CHAP TER 2:

Looking back at Human

Biocultural and Social Evolution
Objectives:

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

• trace the biological and cultural evolution of early to modern humans;
• explore the significance of human material remains and arti-factual
evidence in interpreting cultural and social, including political and
economic processes; and
• make an illustrated timeline that shows the developments of human
society.
HUMAN BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL
EVOLUTION
Biological and cultural evolution: from Homo habilis (or
earlier) to Homo sapiens sapiens in the fossil record
 BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
-refers to the changes, modifications, and variations in the genetics and inherited
traits of
biological populations from one generation to another.
-scientists study the changes in the physical body of humans, the changes in the
shape and size of their bodies.
 CULTURAL EVOLUTION

-refers to the changes or development in cultures from a

simple form to a more complex form of human culture
-scientists study the cultural evolution of humans by
analyzing the changes in the latter’s way of life.
Human evolution- is the revolutionary
process leading to the appearance of modern-
day humans.

•HOMO- is used to determine the species of

human beings.

•HOMINIDS- is the direct ancestors of homo

species.
-general term used to categorize the
group of early humans and other human-like
creatures that can walk erect during the
pre-historic period.
Biological Evolution was
based on the theory of
evolution that was
introduced by the famous
English naturalist and
geologist
Charles Darwin (1809-
1882). Because of the
result of his studies, he
introduced the concept of
evolution to explain the
origins of modern humans.
NATURAL SELECTION “survival of the fittest”

•-the reason for the

occurrence of evolution.
•-the outcome processes that
affect the frequencies of traits
in a particular environment.
Traits that enhance survival
and reproductive success
increase in frequency over
time.
 Three Principles of Natural Selection

DIFFERENTIAL
VARIATION HERITABILITY REPRODUCTIVE
SUCCESS

Organisms that have

Every species is made traits most suitable to
up of a variety of Organisms produce their environment will
individuals wherein progeny with different survive and transfer
some are adopted to sets of traits that can these variations to
their environments be inherited. their offspring in
compared to others. subsequent
generations.
 FOUR CATEGORIES OF HOMINIDS

1. Sahelanthropus 2. Ardipithecus 3. Australopithecus 4. Homo

Australopithecus
-the first definite hominids, lived
4.4 million to 1.4 million years ago.
- they were fully bipedal which
means that they could walk using
their two legs.

Divided into 2 Groups

1. Gracile Australopithecines
2. Robust Australopithecines
 Gracile
Australopithecine
-have smaller dentition and facial muscle.
- they lacked bony crests for the attachment
of heavy chewing muscles, that’s why they are
frugivores (feeds on fruit).
- shared several traits with modern apes and
humans and were widespread throughout
Eastern and
Southern Africa as early as 4 to as late as 1.2
million years ago.
- the earliest evidence of fundamentally
bipedal hominids can be observed at the site
of Laetoli in Tanzania.
 Robust
Australopithecines
-or Paranthropus, are characterized by
several features of the skull that give them
a "robust" appearance when compared to
gracile hominids.
- they existed in East and Southern Africa
between approximately 2.5 and 1.4 million
years ago.
- the most notable of these features are
large, thickly enameled, post canine teeth
that were supported by deep and broad
mandibular corpora with tall and broad
rami.
- robust forms adapted to consume heavy
and gritty vegetation as they are herbivores
 Homo Species
-have a brain larger compared to the
Australopithecus species which appeared
about 2.3million years ago.

4 Species

Homo habilis Homo rodulfensis

Homo erectus Homo sapiens sapiens

 Homo habilis

-has a larger brain and

reduced the size of molars and
premolars compared to the A
Australopithecus.
- a.k.a Handy man because this
species was thought to
represent the first maker
stone tools
 Homo rodulfensis
-somehow the same as the
features of H. habilis.
- many paleoanthropologists
make no distinctions between
the two species. Some
say that the difference lies on
their cheek teeth and face.
- it has a broader face, larger
braincase, and larger molar
and premolar teeth
compared to the H. habilis.
-the first hominid species that was
distributed in the “Old world”.
- it was seen in parts of Africa and Asia,
Homo erectus
and was discovered by Eugene Dubois
which
he called Pithecanthropus erectus at first
which means erect ape man.
- had smaller teeth than other Homos
genus.
- it is known that they have the capacity
to control fire, because of this, they
survived
the cold weather.
- lower paleolithic tools and other
artifacts were probably produced by
them.
 Homo sapiens sapiens
-appeared 50,000 years ago
and was characterized as
the modern human beings.
- have a domed skull, chin,
small eyebrows, and a
rather puny skeleton.
- is thought to have evolved
sometime between 160,000
and 90,000 years ago in
Africa before migrating first
to the Middle East and
Europe and later to Asia,
Australia, and the Americas
 Activity 4
Compare and Contrast Diagram

