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A - J. WYA T T, 1897 An Elementary Old English Grammar Early West Saxon
A - J. WYA T T, 1897 An Elementary Old English Grammar Early West Saxon
C LA Y A N D S ON S
. J .
,
A VE MA RIA L A NE .
ii mig : B ROCKH A US
F A
. . .
fish) 35 0t h T HE MA CM ILLAN CO
: .
{Bomb ag z G EO R GE B ELL A N D S ON S .
AN EL E M E N T A RY
( EA RLY WT BT S A XON )
A . J . WY A T T ,
IL A .
( C A N TA B . ET
R
EXT E N AL EXA MI NE R IN EN G L I S H TO V I C T OR I A UN IV ER S I T Y .
C A M B RI D G E
A T T HE U N IV ER S ITY P R ES S .
1 89 7
[A l l R ig hts r
rese v ed ]
PE
l3 5
W 83
‘
QEambriDg z
P R I N T ED BY J . A ND C . F. CLA Y ,
AT T HE UN V EI R SITY PR ESS .
P REF A CE .
t c nd
G o hi ,
a t he in de pe n de n t m e hodst . S ie v e r s a s s um e s th ta
t he t ude n t s
pos s e s s es a c e rt a in k n owle dg e of G e m anir c ,
an d
t he r e dy w y t o t he O ld En gli h t on g ue is t o le r n G othic
a a s a
fi s t—
r theory n ot diffic ult to re duc e a d bsu du m S we et
a a r .
p r e f e r t o g i e t he le r n e r
s v thous n d n d on e i ol t ed fa ct s
a a a a s a ,
g r oupe d c l s ifi d ,
n d r e m e m b e r ed
as e Tha e m e t hod followe d in .
S ie e rv n d S w ee t
s a n tt m pt t o hit t he happy m e n ; fo
,
a a e a r,
v e ni e n e of t he le r n e r in s t udyin g t he
c a ct u lly e xis tin g a a
phe n om en a of t he l n g u g e n o p in s h e b ee n s p r e d in a a ,
a av a
g i e n b ut a s a v ,
e t hr ou ghou t t
a s a g u id l houg h it is n ot n ee dle s s l
, y ob tr ude d
a .
s
yn a t x; b ut I trong ly of opinion th t for the pr es e nt s uc h
am s a
a id is b e s t gi e n in n ot es on s e le ct e d t e xt
v F or t he r es t it s .
,
i s un n e c e s s a r t o enl r e n t h m t h d f x it ion he re
y g o e e a o o e p os s
de i e d o a do t e d t he r e ie we r t as k e s y b y
’
v s
pr or t o m k e ,
a v s a
a
ppe l a s t o t he a rr n ge m e n t t he m e t hods t he n e c es ity
a a ,
nd ,
s ,
a
t he ut ility of t he w or k w ill b e t o t he e x p e r ie n c e o f r e de r s a
a n d s t ude n t s ; n d t he ir c oun el
a n d c o o e r t ion e c or di ll y
s a a
p a ar
-
a s k e d fo ,
it s c orr e ct ion n d im p r o e m en t
r a v .
M y ob lig t ion t o S w ee t a s e
p rt of ou n tion l de b t ar a a r a a
t o S ie e rs is ob iou a n d w e ll n igh in e s t im b le
v v s I h e m a de -
a . av
b un d n t us e of C os ij n s A ltw t d hs i he G m m tik
’
n in
’
a a es s c sc ra a ,
a
a s si t n c e h
s a e oft e n
av e n c ou r
ge d m e in t he s t udie s of w hic h
a
a c um e n n d c re ; t o M r B J H ye MA of S t John s
’
a a . . a s, . .
,
ll th t is m e n t b y s ee in g t hr ough t he p r es s
“ n d to t he a
a a a
a b le fr om an d h
03 , in g t he e leg n t c ha r a ct e r
av s e c iall y c
p t a as as
A . J . W .
C M B R ID
A GE ,
M r a c h, 1 8 97 .
C O N T EN T S .
P A RA D I G M S
PA R T I . I NFL EC TI ON .
I NT R OD UC TOR Y
A LP HA B ET A ND P R ONUN C I A T I ON
Nouns
I . r
St on g Noun s
A . r
O din a y r D cl n e e s ion
1 . M cul in
as es
2 . N ut r
e e s
3 . F m in in
e es
( i) W S tem s ( a ll g enders )
-
( ii) J S tem s
-
( iii) I S tem s
-
4 . U S tem s
-
5 . R S te m s
-
6 . N D S tem s
-
7 . Ot hr e S tem s
II W . ea k Nouns
A D JEC T IV ES
St r ongD cl n i n e e s o
Weak D cl n i n
e e s o
P articipl es
v iii C O NT ENTS .
C M
O PA R I S ON
I . c
A dj e tiv e s
II . A dv e rb s
NU M ER A LS
P RON OUN s
I . Per s onal
II . R efl ex iv e
III . P o ss e s s iv e ( A dj ec tiv es )
IV . D m tr ti
e on s a ve
V . R l ti
e a ve
VI . In t rr g t i
e o a ve
Ind fi it e n e
VER B S
St r on g an d We ak
St r on g V erb s
2n d an d 3 r d S in g u l r Pr
a e se n t
Gr d a ation
Cl as s es O f St r on g V rb e s
Weak P res en t s
C
r c t d V rb
on t a e e s
W k V rbea e s
Cl I( W W n
as s
“
ean - ee
II
III L k ) oo
”
IV Mix d V rb : e e s
P t Pr
as t V rb
-
es en e s
A n m l u V rb
o a o s e s
P A R T II . P H ON OL O GY .
S T RE S S E D D iph th ng )
VowEL s ( an d o s
A . D wn w rd H i t ry —OE P rim ry V
o a s o . . a l
owe s
T bl f C rr p n d n c
a e o o es o e es
B . Th Ol d En g li h S un d l w
e s o -
a s
Mutation
I . I Mutation
-
II . U Mutation
-
Br ki g ea n
Gl id D iph th ngi ti
e- o sa on
P l t l D iph th ng i ti
a a a o sa on
n ’9 N as a l
L os s of N as a l
r cti ( d A b rp ti
XII . C on t a on an so on )
XIII L f G nd H
. os s o a
XI V L g th n i g . en e n
XV S h rt n ing . o e
C U pw rd H i t ry — S l ct d Ex m pl
. a s o . e e e a es
C ON S O NA N T S
I . L os s
11 . A s s im i l a tion
III . Me ta th es is
IV G . em i nation
V . V erner s ’
L aw
A PP ENDI X —WORD F OR MA T I ON - .
1 70 . 1 . F rm
o at ion of A dv e rb s
1 74 . II . Pr fix
e es
1 75 . III . S uffi x es
AB BR EVI A T I ON S ,
ET C .
LWS . L a te We s t S ax on .
( is ) de iv ed r f rm
o , etc
a lt r
e n ating with .
P A RA D IG M S .
n l gy
o o ( 4 ) W rk c r fu lly thr ugh th wh l b k g in
. o a e m ll nd o e o e oo a a ,
s a a
l g prin t m king ll th cr r f r c
ar e ,
a a e os s e e en es .
S T RO N G N O UN S .
Ma s c . Neut .
S in g ul a r .
s ei
p, s hip r
w o d, wor d
s ci
p w or d
sc ipe s w o rde s
s c ipe wor de
g ie fa ,
-
e lar a, -
e
g ie fa lar a
D al . s t an um
g e fum
i lar u
1
S ee 9 .
P A R AD IG MS .
WEA K N O UN S .
Fem
Neut
c
.
Mas
.
N A cc um an
.
.
g
Gen .
gum en a
D at um um
.
g
A D JE C T IVES .
