intervening topography (Kataoka and Nakajo, 2002; Man-
ville, 2002; Segschneider et al., 2002b; Manville and Wilson, 2004a;
Kataoka, 2005; Manville et al., 2005; Kataoka et al., 2008,2009-this
volume; Manville et al., 2009-this volume), with similar influences
inferred for successions extending back into the Archaean (Mueller,
1991; Mueller and Corcoran, 1998). Primary pyroclastic units,
including both airfall tephra and pyroclastic density current deposits
can form regional chronostratigraphic markers (Drexler et al., 1980;
Miyabuchi, 2009-this volume), aiding in palaeographic reconstruc-
tions of depositional environments (Sohn et al., 2009-this volume).
Predominantly submarine deposition in arcs both builds up
topography and infills basins on established arc ridges. Deposits of
less-evolved arc volcanism are dominated by reworked deposits with
local contributions from flank eruptions (Ito, 1987; White and Busby-
Spera, 1987). Explosive subaqueous rhyolitic volcanism is also more
common than appreciated, producing substantial pumiceous deposits
associated with submarine caldera and other structures (Busby-Spera,
1984, 1986; Mueller, 1991; Mueller and White, 1992; Kano et al., 1996;
Wright and Gamble, 1999; Fiske et al., 2001; Kano, 2003; Wright et al.,
2003; Yuasa and Kano, 2003; Hekinian et al., 2008; Mueller et al.,
2008).
3.2. Divergent margins
New basaltic oceanic crust is generated at mid-ocean spreading
ridges, effectively linear chains of interlinked elongate volcanoes
whose development and eruptions are mediated by movement of
lithospheric oceanic plates away from each other (Fig. 2). Conse-
quently, such divergent margin volcanism dominates global magma
production rates. However, as activity involves eruption of relatively
volatile-poor basaltic magma at significant water depths and confin-
ing hydrostatic pressures it is dominated by extrusion of lavas, and
primary pyroclastic production is limited (Fisher and Schmincke,
1984). Volcaniclastic sediments most commonly reported comprise
talus breccias and hyaloclastite sandstones within axial rifts and along
the margins of lava flows (Fouquet et al., 1998; Oehmig and Wallrabe-
Adams, 1991; Eissen et al., 2003; Helo et al., 2008), and are more
common at slow-spreading ridges with greater topographic relief
than fast-spreading ridges. A range of primary and associated
reworked volcaniclastic deposits have also been reported from weakly
to strongly alkaline volcanic centres along back-arc spreading centres
(Gill et al., 1990) and off-axis seamounts (Lonsdale and Batiza, 1980;
Batiza et al., 1984, 1989; Clague et al., 2003b). Emergent portions of
mid-ocean ridges (i.e., Iceland) can produce greater volumes of
fragmental material through more explosive subaerial and shallow
subaqueous or intra-glacial eruptions, and subaerial weathering and
erosion processes, and by the eruption of more-evolved magmas
extending up to rhyolitic compositions (Blake, 1994). This can be
reworked by jökulhlaups (Björnsson, 1975) onto proximal sandur
plains that form a volcaniclastic apron around the volcanic edifice
(Maizels, 1989; Magilligan et al., 2002; Duller et al., 2008), and enter
the sea as plunging hyperpycnal currents to deposit on marginal shelfs
or in deep-sea fans (Bergh and Gudmunder, 1991; Lacasse et al., 1996,
1998; Maria et al., 2000). For example, the 1996 Gjalp jökulhlaup
added 7 km2 to the land area of Iceland and transported 180 million
tons of volcaniclastic sediment (~1% of the annual global sediment
flux) into the ocean in less than 24 h (Maria et al., 2000).
3.3. Intraplate volcanoes
Intraplate volcanoes occur within oceanic and continental plates
and are extremely diverse, ranging from monogenetic basaltic
volcanoes (see below) including kimberlite diatremes with volumes
of c. 0.15 km3, up to Large Igneous Provinces (LIP's) that comprise
episodic massive (105–107 km3) outpourings of (dominantly) mafic
magma from the mantle outside of normal seafloor spreading centres
(Coffin and Eldholm, 1994), often in association with mantle plumes
and hotspots (White and McKenzie, 1995). Continental flood basalts,
volcanic passive margins, oceanic plateaus, aseismic ridges, seamount
groups, and oceanic basin flood basalts all fall into this category. The
sedimentary consequences of subaerial LIP emplacement are complex
and diverse. Lithospheric doming above the mantle plume due to
thermal and dynamic effects can perturb regional drainage networks
(Cox, 1989), resulting in formation of regional unconformities,
catastrophic gravity flow deposits, and the erosion of spectacular
canyon systems along rifting margins (Jerram and Widdowson, 2005;
He et al., 2006). Opening phases of LIP emplacement often include
extension, rifting, and eruption of low-volume transitional-alkaline
magma whose distribution is strongly controlled by pre-existing
topography and local sedimentary environments, including the
presence or absence of water (Jerram and Widdowson, 2005).
Under such conditions, voluminous and complex sequences of
phreatomagmatic, volcaniclastic and peperitic (both wet and dry)
deposits can develop as a result of the surface eruption of magma and
the emplacement of shallow sills (White et al., 2000; Jerram and
Stollhofen, 2002; Ross et al., 2005; McClintock and White, 2006).
Development of substantial relief as a result of up-doming, intrusion,
volcanic depressions, and rift-flank horst uplift and graben subsidence
can result in large-scale gravitational instability and the formation of
catastrophic landslide deposits (Brown and Bell, 2006). These are
subsequently enveloped and buried by products of the main phase of
activity, predominantly thick stacks of tabular tholeiitic lava flow
fields. The elevated lava plateau is then subjected to prolonged erosion
resulting in escarpment retreat and translation of material into
offshore depocentres (Brunner et al., 1999; Zuffa et al., 2000; Normark
and Reid, 2003; Jerram and Widdowson, 2005). Volcaniclastic
sediments are also relatively abundant in association with oceanic
plateaux and aseismic ridges due to their high relief (Moore and
Clague, 1992; Carracedo, 1999), and have a fair preservation potential
as the over-thickened and comparatively buoyant oceanic lithosphere
resists subduction and is often accreted along the over-riding plate
margin.
Oceanic intraplate volcanoes include a diverse range of edifices
from large islands that emerge above sea level and may be surrounded
by broad (up to 100 km wide) volcanic aprons to smaller seamounts
and flat-topped guyots. Collectively they represent the third largest
volumetric contributor to global volcanism (Fisher and Schmincke,
1984), but contain a higher proportion of volcaniclastic material than
mid-ocean ridges because of their greater relief, shallower summits,
steeper slopes, and typically more evolved and volatile-rich magma.
Changes in the magma production rate and topographic height of a
developing oceanic island volcano result in transitional stages of
edifice growth and the proportion of volcaniclastic material (Moore
and Clague, 1992). The deep-marine (seamount) stage is characterised
by deep-water extrusion of lavas which can partially break-up to talus,
or vigorous submarine eruptions that produce hyaloclastite piles
(Lonsdale and Batiza, 1980; Smith and Batiza, 1980; Batiza et al., 1984;
Clague et al., 2003a,b). As the seamount grows towards the ocean
surface during the voluminous shield-building stage activity becomes
 V. Manville et al. / Sedimentary Geology 220 (2009) 136–161
more explosive and phreatomagmatic. Once subaerial and emergent,
activity again becomes dominated by emplacement of lava flows,
which can form offshore prograding Gilbert-type hyaloclastic and
pillow lava deltas where they flow into the sea (Porebski and
Gradzinski, 1990). The post-shield stage is marked by eruption of
highly alkaline lavas and pyroclastic rocks. Subaerial fluvial and
aeolian reworking and erosion (Laity and Malin, 1985; Menéndez
et al., 2008), plus wave erosion around the margins of the island also
generates sedimentary material (Richards, 1965; Pyökäri and Yli-
Kyyny, 1995). Gravitational collapse of island flanks can occur at any
stage, producing enormous subaqueous landslides or debris ava-
lanches (Moore et al., 1994; Carracedo, 1999; Clague and Moore, 2002)
and influencing the development of deep-water sedimentary systems
(Ollier et al., 1998). Following cessation of volcanic activity, the island
enters the erosional stage, including chemical erosion (Rad et al.,
2007).
Continental intraplate volcanism is the least volumetrically
significant style of activity on Earth, if LIP's are excluded, but the
most compositionally diverse. Most is associated with extensional
tectonics and rifting, e.g., the East African Rift, Rhine Graben, and the
Basin and Range province. A lesser proportion is associated with
mantle plumes and hotspots, e.g., Yellowstone, or with more diffuse
asthenospheric melting that results in scattered small-volume
stratigraphically complex volcanoes (Finn et al., 2005; Hoernle et al.,
2006; Panter et al., 2006). The preservation potential of volcanic and
volcaniclastic materials in such settings is very high. Activity is often
bimodal, may be subaerial or subaqueous, and can involve mono-
genetic basalt volcano fields, tholeiitic flood basalts, silicic large
igneous provinces, and eruption of highly evolved alkalic magmas
(Fisher and Schmincke, 1984; Cas and Wright, 1987).
