SOCIOLOGY

Ques 1 -:

The term "ethnocentrism" has two meanings: ethno, which comes from the
word ethnic or ethnicity, and centrism, which comes from the word central. In
layman's words, ethnocentrism means that your worldview is moulded by your
concentration on ethnicity and the notion that your own culture or ethnicity is
superior to or better than others.

When we examine human history and the circumstances, we can see how
ethnocentrism has wreaked havoc on entire societies. Even in India, ethnic
tensions arise as a result of conflict between two groups, usually based on
regional differences — for example, conflicts between people from the north
east and those from the rest of the country.

However, ethnocentrism has some beneficial aspects, such as motivating those

who are proud of their ethnicity and lineage to join the military or build a
name for themselves in disciplines like as athletics, classical music and dance
forms, and so on, in order to strive for the nation's glory.

However, seeing society through purely ethnocentric lenses is not always

appropriate because one ends up judging the other culture using the criteria of
one's own culture. For example, as the proprietor of an Indian restaurant, I
would never offer beef to any of my customers, whether local or international.
As a tourist, though, I am unable to judge another society's eating of beef as
unethical. It's more difficult to appreciate cultural variety when you look at
another culture via an ethnocentric lens rather than a sociological lens. The
sociological viewpoint is more scientific in nature, and it consists of three
aspects —
1) Realism -: The entire society must be examined. It's not merely a group
of people who share ethnic or religious affinities. Only through
integrating disparities and maintaining equilibrium can society achieve
adequate functionality, and each component must contribute
meaningfully to the whole. However, the main issue is that society (as a
whole) is held above the person (as a portion), denying them autonomy
and leaving them unable to understand the conflicts that arise between
various groups.

2) Nominalism -: It is made up of concrete entities that make up the

society as a whole. There is more autonomy here, and society's tensions
are accepted and acknowledged. Individuals acquire their worth as a
result of their interactions with and participation in society. Individual
characteristics alone do not provide the basis for society. Individuals
who live alone are unable to create some characteristics that they can
when they interact with others in a society.

3) Interactionism -: What is happening, an event or a system of action, is

unique to society. A society ceases to exist if it ceases to operate. Its
structure and operation are inextricably linked. Individual and group
social action are both possible. They frequently overlook large-scale
coordinated efforts.
Ques 2 -: Emile Durkheim was the first French academic sociologist to discuss
individual and social consciousness, as well as social solidarity. Individuals, he
claims, do not have moral authority over society since they are the products of
society rather than its creators. He grounds his argument on the fact that
moral authority causes individuals to respect society and its standards.
Because society does not need people to make sacrifices, it exists solely via
human conscience. As a result, society forces must penetrate individual
consciousness and organise themselves within it, thereby becoming an intrinsic
component of that consciousness. Morals, standards, beliefs, values, and other
cultural norms are revered and elevated by humans because they are part of
their consciousness.
Furthermore, these concepts become part of the social fabric and exist outside
of the individual since they persist even after the individual's death. That is
how civilizations do not perish because people adhere to social reality in order
to live happily in society.

Collective consciousness is extremely important in the Durkheim school of

thought. It refers to the people's views, values, and attitudes in a particular
culture. These social realities or individual consciousness generate a social
mentality in which collectivistic attitudes provide the foundation for a society's
unity and solidarity. Everyone in the society voluntarily accepts these
collectivistic attitudes and values because it is believed to be an acceptable
practise for the society's regulation. Opposition, disobedience, or direct
defiance of accepted standards (collective awareness) would result in
ostracism, exclusion, scorn, and mockery.

Durkheim also explains that primitive societies (such as the tribes of India's
Andaman and Nicobar Islands) are more in touch with their collective
consciousness, whereas advanced or industrialised societies tend to lean
toward more individualism, where people want to be less restrained or bound
by social and collective consciousness so they can act as they please.