I
. S T R ON G F OR M .
Fem
Neut
.
M3 8 0
.
A cc .
t iln e g cdne
Gen .
tiles
t ilum
Ia s tr .
tile
t lu
i
O
1
g O
t il ra g dr a o
t ilum go
1 S ee § 9 .
PA R A DIG MS .
II
. \V EA K F OR M ( after dem on s tr a tiv es ) .
Mas c . Fe m .
P lu r al .
P R O N O UN S .
n
I
D ua l .
w it
unc
un c e r
un c
T h ou
S he
P A RA DIG MS .
P R O N O UN S ( c on tin u ed) .
T he ,
’
th at .
Neut .
Fem .
l ra l.
P lu r a l .
S ingu la r .
P A R A DIG MS .
VE R B S .
I . S T R ON G .
Pr es ent
In di c a tiv e.
S u bj u n c tiv e .
Imp er a tiv e .
he lp he lpaO p l .
Infin itiv e .
helpe n de e hole n
g p
P rin c ip al P art s of S t r on g
C la ss Infin . 3 r d S ing .
I . s c in a n , s it ine s c in O
II . c r eo
pa n , cre p
e c r ie
pii
IIIa he lpa n , he lp
. hilpiS
IIIb dr in c a n , dr in k
. drin c ifi
IV . b e ra n , bea r b irT
S
V . t r edan , tr ea d tritt
VI . f r
a an, f ar e feero
6 P A R A DIG MS .
,
II . W EA K .
(1) -
an V erb .
( )
2 -
ia n V e rb .
P R ES EN T In dica tiv e .
dem e, j u dg e
dem ( e ) s t
dem ( e ) 6
P lur . dem a O
P R ES EN T S u bj unc tiv e .
P A ST In dica tiv e .
P A ST S u bj u n c tiv e .
Imp er a tive .
Infin itiv e .
dem a n lec ia n
P a r ticip les .
ELEMENTA RY
OLD ENGLISH GRA MMA R .
P ART I . I N FLEC T I ON .
Int r o d u c t o r y .
Ind G rm nic
o- e a
G rm nic
— _ —
e a
r T 1
G th ic
o S c an din av ian Wes t G rm e an ic
i
l
Ic l dic
e an r
No wegian S wedis h D ai is h
L __— _ — — —
oze I T l l
E ng lis h W tS x
es a on Ken ti s h M rc i
e an No t r h um bri n a
D ia lec ts
M iddle
Eng lis h ( Ke ish) N or ern
D ia lec ts
L wl
o and
S c tch
o , e tc .
a n c e s tr
y of whic h t hr oug h We s t S a x on we the refore de fl e ct
from t he s traight lin e of des c en t But t his di d n tage is . sa va
N o thum b ri
r n d M e rc i w e r e p eopled p r in c ip lly b y A n gles
a a a a
N o thum b ian
r nd M e rc ian di le ct s whic h we re in m n y
r a a ,
a
r es pe ct s sim ila r .
p ri d in th 7 th n d 8th c n turi
e o , e t wh ich b l a g n rl y ll th gr t e es , o e on ea a e ea
m n um n t
o f Old En g l i h p try ; n d th W t S x n p ri d fr m th
e s o s oe a e es a o e o , o e
9th t th 1 l th c n tury th cl
o e ic l p ri d f Old En gli h pr
e But
, e as s a e o o s ose . ,
m u t b r m m b r d th t it h
s e e b n h n d d d wn t u in W t S x n
e e e a as ee a e o o s es a o
tr n cripti n
a s c nt ining h w r n t infr qu n t tr c f it rigin in th
o s, o a o ev e o e e a es o s o e
r t nti n f A n gli n f rm f w rd
e e o o a o s o o s.
S x on ;
a fte r a b out 95 0 A D it is c alled L te We s t S a x on
a . . a .
e s p e c i lly in t he
a s s im ila t ion Of in fl e ct ion s b e f or e t he N or m n
a ,
a
s t ud r e e xt n t a F r om n e le m e n t ry t e xt b ook s u c h a s t his
a a a
y
-
.
a im n d s c ope
a S tr ictly s pe k in g t hen Old En glis h i t he
. a , ,
s
h
t ese :
x r pr n t G rm n ic F ( W t G rm n ic a) b y B th th r
( 1 ) Wes t S a on e es e s e a e es e a S , e o e
di l c t b y 2 ; it cc ur t lydiscrim in t
a e s ( nd ; it l
a t th un d f
a e a es ea a eo os e so o 03
ea I e a es e -
,
-o
,
o e s e so s a es e a ve
by Th di ti g ui h i g m rk f E rl y W t S x n i th t th i m ut
-
e . e s n s n a o a es a o s a e -
a
ti n f o nd o i i n d th t
ca a f e d é i i p co in g in t L t W t
s e, a a o a an o s e, as s o a e es
S x n i a o y nd i ] r p c ti l y S m
or , p c i l f rm
a nd infl c ti n
or a , es e ve . o e s e a o s a e o s
p ul i r t L t W t S x n will b f und in th p r gr ph
ec a o a e es f th i gr m m r a o e o e a a a s o s a a .
fin l fr q u n tly t rm in t th 3 d p r n i g ul r n d th wh l f th
a 11 e e e a es e r e so s n a a e o e o e
p l ur l p r t in dic ti in in t d f 8 ; c n fu d ( h rt nd
”
a es en a ve s, s ea o o s es ea an co s o a
l ng ) ; h
o l iking f th un d ( h r t
as a d l n g) nd h orit in fl c ti n e ac s o s o an o a as s e o s
un ttl d serli r th n th th r di l c t
e ea e a e o e a e s .
( 3 ) K nti h pr f r i i t e ; c l i g in t i ( g d i f d y)
s e e s a, o o c a , eo vo a s es o e . . ee or a
an d ub titut s f y s es e or .
A lp h a b et and P r o nu n c ia t io n .
p 5,,
u p w ), x y , , , k is o cc a s i on a ll
y foun d for c. This al
pha
b e t is b o h de e iv e t f ct an d r e dund n t a .
( )
I It is r e dun dant in t he le tt e r x, whi h c t
s a n ds for cs
( )
ks
or hs .
( 2) It is d e fe c t iv e in ha v in g no s
p e ci
al s
y m b ol for : ( a ) t he
s oun d Of r e pr e s e n t
t he t
s e m i- v owe l
j ,
whic h is e d s om e im e s b
y ,i
m uc h oft en e r b y g ; ( b) t he s oun d of s hort op en e ( pr in t ed e in 1
y v, z ,
a nd
p l t l s oun ds a a a .
S ee 4 .
12 I N FL EC TI ON .
g 4
N B . I m ut at ion
- 1
an d B r e ak in g .
(l) p r
The odu c e d b y i m ut t
v owe ls
ion a e i
g ( ) 5 ie
-
a r ,
se , , ,
ie , y if of whic h t hos e p r in t ed b l ac k
, , e in e e ry in s t n c e in ar v a
( )
2 B r e kin g in c lude s t he c h n ge of a t o ea
a n d e t o eo b e fo re a a
o
s the a in a n s we r 2
,
on l
y shor ter .
o
s a f a t he r
g
p a m an
g
a a c re a
o ( c los e ) é F r épais . .
o
e ( ope n ) e m en
O ey they
-
H i pin
m a c hine
'
H i
O ( c lose) o Ger G ott .
O
e ( open ) O n ot
0 0 no e t
3
s u put
s u r ule
4
‘
u Ger hub s c h, F r
térieur . . ul
G r g iin F r oit ur e
l
< 11 e . r ,
. v .
e, , , , y
t he v alue s o f g, Q , i, i, m y b e s ub s tit ut ed for t he m for a t im e
a .