4. The stratigraphic record of volcanic activity
The stratigraphic record of volcanic regions comprises both
primary eruptive products generated by volcanism and the syn- and
post-eruptive volcaniclastic deposits that result from the immediate
or subsequent reworking of this material by surface processes,
including weathering and erosion. In general, volcanoes are only in
active eruption for a small proportion of their total lifespan: the
alternation of periods of activity with intervals of repose occurs over a
range of scales (Fig. 3), forming an effective hierarchy between
eruptive phases that last a matter of minutes to days and eruptive
epochs that encompass the entire millennial to millions of years
history of a volcanic field, system, or province (Fisher and Schmincke,
1984; Orton, 1996). After activity ceases, an extinct volcano can
remain a landscape element, shedding or accumulating volcaniclastic
Fig. 3. Hierarchies of scale in the duration of volcanic eruptions and intervening quiescent intervals (after Orton, 1996; modified from Fisher and Schmincke, 1984).
141
material, for millions of years longer. G.A. Smith (1991), working with
the geologic record, sub-divided volcaniclastic sequences into: (i)
“syn-eruptive” units, formed coevally with volcanic activity through
the immediate reworking of pyroclastic material, and extending
through the period where the landscape is still responding to the
hydrological and sedimentary-yield consequences of the eruption;
and (ii) inter-eruptive sequences, where normal ‘background’ sedi-
mentary processes occur without a direct volcanic influence. Syn-
eruptive periods thus produce rapid aggradation in proximal and
medial settings. Later workers have redefined the syn-eruptive period
more rigorously as being limited by the last recognised phases of a
single eruption such as deposition of a co-ignimbrite ash (Manville,
2002; Manville et al., 2009-this volume), while a “post-eruptive” period
comprises the period of landscape response to the volcanic perturba-
tion. Inter-eruption periods correspond to times when sediment
yields have returned to pre-eruption levels. The duration of the so-
defined post-eruptive period is a function of the nature and scale of
the eruption (explosivity, volume, dispersal), the geomorphic and
hydrological characteristics of the impacted regions (relief, climate,
catchment physiography, vegetation), and the availability of accom-
modation space. For small, localised eruptions, the post-eruptive
period can last a matter of months or a few years, until the supply of
easily remobilised pyroclastics material is depleted or otherwise
stabilised and sedimentary processes return to background condi-
tions. Larger eruptions can have aftermaths that last for several
decades (Kuenzi et al., 1979; Pierson et al., 1992; Major et al., 2000;
Hayes et al., 2002; Gran and Montgomery, 2005). In some circum-
stances, formation and breaching of an intracaldera lake can prolong
the post-eruptive period by rejuvenating an impacted drainage
system decades later through incision of the axial drainage and
lowering of local base levels (White et al., 1997; Manville et al., 1999,2009
this volume; Manville, 2002; Bornas et al., 2003). Under certain
conditions, the post-eruptive volcaniclastic sedimentary response
may persist for much longer: a combination of enormous pyroclastic-
deposit volumes and periglacial conditions postponed landscape
stabilisation in the central North Island for c. 9,000 years following the
26.5 ka Oruanui eruption (Manville and Wilson, 2004a).
4.1. Andesitic–dacitic stratovolcanoes
Andesitic–dacitic stratovolcanoes built up over periods of tens or
hundreds of thousands of years by repeated, relatively small-scale
eruptions at a geographically-confined vent site are typical of
convergent plate margins with thick continental crust (Cas and
Wright, 1987). Upward volcano growth, combined with tectonic uplift
or widening of the arc produces prograding coarsening-upwards
142 V. Manville et al. / Sedimentary Geology 220 (2009) 136–161
Fig. 4. Schematic distribution of volcaniclastic facies associated with andesitic–dacitic stratovolcanoes in terrestrial settings (after Vessell and Davies 1981; Riggs and Busby-Spera,
1990; G.A. Smith, 1988; Schmincke and Bogaard, 1991; Orton, 1996).
volcaniclastic successions to ≥1 km thick in intra-arc or arc-marginal
basins (Fig. 4). Accumulations are thickest close to each volcano and
fine and thin distally, giving rise to proximal-distal facies patterns
(Vessell and Davies, 1981; G.A. Smith, 1988; R.C.M. Smith, 1991a; Kano
and Takarada, 2007). Subaerial radial ring-plains develop around
isolated volcanoes (Palmer, 1991; Palmer and Neall, 1991; Palmer
et al., 1993; Zernack et al., 2009-this volume), or merge into linear
aprons parallel to the volcanic arc (Mathisen and Vondra, 1983; White
and Busby-Spera, 1987; Palmer and Walton, 1990; Runkel, 1990).
Proximal facies corresponding to the volcanic edifice comprise lava
flows, autoclastic and pyroclastic breccias and hypabyssal intrusions
and pass laterally into medial apron associations of pyroclastic-flow,
debris-avalanche, debris- and hyperconcentrated flow (lahar) depos-
its and then distal facies association of braided to meandering fluvial
system deposits, overbank alluvium, and interbedded tephras (G.A.
Smith, 1988; Hackett and Houghton, 1989; Riggs and Busby-Spera,
1990). In weakly extensional, low-relief intra-arc basins, andesitic–
dacitic stratovolcanoes may co-exist with intermediate-silicic compo-
sition calderas (see below), resulting in complex intercalations of
volcaniclastic rocks, lavas, and intrusions of varying composition and
depositional environment (Riggs and Busby-Spera, 1990; White and
Robinson, 1992; R.C.M. Smith et al., 1993).
Oceanic volcanic arcs (and emergent oceanic island volcanoes) are
typically surrounded by large aprons of volcaniclastic material.
Pyroclastic material introduced into shallow subaqueous settings is
sorted by wind, tidal, and gravitational mass-flow processes (Fig. 5),
often causing rapid changes in coastline type and position through the
progradation of fan- and braid-deltas (Kuenzi et al., 1979; Orton, 1988;
Fritz and Howells, 1991) or beach ridges (Pullar and Selby, 1971;
Manville et al., 2005). The exact response depends on the size, density
and volume of volcaniclastic detritus available and the depth and
energy of the receiving basin. Rapid deposition and aggradation
promotes over-steepened slopes, resulting in frequent slumping and
remobilisation by subaqueous mass flows (Allen, 2004). Deeper-water
volcaniclastics can include syn-eruptive mass flows and turbidites
derived directly from erupted material (i.e. following transformation
of a pyroclastic density current crossing the air–water interface), or
post- and inter-eruptive mass flows triggered by gravitational collapse
of the unstable volcanic edifice or volcaniclastic apron (Houghton and
Landis, 1989). Such settings are functionally similar to gravel-
dominated ramps and slope aprons (Heller and Dickinson, 1985).
Distal facies are often interbedded with normal basinal facies of
terrigenous or bioclastic origin.
4.2. Lava domes
Small silicic lava domes are volcanoes formed when relatively-
degassed rhyolitic to andesitic magma is extruded at, or just beneath,
the Earth's surface. Subaerially growing domes can produce dom-
inantly lava, yielding only limited amounts of syn-eruptive autoclastic
material. They can also produce explosive eruptions (Newhall and
Melson, 1983) or experience gravitational collapses (Cole et al., 1998),
forming localised block-and-ash flows and talus deposits of brecciated
fragments (Sato et al.,1992; Kamata et al., 2009-this volume). These can be
rapidly reworked in humid (Barclay et al., 2007) to arid environments to
form ring-plains or aprons of laharic deposits (Waresback and Turbeville,
1990; Turbeville, 1991; O'Halloran and Gaul, 1997), similar to those
developed adjacent to stratovolcanoes. Studies of proximal dome-field
volcaniclastics are rarer, but also show intercalation of primary pyroclastic
and volcaniclastic units over short distances and rapid sedimentary
responses to episodic influxes of material (Riggs et al., 1997).
 V. Manville et al. / Sedimentary Geology 220 (2009) 136–161 143

Fig. 5. Summary of the sources and transport processes of volcaniclastic sediment in (i) convergent margin island arcs and (ii) oceanic intraplate volcanism. Black arrows indicate
direct transformations, grey arrows indicate reworking. (After Carey, 2000).

Subaqueous eruption of silicic lava domes can produce more
volcaniclastic material through explosive magma-water interaction
(Cas et al., 1990) and autointrusions into their own breccias (Kano
et al., 1991). Contact between hot rhyolite magma and cold water and/
or saturated sediments results in quench fragmentation, autobreccia-
tion and resedimentation as submarine mass flows (crystal-rich
breccias), turbidites, and water-settled fallout (diffusely stratified
volcaniclastic sandstones with varying crystal content: (Cashman and
Fiske, 1991). Silicic dome growth can form partially emergent pumice
cones surrounded by aprons of volcaniclastic material (Reynolds et al.,
1980; Cas et al., 1990; Bull and Cas, 1991). Domes may also undergo
explosive or gravitational failure to produce subaqueous eruption-fed
density currents (Kano, 1996; Fiske et al., 1998) or a subaqueous
equivalent of a block-and-ash flow (Scott et al., 2003).
