Single-phase AC-AC Controlled Rectifiers

Jose Carreño, Juan Rozo

Universidad el Bosque, Bogotá D.C,
jcarrenoa, jrozoh(@unbosque.edu.co)

terminals known as the anode, cathode, and gate. When a

Abstract—In the realm of power electronics, controlled rectifier
diodes hold a central position by facilitating the conversion of
alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC) with precision in
voltage and current. This report aims to provide a comprehensive
understanding of controlled rectifier diodes, delving into their
operating principles, applications, and their integration into
AC-AC converter designs. Controlled rectifier diodes, through
techniques like phase-angle control and pulse-width modulation,
allow for intricate control over power flow in electronic circuits.
Their role is critical in applications spanning from motor drives to
renewable energy systems, enhancing energy efficiency and power
quality. A highlight in this report is the significance of conducting
simulations before physical implementation of these devices and
their associated systems. Simulations enable the analysis and
optimization of controlled rectifier diodes and AC-AC converters,
saving time and costs in development. Moreover, they ensure
precise and reliable design, reducing risks associated with
implementation errors.
Index Cantol—current, diode, half-wave, impedance, rectifier,
rms, voltage.
I. INTRODUCCIÓN
n this laboratory the design of a single-phase Ac-Ac
controlled converter was planned, which within the
research that was carried out, it was found that this can be
both analogue and digital, some parameters that must be
taken into consideration is the maximum voltage, which is
stipulated between 90% and 40%.
Calculations and subsequent analysis will also be made of the
voltages at the load and at the source, as well as the current
for both cases, with these values it will not be possible to
calculate the power factor of the sample system and
subsequently determine the voltage and current harmonics of
the same, the latter by means of the TDH.
The preliminary investigation of the power diodes, gives us
an initial idea of how its configuration should be carried out,
also with the acquired knowledge we should be able to
design a circuit, either analogical or digital to determine the
angle of shot that separates entered to our rectifier diode,
either a SCR, a TRIAC or any other diode that allows us to
have a controlled rectification.
positive voltage is applied between the anode and cathode, or
when the device is forward-biased, the SCR remains
non-conductive due to two of its junctions being in
conduction mode and one being reverse-biased.
To enable all layers of the SCR to conduct, an additional
current pulse is directed to the gate, effectively biasing the
previously non-conducting junction and allowing the device
to enter a conducting state. The primary circuit current is now
limited by the load resistance. Once the current pulse is
supplied to the SCR gate, the diode remains in a conducting
state and maintains this condition as long as the main source
voltage retains its polarity, and the current flowing through
the SCR is of a sufficient magnitude to sustain conduction.
This minimal current required for the SCR to remain in
conduction is known as the holding current. Notably, the
holding current can typically be on the order of milliamps
[1].
B. Half-wave controlled rectifier.
The primary benefit of controlled rectifiers lies in their
capacity to adjust the average voltage delivered to match the
requirements of a specific load. This advantage is particularly
valuable, as seen in applications like regulating the speed of
DC machines. Now, we will examine the voltage waveform
produced when the SCR is triggered at an angle α. Given the
alterations in the resulting waveforms, we will also compute
the average voltage, root mean square (effective) voltage,
power factor, and harmonic content for the updated
operational parameters [1].
C. Half-wave rectifier with resistive load.
The diagram depicted in the illustration illustrates the setup
for the resistive load rectifier and displays the corresponding
waveforms for each relevant parameter.

II. METHODS
A. Basic structure of the SCR.

The Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) is a semiconductor

component that shares similarities with a diode but possesses
the ability to delay its switching action as needed for Figure 1. Voltage in the resistive load of a half-wave rectifier.
rectification purposes. The SCR, short for Silicon Controlled
Rectifier, comprises four layers and features three external To determine the average voltage at the load, the same
expression calculated in the chapter on uncontrolled rectifiers diode is forward-biased until it reaches a point of conduction
is used, but taking into account that the function only has a due to the influence of the applied current pulse. It's
non-zero value after the SCR is triggered [1]. important to note that we do not include the switching angle
π originating from the signal's starting point. It's worth
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = ∫ 𝑉𝑚 · 𝑆𝑒𝑛(ω𝑡) 𝑑(ω𝑡) (1) acknowledging that even if a diode is subjected to a forward
α
voltage, it won't conduct unless it receives a higher voltage
The cash value is calculated as: compared to other diodes. In the case of controlled diodes, an
π
2 2
additional trigger pulse applied to the gate is also necessary
1
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2π
∫ 𝑉𝑚 · 𝑆𝑒𝑛 (ω𝑡) 𝑑(ω𝑡) (2) for conduction. The diagram illustrates the switching angle
α concerning the three-phase mains voltages.
D. Rectifier with RL load.