1 “
Mutation m utated are
”
an d
“
e ue n t y us ed in the fr q l f ll wing
o o
2 c
N ot of our se in the afl ec ted p onun iation of the finis hing r c ch l
s oo
rb
m istr ess and her t i e : A nn e S ir
’
-
.
5 P R ON U N CI A T I ON
°
4 . 13
c m od . k
g g in g et .
h tw l tt r ( d h) h b n id h d b th guttur l nd
.
T es e o e e s an , as as ee sa , a o a a a a
p l t l
a a a un d dg w l b th p ir nt nd t p But it i h rdly
so , an as a s o o a s a a a s o .
,
as s a
p ibl f
os s th b ginn r t d c id f
e h im lf wh ich und th y h d in
or e e e o e e or se so e a a
p r ticul r w r d it
a m b t t l at t th i t g t
o d pt lu f
,
s ee s es , a eas a s s a e, o a o on e v a e or
ea ch l tt r ( pr ctic wh ich m m in n t ch l n r d p rt fr m
e e a a e so e e e s o ars ev e e a o ,
ex c pt f ph n tic
e or o e
N B . . c
g :
gg gj ) : ex . leeya n , t o lay .
h , (1) t
in Eng li s h ha r d : e x s
ini ia l, is a me re as
p i r a te, as .
f
, s, rp h rd) whe n e e r pos ib le
5 a re
(l) v oi e es s c l ( rdsu ,
s ha ,
a v s ,
ie
. lw y whe n ini t i l lw ys whe n fi n l n d whe n m e di l in
. a a s a ,
a a a ,
a a
n nt fi d f ood ; h h r s iOO n s in c e ;
( ) iced
2
a
) e s : o s o se ;
x .
,
r ,
a
,
vo
w it hin .
th t r ul t fr m th
a estt m p t t xp und th i m tt r fully in wh t
s o p e a e o e o s a e a are ro
f
esse dly l m nt ry t x t b k Si
e e r c m t th c cl u i n th t Old
e a e - oo s . ev e s o es o e on s o a
Engli h g w m t fr q u n tly
s ic d p ir n t b ut hi pr f
as os m i e e a vo e s a ,
s oo s s ee h
c cl u i f i iti l g I ny c
on s ve th ic d p ir
or t g i
n un d n t
a . n a as e , e vo e s an s a so o
o n l y f r ig n t m d rn En gl i h b ut n difficul t f
o e o En gli h p p l t
o e s ,
o e or s eo e o
a cq uir T y ei u u ll y d n
. th t it i th
o sa un d ,
f g i
as G s s a o e, a s e so o n er .
sa g i t ign r t h t th g in
en , s g on th t g n d in N rt h G rm ny
o e a e sa en , o e s a e a o e a
g n r ll y i
e e a ic d t p , s a vo e s o .
14 I N FL EC TI ON .
l
En g is h MS S ff r d n j u tific ti n f
. a o o s a o or h t is us age . r
In p in tin g te ts it is x
u u l t f ll w th M S S
s a o o x ctly T hr
o e . e a . o ugh out h b
t is ook the s ig n 6 is a on e l
u d ; it c m in t u
se m uch
a rl i r th
e o se ea e an b, a n d i f un d l m
s o a os t e xcl u i lys ve
in th b t f th
e l d r MS S
es o e o e .
Ex c e p tion s .
(1) In de r iv a t iv e ve rb s , t he p in ipal r c s tre s s
f al s l a lm os t in a ri v a b ly on t he r oot ,
n ot on t he p r e fix : ex .
a risa n ,
to a ris e .
( )
2 In j cti es c om pounded with g e be a nd
n oun s an d a d e v
ex s g e . r , , ,
r e quit l a .
N OUN S .
6 . G e nde r .
—The
rn En glis h s ys t em of m ode gen de r is un
k n own t o Old En glish in whic h t he n m es of t hin gs ,
a a r e m as c ulin e ,
( )
1 By m ea n in g N a m e s culin e ; n am es of
. of m ale s ar e m as
fem les a a r e f e m inin e ; n a m e s
of you n g cr e t u r e s
( b e c a us e t he ir a
n -a , -a 6 , -els , en d,
By ter m in a tion
( 2) ( )
a N oun s e n din
g i .
-
-
er e, dom , h ad, s c ip e, s tafa s , n am e s of p e r son s in in g a n d ling ,
- - - - -
c
( ) N oun s en din g in -
er n , -
c
r i e, -
lac a n d c om poun ds
,
e n din g wit h
a n eu e t r wor d , a r e n eu e t r .
16 I N F L EC TI ON .
g 1 0
( )
3 E x ac t l y t h e s am e ru l e a p p lie s t o th e fem . si ng .
an d n e u t e r p l u r al o f a dj s : c p . . fe m . s in g . a n d n eu t .
pl tiln ,
.
, , .
( )
4 T he s am e rul e a p p lie s t o dis yll ab ic noun s an d
a dj s . : -
u is ge ne r all y r e t ain e d a ft e r a s h o rt s e c o n d ( or
ev e n th ir d) s yl l a b l e . Ex s . r i e, c r ealm , pl . r ic u ; heafod, he a d,
''
pl h eaf o du
.
( ) gr ene, g reen ,
fem . s in
g . a n d n eu t . l
p g ren u . eeOele,
n ob le , a elu .
10 . L os s of m iddl e v ow e l s .
— S om e disylla b ic n oun s a n d
ad e j ct i v es wit h a s ho rt c
ylla b le, s uc h as eOel, n a t iv e lan d,
s e on d s
a cc ording to t he followin g
Ru le Wh e n a t e rm in ation b e ginnin g wit h a. v ow el is
a dd e d to a di s yl l ab l e wh os e firs t s yll ab l e is l on g an d
,
s e c o n d s yll ab l e s h o rt t h e v ow e l o f th e s e c on d s yl l ab l e is
,
u s u all y d r op p e d . T hus
lgtel, litt le ,
lon g s hort , g en lytles , . n ot lyteles .
fon , hea v en ,
heo s ho rt s hort , g f
e n heo on es , . n ot heofn es .
h a rfees t, au tum n ,
long lon g, g e n . ha rfaz s tes , n ot heerfs tes .
N B . . It is ob v iou s th t a t he a b ov e r ule c a n no tl
pp y w
ah e n
ac c . m as c . s in
g Ob er ne, gen pl lytelr a
. . . .
Ex c ep t ions .
( ) M ic ol
a
'
pl gj ( e ) la ( s ee
. bl e ow ) .
1 1, 1 2 NO U NS . 17
p r e c edin g ow e l w a s g u tt ur lv e s ce fi eld ; be n b e c on ; a
]
: x . ee r, a ce ,
a
ator poi o
,
n Th e e w or d
s for t he m os t p rt c on for m t o t he
. s s a
t em pe l ,
temp le weap on hlfitor , p ur e
m a6um , t r ea s u re c ea s te r , c ity hun gor , hung er
b eac e n , bea c on c l fis t or , p r is on w un dor, m a r v el
fac ( e ) n , tr eagliep g fi n ge r finge ,
r e tc .
12 . V a ria t ion of m id dl e v ow e l s — T he 0 or u of t he
c
s e on d yllab le Of s a wor d t en d s to b e c om e e w hen e v e r a t hird
( fl e x ion a l s lla b le
) y c on t
i i g a g u ttu r a l v ow e l is a dded
a n n This .
la w is well illus tr t a ed b
y t he d c
fon
e le n s ion o f s u h a n oun a s heo c
S in g . N am heof O n . Gen heO
fO n es . D a t heofO n e
.
S im ila r ly we fin d s ta dol,
pilla r , ge n . s taOoles b ut pl s ta Oela s ,
; .
a nd t he ve rb to foun d . Cp a ls o t he pa s t s in g
. .
loc ode wi h t he pa s
'
t
t pl lac d n . e o .