4.3. Intermediate and rhyolitic calderas
Large silicic igneous provinces often develop in association with
rifted arcs (Bryan et al., 1997, 2000; Wilson, 1996). ‘Super’ volcanic
eruptions from rhyolitic calderas (de Silva, 2008) generate the most

Fig. 6. Volcaniclastic sedimentation associated with intermediate-silicic caldera-forming explosive volcanism. The collapse caldera is partially infilled by intra-caldera ignimbrite
deposits intercalated with mega-breccias. Development of a lake in the closed basin results in a fining upward sequence of talus, turbidity current, and laminated suspension-settled
sediments in the central basin, flanked by littoral terraces, Gilbert-type deltas at tributary inflows, and basin-floor fans. Some shorelines may be erosive with a wave-cut bench.
Caldera resurgence may result in emplacement of subaqueous lava domes flanked by pyroclastic aprons. The unwelded ignimbrite plateau is dissected by deeply incised canyons
preferentially developed over buried water courses with ubiquitous surface reworking by rills on steep slope and aeolian dunes in more arid areas. Ephemeral lakes may develop in
dammed valleys and ephemeral basins. Canyon fills consist of inset terraces of debris flow, hyperconcentrated-flow, and braided stream deposits. Downstream of the margin of the
ignimbrite, prograding fluvial aggradation can result in shoreline advance and delta build-ups in the shallow marine, and deep-sea fans offshore of the shelf. Sand waves may develop
in shelf environments.
144 V. Manville et al. / Sedimentary Geology 220 (2009) 136–161

widespread and severe volcanic hazards known, including primary et al., 1990; Brooker et al., 1993; Austin-Erickson et al., 2008). The
effects such as pyroclastic density currents, ash fall, and volcanogenic nature of the surface eruption (Wohletz, 1986) and the resulting
tsunami and lahars (Tanguy et al., 1998; Witham, 2005). Indirect landform spans a spectrum of styles (Fig. 7) that are a sensitive
impacts of such eruptions can include regional and global climatic function of how much (Sheridan and Wohletz, 1981, 1983), and how
changes resulting from injection of sulphur aerosols and ash into the (White, 1991, 1996b), water is encountered by ascending magma at or
stratosphere (Rampino and Self, 1992; Stuiver et al., 1995) or the
alteration of surface albedo and evapo-transpirative properties on a
regional to continental scale by ash and ignimbrite emplacement
(Jones et al., 2007). Evacuation of a large sill-like magma chamber can
result on the formation of a collapse caldera, which becomes filled
with mega-block breccias and thick pyroclastic flow deposits (Lipman,
1976). Flooding of the caldera by surface water can cause syn-
depositional liquefaction of the hot materials (Sato et al., 2009-this
volume) and secondary explosions, resulting in further dispersal of
eruption products. Post-eruptive volcano-sedimentary consequences
are equally dramatic (Fig. 6). Volcaniclastic sediments can accumulate
in the volcano-tectonic depression created by the eruption, which
often collects an intracaldera lake (Nelson et al., 1988; Utada and Ito,
1989; Fritz et al., 1990; Koido, 1991; Yamamoto, 1994; Heiken et al.,
2000; Otake, 2004; Marx et al., 2009-this volume; Németh et al.,
2009-this volume). In such settings, subaerial and subaqueous talus
breccias grade up into coarse-grained turbidites and ultimately fine-
grained basinal turbidites and suspension deposits formed during
quiescent periods (Nelson et al., 1994; Bacon et al., 2002) while
shoreline deposits develop around the transgressive margins (R.C.M
Smith, 1991a,b; Riggs et al., 2001). Thick accumulations of diatomite
(R.C.M. Smith et al., 1993; Brathwaite, 2003; Chipera et al., 2008),
perhaps a consequence of silica-rich waters deriving from hydro-
thermal activity, are a distinctive lithofacies, as are beds of giant rafted
pumice blocks spalled off intracaldera domes (Mahood, 1980; Clough
et al., 1981; Mann et al., 2004). Post-caldera resurgence or central
volcanism can lead to displacement of the lake to a moat location
(Larsen and Crossey, 1996; Heiken et al., 2000), tilting and uplifting
earlier lake beds and potentially inverting topography, and the
accumulation of thick intracaldera volcanic piles and distal ashfall
(Miyabuchi, 2009-this volume). Extracaldera deposits occur in the
area directly impacted by primary pyroclastic flows (Buesch, 1991;
Palmer, 1997; Palmer and Shawkey, 1997; Manville, 2001; Baales et al.,
2002), and distal fluvial and lacustrine settings which may have
received only airfall ash (Nakayama, 1996; Kataoka and Nakajo, 2002;
Kataoka, 2005) or had their headwaters impacted by proximal
pyroclastic flows (Buesch, 1991; Mack et al., 1996; Zimmerman and
Rickenmann, 1997; Manville, 2002; Segschneider et al., 2002a,b;
Manville and Wilson, 2004a; Manville et al., 2005, this volume;
Kataoka et al., 2009-this volume; Manville et al., 2009-this volume).
Such thick and laterally extensive sequences have a lower preserva-
tion potential than intracaldera deposits where continued volcanism
results in both rapid burial and the continued creation of accommoda-
tion space through basin subsidence or relief change (Orton, 1996).
Submarine silicic calderas have been discovered on the Shichito–
Iwojima Ridge (Yuasa and Kano, 2003), the Kermadec Ridge (Wright
and Gamble, 1999; Graham et al., 2008) and elsewhere (Fiske et al.,
2001). Eruption products from these submarine calderas are dispersed
as eruption-fed density currents and fallout in surrounding fore-, intra-
and back-arc basins (Nishimura et al., 1991), as well as subaerial settings Fig. 7. Volcaniclastic sedimentation associated with monogenetic basaltic volcanism
(Maeno and Taniguchi, 2009-this volume), and are well-preserved in (after White, 1991). (A) scoria cone field: preserved units are dominated by lava flows
deep water unless disturbed by subsequent volcanic activity. intercalated with airfall tephra and sediments reworked from eroding scoria cones.
Surface stream activity is often limited by the porous substrate, but may form incised
channel that can undercut flows and cone flanks. Erosion of scoria cones occurs more
4.4. Monogenetic volcanoes
rapidly under humid than arid conditions due to weathering of coarse-grained lapilli to
impermeable clays. (B) Maar/tuff ring field. Volcaniclastic sediments are preferentially
The majority of monogenetic volcanoes are relatively small, preserved in maar craters which accumulate coarse marginal breccias that pass up into
involving eruptive volumes of b0.15 km3 and short-lived, reflecting turbidites and then fine-suspension-settling deposits (including varves). Outside these
ascent and eruption of a single batch of magma from a feeder dyke local depocentres distal ashfall is interbedded with background sedimentation.
(C) Lacustrine or shallow-marine volcanic field. Tuff rings form broad platforms of
rising from the base of the lithosphere (Fisher and Schmincke, 1984; volcaniclastic debris characterised by wave-cut platforms, beach ridges and other
Cas and Wright, 1987). Most are basaltic in composition, but shoreline features. Emergent volcanism can lead to capping by lava flows and scoria
intermediate and rhyolitic examples have also been reported (Cas cones: a pillow lava delta may form where flows enter the water body.
 V. Manville et al. / Sedimentary Geology 220 (2009) 136–161
near the surface, with eruptions also evolving during their course
(Lorenz, 1986; Németh et al., 2001). Current common usage has that
dry magmatic eruptions form scoria cones, moderately wet phreato-
magmatic ones form maars (Lorenz, 1973), tuff-rings (Heiken, 1971)
and tuff cones (Sohn and Chough, 1992, 1993) and fully subaqueous
(including englacial lake) hydrovolcanic eruptions create tuff cones
(Kokelaar and Durant, 1983) and mounds of pillow lava and
hyaloclastite (Skilling, 1994). In reality, ballistic fall-out produces
cones and pyroclastic density currents produce rings regardless of
magma-water ratio. The sedimentary record and long term preserva-
tion potential of monogenetic basaltic volcanic fields is variable
(Fig. 7), depending on background sedimentation rates: topography
inversion may occur as the result of long-term landscape degradation,
so that the only stratigraphic record of volcanism lies within the
depocentres created by the vents and craters themselves (White,
1990; Németh and Martin, 1999). Maar-diatremes fills may have the
greatest preservation potential of any subaerial volcaniclastic deposit.