All of these beliefs and standards have a life of their own and are dispersed
across society, making one civilization a different reality from another. The
extent to which people follow the society's common consciousness reflects
their solidarity and unity. The concept of social solidarity encompasses both
mechanical and organic solidarity. The former, i.e., the mechanical society, can
be described as a segmental system in which each segment (or social fact) is
homogeneous, and the social structure is made up of each segment. The
mechanical solidarity is natural and a result of the members of the society's
shared experiences. This is common in traditional civilizations when the social
structure is segmented and there is little interaction. Because the latter directs
human behaviour in society, individual cognition has been fully overwhelmed
by communal consciousness. Because a segmental social organisation is
homogeneous, members' shared experiences lead to a collective
consciousness of shared beliefs and practises. Because of the great amount of
resemblance, collectivism is more important here.

Organic solidarity is the other aspect of social solidarity. It is a system in which

there are several organs, each of which has a distinct function to do. There are
various components that cannot function independently and must instead
circle around a single central governing organ. It is highly interdependent, as
proven by the fact that no organ can function independently.

The theory was that if there was more differentiation, integration would be
easier. Because there is such a high degree of interdependence, if any part of
any organ is compromised, the entire system will work inefficiently. Because of
the significant level of differentiation, individualism is more important here.

Because Durkheim's concept of social solidarity refutes the idea that society is
formed by a contractual agreement, I agree with him that each society can be
based on a different kind of consciousness, whether individual or collectivistic,
because, at the end of the day, there is still a naturally evolving consciousness
that led to the formation of society in the first place. Furthermore, because a
contract can only take place between the parties to the agreement, if we
believe in the social contract theory of society creation, the society should
simply collapse after the parties to the agreement die or withdraw from the
arrangement. Because the following generation would have no society to
belong to, the concept of previous consciousness would make the
establishment of a civilization more possible. Because there are several types
of cultures coexisting in our globe, it is not difficult to accept that diverse types
of consciousness characterize them in the current world.

Ques 3 -:

In his classic work Protestant Ethics and the Spirit of Capitalism, he expounds
on his idea of religion and society. His religious thought is based on the idea of
humans as actors who assign meaning to the world around them. It is, as the
name implies, a protest religion that arose from the religious revolution of the
sixteenth century, also known as the Reformation.

He cites the history of Protestantism's founding fathers, Martin Luther and

John Calvin, who broke away from Catholic doctrine that had grown too
engrossed in rituals and had lost touch with spirituality. Protestantism grew in
Western Europe due to the advancement of science and technology, as well as
the establishment of new economic structures. Weber observed that
Protestants made more progress in terms of education and employment
because they emphasised simplicity, austerity, and commitment. They were
also seafarers, and they were able to reach the Americas and establish a new
system and way of life there.

Between capitalism and Protestantism, Weber believed, there were parallels

and shared ideals. Because Western Capitalism is supported by Protestant
beliefs, there was a good association between the two.

In a nutshell, he summarised John Calvin's ideas -:

1. There is an ultimate transcendent God who created the world and man, and
controls over both, but he is incomprehensible and inaccessible to mortal
minds' finite knowledge.

2. This all-powerful absolute God predestines each individual to salvation or

damnation, thus humans cannot change their acts and deeds by divine decree.

3. God created the world solely for the purpose of displaying his glory.

4. Regardless of whether they are to be damned or rescued, everyone is to

labour toward the objective of building God's Kingdom on Earth.

5. The hierarchy of sin includes earthly things like human flesh and human
nature. Only those who have been predestined for death and salvation by
divine grace are able to experience them.

It was easier to develop a capitalistic society built on a disciplined and

motivated workforce due to the core ideals of Protestantism implanted in
individuals.

CONFUCIANISM IN CHINA -:

Even though ancient China had a well-developed system of trade, economy,

commerce, banking, and industry, the western model of capitalism was never
founded. This was due to the fact that Confucian philosophy and ethics
differed significantly from Protestant ethics. Confucianism's core principles are
as follows: 1. Belief in the cosmos and universe is required.