Th xpl n ti n f th i ch ng i t b
e e a ugh t p r tl y in th
a o o s a e s o e so a e weakenin g
o f th tr e s n th c d yll bl p rtly in t d cy t l t r
es s o e s e on s a e, a a en en o a e n ate pa l at a l
n d g uttur l w l wh ich h b n c ll d c n d ry gr d ti ”
a a vo e s as ee a e se o a a a on .
1
a , o, n ar e g uttu rl a v owe s , all ot l hr e s ar e pa l a ta l .
18 I N FLECT I ON . 13
13 . n s o n ant s
L os s of c o .
( )
1 L os s qf m e di l h W he n a fi n l I b e c om e s m edi l in a . a t a
in fl e ction it is dr opped .
pe n e tr a t e,
*
feolha n .
fic at ion of a doub le fin
c on son n t is usu l in Old En glis h
al a a ,
w he he t r t he g e m in a t e w s or igin a l or a r os e fr om e r lie r c on
a a
Thus we hav e
we a1 ( 1 ) ,
w all w e al l e s we all as , etc .
ful (1 ) , cu
p full e s ful ( l )
oyu n
( ) r c
, e c ynn e s
a e yn u ( )
c
( ) in t he or din a ry fe m de c len s ion .
h e a1 ( l ) ha ll , b e all e h e all a, -e
b gn ( n ) , woun d b gnn e b gnn a ,
-e
an d s im il a r ly
hgu (n ) , hen s ib b
( ) ,
k ins hi
p
r ofit
n yt ( ) p
t ,
s
yn n
( ) , s in .
( )
d thin g is s ee n in dj s
The s am e a . in the im pe r tiv e
a
s in g of . e r b s (e g g e ier fr om g ec ier a n )
v . . c r ,
an d els ew he r e .
E c p tion
x e F in l g ( = gg) i n r im p lifi
. a c s ev e s ed s gc g , m an ; hrycg , b cka .
1 D ubl
o e c on s on ant < c on s on an t + j c an us ua lly b
kn own b y the p re
e
c eding m utate d v owe In Wes t G e ma nic , l .
'
n o un s r espe ct i ve ly
Ma s c .
N A ce
. .
Gen .
D at .
(2 ) The d at .
pl . of all n oun s an d a d s j . e n ds in - um ( oth er f rm
o s of
w i h ch are - na , on,
- -
an ) .
r an
ge d as follows for t he s a k e of s im pli c ity a n d c on v eni en c e
I . S tr on g N oun s
3 . F em in in es
M in or D e c len s ion s : 4 . U s t em s
-
.
5 . R -
t
s em s .
6 . [VD t-
s em s .
7 . O t he r s t e m s .
II . Wea k N oun s .
20 I N F LECT I ON . 16
D EC LENS I ONS .
I . S TRON G N OUN S .
S in g ula r .
P lur a l .
fi g s tan a s hierda s
l\
\
s tana hierda
\
s tanum hi e rdum
NOT ES .
(1 ) S tan is an o rigin l a o-s tem ( i a c orresp onds. . to the L atin
( 2) Loc ti With ut in fl c ti n
a v es , o e o , ar e s e en in
to-m o g en , to-mor r r
'
ow wt ham , at hom e
from hi agnum ham t fr m hi wn h m
to, s , o, o s o o e
Th 1
rr ng m t f d cl n i n h r d pt d i c m pr m i b tw n
e a a e en o e e s o s e e a o e s a o o se e ee
N A cc . . s ee s ws , s ze
Ge n . s ees , s ee, s ee we sa
e wa
D at . s ae, s wwe s ae u ( )m ,
s aewum
P lur a l .
N OT ES .
(1) In t he s am e wa y ar e de c lin e d
Plur al.
m agas , m aegas
m
m m acgu
m odel of t he s
yn c opa t ed de c len s ion , t he r ule for whic h 13 g iv en in
10
N A cc
. . bridla s
Gen . b ridla
D at . b ridlum
19 . S e c on d ar y P ar adigm . M ea r h hor s e ( s ee , 1 3)
20 . P rim a ry p ar adi gm s
N A cc
. . r
wo d
Gen . wor des
D at . wor de
fi t u . 4)
Gen . w orda hofa wi t a si af
D at . wordum hofum W1 tum s ifum
N OT ES .
( 1 ) In de c idin g whic h pa ra digm a n eut e r n oun
foll ows p r efixes
,
m u s t be ig n or ed t hus , behat, p r omise , is de c lin ed
lik e wor d .
( 2) Word an d hof are o rigin l a n eute r o-s tem s , wite an o rigin l j a o-s tem
( see an d s i e f an rigin l i
o a -s tem ( see T hr
e e is no difl erence
in in fl cti
e ; b ut the
on -e of the n om . s in g . is a rc
t a e of the o rigin l a s tem of
the l a s t two wo ds r .
wito wita , .
24 I N F LECT I ON . 23 —2 5
S ing u lar .
P lu r a l .
Lik e feor h ,
de clin e holh, hole , ge n . holes ; lik e feoh , de c lin e
p leoh, da n ge r . Cp .19 .
P lur a l .
lj l nu, liom u 1 3 2)
lim a , liom a
lim um , liom um
N OTES .
( )
1 In t he sam e way a re de clin e d n eu e st r t
wi h
i or 6 b e for e a s in le
g c ons onan t ,
su ch as
c lif c l f
,
e
g eb ed, p r ayer (p l .
g eb e du, ge b eodu )
s eip , s hip g es e t, s ea t
(1 ) H r b l ng dgg
e e e o c ttl ; l r h ll ; ig r ic t ry ;
or , day ; hrgSer ,
'
a e sa o , a s o , v o
o c s o a an g ec e a . s . s e , o , sz or . a s
l r ig
as s a o n d ig r ( th i w r d h
, s e a b c m m culin )
s o s o as e o e as e .
(2) r
Th e wo ds
j g, e gg , c ea l f, c lf a , an d tomb , l am b , ar e de in edcl al ik e;
e ild , ch il d diff r , e s s om e w at h .
S ing ula r .
Plu ra l .
OR D IN A R Y D EC LEN S ION . 3 . F EM IN IN E S .
26 . p a r a di gm s
( )
a S hort s emt g i( e)fu , gi ft .
( b) Lon g s law,
pla c e .
P lur a l .
26 I NF L EC T I ON . 2 7 , 28
.
NOT ES .
(1 ) G i (e)fa is a s h rt a
o -
s tem ( c orre s pon din g to L atin a n d Gr ee k
a-decl n i n) tow i l n g wa t m (
e s o , s A ll l g a t m s a o -s
e s ee on -s e s, s uch as
i h n ur la l r g lof g l
a r, o o ,w nd w un d nd l n g j t t m (
r, o e, , ov e , a , o , a o e -s e s se e
such gi d d y rd wylf h w lf
as er d cl in d l ik
, ro tow
, (N t th a , , s e- o , are e e e s . o e e
m ut t d r t a ew l f th j a t m )
oo -
vo e s o e -
s e s .
( 2 ) T h g n pl in n w im p r t d fr m th w k d cl n i n n d i
e e . .
-e a as o e o e ea e e s o a s
f u d n ly in th l t r t x t It i ry r r ly dd d t l ng t m n r t
o n o e a e e s . s ve a e a e o o s e s, ev e o
ja or wd s tem s
-
.
fo ll owed b y c ) , the a a l t rn
e a tes wit h in ( see e x am pl es ,
c
s a u, s t rif e ac c . g en da t. . s ac e , s ae e c
wr ac u , v enge a n c e wr ac e , wr aace
(4 ) F in l a -0 as a v a ri an t for -u is so c om m on ( s ee § 2 0 3 .