4.4.1. Scoria and cinder cones
The dry end member of subaerial hydrovolcanism is represented
by scoria or cinder cones, comprising small, steeply sloping piles of
coarse-grained poorly bedded pyroclastic debris built up as a result of
proximal ballistic fallout from Strombolian volcanic activity (Wood,
1980b), commonly cored with welded spatter and/or lava, and
sometimes surrounded by inter-cone tephra blankets interbedded
with syn-, post- and inter-eruptive volcaniclastic or other sediments
(Fig. 7A). Syn-eruptive resedimentation on the flanks of the scoria
cone by avalanching, rolling and grain-flows can form a ‘mini ring-
plain’ of inversely-graded lenticular bedforms. Post-eruptive degrada-
tion is primarily controlled by climatic conditions (Wood, 1980a), as
these mediate the rate at which the pyroclastic material changes from
a very porous and permeable pile which absorbs incident precipita-
tion, to a finer-grained matrix richer in clay minerals with reduced
permeability. In humid tropical settings gullying can occur in few
years (Ollier and Brown, 1971; Németh and Cronin, 2007; Németh
et al., 2009-this volume), often forming spectacular ‘parasol’ ribbing,
while in arid environments it can be delayed for many millennia
(Dohrenwend et al., 1986). Long-term changes in cone morphology
can be used as a dating tool (Wood, 1980a,b; Hooper and Sheridan,
1998; Riedel et al., 2003) although these techniques may neglect the
original architecture of the cone and secondary effects such as a talus
apron around a lava core. Scoria cones can also undergo syn-eruptive
breaching and collapse as a result of lava extrusion (Foshag and
Gonzalez, 1956; Riggs and Duffield, 2008), hastening degradation, or
delayed failure by lateral fluvial undercutting in humid environments
(Martin and Németh, 2005; Németh and Cronin, 2007). Inter-cone
tephra deposits are typically reworked by background fluvial and
aeolian processes, leading to intercalation with non-volcanic sediments,
but over the long-term may only be preserved in volcanic depocentres
such as craters and maar lakes (White, 1990; Németh et al., 2001).
Submarine Strombolian activities are assumed to be similar to
subaerial ones, being also accompanied by fallout and minor
avalanching, rolling and grain flows (Chadwick et al., 2008). Buoyant
scoria (Siebe et al., 1995), which can reach and float on the water
surface is a minor but perhaps important element of suspension
deposits. Subaqueous lava fountains or Hawaiian activities generate
less-vesicular lava fragments, forming a cone or rampart around the
vent in a similar way to subaerial Strombolian activity (Cas et al.,
2003). Below wave base, the preservation potential of these products
is high relative to their subaerial counterparts.
4.4.2. Maars and tuff rings
Explosive hydrovolcanic eruptions in subaerial settings produce
tuff rings and maars. Tuff rings are small, low relief volcanoes
characterised by a broad central crater and a wide rim of outward-
dipping ejecta (Heiken, 1971). Maars are similar, except that the base
145
of the central crater lies below the original ground surface elevation
(Lorenz, 1973). Syn- and post-eruptive erosion of the crater rim
deposits can result in its redeposition in the central crater as coarse
breccias and high concentration sediment gravity flows and turbidite
beds (Fig. 7B), as the hydrologically-closed depression becomes filled
with water (R.H.M. Smith, 1986; White, 1992; Németh, 2001; Martin
and Németh, 2005; Gernon et al., 2008; Pirrung et al., 2008; Kano and
Ohguchi, 2009-this volume). Maar lake successions typically fine-
upward from coarse breccias to finer-grained lacustrine sediments
containing deltaic sequences, basin floor fans, and turbidites (White,
1992; Németh, 2001; Pirrung et al., 2003), sometimes culminating in
anoxic, varved sediments (Giresse et al., 1991; Mingram, 1998). The
latter can host a rich record of climatic and environmental conditions
(R.H.M. Smith, 1986; Hayward et al., 2002; Sabel et al., 2005), fossils
(Sachse, 2005; Lee et al., 2007) and local and distal volcanism
(Sandiford et al., 2001; Shane and Hoverd, 2002; Horrocks et al.,
2005). Outside the maar basin proximal tephra beds are dominated by
pyroclastic density current, debris jet, phreatomagmatic fall and
subordinate scoriaceous magmatic fall beds (Sohn and Chough, 1989;
Chough and Sohn, 1990; Sohn et al., 2008), while distal finely bedded
tephras can accumulate several kilometres from source (Fig. 7B).
Gully formation on the inner and outer flank of phreatomagmatic
volcanoes is more rapid than on scoria cones due to their finer-grained
primary hydrovolcanic deposits (e.g., Németh and Cronin, 2007).
However, longer-term general trends of remobilisation and resedi-
mentation of pyroclasts from phreatomagmatic tephra rings is less
well understood. The fine-grain size and abundance of glassy
pyroclasts optimises chemical alteration and weathering to clay,
enhancing the probability of mass wasting and gravitational crater-
wall collapse. Palagonitization, in contrast results in induration and
resistance to erosion. Phreatomagmatic volcanoes commonly occur
along paleochannels or valley systems where fluvial reworking can
contribute to the rapid destruction of the edifice, resulting in their
preservation as epiclastic beds only in distal alluvial plain deposits.
Breaching of the rim of a maar or tuff ring lake by headward gully
erosion or lateral river migration can cause a potential hazard in
downstream areas (Lorenz, 2007; Aka et al., 2008). In arid climates
wind erosion of the tuff ring can also be significant.
4.4.3. Tuff cones
Tuff cones develop in water-rich subaerial environments or
shallow subaqueous settings through moderately explosive interac-
tions between abundant liquid water and rising magma. Dense, wet
eruption columns, low mobility pyroclastic surges, phreatomagmatic
fallout deposits and ballistic ejecta produce steeply-dipping cones of
coarse-grained poorly sorted tuff (Kokelaar, 1986). Subaqueous parts
of the edifice are dominated by syn-eruptively reworked material
(Fig. 7C), producing a complex succession of volcaniclastic mass-flow
deposits (Cas et al., 1989; White, 1996b). As the edifice approaches the
surface, eruptions may become drier, resulting in a capping scoria
cone or lava flow sequence. Tuff cones are subject to rapid post-
eruptive destruction by subaerial and/or wave erosion (Kokelaar and
Durant, 1983), producing wave-cut benches, steep cliffs and shoreline
deposits (Oviatt and Nash, 1989).
5. Developing concepts in volcaniclastic sedimentology
Advances in volcaniclastic research have occurred episodically as a
result of dramatic historical volcanic eruptions, beginning with Santa
María in 1902 (Kuenzi et al., 1979), Paricutín in 1943–1946
(Segerstrom, 1950; Foshag and González, 1956) and Irazú in 1963–
64 (Waldron, 1967), and accelerating rapidly as a consequence of
Mount St. Helens in 1980 (Lipman and Mullineaux, 1981), Nevado del
Ruiz in 1985 (Lowe et al., 1986; Naranjo et al., 1986) and Pinatubo in
1991 (Newhall and Punongbayan, 1996). These events have focussed
attention on the hydrological consequences of ashfall (Segerstrom,
146 V. Manville et al. / Sedimentary Geology 220 (2009) 136–161
1950; Fiksdal, 1982; Collins et al., 1983; Collins and Dunne, 1986;
Leavesley et al., 1989; Major and Mark, 2006) and the overloading of
fluvial systems with pyroclastic debris (Lehre et al., 1983; Meyer and
Martinson, 1989; Montgomery et al., 1999; Hayes et al., 2002; Gran
and Montgomery, 2005; Tagata et al., 2005), the triggers and flow
behaviours of debris avalanches (Voight et al., 1981; Siebert, 1984) and
syn-eruptive lahars (Neall, 1976; Pierson, 1985; Lowe et al., 1986;
Scott, 1988b; Smith and Lowe, 1991; Newhall and Punongbayan,
1996), and the prolonged and far-reaching post-eruptive conse-
quences of large-scale explosive volcanism (Kuenzi et al., 1979;
Newhall and Punongbayan, 1996; Major et al., 2000). Simultaneously,
research on ancient successions has improved our understanding of
the plate-tectonic environment (Fig. 2) of volcaniclastic sediments
(Dickinson, 1974a,b; Smith and Landis, 1995) and the stratigraphic
record of different styles of volcanism (Cas and Wright, 1987; Orton,
1996). These include monogenetic basaltic (White, 1991) and rhyolitic
volcanoes (Cas et al., 1990; Riggs et al., 1997; Breitkreuz et al., 2002;
Kamata et al., 2009-this volume), through intermediate stratovolca-
noes (Vessell and Davies, 1981; Hackett and Houghton, 1989) to
polygenetic silicic calderas (R.C.M. Smith, 1991b; R.C.M. Smith et al.,
1993; Kataoka and Nakajo, 2002; Manville, 2002; Manville and
Wilson, 2004a; Manville et al., 2005,2009 this volume; Kataoka, 2005;
Kataoka et al., 2009-this volume). These studies have provided
information on volcaniclastic sedimentation following styles and
magnitudes of eruption that have not occurred historically. Other
emerging themes have been recognition of the significance of non-
Newtonian rheologies in sediment-laden volcaniclastic mass flows and
lahars (Rodine and Johnson, 1976; Pierson and Costa, 1987; Iverson,
1997), their capacity for transformation (Scott, 1988b), and rapid
deposition (Fisher, 1971; G.A. Smith, 1987; Manville and White, 2003;
Umazano et al., 2008); and the non-standard density and hydrodynamic
behaviour of vesiculated pyroclastic particles in transport and deposi-
tional systems (Fisher, 1965; Whitham and Sparks, 1986; Manville et al.,
1998, 2002; White et al., 2001). Research into hydrovolcanic processes
(Sheridan and Wohletz, 1983; Wohletz, 1986; White, 1996a; White et al.,
2003b) in a range of settings, from subaerial through shallow
subaqueous to deep-marine, has also yielded a wealth of information.