Compare and contrast the physical traits of

australopithecines and the archaic Homo.
How was the Homo habilis different from the
australopithecine? Explain the comparison
using the diagram below:
 CULTURAL AND
SOCIOPOLITICAL
EVOLUTION

Cultural and sociopolitical evolution: from hunting and gathering to

the agricultural, industrial, and post-industrial revolutions
 SOCIOPOLITICAL
CULTURAL EVOLUTION
EVOLUTION
-theory of social change.
Information capable of -the process by which
affecting individual’s structural organization is
behavior that they acquire affected through time,
from other members of eventually producing a
the society through form or structure which
teaching, imitation, and is qualitatively different
other forms of social from the ancestral form.
transmission.
Paleolithic Revolution
During the Paleolithic period, the cultural evolution of humans was profoundly influenced by
environmental factors that characterized the successive stages of the Pleistocene Epoch. The most
significant evolution during this period was the discovery of fire. This period was marked by the
development of culture through an interaction between physical traits and cultural development.
The Middle and Upper Paleolithic periods saw further
In the Lower Paleolithic period , the representative cultural dimensions with explanatory notes on its
Homo erectus exhibited certain physical, social, and technological evolution, evolutionary changes in
cultural activities along with technological evolution. settlements pattern, religion, economic evolution, and
abstract thought.

The cultural evolution during the Paleolithic times seems to have been influenced by the
environmental factors. Human evolution advanced through an interaction between physical traits
and cultural development. This interaction led to the development of distinctively human traits and
initiated the physical cultural feedback that has characterized hominid evolution.

Overall, the Paleolithic period was a time of significant cultural evolution, with advancements in
technology, settlement patterns, religion, economy, and abstract thought.
Culture and Technology
1. Tool Making : The earliest evidence of tool manufacture and use dates back to about 2.5 million years
ago. These tools were primarily made of stone and were used for various tasks such as hunting, cutting,
and scraping.
2. Fire : The discovery and control of fire was a major technological advancement during the Paleolithic
period. Fire provided warmth, protection from predators, and a way to cook food, which made it easier to
digest and unlocked more nutrients.
3. Art and Symbolism : The Upper Paleolithic period saw the emergence of distinctive regional artistic
traditions involving paintings, sculptures, and musical instruments. Cave paintings and carvings are
some of the earliest known forms of human expression.
4. Social Structure and Communication : The development of complex social structures and
communication methods was a significant aspect of cultural evolution. This included the development of
language, rituals, and other social practices.
5. Hunting and Gathering : Early humans were primarily hunter-gatherers. They developed strategies
and tools for hunting game and gathering plant foods. This lifestyle required a deep understanding of the
environment and seasonality.
6. Settlement Patterns : There were evolutionary changes in settlement patterns. Early humans were
nomadic, moving around to follow their food sources. However, towards the end of the Paleolithic period,
there's evidence of more permanent settlements, indicating a shift towards sedentism.
 Diet and Lifestyle
Diet
The diet during the Paleolithic period, often
referred to as the Paleo or caveman diet, was
based on foods humans presumably would have
consumed during that time. This included meat
and fish, fruits and vegetables, eggs, and nuts.
They hunted animals like bison, mammoths,
bears, and deer. Meat was a significant source of
food, and animal hide was used to make clothes.
The diet excluded legumes, grains, most starches,
refined sugars, and dairy products, which became
part of the human diet only after the emergence
of farming.
Lifestyle
Paleolithic people were nomads who lived in tribes and
relied on hunting, fishing, and gathering wild fruits. They
used rudimentary chipped stone tools for various tasks
such as hunting, cutting, and scraping. Towards the end
of the era, they also domesticated animals, such as cattle
and goats, which they relied on as a steady source of
meat, milk, cheese, and wool to clothe their bodies. They
also used fire to cook their food and keep it fresh.