2. Humans should strive to live in harmony with the universe and environment.

3. All human understanding is rooted in the past, and actions should follow
tradition.
4. Family relationships and kinship bonds must never be neglected, and
commitments originating from family obligations must be met.

As a result, in Chinese society, there was a strong emphasis on tradition,

family, and ancient knowledge, all of which were at odds with the capitalistic
desire of profit for profit's sake.

JUDAISM IN WEST ASIA:

Judaism is the Jewish religion, and it is the first Abrahamic religion to emerge
from West Asia. It is akin to the Protestant belief in a one all-powerful God
known in Hebrew as 'Yahweh.' The Jews consider themselves to be God's
chosen people, and they have followed their prophets' advice to create God's
Kingdom on Earth.

The capitalist society, on the other hand, could not flourish properly under the
Jews because of their long history of persecution. Exodus and migrations
dispersed Jews around the world, forcing them to limit their economic activity
to moneylending, which they accomplished well.

HINDUISM IN INDIA:

Because Hinduism (also known as Sanatan Dharma) is an ancient way of life

with a complex polytheistic belief system, Max Weber was sceptical of it
because he couldn't see how the Western type of capitalism could thrive in
India. According to him, the Hindu (also known as Sanatani) values of Dharma,
Karma, Moksha, and Punaarjanm (Reincarnation) caused Hindus (also known
as Sanatanis) fatalistic and uninspired to improve their lot in life, especially
because Karma implied that our current situation is based on our past actions.
Others, however, have criticised him since Hindus believe that material
belongings and capitalistic wealth are fleeting and unreal. The spiritual
upliftment of the aatma (Soul) and attainment of moksha is our life's objective.

A focus on material wealth would obstruct our path to God and moksha.
Simply focusing on finance, trade, and technology is insufficient to develop
capitalism in Indian Hindu society. Religion also plays a role in this.

Weber deliberately emphasised the passive parts of the Dharmic teachings and
produced a bad picture of a civilization he did not fully comprehend. One of his
harshest detractors, Milton Singer, claimed that the Dharmic principles truly
motivate people to do their duty and fulfil their commitments. The concept of
"calling," which is common in capitalism, is also common in Hinduism, as it
relates to people taking active steps to better themselves. Hindus, on the other
hand, choose to improve themselves spiritually and materially.

According to Milton Singer, capitalism could gain traction in India as well, but
not in the Western sense. It had to be one that was specifically suited to the
Dharmic traditions of India. He examined the Madrasis and concluded that,
due to the division of labour, the caste system could actually benefit
capitalism. People of all classes kept their commercial and economic
commitments distinct from their religious obligations, and neither economy
nor religion ever clashed. As a result, Weber's understanding of Hinduism is
incorrect since he applies monotheistic ideas and concentrates on material
wealth, but Sanatan Dharma practitioners pursue a completely different way of
life in which religion and commerce do not interfere with one another. As a
result, capitalism can be introduced to India as long as it develops within the
society's social and cultural boundaries.
Ques 4 -:

Karl Marx’s Historical Materialism

Karl Marx is well known for being influenced by Hegel's views and theories.
Hegel belonged to the idealist school of thought and saw history as a
"development in the sense of freedom." He claimed that religion and the
creation of religious notions were the finest ways to express awareness
freedom, and that these ideas revealed the degree of consciousness freedom
in a given social organisation. Christianity, the Reformation, the French
Revolution, and constitutional monarchy were all on the rise in human history.
Only educated state officials in charge of the constitutional monarchy could
comprehend human growth.

Karl Marx also expanded his thoughts on human history along Hegelian lines,
eventually resulting in the concept of Historical Materialism. Because Marx's
theory is based on materialism, it was not uncommon for him to theorise that
material conditions and economic forces influence society and social order
construction.