5.1. Non-standard density of volcanic particles
The erosion, transport and deposition of particles by moving fluids
are fundamental issues in clastic sedimentology related to their
Fig. 8. Hydrodynamic behaviour of vesiculated pyroclasts and its effect on granulometric versus hydraulic sorting properties (after Manville et al., 2002).
hydrodynamic behaviour. This is relatively well-constrained by experi-
mental and theoretical studies for typical quartzo-feldspathic material,
economically significant dense placer-forming minerals, and lower
density bioclastic sediments. Volcanic environments often contain
particles exhibiting a wide range of grain-sizes and densities depending
on mineralogy and vesicularity: from highly vesicular rhyolitic pumice
(b200 kg/m3) to dense basaltic lava bombs (2800 kg/m3), as well as
crystal fragments, xenoliths, and accidental cognate lithics. This material
often behaves in non-standard ways, due to atypical grain morphology
(Fisher, 1965) and (reversibly) variable and sometimes positive buoy-
ancy depending on degree of saturation (Whitham and Sparks, 1986;
Manville et al., 1998, 2002; White et al., 2001). This can give rise to
unusual sedimentary facies such as inverse (saturation) graded bedding
(Bateman, 1953; Manville et al., 1998) or giant rafted pumices (Mahood,
1980; Clough et al., 1981), and result in very efficient segregation of
different density components and wide dispersal of the low density
fraction by rivers (Stanley, 1978; Mack et al., 1996) or oceanic currents
(Tanakadate, 1935; Richards, 1958; Coombs and Landis, 1966; Frick and
Kent, 1984; Kato, 1988; Sawada et al., 1997; Risso et al., 2002; Jokiel and
Cox, 2003; Bryan et al., 2004). Segregation due to different hydro-
dynamic properties of volcaniclastic sediment can also affect compo-
nentry and provenance studies (Smith and Smith, 1985; Smith and
Lotosky, 1995). Mixed pumiceous/crystal/lithic fragment sediments can
be very poorly sorted in terms of grain diameters (Fig. 8), but show very
good hydraulic sorting by settling velocity (Oehmig and Wallrabe-
Adams, 1991; Manville et al., 2002) Overall, vesiculated pyroclasts are
more easily entrained than equivalent-sized denser material, but fine-
grained vitric silts composed of bubble wall shards are conversely harder
to entrain because of frictional interlocking of angular grains.
5.2. Marine tephras
Volcanic ash beds deposited in the deep-sea have long been
regarded as passive recorders of subaerial volcanism at adjacent arcs
or eruptive centres (Kennett, 1981; Carter et al., 2003, 2004). The tacit
assumption has been that deposition occurs by Stoke's Law settling
with minimal syn- or post-depositional modification by oceanic
processes such as thermohaline currents and that dispersal represents
atmospheric plume transport alone (Drexler et al., 1980; Fisher and
Schmincke, 1984). This has been used to construct elegant models of
eruption durations and magnitudes based on grains-size distributions
and thickness patterns (Ledbetter and Sparks, 1979). However,
 V. Manville et al. / Sedimentary Geology 220 (2009) 136–161
advances in oceanography have shown the deep seas to be more
dynamic than previously suspected (Stow et al., 1996). (Re-)deposi-
tion of volcaniclastic material by turbidites has been reported in many
settings, often related to entrance of subaerially erupted pyroclastic
flows into the sea (Lewis and Kohn, 1973; Carey and Sigurdsson, 1978;
Sparks and Huang, 1980; Wright and Mutti, 1981; Kurokawa and
Hirata, 1986; Sparks and Wilson, 1983; Cole and De Celles, 1991;
Kurokawa and Watanabe, 1991; Schneider et al., 2001; Freundt, 2003;
Allen and Freundt, 2006; Trofimovs et al., 2008). Similarly, violation of
Stoke's Law settling by the formation of vertical density currents at
representative ash fall-out rates was demonstrated experimentally
(Carey, 1997) and practically (Wiesner et al., 1995; Wetzel, 2000).
Further work suggested that the impingement of these vertical
density currents on a sloping sea-floor could lead to lateral translation
of the ash as low density turbidity currents (Manville and Wilson,
2004b). As a result of these studies, it is increasingly being recognised
that isopachs cannot be constructed for marine tephras in the same
way as for terrestrial ones (Allan et al., 2008).
5.3. Altered catchment hydrology
The deposition of pyroclastic material on a terrestrial landscape
can have severe impacts on watershed hydrology depending on its
thickness, grain-size distribution, volatile content and density, and the
angle, aspect, vegetation level and climate of the receiving landscape.
Typically, coarse-grained and highly permeable proximal ash fall
deposits do not affect the infiltration characteristics of the ground
surface, and undergo minimal reworking by rill development and
gullying (Mosley, 1974; Gómez et al., 2003), while fine-grained tephra
can from a relatively impermeable layer assisted by development of a
surface crust by rain-beat compaction and/or migration of volatile
salts (Murata et al., 1966; Waldron, 1967; Fiksdal, 1982; Leavesley
et al., 1989). Run-off of incident precipitation can approach 90%,
similar to values for clear-felled catchments, but infiltration rates
increase through time as the tephra blanket is reworked and disturbed
and revegetation occurs (Major and Yamakoshi, 2005). Tephra fall on
snow can result in either increased or decreased melting due to
insolation, depending on whether the ash blanket is thick enough to
insulate the snowpack through its poor thermal conductivity (Driedger,
1981; Manville et al., 2000). This enhanced run-off can result in
increased erosion as well as downstream flooding: at Paricutín, fine
grained distal ash blanketing older scoria cones resulted in renewed
erosion (Segerstrom, 1950, 1960). These hydrological impacts of distal
ashfall have received little attention to date, apart from some modelling
studies (Todesco and Todini, 2004; Favalli et al., 2006).
Fig. 9. Patterns of sediment yield trends and styles of terrestrial volcaniclastic resedimentation in the aftermath of a large-scale explosive volcanic eruptions (after Kataoka, 2005).
147
Landscape changes due to caldera formation, ignimbrite shield
emplacement, or growth of a volcanic edifice can also affect regional
drainage patterns by creating or destroying lake systems, shifting
watershed, and diverting major rivers. Sequential filling of intracal-
dera lake basins and development of alternate outlets has been
implicated in drainage pattern shifts and catastrophic break-out
flooding in a number of volcanic regions (Barton et al., 2000; Manville
and Wilson, 2004a; Manville et al., 2007; Marx et al., 2009-this
volume), while post-eruption volcaniclastic aggradation has caused
avulsion of river systems into alternate courses (Schofield, 1965;
Hume et al., 1975; Manville and Wilson, 2004a).
5.4. Sediment yields and drainage development
Sediment yields from volcanically-impacted areas are amongst the
highest on Earth, orders of magnitude higher than global averages
(Kadomura et al.,1983; Pearson,1986; Dinehart,1998; Hayes et al., 2002;
Major, 2004), and approach 10 m3/ha/mm rain. At that rate, for every
mm of rain that falls in a catchment, its average surface elevation can be
lowered by 1 mm, and the resulting runoff has a minimum sediment
concentration of 50 vol.%. On sloping surfaces, most remobilisation
occurs in association with rill development, usually initiated by the first
significant rainfall after deposition of the tephra layer. Rill networks
evolve towards fewer, deeper master rills through time (Horton, 1945;
Segerstrom, 1960; Mosley, 1973, 1974), depleting the reservoir of easily
remobilised material as they incise down to more permeable and/or less
erodible substrates. The resulting stabilisation of rill networks (Collins
et al., 1983; Collins and Dunne, 1986) coupled with revegetation results
in a 1–2 orders of magnitude decline in sediment yields within 1–3 years
(Schumm and Rea, 1995). The greatest volumes of volcaniclastic
material, however, are derived from the erosion and reworking of
valley-filling pyroclastic flow (Major et al., 1996; Rodolfo et al., 1996;
Scott et al., 1996b) or debris avalanche deposits (Meyer and Janda, 1986;
Meyer and Martinson, 1989), processes which can persist for decades
(Major et al., 2000). Erosion and re-establishment of through-going
channels occurs in a number of stages (Meyer and Martinson, 1989):
during periods of high flow headward erosion and vertical incision yields
sediment that bulks run-off into debris and hyper-concentrated flows,
while under background low flow conditions channel widening and
vertical aggradation occurs. Sediment yields appear to decline exponen-
tially through time (Fig. 9), e.g., at Mount St. Helens (Major et al., 2000;
Major, 2003, 2004; Major and Mark, 2006) and the eastern side of
Pinatubo (Pierson et al., 1992; Scott et al., 1996b; Montgomery et al.,
1999; Hayes et al., 2002; Gran and Montgomery, 2005). Sediment yields
on the more heavily impacted west side of Pinatubo (Rodolfo et al.,1996;
148 V. Manville et al. / Sedimentary Geology 220 (2009) 136–161
Scott et al., 1996a) are apparently declining in a more linear fashion: this
may be because the reservoir of material is so large, and the yield half-life
hence so long, that no curve is yet visible in the trend.
