LESSON 2:

UNDERSTANDING THE
CONCEPTS OF CULTURE,
SOCIETY, AND POLITICS
 OBJECTIVES
AT THE END OF THE COURSE, THE LEARNERS WILL BE ABLE TO:
1. IDENTIFY THE NATURE AND DYNAMICS OF CULTURE AND SOCIETY USING KEY
ANTHROPOLOGICAL, SOCIOLOGICAL, AND POLITICAL SCIENCE CONCEPTS.
2. DISTINGUISH KEY FEATURES OF THE THREE MAJOR APPROACHES TO THE STUDY
OF CULTURE, SOCIETY, AND POLITICS.
3. VALUE CULTURAL HERITAGE AND EXPRESS PRIDE OF PLACE WITHOUT BEING
ETHNOCENTRIC.
 ASPECTS OF CULTURE
The notion of culture presents a complex portrait of humanity. Anthropology regards culture as
learned, symbolic, integrated, shared, and all encompassing (Tylor 1871).

It is learned because culture is acquired by being born into a particular society in the process
of enculturation, as anthropologists would say, or socialization, as sociologists would explain.
Through language, the cultural traits of society are passed on to younger members in the
process of growing up and through teaching.
Culture is symbolic in the sense that it renders meanings to what people do. Beliefs, religion,
rituals, myths, dances, performances, music, artworks, sense of taste, education, innovations,
identity, ethnicity, and so on, are meaningful human expressions of what people do and how
they act.
The systems of meanings and many other facets of culture such as kindred, religion,
economic activities, inheritance, and political process, do not function in isolation but as an
integrated whole that makes society work. Furthermore, these varying systems of meanings,
relations, and processes are shared within a group of people rendering culture bounded to
those who seek a sense of belonging to the same society.
 Since culture is shared within exclusive domains of social relations, societies operate differently from each other
leading to cultural variations. Even as culture is bounded, it does not mean that there are no variations in how
people act and relate with each other within a given system of their respective societies. On the contrary, the
same society can be broadly diverse wherein people, for example, profess connections to each other yet practice
different religion, values, or gender relations. Furthermore, societies do not always exist independently from each
other.
Around the world, people as members of their own societies establish connections with each other and form
relationship guided by their respective cultural practices and values. These complex relations underscore the all-
encompassing nature of culture as it covers every feature of humanity. Edward Tylor, one of the founders of
modern anthropology, characterize culture as a “complex whole which encompasses beliefs, practices, traits,
values, attitudes, laws, norms, artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and everything that a person learns and shares as a
member of society ” (Tylor 1871).
To further understand culture, it is important not to forget the biological dimensions of being human. The
capacity of a person to organize his or her own society and form cultural systems is made possible by the ability
of humans to imagine and execute what they can do. Through the power of their brains, humans possess a
considerable degree of awareness and knowledge of what they can achieve. At the same time, the natural world
casts limitation as well as opportunities for humans in terms of realizing how else they can organize their societies
and form their cultures. For instance, some societies harness resources on flatlands or high up in the mountains
while others organize their lives around the seas. These undertakings indicate that the specific environment in
which people live also shape human culture in the same way that culture shapes how people reshape nature.
SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF SOCIETY

is a basic image of society that guides

THREE THEORETICAL APPROACH
thinking and research

• the structural-functional approach

• the social-conflict approach
• the symbolic-interaction approach.

(Macionis 2012: 12)

 STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONAL APPROACH
Structural-functionalists view society as a “complex system whose parts work together to
promote solidarity and stability” (Macionis 2012:12). It involves an analysis of social
structure, “any relatively stable pattern of social behavior. Social structure gives our lives
shape —in families, the workplace, the classroom, the community. ” The approach seeks to
identify a structure’s social functions, or “the consequences of any social pattern for the
operation of society as a whole”(Ibid). It is an approach that is influenced by the ideas of
Auguste Comte (1798–1857) who coined the term sociology in 1838, and Emile
Durkheim (1858-1917). Robert K. Merton (1910–2003) also made significant
contributions by distinguishing between “manifest functions, the recognized and intended
consequences of any social pattern, and latent functions, the unrecognized and unintended
consequences of any social pattern. He also recognized social dysfunction, any social
pattern that may disrupt the operation of society ” (Macionis 2012:13).
 These 2twoAGENTS
give people
OF what they need to survive
SOCIETY

institution SOCIAL FACTS

-External factors or social forces that unconsciously
-created to meet the needs of affects people
the people -Individuals have no control or cannot change social
facts
 2 FUNCTIONS OF INSTITUTION
Manifest Latent