When supplying power to an inductive load, the current

exhibits a waveform that differs from that of the voltage.
Consequently, an equation is established to characterize how
the current behaves once the SCR begins to conduct [1].

Figure 4. Waveforms for a < 30°.

To calculate the average voltage at the output of the converter

we have to take into account two conditions; when the
switching angle is less than 30º, the output voltage signal has
a shape starting at α up to α + 120º and when the angle is
greater than 30º it starts at α ending at 180º [1].
Figure 2. Rectifier voltage and current with RL load between α and 5π
+α
β. 1
6

𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 2π/3
∫ 𝑉𝑚 · 𝑆𝑒𝑛(ω𝑡) 𝑑ω𝑡 (5)
As in any RL circuit, the total current is the sum of the forced π
6
+α
and natural circuit response. 3 3·𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 2π
· 𝐶𝑜𝑠(α) (6)
−ω𝑡
𝑉𝑚 ⎡𝑆𝑒𝑛(ω𝑡 − θ) − 𝑆𝑒𝑛(ω𝑡 − θ) · 𝑒 ω𝑡 ⎤ (3) To calculate Vrms.
𝑖(ω𝑡) = 𝑍 ⎢ ⎥ 5π
+α
⎣ ⎦ 1
6
2 2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2π/3
∫ 𝑉𝑚 · 𝑆𝑒𝑛 (ω𝑡) 𝑑ω𝑡 (7)
The Vdc is then dependent on the current cutoff angle as the π
+α
output voltage signal reaches the current cutoff angle. 2
6
2
3𝑉𝑚
1
β 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 24π (4π + 3 3 · 𝐶𝑜𝑠(2α)) (8)
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = ∫ 𝑉𝑚 · 𝑆𝑒𝑛(ω𝑡) 𝑑(ω𝑡) (4)
2π
α
The current is:
𝑇
E. Three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier. 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑂𝑢𝑡 =
1 2
· ∫ 𝑓 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 (9)
𝑇
a. Analysis for R load. 0

𝑇
As previously noted, three-phase rectifiers offer distinct 1 1 2
advantages compared to their single-phase counterparts, 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑛 = 3
· 𝑇
· ∫ 𝑓 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 (10)
0
primarily because industrial facilities demand a substantial
amount of power to serve various types of equipment. Apart III. RESEARCH
from their high energy delivery capabilities, three-phase
converters generate smoother output waveforms, a crucial From controlled rectifier systems there are several
advantage to consider when selecting a rectifier. applications in the automotive industry as well as in new
technologies for commercial use:

1. Variable speed drive in DC motors: Half-wave controlled

rectifiers are used in industrial applications to control the
speed of DC motors. An example is found in public transport
systems, where trains and trams use half-wave controlled
rectifiers in the acceleration and deceleration process to
adjust the speed gradually.

2. Electric vehicle battery charging: Electric vehicle chargers

incorporate half-wave controlled rectifiers to convert AC
Figure 3. Three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier. mains power to DC and charge vehicle batteries safely and
efficiently. This approach is used in commercial electric
The angle α represents the duration starting from when a vehicles such as the Nissan Leaf [2].
3. Brightness control in lighting: In lighting systems,
half-wave controlled rectifiers are used to control the
luminous intensity of incandescent and halogen lamps. This
is found in dimmable lighting applications in homes and
theatres [3].
Now we will use the Arduino board to control the firing angle for
our circuit. For this stage we will use a variable resistor and two
pins, one input from the zero crossing detector and one output,
which will send the desired angle to our final power circuit:

4. Electric arc welding: In electric arc welding, controlled

half-wave rectifiers are used to control the welding current
and thus the quality of the welded joints. These systems are
common in the construction and fabrication industry [4].

5. Controlled electrical heating systems: In electrical heating

systems, half-wave controlled rectifiers allow precise control
of the amount of heat generated by electrical resistors. This is
used in industrial and commercial space heating systems [5].

These examples illustrate the practical application of

half-wave controlled rectifiers in various industries and
systems.

IV. SCR GATE CONTROL DESIGN

Our control system has a zero-crossing identifier circuit, a
firing angle control stage, a firing timer and, finally, the
circuit with the SCR, connected to a load, either resistive or
Figure 6. Arduino circuit
resistive and inductive.