As the sediment input to a fluvial system increases, the channel
adapts by increasing storage (aggrading) or increasing the transport rate
(Gran and Montgomery, 2005). The latter is achieved by increasing the
sediment concentration of flows, by steepening the channel gradient
and increasing the boundary shear stress (aggradation), by smoothing
the bed and reducing form drag (bed-fining and aggradation), by
increasing the sand content of flows, and by increasing the flow depth
and duration (i.e., integration of a reforming drainage network). At low
flows, extreme bed mobility can be achieved by increasing the sand
content of the bed (Wilcock and McArdell, 1997; Montgomery et al.,
1999), which also increases gravel transport (Komar, 1987). The net
effect is rapid aggradation and sediment-laden flows. As the sediment
supply decreases, the channel again adapts (Gran and Montgomery,
2005) by decreasing storage (incision) or reducing the transport rate
(reducing channel gradient by lengthening and aggrading downstream
or incising headwards, increasing sinuosity, widening and shallowing
the channel, or bed coarsening). Over time, areas of remobilisation
contract towards channel axes, material is reworked to depocentres in
increasingly distal locations from proximal and medial temporary
storage, and drainage networks stabilise close to the pre-eruption
configuration (Manville et al., 2009-this volume).
5.5. Debris avalanches
Repetitive eruptions at a single location frequently construct a
volcanic edifice in the form of a subaerial stratovolcano or an ocean
island volcano. These piles are frequently unstable and can experience
massive slope failures, termed sector collapses, where a large portion
of the edifice collapses to form a debris avalanche (Siebert, 1984).
Globally, debris avalanches have been reported from many volcanic
arcs (Crandell et al., 1984; Francis et al., 1985; Ui et al., 1986; Palmer
and Neall, 1989; Stoopes and Sheridan, 1992; Glicken, 1998;
Ponomareva et al., 1998; Takarada et al., 1999; Szakács and Seghedi,
2000; Capra et al., 2002; Procter et al., 2009-this volume; Zernack et
al., 2009-this volume) and oceanic island volcanoes (Deplus et al.,
2001; Oehler et al., 2004), including the Canary Islands (Carracedo,
Fig. 10. Schematic longitudinal and transverse sections through an idealized debris avalanche deposit. Size and abundance of debris avalanche blocks and hummocks decreases
distally (after Palmer et al., 1991).
1999; Gee et al., 2001; Masson et al., 2002) and Hawai'i (Moore et al.,
1994; McMurty et al., 1999; Clague and Moore, 2002; Mitchell et al.,
2002). Such collapses are triggered by a variety of mechanisms
(McGuire, 1996), including: magma intrusion as a cryptodome or
dyke, possibly accompanied by changes in pore pressure (Elsworth
and Voight, 1995, 1996; Iverson, 1995; Day, 1996) and a phreatic
eruption (Yamamoto et al., 1999), overloading of the edifice by a new
intrusion or extrusion of magma (McClelland and Erwin, 2003),
ground-shaking during an earthquake (Nagaoka, 1987), movement on
a sub-volcano fault and/or basement deformation (van Wyk de Vries
and Borgia, 1996; van Wyk de Vries and Francis, 1997), changes in sea-
level at coastal volcanoes (Capra, 2006), or erosion and oversteepen-
ing of volcano flanks. Individual volcanoes may experience repeated
cycles of edifice growth and collapse, for example the modern 12 km3
cone of Mt. Taranaki in New Zealand is less than 14,000 years old, but
is surrounded by a radial 150 km3 ring-plain composed of at least 12
major debris avalanche deposits accumulated over the past 130 ka
(Neall et al., 1986; Palmer and Neall, 1991; Alloway et al., 2005;
Zernack et al., 2009-this volume), interbedded with laharic, fluvial,
and distal pyroclastic units (Procter et al., 2009-this volume).
Sector collapse usually produces a horseshoe-shaped amphithea-
tre with an arcuate headwall scarp; the detached mass usually slides
initially as large coherent blocks which progressively fragment distally
(Fig. 10), acquiring a distinctive ‘jigsaw’ fracture pattern (Ui et al.,
1986) and often forming the cores of small conical hills or hummocks
characteristic of many proximal and axial debris avalanche deposits
(Palmer et al., 1991). Debris avalanche mobility is high, particularly
where volumes exceed c. 1 km3 (Ui, 1983; Siebert, 1984; Hayashi and
Self, 1992; Dade and Huppert, 1998; Kilburn and Sørenson, 1998).
Channelised avalanches travel further and have thicker deposits than
unconfined ones (Palmer et al., 1991). Scott et al. (1995) distinguished
between cohesive and non-cohesive debris avalanches, with the
rheological transition occurring at c. 5 wt.% clay minerals. Non-
cohesive debris avalanches in humid climates tend to dilute and
transform to lahars through mixing with ambient stream water or loss
of particulates (Scott et al., 1995; Vallance and Scott, 1997), while
cohesive ones retain their character, but may generate secondary
lahars in impacted catchments by post-depositional dewatering of
debris avalanche deposits (Scott, 1988b).
 V. Manville et al. / Sedimentary Geology 220 (2009) 136–161 149

Debris avalanches can also block valleys, impounding temporary
lakes which may fail catastrophically to generate secondary volcano-
hydrologic hazards in the form of outburst floods and lahars (Swift
and Kresh, 1983; Meyer et al., 1986; Mimura et al., 1988; Glicken et al.,
1989; Waythomas, 2001; Capra and Macías, 2002), while long-term
erosion and reworking of the deposit can contribute to elevated
sediment yields and downstream aggradation (Meyer and Janda,
1986; Costa, 1994; Major et al., 2000; Major and Mark, 2006). At
coastal and island volcanoes, small debris avalanches have triggered
tsunami historically (Tinti et al., 2006a,b), while larger scale (up to
3000 km3) collapses of the Hawai'ian and Canary Island chains have
been invoked in the generation of devastating local and trans-oceanic
tsunami (Young and Bryant, 1992; Keating and McGuire, 2000; Moore,
2000; Ward and Day, 2001; Satake et al., 2002).
5.6. Lahars
The term ‘lahar’ is an Indonesian word, defined (G.A. Smith, 1986)
as a ‘rapidly flowing mixture of rock debris and water, other than
normal streamflow, from a volcano’. The term is genetic rather than
descriptive, encompassing a wide spectrum of sediment:water ratios
and flow rheologies from dilute Newtonian flows, through inter-
mediate hyperconcentrated flows with a measurable yield strength
(Beverage and Culbertson, 1964), up to cohesive or non-cohesive
debris flows which comprise 77 wt.% sediment (Pierson and Costa,
1987; Smith and Lowe, 1991; Pierson, 2005). Lahars can be generated
in a number of ways (Neall, 1976, 1996). The main types are eruption-
fed, developed by transformation of water-rich tephra jets (Lorenz,
1974), ejection of crater-lake water (Scrivenor, 1929; Nairn et al., 1979;
Cronin et al., 1997; Thouret et al., 1998); direct melting of snow and ice
entrained in hot pyroclastic surges and flows (Lowe et al., 1986; Major
and Newhall, 1989; Pierson et al., 1990; Pierson and Janda, 1994;
Pierson, 1997a), or from subglacial eruptive melting (as in the case of
Icelandic jökulhlaups: (Björnsson, 1975; Gudmundsson et al., 1997);
and de-watering and liquefaction of debris avalanche deposits (Scott,
1988b; Capra et al., 2002). Lahars can be triggered by rainfall (Rodolfo
et al., 1989; Hodgson and Manville, 1999; Manville et al., 2000;
Lavigne and Thouret, 2002; Barclay et al., 2007) during the eruption
sequence, or thousands of years afterwards (Pareschi et al., 2002;
Zanchetta et al., 2004; Scott et al., 2005); by secondary phreatic
explosions (Pierson et al., 1992); or by the breaching of transient
(Chrétien and Brousse, 1989) or permanent lakes ((Chrétien and
Brousse, 1989; Manville, 2004; Manville and Cronin, 2007; Manville
et al., 2007). These lakes may be either intra-crater or -caldera
(Waythomas et al., 1996; Manville et al., 1999; Bornas et al., 2003;
Stelling et al., 2005), or valley-confined (Capra, 2007), and dammed
by debris avalanches (Scott, 1988a; Waythomas, 2001; Capra and
Macías, 2002), lahar deposits (Umbal and Rodolfo, 1996), pyroclastic

Fig. 11. Schematic evolution of a hypothetical non-cohesive lahar initiated by a flood of water (e.g., lake break-out, rain-triggered, or jökulhlaup-type) in terms of hydrograph
evolution and progressive aggradation (deposit grading) as a result of different celerity of coarse and fine components (after Vallance, 2000).