-Unintended result of
-Intended
manifest function
Manifest
-for students or people to learn
-become a productive member of the
society

Latent
-establishing relationship
-Conformity to peer’s norms
 BALANCE
-Society can’t have rapid change
-Change must be little by litte

Institution Social Facts Rapid change = Crumbled society

“People keep their part to maintain

balance”

SOCIETY
• IS A FRAMEWORK THAT VIEWS
SOCIETY AS A COMPLEX SYSTEM
WHOSE PARTS WORK TOGETHER
TO PROMOTE SOLIDARITY AND
STABILITY. IT ASSERTS THAT OUR
LIVES ARE GUIDED BY SOCIAL
STRUCTURES, WHICH ARE
RELATIVELY STABLE PATTERNS OF
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
SOCIAL-CONFLICT APPROACH
The social-conflict approach sees society as an “arena of inequality
that generates conflict and change” (Macionis 2012: 13). It
therefore highlights inequality and change. In contrast to the
structural-functionalist approach, it does not see the social
structure as promoting the smooth operation of society. Instead, it
focuses on how social patterns benefit the dominant groups in
society. Typically, “people on top try to protect their privileges while
the disadvantaged try to gain more for themselves”(Ibid).
The social conflict approach is a sociological perspective
that views society as an arena of inequality, power
struggles, and social change. It is based on the ideas of
Marx and other critical theorists who analyzed how
different social groups compete for scarce resources,
influence, and domination. The social conflict approach
explains various social problems, such as class, racial,
and gender inequality, as the result of the conflicts
between the interests of the dominant and oppressed
groups in society. The social conflict approach also
advocates for a radical transformation of society, and
challenges the existing norms, values, and institutions.
However, the social conflict approach is criticized for
being too negative, deterministic, simplistic, and
unrealistic.
•It views society as a competition for limited resources.
•It highlights inequalities in power, resources, and social status.
•It emphasizes dominance and subordination between groups.
•It assumes that societies have structural power divisions and resource
inequalities.
•It sees conflict as a driver of social change.
•It was influenced by Marxism, which views society as in conflict between
classes.
•It believes that social institutions reflect this competition and help maintain the
unequal social structure.
•Society as a competition: In the Philippines, thousands of people compete for a limited number of slots in top
universities through entrance exams. Those who have access to better education and review centers often have an
advantage.
•Inequalities in power, resources, and social status: The gap between the rich and the poor in the Philippines is
significant. Wealthy families often have more influence over political decisions, which can lead to policies that favor their
interests.
•Dominance and subordination: Ethnic minorities in the Philippines, such as the Lumad or the Aeta, often face
discrimination and marginalization, leading to a dominant group (majority ethnic group) having more power and
privileges.
•Structural power divisions: The political landscape in the Philippines is often dominated by political dynasties, where
power and resources are concentrated within a few families.
•Conflict as a driver of social change: The People Power Revolution in 1986, which led to the ousting of then-President
Ferdinand Marcos, was driven by conflict between the people and the authoritarian regime.
•Influence of Marxism: The ongoing conflict between the government and the New People’s Army, a communist rebel
group, can be seen as a manifestation of the conflict between the ruling class and the proletariat.
•Social institutions maintain unequal structure: Access to quality education in the Philippines is often determined by
one’s socioeconomic status. Children from wealthier families often have access to better educational resources and
opportunities compared to children from poorer families, perpetuating a cycle of inequality.
 SYMBOLIC-INTERACTION APPROACH