This lifestyle required a deep understanding of the environment and seasonality. The development of
complex social structures and communication methods was a significant aspect of cultural evolution.
This included the development of language, rituals, and other social practices.
The Paleolithic period, also known as the Stone Age, was a significant phase in human history marked
by the use of rudimentary chipped stone tools.

1. Start of the Paleolithic Period : Traditionally, the Paleolithic period is considered to have begun with
the Pleistocene Epoch 2.58 million years ago with the first evidence of tool construction and use by
Homo. However, discoveries made in 2015 suggest that it may have begun 3.3 million years ago.

2. Development of Culture and Technology : There was a complex interaction involving culture, increase
in brain size through natural selection for cultural ability, and the mobile social groups in which these
early hunters lived. The development of culture and technology during this period is a subject of ongoing
research.

3. Division of the Paleolithic Period : The Paleolithic Period is often divided into three parts: Lower,
Middle, and Upper. However, anthropologists resist placing hard time boundaries on each subdivision
and the stages within them, because technologies characteristic of different industries emerged at
different times in different regions.

4. Diet and Lifestyle : The popular Paleo diet, or Stone Age diet, is based on foods humans presumably
would have consumed during the Paleolithic Period.
 ➢ also called the Agricultural
Revolution, marked the transition in
human history from small nomadic
bands of hunter-gatherers to larger,
agricultural settlements and early
civilization.
➢ it started around 10,000 B.C. in the
Fertile Crescent, a boomerang-
shaped region of the Middle East
where humans first took up farming.
Shortly after, Stone Age humans in
other parts of the world also began to
practice agriculture.
The Neolithic ➢ Neolithic Age is sometimes called

Revolution the New Stone Age.

➢ Neolithic humans used stone tools
like their earlier Stone Age
ancestors, who eked out a marginal
existence in small bands of hunter-
gatherers during the last Ice Age.
 Early Civilizations and the Rise
of the State Characteristics: large population centers; monumental
architecture and unique art styles;
shared communication strategies; systems for administering
Civilization territories; a complex division of
labor; and the division of people into social and economic classes.

-is a complex society that creates agricultural surpluses, allowing for specialized labor,
social hierarchy, and the establishment of cities.
- Developments such as writing, complex religious systems, monumental architecture,
and centralized political power have been suggested as identifying markers of
civilization, as well.
- Governments and states emerged as rulers gained control over larger areas and
more resources, often using writing and religion to maintain social hierarchies and
consolidate power over larger areas and populations.
 First Civilizations
The first civilizations appeared in major river valleys, where floodplains contained rich soil and
the rivers provided irrigation for crops and a means of transportation. Foundational civilizations
developed urbanization and complexity without outside influence and without building on a pre-
existing civilization, though they did not all develop simultaneously.

Mesopotamia (8000-2000 B.C.)- Cradle of civilization; Fertile Crescent

Ancient Egypt (3100-332 B.C.)- The Black Land

Indus Valley (3300 B.C.E.- 1300 B.C.E.)- a.k.a Harappan Civilization; Largest civilization of the
Ancient world

Huang He (2100-1600 B.C.E.)- China’s Sorrow

 -Region of southwest Asia between
Mesopotamia (8000-2000 B.C.)- Tigris and Euphrates river.
Cradle of civilization; Fertile Crescent -Its name derived from ancient Greek
“between two rivers”

Social Class/ city State

3 Classes
Had three main classes;
government officials, nobles and priests were at
the top; second was a class comprised of Government
merchants, artisans, craftsmen and farmers; on the Officials, Nobles,
and Priest
bottom were the prisoners of war and slaves.
Commoners were considered free citizens and
were protected by the law. Merchants, Artisans,
Craftsmen and Farmers

Prisoners of war and Slaves

Architectures
• Palaces were highly decorated and
contained solid ivory furniture.
Houses were built from mud
bricks, plaster and wood.
• Houses had long-roofed central
hallways, courtyards, and storeys.
• Ziggurats were huge pyramidal
temple towers which were first
built in Sumerian City-States and
then developed in Babylonia and
Assyrian cities as well.
Religion
They were polytheistic
(worshipping many gods and
goddesses) as well as
henotheistic (believed that
certain gods are viewed
superior to others). Every
god has a priest, temple and
a traditional ritual and there
were hundreds of temples
scattered throughout each
city.
Other characteristics/ contributions

-It built an extensive man-made irrigation system that

enabled it to grow a surplus of food. They relied on the
annual flooding of the two rivers for fertility but the silt
became an obstacle to its irrigation systems, which
consisted of hundreds of channels that watered the
crops

Cuneiform- One of the earliest known forms of written

expression that began as a system of pictographs
 Ancient Egypt (3100-332 B.C.)- The Black Land
a civilization of ancient Africa, concentrated along the lower
reaches of the Nile River, situated in the place that is now the Upper
country Egypt.