, e tc .
) t h at it
wi ll b e omitte d, for the sak e of s im p lific ation , in s om e futur e pa r a digm s .
P lur a l .
In t he sam e w ay a r e de lin ed c a ll fe m . a b s tr a c t s in -
un g b ut
t hos e in -
ing do n ot t ake -
a in t he s in g ula r ,
a nd s o c on form to
t he o rdin ry de c le n s ion
a .
29 . S e c on d a ry p ar adigm : s tr gn g6 u
( ) ,
s tre ngth .
S ing u la r P lu r a l
s tr Q n
gO s t rgn giiu s t r gn giia , e , s t r gn gOu
’
-
,
s t r en gOu
s t r en
gOe ,
s t r en
g oa
s t r gn giium
’
(a) N oun s su ch as
e xte n de d it t o o t he r c s es n d fi n a ll c on fo r m e d t o t he o r din a r y
a a
y ,
de c len s ion .
( )
b N oun s e n ding in i5( u )
-
an d t( u )
-
( r l
eaier su ch a s
hie ho( u) , he ig ht ofe r m et t u, a r rog a nc e
3 16 , happ iness
$3
gie m e lie s t , ne glec t ,
NOTES .
(1 ) In ( a) the s in g . is us ua y in de ll cl in bl a e an d l rl
p u a s are rr a e .
(2 ) In rdin ry f m d cl n i n
the o a e . e e s o i m r
s o e o ft n f ll
e o owe d, and
pl ur l m r c m m n th n in ( )
a s are o e o o , a a .
( 3 ) In b th cl th r h
o b n i m ut ti n f r t
a s ses e e as ee - a o o oo -
v owe s l .
(4 ) F u fi l i fr q u nt
or - na ,
-
0 s e e .
( 5 ) Th un in fl t d t engiS
e w ll t e g iiu i f
ec e s r , as e as s r n
’
, s oun d in the ccu
a s .
s in g , b ut n ot in EWS .
28 I N FL ECT I ON . 3 0 —3 2
S ing ula r .
Plu ra l .
ea, ( é an wea k)
ea
ca( u) m , can
WS t e m s ( i) -
.
the m aj o r
ity of fem n oun s a-s tem s . . If the o an d
- -d we r e rc
p e eded b y
w or j , the s tem s are dis tinguis h ed as wo-s tem s , wd-stem s f
a n d j o- s tem s ,
P a r a digm s
M as c . : bear u , g r ov e ; s e rv a n t .
N eut e r : bea lu , e v il ; tr eo w , tr ee
( ) .
S in g u la r .
b e a r n, -
o
be a lu, -
o
N A cc
. . b e a r wa s
Gen . b ea rwa
D at . b ea r wum
32 ST R ON G NO U NS . 29
P lu r a l .
N A cc
. . Seowa s treo
Gen . Oeowa t reowa
D at . Oeowum t r eo wum
i s om e t im e s dr opped ft e r a lon g ow e l
s Whe n to is r e t in ed a v . a
followed throughout .
2) c
D e lin e lik e b ealu s ea r u, a r t
b ea du n e a r u, s tr a its
g e a t wa ,
ge tawa , equ ip m en ts
frset wa , or n a m en ts
c n eo
( )
w ,
kn ee
l ees , p as tur e
( 4) A n in t us iv e r v owe l i ft n f
s o e oun d bfr e o e 10 , to e ase the p r on un ci ation
1
Fr om h
t is fin a l u
- C os ij n in f r th
e s at t he p rc e e din g eo in t h es e r
wo ds was
s h rto : s ee 9 .
30 I N FL EC TI ON . 33
( )
11 J S tem s
-
.
33 . P a r adigm s
c
( ) F e m : h ali g
. nes holi n es s s n ct u r
, y ,
a a .
M as c .
hgr ( i) gum
Neut . Fem .
1F rm with g n d with ut
o s a o i or e are c omm on , b ut r th c
n ev e e r
on v e se
T h u th f rm r
.
s f th n m pl
e o s o e o . . are her ig eas , hgr ig as , hgrg eas , hgrg as , he as .
32 I N FL EC T I ON .
34
‘
Mas c Fem .
P lu r a l .
N A ce
. . win e, -
as E n g le da
Tade , -
a
D at . W in um En glum dé dum
plur ls in e a n d t he un c h an ge d a c e s in g of th e fe mi n in e s
a -
. .
, .
c wen e, ti de, e tc .
( 2) The neu e t r i s t em s do
-
n ot diffe r in in fl e ct ion from t he
o rdin a ry de c len sion s ee s ife 20 .
e n din g in e -
M a s c P ls . . N a tion s , Tr ib es
leode , p eop le M ier ee , M er c ia ns
ie lde ,
m en S eax e, S a x on s
ielfe , elv es f S om er s et
S um ors aet e , m en o
et c .
( )
4 Lik e win e— t he plur re fre quen t al in -
as is m u h t he m o c
ar e de c lin e d all m a s c s w ith s h o rt m ut at e d v owe l s ingl e .
c on s o n a n t e ( e xc e p t hg e 3 3 ) s uc h s r ,
a
c wide p eech ,
hyge m in d
s ,
ege t r r or ,
e s ge ic tory s t gde
p la c 1 ,
v , e
and b s tr ct in s c ip e s u c h as f é on ds ip
a a s friends hip On ly
-
,
r c e, .
b ys e n , ex a m p le m i ht , m ig ht w is t , f ood
e wen , wom a n n ie d, n eed W yn ( n >j y,
o
and a fe w le s s c om m on w ords .
( 6) The int us iv e r
h ch tt n ti n w c ll d in 3 3 ( 1 )
vo we l , to w i a e o as a e . as
m rki g th p l t l i ti n f th p r c di g g
a n e a a a i fr q u tly f un d ft r
sa o o e e e n or c , s e en o a e
th os el tt r in ll t m
e e s rb l n d dj c ti l w ll n m i l wh ich
a s e s, ve a a a e va as e as o na ,
mg ig( )
n n d th
e o, p l ur l f wlen u prid
a e i n m g wlg ( )
a d t o c , e, s o . en . nc e a , a .
c z . e - s e s e ne e e, os e os e oo e s
or c s o m tim h e i b f r es guttur l w l b yg
av e e or cur leg e o e a a vo e : ea s , v es , s eas ,
str ko t ; whil
es , e c m g l ng i t m
. which h
e a th r wi on p d r o -
s e s, av e o e se as s e ov e
t th
o rdi ry d cl n i w fin d
e o na e e s on , e
gleng ( ) g gl e g ( ) rn m nt
e as , te g ( )
e n. p l n e a, o a e s s n e as , o es
te ( ) s t n h n c e as , s e c tr e g ( ) a tr ing
es s n e s, s s
w en ( ) d t w en ( i) um wr h r c e as , a . r c ,
enc es .
( 7 ) T h n l y i t m wh ich h e o t m ut t d r t
s e w l
s S av e n o a a e oo vo e are ea x e ,
lé d g ft cr ti g b ht th ugh t nd n tw m r S w
’
o e, es c ea ,
ea on , e ea ,
o , a o e or o o e . ea x e as
im it t d b y M i
a e Mi r er c e, e en a .
( 8) Would ( f m _ w rl d h p
r d r t th i fr m th u d cl n i n
e . o ,
as as s e ov e o e o e e e s o ,
a h a
“
: a
g " t he s t ude n t h s on ly t o m as t e r th e l is t s an d
”
n oun b e lon a
g en der .
w . 3
34 I N FLECTI ON . 36
M IN OR D ECLEN SION S .
4 . U S tem s
-
.
36 . P ar a digm s
( ) a S hort t
s em : s unu s on .
s te m
( b) Lon g hgn d han d .