The symbolic-interaction approach

views sees society as the “product
of the everyday interactions of
individuals”(Macionis 2012:16).
Human beings live in a world of
symbols. In the process of social
interaction, they attach meaning to
everything.
1. Perception of Animals: The word "dog" might evoke a fuzzy, heart-warming emotion in
someone who has had mostly friendly experiences with dogs. But another person, who may have
been bitten or attacked by dogs, may feel fear and revulsion.
2. Cultural Differences: A mid-western American Christian might associate a cow with food. But a
devout Hindu villager in India may have feelings of devotion to the cow on account of the animal
being considered sacred in their religion.
3. Restaurant Experience: When we sit at a table at a restaurant, we expect that those who
approach us will be employees of the establishment, and because of this, they will be willing to
answer questions about the menu, take our order, and bring us food and drink.
4. Flags and Nationalism: Flags have for ages been symbolic of the collective values of a society.
They evoke intense feelings of patriotism, passion, and nationalistic fervor among the citizenry.
However, such passions remain limited to the people whom the flag represents, and often, end
abruptly at national borders.

These examples illustrate how the meaning we ascribe to objects, processes, ideas, concepts,
and systems are subjective. They are constructed through language, words, and communication,
and differ from context to context and culture to culture.
-Subjective Meanings - Symbolic interactionism theory assumes that people respond
to elements of their environments according to the subjective meanings they attach to
those elements.
-Social Construction - Society is thought to be socially constructed through human
interpretation.
-Symbolic Communication - People in society understand their social worlds through
communication — the exchange of meaning through language and symbols.
-Individual Perspective - Instead of addressing how institutions objectively define and
affect individuals, symbolic interactionism pays attention to these individuals’
subjective viewpoints and how they make sense of the world from their own
perspective.
-Interaction Creates Society - The objective structure of a society is less important in
the symbolic interactionist view than how subjective, repeated, and meaningful
interactions between individuals create society.
-Interpretation Process - The meanings that an individual has are created and
recreated through a process of interpretation that happens whenever that individual
interacts with others.
 MACRO AND MICRO LEVEL OF ANALYSIS
Structural-Functional
Approach MACRO micro

Symbolic-Interaction
Approach
 MACRO AND MICRO LEVEL OF ANALYSIS
It should be noted that the
Structural-Functional and Social-
Conflict Approaches have a
MACRO micro

macro-level orientation, or a
broad focus on social structures
Structural-Functional
that shape society as a whole. In Symbolic-Interaction
Approach
contrast, the Symbolic-Interaction Approach
Approach uses a micro-level
orientation, a close-up focus on
social interaction in specific
situations
(Macionis 2012: 16).
 Andrew Heywood (2007). Politics.

DISCERNING POLITICS 3rd edition. NY: Palgrave Macmillan

FOUR VARYING VIEWS OF POLITICS

(1) the art of government or what concerns the affairs of the state;
(2) the conduct and management of public affairs;
(3) managing conflict through compromise and consensus; and
(4) power as basis for understanding how resources are produced,
distributed and used.
According to Heywood, there are four main approaches to the study of politics:

•Normative approach: This approach is based on the idea that politics should be guided by
values and standards of conduct. It tries to answer questions such as “What is the best form of
government?” or “What are the rights and duties of citizens?”.
•Empirical approach: This approach is based on the idea that politics can be observed and
measured using factual evidence. It tries to answer questions such as “How do political
institutions work?” or “What are the causes and effects of political behavior?”.
•Scientific approach: This approach is based on the idea that politics can be explained using
general laws and theories that are derived from rigorous testing and analysis. It tries to answer
questions such as “What are the patterns and regularities of political phenomena?” or “How
can we predict and control political outcomes?”.
•Interpretive approach: This approach is based on the idea that politics is shaped by the
meanings and interpretations that people attach to their actions and situations. It tries to
answer questions such as “How do people understand and construct their political identities?”
or “How do political symbols and discourses influence political action?”.