Social Class/ city State

EGYPT
-Egyptian society was structured like a Ra, Osiris,
pyramid. At the top were the gods (such as and Isis
Ra, Osiris, and Isis). Their rulers called Lower
1
“Pharaoh” (from the Egyptian term “per-aa”
Pharaoh
means “the Great House”), next the soldiers,
scribes, merchants, artisans, farmers, and 2 soldiers, scribes,
at the bottom are the slaves and servants. merchants, artisans,
-Divided into 2 cities: Lower Egypt in the 3 farmers
north and Upper Egypt in the southern
portion of the country. 4 Slaves and
Servants
 Architectures
-Built the first pyramids, which were
both tombs and monuments for the
kings, Sphinx in Giza, and temples for
different gods
-Egyptians also began to build ships,
constructed of wooden planks tied
together with rope and stuffed with
reeds, to trade goods such as ebony,
incense, gold, copper, and Lebanese
cedar
Religion
-Its people followed a
polytheistic religion in which a
vast number of gods and
goddesses were venerated.
-Osiris, god of the underworld.
Amun-Ra, a god associated
with the sun’
-Egyptian dead were
sometimes mummified,
preserving the body, and were
sometimes buried with spells
to aid them in navigating the
underworld.
Other characteristics/ contributions

- Hieroglyphics—a form of writing that used images to

express sounds and meanings
- Irrigation practices consisted of building mud levees—
which were walls of compacted dirt that directed the
annual flooding onto farmland and kept it away from
living areas—and of digging canals to direct water to
fields as crops were growing
 Indus Valley (3300 B.C.E.- 1300 B.C.E.)- a.k.a Harappan Civilization;
Largest civilization of the Ancient world
- An ancient India civilization that flourished more than 4000 years ago in
the north-western parts of Indo-Pakistan sub-continent.
- It derived its name from river Indus, which is the main river of the region.

Social Class/ city State

Consisted mainly just the king

being the supreme ruler, and Social Class
the social class of people of People
under him.
 Architectures
Noted for their urban planning,
baked brick houses, elaborate
drainage systems, water
supply systems, clusters of
large non-residential buildings
Religion
They believed in many gods like
Prithivi mata (the earth
mother), Surya (the sun god),
Indra (the war god) and Yama
(the death God).
Other characteristics/ contributions

- Mohenjo-Daro people had finest bath facilities,

drainage system, and knowledge of personal hygiene.
- New techniques in handicraft (carnelian products,
seal carving) and metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead,
and tin).
 Huang He (2100-1600 B.C.E.)- China’s Sorrow
The Huang He (Yellow River) Valley is the birthplace of
Chinese Civilization and is often called “Mother River”.

Social Class/ city State

It was an aristocracy run by kings and upper

class citizens. This civilization had a
patriarchal society that stressed respect for
parents and elders.
 Architectures
-They lived in houses below the
ground to save fertile land for the
upper class.
- Brick and stone are used for
defensive walls, the arch for gates
and bridges, and the vault for tombs.
- Wooden architecture was the
mainstay of traditional Chinese
buildings. China’s ancient wooden
structures were quite intricately
formed, sometimes without any
nails.
Religion
-Have a common belief in the
power of heaven and the
ancestral spirits to influence
the living, and a common
emphasis on the importance of
ceremony and sacrifice to
achieve harmony among
heaven, nature, and humankind.
-People practiced polytheism.
They believed that their main
god, Shang Di, and a mother
goddess brought plants and
animals to earth
Other characteristics/ contributions

- The peasants provided the majority of the labor using

bone and stone tools.
- Contributions: porcelain, fireworks, gunpowder, civil
service, paper, and silk
- Oracle bone scripts were their ancient writing system. The
ancient people of the Yellow River valley predicted good
and bad luck by divination. Oracle bones were their
tools/records of divination.
 DEMOCRATIZATION OF EARLY CIVILIZATION

• The word “democracy” has a Greek origin.