A diode bridge, reference 1N4004, 10k ohm resistors, a 4N25
optocoupler and MOC3021 were used to design the
zero-crossing identifier. In addition, a potentiometer was used
which will allow us to vary the firing angle, this
potentiometer is connected to the arduino, which controls the
activation time of the SCR.
Now we will have the final stage of our circuit, which
consists of an optocoupler with its output to a diode and
subsequently to the SCR used in the assembly, this will
power a load represented by a light bulb.

The relevant calculations were made for the construction of

the circuit, the data we have are presented:
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 24𝑉 (11)
𝑓 = 60ℎ𝑍 (12)
𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 5𝑉 (13)
We have the following design equation:
𝑅1 = 250 * 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 (14)
The constant 250 is a parameter of the optocoupler: Figure 7. Final part circuit
𝑅1 = 250 * 24𝑉 (15) V. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
𝑅1 = 5000Ω (16)
First, the value of 90% and 40% of the maximum supply
Now for R3 we have the following expression: voltage of a 24 volt AC source is determined. Then, by
𝑅2 = 𝑉𝑐𝑐 * 1000 (17) means of the equation describing the waveform, the angle at
𝑅2 = 5𝑣 * 1000 (18) which it has to be clipped to obtain the maximum voltage
previously calculated is determined.
𝑅1 = 5000 (19) 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 24𝑉 (20)
To the source value, 90% shall be applied to determine the
RMS voltage associated with that percentage of the 20V.
𝑉𝑀*90% = 24𝑉 * 0. 9 = 21. 6 (21)
The same procedure is carried out with the value of 40%, for
the same source:
𝑉𝑀*40% = 24𝑉 * 0. 4 = 9. 6 (23)

A. Half-wave rectifier with resistive load.

a. Voltage at load.
From equation 2 we calculate the RMS voltage at 90% and at
40% taking into account that the circuit is supplied with an
RMS voltage of 24V AC with a frequency of 60Hz.
π
2 1 2 2
(𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠) = 2π
∫ (𝑉𝑚) · 𝑆𝑒𝑛 (120π𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 (24)
α
Figura 5. Zero crossing detector circuit. In annexes find the development of the equation, where we
can obtain that: The previous image shows the final assembly of the circuit,
2
2
connected to the laboratory benches and feeding the DC part
(𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠40%) =
(𝑉𝑚)
⎡π − α +
⎣4π
𝑆𝑒𝑛(240πα)
240π
⎤
⎦
(25)
of the circuit with 5V.
Replacing values we obtain that:
288 6𝑆𝑒𝑛(240πα)
− 195. 84 =− π α + 2 (26)
5π
By means of octave we can find α using a While cycle. We
obtained that it is equal to 2.136880 [Rads], which is equal to
122.43°.

Now, we find the angle when Vrms is 90%. And we obtain

the following equation:
2

(𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠90%)2 = (𝑉𝑚)
⎡π − α +
⎣4π
𝑆𝑒𝑛(240πα)
240π
⎤
⎦
(27)
Replacing values we obtain that:
288 6𝑆𝑒𝑛(240πα)
178. 56 =− π α + 2 (28)
5π
As mentioned before, we obtained alpha by means of Octave.
Alpha has a value of 1.946 [rads], which is equivalent to
111.54°.

b. Load and source current. Figure 9. Shoot angle at 0 degrees

For the source current we obtain that:
𝑉𝑃
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2𝑅
(29)
The IRMS source current was developed in annexes. We
have to find the resistance of the bulb, which has 100W and
works up to 110V AC.
2
24
𝑅= 100𝑤
= 5. 76Ω (30)
2
110
𝑅= 100𝑤
= 121Ω (31)
We proceed to replace values:
24 2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 11.52
= 2. 94𝐴 (32)
110 2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 0. 642𝐴 (33) Figure 10. Shoot angle at 90 degrees
242
For the load current we have that:
𝑉𝑃
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = (34) VI. CONCLUSIONES
2𝑅
The firing angle is displayed in figures 10 and 11, the voltage
c. System power factor. is observed to be 21.2V corresponding to 90% of 24V
2
𝑃=
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 (Figure 10). Figure 11 shows a voltage of 9.6 V, which
𝑅
2 corresponds to 40% of the 24V signal.
24
𝑃5.76Ω = (5.76Ω)
= 100𝑊
Figure 9 shows a voltage drop in the rectified signal due to
𝑆 = 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 * 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 the impedance generated by the light bulb and which is
𝑆 = 24𝑉 * 2. 94𝐴 = 70. 56[𝑉𝐴] connected to the SCR.
100𝑊
𝐹𝑃 = 70.56[𝑉𝐴] = 1. 417

B. Measurement results. VII. REFERENCES

[1] Rashid, M. H. (2011). Power Electronics Handbook.