150 V. Manville et al. / Sedimentary Geology 220 (2009) 136–161

flow deposits (Park and Schmincke, 1997; Macías et al., 2004; Kataoka
et al., 2008), or lava flows (Fenton et al., 2002, 2006).
The dynamics of laharic multiphase fluid-particle flows are a
complex function of sediment concentration, grain-size distribution,
clay content and mineralogy (Pierson and Costa, 1987; Smith and
Lowe, 1991; Pierson, 1995), entrained air or volatile content, entrained
snow or ice, and strain rate (Iverson, 1997, 2003; Iverson and Vallance,
2001). Downstream evolution and transformation of lahars (Fig. 11) is
commonly observed (Cronin et al., 1997) due to bulking through the
entrainment of particulate material (Pierson, 1997b) or dilution
through addition of water or loss of solid material (Pierson and
Scott, 1985), leading to proximal-distal changes in facies (Scott, 1988b;
Cronin et al., 2000; Kataoka and Nakajo, 2004). Precise characterisa-
tion of lahar behaviour has, however, been somewhat hampered by
their unpredictability, the often fragmentary and ad hoc nature of data
collected from active flows, and the lack of a starting hydrograph
before any transformations have occurred. A fortuitous combination of
circumstances at Mt. Ruapehu, New Zealand, may help to address this.
On 18 March 2007, the summit Crater Lake breached a barrier of
tephra emplaced at the outlet 11 years previously (Manville and
Cronin, 2007). Downstream evolution of the resulting flow was
tracked by instrumental and observer monitoring at multiple
locations, while capture of geomorphic changes over the first 58 km
of flow path by pre-and post-event airborne LiDAR surveys con-
strained volumetric changes. These data are being used to refine
numerical models of lahar behaviour (Carrivick et al., 2009).
5.7. Subaqueous explosive volcanism
Recognition of the importance of explosive subaqueous volcanism
has grown in recent years as individual studies and new insights have
increasingly emphasised its occurrence in modern and ancient settings
(Stix, 1991; White et al., 2003a,b). This style of activity is of great
importance to volcaniclastic sedimentology because submarine
volcanoes are far more numerous than subaerial ones. Simplified
theoretical approaches suggest that subaqueous explosive eruptions
should be broadly similar in style to their subaerial counterparts (Head
and Wilson, 2003), although the assumption that they are just like
subaerial ones except for the effect of confining pressure is likely to be
as simplistic as the original idea that they were all pillow-lava
producing. The details of their eruptive styles are more conjectural,
because of the obscuring effects of the water column and because it
changes eruptions due to its high density, heat capacity, viscosity, and
thermal conductivity relative to air, as well as its capacity for phase
changes (White et al., 2003a). Magma flux rate and vent geometry are
also crucial. These factors influence both eruption dynamics (frag-
mentation and conduit exit conditions: Kokelaar, 1986; Kano et al.,
1996; Head and Wilson, 2003) and the transport and deposition of the
eruptive products, whether by subaqueous suspension settling of
pyroclastic debris (Cashman and Fiske, 1991; Allen and McPhie, 2000),
eruption-fed density currents (White, 2000), or as flows of effused lava
(Fig. 12). Hydrostatic confining pressure increases with depth, re-
ducing explosivity because carbon dioxide cannot vaporise below ~
700 meters in the ocean (critical pressure 7.38 Mpa), and water-vapour
formation (boiling; critical pressure 29.8 MPa) is not possible at depths
greater than about 3 km (Head and Wilson, 2003). Fragmentation
processes affect the abundance and properties of particulate matter for
later reworking, while the presence and persistence or otherwise of
steam affects dispersal and the thermal environment of clasts during
transport. Particles can be injected directly into the water column by
the eruption (Head and Wilson, 2003), producing ‘eruption-fed’
deposits (White, 2000), potentially including subaqueously welded
pyroclastic flow deposits (Kokelaar and Busby, 1992; Kokelaar and
Königer, 2000). Four major styles of activity can be defined, producing
progressively larger proportions of particulates: (i) fluid lava flows
(pillow lavas); (ii) dome-forming events (Kano, 2003); (iii) tephra jets
(Surtseyan-type) (Kokelaar and Durant, 1983; Mueller, 2003); and (iv)
lava fountains (Mueller and White, 1992; Cas et al., 2003) and
columns (Fiske and Cashman, 1987; Cashman and Fiske, 1991; Mueller
and White, 1992; Cas et al., 2003). Further work will also inform the
1970–80's view that there is an environmental magma-water ratio that
controls explosivity and hence volcano morphology (Lorenz, 1973;
Wohletz, 1986): in reality very water-rich eruptions can form on land,
and very ‘dry’ looking pyroclasts can form under water (Fiske, 1969;
Kato, 1987). The thermodynamics that exert the dominant control on
eruption style occur at the fragmentation scale on wavelengths of
millimetres according to how and at what rates local water interacts
with magma (JDL White, pers. comm..).
5.8. Numerical modelling
Significant advances have been made in the numerical modelling
of mass flows, including lahars and debris avalanches, in the past three
decades, partly due to improved understanding of their dynamics and

Fig. 12. (A) Conceptual sketch of the effects on subaqueous eruption plume dynamics of varying the ratio and magnitudes of water flux and magma flux (after White et al., 2003b).
(B) Schematic illustration of an explosive subaqueous volcanic eruption: 1. gas-supported eruption column containing hot (white) pumice clasts; 2. mixing zone between steam-
supported eruption column and water; 3. buoyancy-driven convective plume of warm water and hot and cool (grey) partially-waterlogged pumice; 4. floating hot pumice blocks with
steam plumes; 5. cold floating pumice raft producing ‘dropstone’ deposits; 6. gas-supported hot pyroclastic flow; 7. water-supported eruption-fed density current; 8. dyke injection
with peperitic margin; 9. volcaniclastic lapilli-tuff deposits; 10. volcaniclastic lapilli tuff breccia deposits. (After Kano et al., 1996).
 V. Manville et al. / Sedimentary Geology 220 (2009) 136–161
partly through improvements in processing power and computational
efficiency. Early lahar models were typically one-dimensional (Laenen
and Hansen, 1988), or treated lahars as kinematic waves to determine
their travel velocity or downstream peak discharge attenuation (Weir,
1982; Vignaux and Weir, 1990; Arattano and Savage, 1994). Other
models have been empirical, based on observed correlations between
volume, peak discharge, flow velocity, inundated area, and flow cross-
section (Pierson, 1995, 1998; Iverson et al., 1998; Schilling, 1998). Later
models have considered interactions between an evolving flow and
channel morphology. There are two main approaches: the first regards
lahars as an extension of normal Newtonian (water) rheology and
uses standard flow-routing codes and a lumped resistance term
(Costa, 1997; Manville, 2004; Carrivick, 2006, 2007; Carrivick et al.,
2009); the second regards volcanogenic mass flows as single- or two-
phase granular flows principally governed by basal and internal
friction angles (Pitman et al., 2003; Sheridan and Patra, 2005;
Sheridan et al., 2005). Other workers are redeveloping lahar
modelling codes from first principles to enable simulation of bulking
and entrainment (Fagents and Baloga, 2006). All models are, however,
sensitive to some input variable, be it channel resistance, basal or
internal friction angle, or resolution of the digital elevation model
(Stevens et al., 2002; Huggel et al., 2008; Schneider et al., 2008), so
that iterative hind-casting of lahar events is more typical (and
accurate) than a priori prediction. Such models have two main
functions; a) development of prediction for flow behaviours to better
inform hazard management through generating outputs such as
arrival time, peak stage and sediment concentration at some down-
stream point of interest, and b) provision of mechanistic insights into
flow behaviour, such as possible causes of vertical segregation or bed
entrainment (Papa et al., 2004).
5.9. Economic significance
Volcaniclastic deposits are widespread in many convergent margin
and rift basin settings that have hydrocarbon production or potential,
but have traditionally been regarded as poor targets for exploration.