P lur a l .
N OT ES .
(1) S ev e r a l wor ds hav e pa ss ed ov e r t o t he or din a ry
de c le n s ion . Of s hort s te m s , wudu , wood, s i( o) du , cus t om , dur u ,
door , n os u , n os e, ar e a lon e fully de clin ed M eodu m ead ( drin k ) .
, ,
ha s da t . s in g . m eodu , -
o . Heo u s w or d lag u wa t e r m ag u s on
r , , , , , ,
ha v e on l
y n om . ac c . s in g A ll t he s e wor ds ar e m s c e xc e pt
. a .
dwru a n d n os u
s in g . win tra . A l l t he s e
( xc ep t hgn d are m a s c
) e . Win ter h s also a
gen win tr es ;
. it s plu r l is n e u t e r win te a n d win t
a ,
r ru .
r
Ev en the few wo ds g iv en a ov e ten d to pas s ov e to the o dina y
(2 ) b r r r
l
dec en s ion M a g u has pl ma ga s ev en in EWS ; ate we fin d g en wudes ,
. . . l r ’
.
. r
dat du e , nos e, pl s una s , wudas , etc . .
S in g . an d n om . ac c .
pl . F or th l e os s of fin a l .
u a te f r
37 ST R ONG NO UNS . 35
5 . R S t em s
-
.
37 . He r e b elong on ly fiv e n a m e s of r el t i a v es e n ding in -
r
dohtor , da ug ht e r .
Plu ral .
m odor , m odru, -
a b r OOor b r ob ru
m od r a b r OOra
m odrum b rOOr um
doht or
doht or
de ht e r, doht or
P lu r a l .
doht or , dohtr u, a
-
dohtra
doht rum
N OT ES .
( )
1 In s t e ad of -
or we find -
ur , -
sr , b ut n ot -
or for
e n Othe r form s ( m os tly l t e r ) a of s weos tor are s wos tor , s wu s ter ,
s wys ter .
k
The g e n s s in g m eder a n d dehter a r e la t e
. . .
) The re a re
c olle cti ve
plur als g ebr OOor , Or u , b r e t hr en , g es weos tor ,
-
s 1 s te rs .
v owe l -
s tem s . The weak n -s tem s ar e p lc a ed l as t. T hi s an d the ne xt two
de cl c nt in irr gul r c n n
en s ion s o a e a o so an t- s te m s . At a l t r t g th
a e s a e ese
di tinc ti n b c m
s fun d m nt l ; h r
o s e o e a e a e e s im p licity and c n ni n c h
o ve e e av e
b n chi fly c n ul ted
ee e o s .
36 I N FL ECT I ON . 3 8, 3 9
6 . ND S tem s -
.
S ing u la r .
N A cc
. . freon d
Gen . fr eon des
D at . frie n d ,
fr eon de
P lur a l .
N A cc
. . friend ,
freon d ( p oet fr eondas ) . ag en d, -
de , -da s
Gen . fr eon da ag e n dr a
N OT E . This cl
c on sis ts of pre s en t p rticiples
a ss of n oun s a ,
-
,
.
an d
p rtic iple s ( s ee
a In r eadin g t e xt s it is oft en diffic ult ,
or a p rt ic iple
a .
7 . O th e r S t e m s .
39 . P ar adigm s
( ) M as c m gn n , m an ; fot foot
‘
a . : ,
.
S ing u la r .
Plu r a l .
39 ST R ONG NO UNS . 37
S in g u la r .
P lur a l .
N OT ES .
(1 ) The s e on d c form s ,
ie . . thos e without i m ut a t ion , -
a re la te r .
( )
2 Lik e fat is de c lin e d toO, t ooth .
Lik e hn u tu is c olum n s tu du , .
( 4) Th f n pi ( ) ht n ig h t m aid, c '
e er s . e , , an d an n ot s ufier i-m utation ;
th y e théf fare unch g d i é ore an e n the s in g . an d the n om .
pl . N i ( e) htes , b y
ni h t i n d rb i l f rm ti n
s a
g , a ve a o a o .
( 5 ) Th m h l ii h r
e a sc s . ae e , e o, an d m ana ii, m ont
W
h f ll w th rdin ry
, o o e o a
‘
d cl n i n in th
e e ing
s o g d t e S , e . . a . mantie ; in the pl . th y h eb th h t n
av e o as e ,
found
) :
S ing ula r .
cu ealu sorud
e aloO,
cu e ( ) ,
c y, C11 3 ( ) aO
-
( e ) aloO, -a O s c ryd
0 7
Plu r a l.
0 7 63 )
c ua, c un a , 0 ea leOa
7 na
on u ( )m
38 I N FL EC TI ON . 40
II . WEA K N OUN S .
( t
ri -s em s
)
P a r adigm s
M as c . : g um a, ma n ; g efé a , j oy .
F em . : heor te, he a rt .
N e ut e r : cag e, e ye .
P lu r a l .
g um an
g e fean he or tan Sa ga n
gu m um g e fe ( )
a u m he ort um ca ga m
N OT ES .
(1 ) Like g u m a are de c lin ed al l m as c ulin e s in
(
e xc e t
p fr ea ,
wea an d r d) .
( )
2 Lik e g efé a ar e de c lin ed
M a sc s . F erns .
lion leon
tw dou b t t weon
gg ,
( )
3 Lik e heor te ar e de c lin ed
eor Oe , ea rth m ie re ,
m are wic e week
,
40 I N FLECTI ON .
g4 2
42 . En din gs — The
trong n d we k de c len sion s of dj s s a a a .
e n ding s a e p r in t ed in b l ac k t p e t he ot he r s in it lic
r
y , a .
S ing u la/r .
-
a, -
e
N OT ES .
( )
1 It s houl d be c r e fully
a n o ed : t (a ) tha t t he
da t . s in
g m as . t e r s well s t he d t pw n ds in um ;
and ne u c .
,
a a a .
-
( )
b t t t ha r tr um e n t l c s e in t he m s c
he e is a n in s n d n eut e r a a a . a
S in g dis t in ct fr om t he dat ; ( c ) t ha t a f or m in e m us t n ot
. .
-
b e s s um e d t o b e a plur l ; it m ay b e a n a c e fe m s in g or a n
a a . .
,
in s tr s in g . .
e r ule fo t he fi n l u of t he n om fem s in g n d n e ut
( )
2 Th r a -
. . . a .
pl is t he
. s am e a s in n o un s
( s ee 9,
( )
a for the -u Of the n om . fe m . s in g . o cc as ion a lly -o
;
( )
c for um
-
( s in g . an d pl .
) o cc a s ion a lly -on
,
-
an.
( d) ere
- for -r e ap p ea s r in EWS in s um ( e) . r hw l e, e c ere, é lc ere ; in l ate
x
te ts -ere for re an d
- -era for ra
- bc e om e the r gul r n ding
e a e s .
43 A D JECT I V ES . 41
( )
e L on g-s te m m e d ( th er efore un in fl ec t ed ) neut .
pls . s om e tim es b r or ow
the -
e of the m as c
pl e v en in EWS
. . . e x s . ea l le , lg uye .
sing . atta in s on e fr r
o m for all ge n de s b y the d opp ing of the -u of s o t r hr
s te mm ed fern s .
43 . P rim a ry p a r a digm s
Ne ut . F em .
N om
v
.
god
A ce .
g odn e
Ge n .
Dat .
Ins tr .
N A cc g de g oda ,
. . o -
e
Gen .
D at .
42 I N FL EC TI ON . 43
N om .
g r en e
A cc .
g r en ue
Gen .
D at .
In s tr .
N A cc gren e gr en a e
.
-
.
,
Gen .
D at .