• DEMOS –people , KRATOS – power or rule
• Its is the best form of government in which the
leaders are elected by the people and are
accountable to them.
• H. L. Mencken once said: Democracy is the theory
that the common people know what they want.
 Democratization
is the building of political institutions, common interests, and new forms of
legitimization. Consolidating a democracy requires building political parties and
alliances capable of establishing credible national agenda and control of the
military, making the security forces accountable to electoral representatives, and
crafting a constitutional arrangement (voting rules, distribution of powers, checks
on arbitrary action) that will seem fair, open, and in the interests of all major
social sectors, including old and new elites. Thus, democratization emerges from
the political process of clash and compromise and consensus building. It is said
that democracy is the highest human achievement in political development
because it gives the people a collective voice in the art of governance. The idea of
democracy originated in ancient Greece.
Democracy
is a form of government in which the people have the authority to choose
their governing legislators. The decisions on who is considered part of the people
and how authority is shared among or delegated by the people have changed over
time and at different speeds in different countries, but they have included more and
more of the inhabitants of all countries. Cornerstones include freedom of assembly
and speech, inclusiveness and equality, membership, consent, voting, right to life
and minority rights.

2 Types of Democracy

Direct Representative
 • also known as pure democracy, is a form of democracy in which the
Direct Democracy electorate decides on policy initiatives without elected representatives as
proxies. This differs from the majority of currently established
democracies, which are representative democracies.
• In direct democracy, the people decide on policies without any intermediary
or representative, whereas in a representative democracy people vote for
representatives who then enact policy initiatives. Depending on the
particular system in use, direct democracy might entail passing executive
decisions, the use of sortition, making laws, directly electing or dismissing
officials, and conducting trials.
• Two leading forms of direct democracy are participatory democracy and
deliberative democracy. Semi-direct democracies, in which
representatives administer day-to-day governance, but the citizens remain
the sovereign, allow for three forms of popular action: referendum
(plebiscite), initiative, and recall.
• The most important historical reference of direct democracy is to assembly
democracy in ancient Greek city-states, particularly Athens, where
decisions were taken by an Assembly (Ecclesia) of some 1,000 male
citizens. In modern times, direct democracy most often consists of specific
decision-making institutions within a broader system of representative
democracy.
 • also known as indirect democracy, is a form of government in
which the people elect officials to create laws and policy on
Representative their behalf. This is in contrast to direct democracy, where the

Democracy •
people themselves vote on every law or policy.
In a representative democracy, the powers of the elected
representatives are often defined by a constitution that
establishes the basic laws, principles, and framework of the
government. The constitution may also provide for some forms
of limited direct democracy, such as recall elections and ballot
initiative elections.
• Elected representatives may also have the power to select
other government leaders, such as a prime minister or
president. An independent judiciary body, such as the U.S.
Supreme Court, may have the power to declare laws enacted by
the representatives to be unconstitutional.
• The ancient Roman Republic was the first state in the western
world known to have a representative form of government.
Today’s representative democracies more closely resemble the
Roman than the Greek models of democracy, because it vested
supreme power in the people and their elected representatives.
 EXAMPLE SITUATIONS
1. In the Philippines, citizens elect their Barangay Captains and Councilors to represent them at the
local level. When a proposal to build a new park is raised, the elected officials discuss, debate, and vote
on the proposal on behalf of their constituents.
2. In a city in the United States, residents elect a Mayor and City Council members. When a plan to
increase city taxes comes up, these elected officials review the plan, consider the views of their
constituents, and then vote on the plan in a City Council meeting.
3. In Barangay Makati, a proposal to renovate the local market is put forward. Instead of the Barangay
Council deciding, they hold a Barangay Assembly. All registered voters are invited to vote on the
proposal. The outcome is decided by majority vote.
4. A proposal has been made in Barangay Quezon City to impose more stringent waste management
regulations. The Barangay Council calls for a Barangay Assembly to vote on the proposal. Every
resident votes and the choice that receives the most votes is carried out.
5. A new community center in Barangay Sampaloc, Manila, is proposed to be funded by an increase in
taxes. As an illustration of direct democracy, the decision was made by the Barangay Assembly rather
than the Barangay Council. The result is determined by the majority vote.