Improvements in our understanding of volcaniclastic deposits'
composition, geometry, facies and distribution are now, however,
rendering them more valuable (Mathisen and McPherson, 1991). In
particular, volcaniclastic sediments yield useful data on the volcano-
tectonic and palaeogeographic setting of a depositional basin and the
adjacent areas of relief (Mathisen and Vondra, 1983; White and
Busby-Spera, 1987; Busby-Spera, 1988a; G.A. Smith et al., 1988) and
Fig. 13. Topography-forming versus topography-mantling eruptions. Size of symbol if proportional to volume of erupted material, axes represent explosivity (dispersal) and mean
deposit thickness. Circles represent pyroclastic density current-dominated eruptions, squares represent effusive lava eruptions, and triangles represent dominantly Plinian-style
eruptions (± local pyroclastic flows). Intermediate-sized eruptions, where interfluves are temporarily buried, are marked by the shaded field.
151
contain facies associations that often show proximal-distal and
vertical trends (Vessell and Davies, 1981; G.A. Smith, 1988) as well
as providing reservoir rocks (Paredes et al., 2007). Widespread tephra
beds (K-bentonites or tonsteins) are useful for regional correlation, for
example in European coal measures (Spears et al., 1999), while
distinctive volcaniclastic seismic facies can aid interpretations of basin
stratigraphy and reservoir characterization. The reservoir quality of
clastic sediments is governed by the grain-size distribution and
diagenetic effects. Volcaniclastic sediments typically undergo rapid
early diagenesis at shallow depths and low temperatures because of the
abundance of unstable glass and mineral grains. Although this can
destroy primary porosity through compaction and cementation, later
diagenesis can create secondary porosity through dissolution (Mathisen
and McPherson, 1991). A more serious issue is destruction of perme-
ability by authigenic clays. Therefore, as in regular clastic sediments, the
ability of volcaniclastic deposits to serve as hydrocarbon trap rocks
depends on the coincidence of porosity preservation and generation
processes with the time(s) of hydrocarbon migration (Mathisen and
McPherson, 1991). The geometry of a volcaniclastic unit is also
significant to its reservoir potential. Burial of conical volcanic edifices
and their flanking volcaniclastic aprons by fine-grained lacustrine
(Breitkreuz, 1991) or marine sediments (Yagi et al., 2009-this volume)
can produce an efficient stratigraphic trap.
Epithermal mineralisation is virtually ubiquitous in volcanic
systems and takes a number of forms. Epithermal gold is associated
with volcanic–plutonic arcs developed along convergent margins
above subduction zones, and is emplaced at shallow crustal levels in
volcanic edifices and associated volcaniclastic successions in associa-
tion with crustal scale faults or volcano–tectonic structures that serve
to focus hydrothermal fluid movements. Submerged hydrothermal
springs can generate huge volumes of sulphides, both in crater lakes
and as stratiform deposits in submerged calderas (Wright et al., 1998;
Ilzasa et al., 1999; Hudak et al., 2003; Kessel and Busby, 2003). For
example, Kuroko-type and Canadian Archaean base-metal ore
deposits are developed in association with lava dome complexes,
hyaloclastic and volcaniclastic aprons and background hemipelagic
sediments of submarine felsic calderas and other volcanoes (Cas and
Wright, 1987; Mueller et al., 2008). The geothermal energy associated
with an epithermal volcanic system is also economically significant
and has been used for power generation in many countries around the
world (Wohletz and Heiken, 1992). For example, in New Zealand's
Taupo Volcanic Zone intercalated ignimbrite sheets and volcaniclas-
tic lacustrine sediments form the reservoir and/or cap rock for
152 V. Manville et al. / Sedimentary Geology 220 (2009) 136–161
many geothermal systems (Grindley, 1965; Browne, 1979; Wood,
1992; R.C.M. Smith et al., 1993; Kissling and Weir, 2005).
The conduits feeding monogenetic volcanoes of varying composi-
tion may also be of economic interest. The most obvious examples are
diamond-bearing kimberlite diatremes formed during the ascent of
highly silica-undersaturated alkalic magmas in dikes from the base of
the continental lithosphere (Mitchell, 1986).
6. Discussion and conclusions
Sedimentary responses to volcanic eruptions depend on a complex
interplay between the volume, nature and distribution of the
pyroclastic material (dispersal, vesiculation, fragmentation, welding
etc.), the physiography and hydrology of the affected environment
(relief, subaerial or subaqueous, climate etc.), its energetic conditions
(elevation, proximity to base level), the availability of accommodation
space, and temporal effects such as the repose interval between
additions of new material. Stability thresholds may exist, such that a
certain magnitude or style of eruption is required to destabilise the
landscape enough to trigger a response, perhaps by destroying
vegetation: for example at Fuego only eruptions larger than 0.06 km3
triggered significant erosion and volcaniclastic resedimentation
(Vessell and Davies, 1981).The accumulation of erupted material on
the pre-existing surface (subaerial or subaqueous) varies from topo-
graphy-mantling (typically thin tephra fall deposits or ash turbidites),
through topography-modifying (small-volume or energetically
emplaced low aspect ratio ignimbrites or mass flows that thicken
into depressions, or valley-confined lava flows), up to topography-
forming changes (large volume ignimbrites and associated caldera
collapse, LIP's). Using ‘landscape’ as a synonym for ‘topography’ in the
above discussion raises the question of scale: a monogenetic scoria
cone is clearly a landscape element in an otherwise flat playa, yet it is
orders of magnitude smaller than the Hawaiian Islands or the
Yellowstone caldera. One possible rule of thumb is that a landscape
extends ‘as far as the eye can see’, i.e., individual landscape-forming
eruptions would thus be limited to large, caldera-forming explosive
silicic eruptions or continental flood basalts (LIP's). Both produce up to
103 km3 of material during a single eruption phase (Fig. 13). However, a
scoria cone, tuff ring or maar less than 1 km in diameter and with a
vertical relief of less than 100 m would constitute a visible landscape
element in flat playa setting. Perhaps, whether an eruption is
landscape-forming or not depends on normalisation against back-
ground relief, whether at a local or regional scale.
Terrestrial volcaniclastic sediment mobilisation is optimised when
large volumes of fine-grained, unconsolidated material are combined
with a high-relief and water-rich subaerial environment where
effective reworking by wind and surface water can be promoted by
changes in watershed hydrology. Manville et al. (2009-this volume)
examined the terrestrial sedimentary consequences of a recent
voluminous explosive rhyolitic eruption from the Taupo Volcanic
Zone. This eruption had an impact on a sufficient diversity of
catchments with differing combinations of volume and distribution
of pyroclastics, and physiographic and hydrologic properties, to allow
determination of the relative importance of each factor. They showed
that the nature and duration of the sedimentary response is a function
of evolving sediment:water ratios and variations in accommodation
space, as material is eroded from the impacted area, temporarily
stored in medial depocentres, and ultimately transported into distal
settings as the landscape returns to ‘background’ pre-eruption
conditions. Similarly, Kataoka et al. (2009-this volume) relate the
magnitude of distal aggradation to the volume and nature of
pyroclastic material in a catchment: valley-filling pyroclastic flow
deposits are more important than equally voluminous, but thinly
spread tephra.
In subaqueous settings, the violence of an explosive eruption and
the proportion of magma fragmented to pyroclasts are limited by
water depth and the volatile content of magma (Kokelaar, 1986; Kano,
2003; Wright et al., 2003), and by the nature of hydrovolcanic
interaction (e.g., Wohletz, 2003). Primary sedimentation from
explosive subaqueous eruptions reflects the style and extent of the
eruptive plume's penetration into the water column, eruption-fed
density current evolution, suspension deposition and local water–
current entrainment (Fiske and Matsuda, 1964; Mueller and White,
1992; Fiske et al., 2001; White et al., 2003a,b). Fragmentation coupled
with steep relief and/or proximity to water surface-level (i.e., wave-
base) are important drivers of subaqueous volcaniclastic sedimenta-
tion, as these influence high-energy reworking at the shoreline by
waves and tides and gravitational mass flows. Below storm wave base
(c. 200 m), gravitational remobilisation processes dominate so that
subaqueous volcaniclastic aprons are functionally identical to siliclas-
tic ones: the high sediment flux being equivalent to those arising from
dynamic tectonic settings. Rapid delivery of volcaniclastic material
can overwhelm eustatic effects, resulting in coastal progradation (de
Rita et al., 2002; Yamamoto, 2009-this volume).
Future research directions will likely be increasingly focussed on
volcaniclastic sedimentation in marine settings, partly because studies
of terrestrial environments are maturing, and partly because improve-
ments in technology such as remotely-operated submersibles (ROV's)
and satellite remote-sensing methods allow the deep marine
environment to be investigated in ever greater detail. In particular,
the interface between the subaerial and subaqueous realms, and the
nature of eruption-fed density currents are likely to be rich veins of
study.
Acknowledgements
Manville acknowledges support from the Foundation for Research
Science and Technology, New Zealand (Contracts CO5812 and
C05X0006). Németh was funded by a Foundation for Research Science
and Technology, New Zealand post-doctoral research grant
(MAUX0405). Kano thanks the Geological Survey of Japan, AIST, for
financial support. This manuscript benefited from discussions with J.D.L.
White, who also provided a comprehensive review.
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