P lur a l .
N A cc
. . halge hal ( i) gu halga , e
-
Gen . halig ra
D at . halgum
N OT ES .
( )
1 A dj s . c on sonan t—whe the r
e n din g in a doub le
t he doub le c on son an t b e origin al as in ea l( l) all g r im ( m ) g rim , , , , ,
ac c m as c gr im n e nytn e
. . But or igin l ll m ay r em in : ea l( l) n
,
. a a e,
sa l
()
t re .
Lik e g r en e a r e de c line d
( 2) a ll a d e c tiv e s
j ndi n g in
’
e -e
( origina l j S t em s an d i s tem s )
- -
.
43 A D JEC T I V ES . 43
is , th t fi n
a r e t ine d e xc e pt in lon g m ono yll b le s n d in
al -
u is a s a a
t he pl of n e ut e r n oun s it w ou ld b e dr oppe d
. i fte r long long ,
v z . a ,
it i r et in e d in dj s e g m gnn i u
s a A cc ordingly we fin d fe m
a .
, . . sc . .
n d n e ut dg ( ) n u 66( ) u
s in g . a
pl i d( ) lu . b ut
. e , e ,
e r ,
L t r h w r th i di tinc ti n w l t n d ch cl b rr w d th
a e ,
o ev e ,
s s o as os a ea as s o o e e
f rm f th th r th t w fin d th n h nd f m ing nd n ut pl
o s o e o e , so a e on e o e a e . S . a e . .
ag n é we , hd lig lyt l
o n d n th
er , th r mi lu m gn gu
, e , a o e o e c , e .
s n c o e of t he e i o of t he s u ffix e l ol s o i b e f or e s, r, r, a
y p g
- -
, , ,
-
e ,
-
,
-
,
s ll b le e xc e t ion l
a ft e r h ort E xc e t ion s a r e n ot n um e r ous
a a a s
y p , p . .
rll i l a lwa s s n c o a t e s
ce
y y p yf l m or e oft e n t h n n ot ; dj s of e a a .
p r ct i
ac lly ide n tic a l
a e xc ep t as r e
g r d fin l u n d s yn c o e
p , a s a -
a .
se tt le d ny OE dj c a n b e de c lin e d b y m e n s of t he t b le of
,
a . a . a a
e n din g s a lon e
l h l b rti
(6 ) S ig t i e e s are s o
m etim es t ak en wit h trictly gr m m tic l f rm
s a a a o s
in rd r t r nd r th m
o e o e e e ea s ie r of p r on un ci ation . T h u if tw n c m t g th r s o s o e o e e
aft r n th r c
e a nt o e on s on a in the ac e . m as c . s in g th c n d n i pt t b
, e se o s a o e
dr oppe d
A cc . M as s S ing . .
—
fé c ne, r
t ea c he ous r fsec ne
i se u , ir rn o is e rn (n ) e
SfiiSern e , s outher n s fitie rn e
A g ain , l a fin a -
ne, -r e
,
is a pt to bc e om e -e h
, er ,
- bfr e o e a r
te m ination
b ginn ing with
e a c on s on a n t : frec h e dan gerous , , ac c . m c as . s ing .
fré c ( en) ne ;
g ifr e, gr eedy, gen pl g iferr a . . .
(7 ) T wo m as c .
pl f rm mgn g n d fe w
. o s, e a a a a ( few) , are f ound wit h
occ as ion a l -a for -
e, a pp r n tly b rr w d fr m f l
a e o o e o e a m any .
(8 ) The pl . ad j j ea we
. few, has
44 I NF L EC T I ON . 44 , 4 5
Mas c . Neut .
N om .
g laed
A cc .
g sedn e
l
Gen .
D at .
In s tr .
P lu r a l .
N A ce
. .
gl a de
gla du glada ,
-
e
Gen .
g laedra
D at .
g ladum
1 00 ) r em ain s b e fo r e ev er
y t e rm in a tion b egin n ing with v ow el a .
45 . S e c on d ar y p ar a di gm : g ea r u , re a dy .
Mas c . Neut .
P lu r a l .
N A cc
. .
ge ar we g ea n ,r o
-
g e a r wa , -
e
Gen .
g e a rora
D at .
g e a r wum
N OT ES . Lik e g ea r u , a w( wo) s t em , are de c lin ed fea lu ,
(1 ) -
fallow ,
n ea r u , n a rr ow, g eolu , yellow, a n d a fe w les s comm on
w or ds . It will b e se e n tha t w is v oc a lis ed t o 0 or u when fi n a l
and b e for e a te rm in ation b egin n ing wit h a c on s on n t a .
46, 4 7 A D JECT I V ES . 45
46 S e c on d ar y p a r a di gm hea h, hig h
'
. : .
M as c . Neut . F em .
S ing u la r .
N om . hé ah hea h
A cc . b ea u( n ) e ( hea hn e ) hé a h
Gen . hé a s
D at . hé a ( u) m , hé ag um
Ins t r . hea
P lu r a l .
hea ( h)
Gen . hea r ( r ) a
D at . hé a ( u ) m , hé a gum
T hus hr eoh,
‘
r oug h ,
m a k es hr eos , hr eon e, hr eor a , hr é o( u) m ,
‘
etc .
t he pr e c e din g
,
ow e l i le n g t hen e d in c om pe n sa t ion for it s los s
v s
Owe h pe r e r s e Owé o s Ow um e t c
'
or ,
v , re ,
eor ,
.
: .
Neut . Fem .
S in g ula r .
g ode gode
g ode gOda n
W
W
g Oda n
g odan
I du r a h
g Oda n
god r a -
en a )
g odum , ah
-
46 I NFLECTI ON . 48
NOT ES .
(1) Variant s . It will b e se en t h at the we ak de cl en sion s of
(3 ) H -
t m c n tr ct t
s e s m uch
o a , e c .
, as in the s t r on g de cl en s ion
S tr ng o . Wea k .
heah, hig h hé a , he n a , e tc .
Oweorh , p erv e
“
rse Oweora, -e
, e tc .
48 . P r e s e nt p a rt ic ip l e s t e rmin a te in en dc ,
-
with t he
e xc eption of thos e of c on tra ct ed a nd s om e a n om alous v e rb s ,
which
end in nde : ag en de, dr in cen de, g iefen de, wes en de ; teon de, s lea n de,
‘ '
-
, . .
g r én e
t he p r es .
p a rt . is a
j o- s e mt ) .
Mas c . Neut .
S in g u la r .
s c in e n de
s c in en de
N A cc
. . s c in e n de s ci n en da , -
e
Gen .
D at .
48 I N FLEC T I ON . 50
Pos . Com p ar . S up e l r .
laed, g la d l d
g g ae ra
gla dos t ( a )
hw set , a c tiv e hwset ra hwa t os t ( a )
y x
e n din gs -
ir a , -
is t ( OE . c us e d i—
m ut t ion of t he r oot
a a
n um b e r of OE . ad e j cti v es
feor r, fa/r fie r r a
1
r t
g ea , g r ea t g r ie t r a g ri e t e s t ( a )
hea h, hig h hie r (r) a
( hi e hr a , heahra
) hi e hs t ( a )
lQ n g, long lgp gpa lgn ges t ( a )
n ea h, n ea r n éar r a
( ) n i ehs t a
( )
s c gqr g js t g rt s c ie r t r a
( )
s c ier t es t a
s tr on s tr on s t r gn g r a g ( )
s t r gn e s t a
form in r is us ed fo c om p r ti e dv e r b s S upe rl ti es h v e
-
o r a a v a . a v a
b ot h s tr on g n d w e k f r m s os t es t
a t es t b ut t he we k
a o ,
-
,
-
,
-
os a , -
a a
in fl e ct e d s tr on g f orm s are e r y r a r e v .
vow l f g
e : te res tum . F or -
os t ar e f
oun d -a s t, - us t : aziie Zas t , wis us t .