He refers to material conditions as the technological means of production and

the human society that is formed by the production relations, the relationship
between the bourgeoisie and the proletariats, and the sum total of all
relationships that people must enter into in order to survive and produce their
means of livelihood.

Marx's theory is known as "Historical Materialism" because he followed the

evolution of society from one stage to the next and because the history was
interpreted in terms of economic or materialistic forces. In this case,
materialism simply refers to the fact that the material world is the foundation
of all social development.
Marx argued that ideas are the outcome of actual reality (matter), not the
source of change, in opposition to Hegel's belief that ideas are the cause of
social change. He also coined the terms "Forces of Production" and "Relations
of Production" (ROP). The factors of production, such as technical know-how,
tools, machinery, and the degree to which people can influence nature, are
referred to as forces of production. Nature is easier to govern the more
evolved the producing forces are. The social relations found among those
participating in the manner of production are known as production relations.
Both types of production are inextricably intertwined since one cannot exist
without the other. Unfortunately, Marx was equivocal about the seeming
inconsistencies that develop as a result of incompatibility, and it was never
clearly articulated by him.

Finally, from what I've gathered, technical relations are required for the actual
product manufacturing process. There are also economic control relations,
which appear legally as property ownership and govern access to productive
forces and products. The direct relations between the producer or worker and
their employer or those who govern their labour, as well as the relations
between the producers themselves, are included in the production relations.
The relationship with the boss is one of domination and submission, but the
relationship with co-workers is one of camaraderie and cooperation.

Ques 5 -:

MATRILINEAL ENDOGAMOUS TRIBE -:

The production relations encompass the direct relationships between the

producer or worker and their employer or those who govern their labour, as
well as the relationships amongst the producers themselves. The boss's
relationship is one of dominance and submission, whereas the coworker's
connection is one of camaraderie and cooperation.

PATRILINEAL EXOGAMOUS TRIBE

This indicates that following marriage, the husband moves from his home to
the ancestral home of his bride. For the husband, there is a change of
community, which causes him some distress at first. Then he has a lower
position in his wife's family, and the children have all of their property and
inheritance rights in their mother's family rather than in their father's.

PATRILOCAL SYSTEM OF MARRIAGE

This is the most typical sort of system, in which the wife leaves her ancestral
home after marriage and moves in with her husband. It is diametrically
opposed to the matrilocal system, in which children have more privileges in
their father's family than in their mother's.

Adam can marry Eve since he is from a patrilineal exogamous tribe, but Eve
cannot marry him because she is from a matrilineal endogamous tribe. The
most they can do is go somewhere else so that neither of them is forced to live
with the other's family.

Ques 6 -:

In sociology, the social stratification hypothesis discusses how humans create

hierarchy and structure in society. When society is divided in this way, it is
going to be unequal. The hierarchy is divided into "higher" and "lower" groups,
with the higher groups receiving more benefits and opportunities in different
areas of life than the lower groups. The lower groups maintain a sense of
inferiority as a result of their hierarchical position, believing that because they
were born into the inferior group, they will remain at the bottom of the social
ladder.

The "modernisation of society and its advancements necessitate diverse

professions to be performed, some of which have a greater status but few
individuals to undertake them," according to Kingsley Davis of the Functionalist
School. As a result, persons who do those jobs are paid more than others." The
Functionalist School's main principle is that the hierarchical structure of people
in society serves a purpose in allowing the society to function well. As a result,
as described by Kingsley Davis, there is the concept of differential rewards. It
serves as a motivator for people to pursue the vocations that are most suited
for them, in order to get more status and work more effectively.

Davis and Moore, on the other hand, argue that a job's functional relevance
isn't solely determined by its high pay for top achievers. It is because of the
person's distinct function and the reliance of other employment on this one. As
a result, those who perform those tasks are compensated better than others."
The primary principle of the Functionalist School is that society's hierarchical
structure serves a purpose in allowing it to function well. As a result, there is
the concept of differential rewards, as defined by Kingsley Davis. It encourages
people to pursue the careers that are most suited to them in order to gain
greater prestige and work more efficiently.