These approaches are not mutually exclusive, and they can be combined or contrasted to gain
a deeper and broader understanding of politics.
DEEPEN YOUR UNDERSTANDING ON CULTURE,
SOCIETY AND POLITICS

ETHNOCENTRISM CULTURAL RELATIVISM

ETHNOCENTRISM
-is the process of judging another
culture exclusively from the
perspective of one's
own. Ethnocentric people compare
their culture to others on such
elements as religion, behavior,
language, customs, and norms. The
term is frequently heard in situations
where inter-ethnic relations and ethnic
issues are of concern. Ethnocentrism
is different from xenocentrism, which
means a preference for the products,
styles, or ideas of a different culture.
A literal meaning of ethnocentrism is the regard that one ’s own culture and
society is the center of everything and therefore far more superior than others
(Kottak 2012: 39; Eriksen 2001:7). It is understandable that people laud and
hold importance to the cultural values that were taught them by their parents,
elders, and other institutions of their society. The problem is when a person or
groups of people regard their own society’s set of cultural values as the only
agreeable, acceptable, and highly respectable set of convictions. Such a
perspective can harden into chauvinism, a position that everything about the
other culture is wrong, unreasonable, detestable, and even wicked. From this
perspective, the practices and institutions of people from other societies are
regarded as inferior, less intelligent, and even vicious. An ethnocentric attitude
can be an obstacle to understanding each other culture and foster tensions
within or between societies
The concept of cultural relativism underscores the idea that the
culture in every society should be understood and regarded
on its own terms. Societies are qualitatively different from one
another, such that each one has its own “unique inner logic ”
(Eriksen 2001: 14). Cultural traits can only be known and valued in
the context of the society by which they emerge and are practiced.
Cultural relativism promotes the idea that a society has to be
viewed from the inside so that inner logic can be better explained.
A society ’s idea of a good life will not likely be shared by another
society that interprets the notion of “good ” from a sharply
different social perspective. In other words, each society has a
different yardstick in appreciating the value of its own cultural
trait. Cultural relativism, however, cannot be regarded as the flip
side of ethnocentrism. The concept of cultural relativism is more
analytical and methodological rather than being a moral principle.
Anthropologists apply the concept of cultural relativity in
investigating and comparing societies without declaring one being
better or more preferable to the other.
1. Doing Business with Dictatorships: Western democracies have embraced cultural relativism when it
comes to doing business with dictatorships. While the suppression of democratic values offends them,
they still want to do business, so cultural relativism becomes convenient to endorse.
2. Genital Mutilation: This practice occurs worldwide. Some cultures find it offensive while others
embrace it. Cultural relativists would take a backseat and choose not to judge.
3. Gender Discriminating Cultural Conventions: Some societies enforce gender roles more than
others. It is hard for liberal nations to accept the treatment of women in some more traditionalist cultures
because gender equality is a core value of liberalism.
4. Women’s Dress Codes: Enforced coverings for women has long been a touchpoint for cultural
relativist debates. On the one hand, western liberals might see the practice as patriarchal, but they still
respect a woman’s right to participate in their own culture’s modes of dress.
5. Hand Holding: Same-sex friends holding hands and walking in public, though they are not in a
romantic relationship, may be frowned upon in one culture but okay in the next.
6. Eating Habits: The eating of animals like horse and dog are frowned upon in some cultures but
accepted in others. A cultural relativist would defend each culture’s right to set their own moral rules here.
7. Public Breastfeeding: Suspending judgment of another culture’s approach to public breastfeeding is
an example of cultural relativism.
8. Child Labor: Whereas developed nations tend to see child labor as inappropriate, people in developing
countries often see it as a necessity for family survival.
9. Breakfast Variations: What constitutes breakfast varies widely from place to place. What is considered
a typical breakfast in Turkey is quite different from what is considered a typical breakfast in the U.S. or
Japan.
Ethnocentrism and cultural relativism are two ways of
looking at different cultures. Ethnocentrism is the
tendency to judge other cultures based on the
standards and values of one’s own culture, while
cultural relativism is the principle of understanding
and respecting other cultures by their own standards
and values.