Academic Press.
[2] H. Zheng, Q. Xia, and J. Cao, "A Review of Electric
Vehicle Battery-Charging Infrastructures," IEEE
Access, vol. 6, pp. 22716-22730, 2018.
[3] Mohan, N., Undeland, T. M., & Robbins, W. P. (2003).
Power Electronics: Converters, Applications, and Design.
John Wiley & Sons.
[4] Rashid, M. H. (2017). Power Electronics: Circuits,
Devices, and Applications (4th ed.). Pearson.

Figure 8. Zero-crossing detector circuit

 VIII. ANNEXES

Simulations:

Figure 12. Zero crossing detector signal Figure 15. code for calculate angle (Octave)

Figure 13. shooting angle signal

Figure 16. code for calculate angle (Octave)

Figure 14. code for variator angle

 Calculations.

A. Single-phase rectifier RMS voltage controlled for

40% and 90%.
π
2 1 2 2
(𝑉𝑟𝑚) = 2π
∫ (𝑉𝑚) · 𝑆𝑒𝑛 (120π𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 (14)
α
2 π
2 (𝑉𝑚) 2
(𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠) = 2π
∫ 𝑆𝑒𝑛 (120π𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 (15)
α
2 π π
2 (𝑉𝑚) 1 𝐶𝑜𝑠(240π𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
(𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠) = 2π
∫ 2
−∫ 2 240π
(16)
α α
2 π
2 (𝑉𝑚) 𝐶𝑜𝑠(240π𝑡)
(𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠) = 4π
∫1 − 240π
𝑑𝑡 (17)
α
2
2 (𝑉𝑚) 𝑆𝑒𝑛(240π𝑡) π
(𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠) = ⎡𝑡 − ⎤ (18)
4π ⎣ 240π ⎦ α
2
2 (𝑉𝑚) 𝑆𝑒𝑛(240πα)
(𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠) = ⎡π − α + ⎤ (19)
4π ⎣ 240π ⎦
For 40% RMS voltage
2

(𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠40%)2 = (𝑉𝑚)
4π
⎡π − α +
⎣
𝑆𝑒𝑛(240πα)
240π
⎤
⎦
(19)
2

= ( 4π ) ⎡π − α +
2
24 2 𝑆𝑒𝑛(240πα)
(9. 6) ⎤ (19)
⎣ 240π ⎦
288 𝑆𝑒𝑛(240πα)
92. 16 = π ⎡π − α + ⎤ (19)
⎣ 240π ⎦
288 6𝑆𝑒𝑛(240πα)
Figure 17. Pre laboratory − 195. 84 =− π α + 2 (19)
5π
For 90% RMS voltage
2

(𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠90%)2 = (𝑉𝑚)
4π
⎡π − α +
⎣
𝑆𝑒𝑛(240πα)
240π
⎤
⎦
(19)
2

= ( 4π ) ⎡π − α +
2 24 2 𝑆𝑒𝑛(240πα)
(21. 6) ⎤ (19)
2
⎣ 240π ⎦
466. 56 = ( 4π ) ⎡π − α +
24 2 𝑆𝑒𝑛(240πα)
⎤ (19)
⎣ 240π ⎦
288 6𝑆𝑒𝑛(240πα)
178. 56 =− π α + 2 (19)
5π

B. Source RMS current.

𝑇
1 2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑇
∫ 𝑉 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
0
𝑉𝑚
2 2π
2 2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2 ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑛 (ω𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
2π𝑅 0
𝑉𝑚
2 2π
2 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2ω𝑡)
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2 ∫ 2
− 2
𝑑𝑡
2π𝑅 0
2 2π 2π
2⎡ 1 𝑉𝑚 ⎤
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ⎢ ∫ 𝑑𝑡 − ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2ω𝑡) 𝑑𝑡⎥
2π𝑅 ⎢ 0 2 ⎥
2 2
⎣ 0 ⎦
2 2π 2π
2 𝑉 ⎡ 𝑑𝑢 ⎤
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑚 2 ⎢ ∫ 1𝑑𝑡 − ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑢) 2ω ⎥
4π𝑅 ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎣ 0 ⎦
2
2 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑛(2ω𝑡) 2π
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ⎡𝑡 − ⎤
4π𝑅
2
⎣ 2ω ⎦0
2
𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2
4π𝑅
2 ⎡2π −
⎣
𝑠𝑒𝑛(4πω)
2ω
− − ( 𝑠𝑒𝑛(0)
2ω )⎤⎦
2 2
2 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑃
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2 [2π] = 2
4π𝑅 𝑅
𝑉𝑃
Figure 18. Prelaboratory 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2𝑅