On the other hand, Davis and Moore suggest that a job's functional relevance
isn't entirely defined by high pay for top performers. It's because of the
person's unique function and the fact that other jobs rely on him or her. In a
highly organised society, such as most industrial societies, certain people will
be in charge of organising, planning, coordinating, management, and so on,
while others will be in charge of carrying out these plans, but in the end, the
society will benefit. As a result, division of labour and social stratification are
unavoidable for the complete performance of functions that benefit society.

Karl Marx, on the other hand, opposes Parsons' social stratification theory.
While Parsons saw stratification as a useful tool for achieving society's
common goals, Marx saw it as a tool for exploitation. He split society into two
classes: rulers and ruled subjects. He believed that those who possessed the
means of production were the ruling class, exploiting the subject class to
maintain their money, status, reputation, and influence in society at the
expense of the people they ruled. Certain people will be in charge of
organising, planning, coordinating, management, and so on in a highly
organised society, such as most industrial societies, while others will be in
charge of carrying out these plans, but in the end, the society will benefit. As a
result, for the complete performance of activities that benefit society, division
of labour and social stratification are unavoidable.

Parsons' social stratification theory, on the other hand, is opposed by Karl

Marx. Marx saw stratification as a weapon for exploitation, whereas Parsons
saw it as a valuable instrument for accomplishing society's common aims. He
created two kinds in society: rulers and ruled subjects. He felt that the ruling
class, who held the means of production, exploited the subject class in order to
maintain their wealth, status, reputation, and influence in society at the
expense of the people they ruled. However, economic methods are not the
only way to achieve high social standing; political power and/or collective
action are also viable options.
He distinguishes between economic class, which is based on riches, and status,
which is based on social honour, or how individuals consider themselves and
their social standing. These organisations may be formed on the basis of
religion, nationality, ethnicity, or a shared lifestyle, culture, status, or class.
Indians working overseas, such as in the United States or Europe, are a good
example. An Indian and an American (both with American citizenship) may
work in the same office and come from the same economic class, but they are
not of the same social status. An Indian is much more likely to be a victim of
discrimination, resulting in a perception of having a lower status in American
society, whereas this is not the case for the American colleague, who may even
have some advantages over the Indian. As a result, we can discern strong social
stratification and inequality based on ethnicity, with both having the same
economic class but differing social rank. Class, according to Weber, refers to
unequal distribution of economic benefits, whereas status refers to unequal
distribution of social honour.

The leisure class, which has monopoly over technological forces of production
as well as private property, and the working class are the foundations of
Thorstein Veblen's hierarchy. He discusses about societal taboos that
contribute to the leisure class's consumption patterns changing through time
(because they tend to consume things for idle enjoyment and luxury goods
because they believe they are superior to others by virtue of birth or fortune).
Gradations are formed in this social stratification hypothesis because it is
natural for everyone to want to climb the social ladder's rungs, and most
people strive to reach the next higher rung. In this scenario, ostentatious
consumerism in the form of open displays of luxury goods denotes class and
prestige. According to Vilfredo Pareto, society is divided into an upper and
lower class, with the upper class referred to as elites. The Circulation of Elites is
a cyclical phenomenon in which each class replaces the previous to become
the elites. It is an ongoing phenomenon that occurs in all societies.

He emphasises the Residues of Combination and Residues of Aggregate

Persistence, where the combination relates to concrete tangible interests and
the persistence refers to aggregates with idealistic aims. Political, Economic,
and Ideological changes are the three types of social change (intellectual).
Society is separated into an upper and lower class, according to Vilfredo
Pareto, with the top class referred to as elites. The Elite Circulation is a cyclical
process in which each class replaces the one before it to become the elites. It is
a continuing occurrence that can be found in any society.

He emphasises the Residues of Aggregate Persistence and the Residues of

Combination, where the combination refers to concrete tangible interests and
the persistence refers to aggregates with idealistic goals. The three sorts of
societal transformation are political, economic, and ideological (intellectual).
Unfortunately, because it is centred on Greece and Rome, this idea of social
stratification has gotten a lot of criticism because it cannot be applied

universally. Furthermore, the concept of residues has not been made very
clear, hence it is a less popular social stratification hypothesis.

Q7 (a) ACCULTURATION:

Acculturation is a term used to describe the process of cultural encounter in

modern times. The process of acculturation began with the Industrial
Revolution in Europe, with the development of colonies in Africa, Asia, and
other far-flung islands such as the Caribbean. Acculturation is the process
through which one culture is superseded or completely replaced by another. It
occurs as a result of continual interaction with another culture, whether
through migration, settlement, or invasion, resulting in modifications in both
the native and foreign cultures.

For example, previous civilisations such as Egyptian civilisation were

completely replaced by Islamic culture. It occurred as a result of invasion and
the incapacity to coexist in the same sphere. Another example is the expansion
of western culture, specifically British culture, throughout India, which
wreaked havoc on the indigenous Indian culture by uprooting the locals from
their own old traditions.

Q7 (b) ENCULTURATION

In its most basic form, it entails learning about one's own culture and traditions
and adhering to them. For a child to grow up and learn about its own culture,
the family is the most basic unit of a civilization. To avoid destabilising society,
children are taught the accepted standards and values. For example, in non-
cosmopolitan civilizations such as Japan, the majority of people live in a
homogeneous society. They place a strong emphasis on acquiring cultural
features such as how to celebrate festivals and pay respect to ancestors.

Enculturation is closely related to socialisation in that it refers to the process of

moulding an individual's cognitive processes and behaviour to conform to the
society in which they are growing up. The individual builds a context for limits
and their position within the societal framework through enculturation.

Q7 (c) CULTURAL REVITALISATION

The process of recovering the language, religion, traditions, and practises of
unique cultures, also known as cultural revitalisation, is referred to as cultural
revitalisation. In other words, it is the resurgence of a dying way of life.

Cultural revitalization can be seen in a variety of ways. When the British

governed India, for example, many individuals appeared to have abandoned
the ancient traditional practise of celebrating our festivals. We have a hero
named Lokmanya Tilak who revitalised Maharashtra's Ganesh Chaturthi
celebrations, reviving one of the most important cultural markers of
Maharashtrian identity — Ganesh Chaturthi.

Cultural homogenization is the polar opposite of cultural revitalisation, and it's

a concern because it can affect or even ruin a country's or society's historic
identity. In a traditionally heterogeneous country like India, each region has its
own distinct character, some of which are vanishing owing to propaganda-
induced cultural homogenization. As a result, cultural revitalisation is required
not only to revive dying civilizations but also to preserve existing ones in order
to avoid losing our traditions to the abyss of time.

Q7 (d) CONTRA-CULTURATION

It's a form of acculturation in which the receiving culture has a negative

reaction to the outside culture. It's also a cultural system with values and ethos
that are vastly different from a location's mainstream or prevailing culture.
Contra-culturation refers to hippies and other groups who build their own
culture separate from mainstream society. It's also known as subculture or
counterculture.
Q7 (e) ASSIMILATION

The term "assimilation" refers to the process of erasing unique group identities
and boundaries. It differs from acculturation, which is the entire replacement
of one cultural identity by another. According to Robert Park, an American
sociologist, it is not necessary for one social group to incorporate all of its goals
and values into another. Instead, it is a give-and-take process in which current
social groups exchange ideas and values, with the possibility of a new group
emerging as a result of long-term continuous engagement.

If there are prejudices in erasing the unique boundaries, assimilation may be

postponed. The first thing that comes to mind is white colonisers and African
indigenous. Both of these communities are isolated from one another and
have little interaction. As a result, neither social group has assimilation because
different identities and boundaries still exist.