(3) T he g en .
pl . of c om p a ativ es r us ua lly en ds in -ena
, b ut t hr e e a sol
occur su ch ( s tron g) ge n .
pls . as g earr a for g earr ena , ate r (r) a, nitr a, for
uterr ena .
51 C OM A P RI S ON . 49
51 . Irr e gu l ar C om p a ri s on .
j F ou r
c om p r t i ad s . ha ve a a v es a nd s upe rl ti
a v es wi ht a
diffe r e n t r oot fr om t h t of t he p os it i a ve
Com p ar . S up e l r .
O d’ g ood
t ( e ) ra be t ( ) st
e
°
s é l r a , S ella S eles t
a n d s upe r l t i e dj e ct iv e s a v a
( )
se r r a , ee r es t .
( c) S u p e rl a t iv e s in foun d -
m e st . The s upe rl . s uf fix -
m a is
onl y in for m firs t hin dem hin dm os t b ut c om b in ed with the
a, ,
a,
in e rr
-
a .
Pos . Com p a r . S up e l r .
( s ue s outhwa rds )
,
sq r ra , s
yOerra S ub m e s t
( ea s t ea s twa rds )
,
ea s t e rra ca s t ( e ) me s t
( ufa n a bov e)
, yfem es t, ufe m es t (ym es t )
( nida n below) ,
n iee m es t
( inn e within )
,
in n em e s t
( Li te without)
,
ute m e s t
laat, lat e laet e m e s t, las te st
( S id la te
, ,
adv .
) s iO e( ) m es t ,
s ines t
50 I N F L EC T I O N . 52 53
,
II . A dv e r b s .
l t iv e b y ddin g os t to t he pos it i e d
a a -
ft e r c utting Off fi na l
,
v a v .
,
a
-
e . Thus t he s tr on g f orm s of c om p r t i e n d s upe rl t iv e adj a a v a a s .
e us ed s c om p r a n d s u e r l
a d s a a v
ar
p . . .
Po s . Comp r a .
g ea r
( )
w e, well g e ar ( w) or g ea r ( w ) os t
c om pa r ti a ve in -
or n ev e r us e d a s a n a d ec j ti ve .
53 . Irr e gul ar C om p a ri s on .
( )
a It will hav e b e en no tic ed tha t t he pla ce of t he pos i iv et
of m os t of t he w o ds r c om p r ed in
a 5 1 wa s pplied b y a n adv e r b
su .
a dv s .
( b) followin g
The ha v e m on osyll ab i c c om pa r ati v es , a lm os t
w it h m ut t e d r oo t a -
v ow e l s
n ea r , n
yr ni ehs t
—
sc os r t ,
é r ( e) s t
E
s iO e
( ) es t ,
m s ide s t
lgnge s t
so ftes t
N U MER A LS .
N UMER A LS .
54 . T he OE . r
n um e a ls a r e a s follows
Ca r dina l Or din a l
f rmo a, fi re s t ( a ) , fyr m e s t ( a ) ,
fyr ( e ) s t ( a )
t w eg e n , t w a, t u Ode r , aeft e rra
r r
O ie , O eo Or idda
feo we r feortia
fif
s ie x s ie x ta
s eo fon s e ofoiSa
’
e a hta ea ht OOa
n i on nig oiia
g
tie n t é o iSa
gn ( d) le fa n Q n ( d) le ft a
t wglf t w glft a
Or it ie n e , Oreo t ie n e Or é otéo Oa
feo we rt ie n e feow e rt eOOa
fi ft ie n e fift eocia
’’
s ie x t ie n e S ie x t eoOa
t w é n t ig t w en t ig OOa
an on d t w é nt ig an Oll d t w é n tigoiSa
Orit ig Or it ig oOa
fé o we r t ig fé owe rt igoda
fift ig fift ig oOa
s ie x t ig S ie x t igO Oa
hun ds eofon t ig hun ds eofon t igoiia
hun dea ht a t ig hun de a ht a t ig oiia
hun dnig on t ig hun dn igon t ig oda
’
e xc ep t ion of Od whi c h is a l w ys s tr on g n d it es t( ) fy m s t( )
er , a ,
a e r a ,
r e a ,
fy ( )
r es t w hicah e b ot h s tr on g
,
n d we k lik e ot he r s upe r la t i es
( ar
) a a v .
on e n d a h lf
a i th lb ( f ou rth h lf ) t hr e e a n d a half e t
a ,
v er a a , ,
c .
hu n d 45 0 d5 er hea lf hu n d = 1 5 0 .
(3) l
ri ti in th nding
S ight m t with uch
va a on s e e s ar e e , s as -
e8 a
“
for o5 a
in ht O igh th ; ti g 6 t g8 té 8 f tig ti
' ’ ' “
a or - o
ea e a, e -
o o a, -
eo a, - o a .
(4) Th f rm ti n f th num r l 7 0 8 0 90 1 00 1 1 0
e o a o o e e a s , , , , , 1 20 , has n ot
b n ti f ct rily x p l in d
ee sa s a o e a e .
( 5 ) Th r n rdin l f 2 00 n d upw rd
e e ar e o o a s or a a s .
55 . D e c l e n s ion of C ar din al s .
(a) Kn ,
on e , is de lined c as follows
Mas c . Neut .
an an
A cc . an ne , senn e an
Gen . an es
D at . an um
Ins tr aen e
'
. an e , T
N OT ES .
(1) Plu ral r
fo m s ( lik e hose t of od
g , 43 ) ar e r r a e,
( 6) Tweg en, t wo .
N A cc
. . tweg en t n, t wa
t weg ( e ) a, t wegr a
t wi m , twam
55 N U M ER A LS . 53
With this c
p t he de lens ion
. c of beg e n, b o h t
Ma s c . Neut .
N A ce b ege n bu
W
. .
4
b eg ( r) a
r
-
b ayem , b a n
N OT E .
(3 ) He r e t here is s om e t e n de n cy t c nfu i n f g nd r
o o s o o e e s .
c on o in ed, a nd
j t he n b ri t wa is m as c . and fe m .
,
a nd b it tu ( als o in one
wo d) r n e ut e r .
( c) Brie, t hr e e .
N A ce
. . O ie r
Gen . Oreora
Dat . r
O im
d
( ) 4 to 1 9 a re c
in de lin a b le w he n us e d a s a d s j .
( i.e . wit h a
feo we ra s um , on e o f fou r ,
t t r ee othe r s ;
i e wi h h
. .
( ) e 2 0 to 1 2 0 ( m ul iple st of ten on l
y) we e r o rigin a lly n eut e r
noun s r
g ov e n ing a g e n , b ut a r e a ls o . us e d a s ad s
j . They a re
s om e t im e s un in fl ec te d, s om e im e s ha v e t a
g e n . in -
es , b ut m os t
c om m on ly h av e
g e n . in -
ra, -
a, da t in .
-
um . Ex s .
sefte r s ie x t e g um da g a , fter
a 6 0 da ys ;
(f ) Hun d ,
hun d r ed ,
is us ua lly un in fl e c t e d, b ut in EWS .
ha s a da t ( .
z da t pl . .
) in -
e in e i he t rc as e it us ua lly g ov e n s a r ge n .
fela (55
g en s e n da
l
p ) o fs lee e n r a , m a n
g .
y thou sa
. n ds o f s la in
t he s m alle r n um e r als r e m a in un in fl e c t e d
tiar t wa Q n d t w en tig
a m on n of those twen ty two m en ;ra a, -
b ut e xc eption a ll
y ( pos s ib l
y b y a ttr a ct ion ) :
I. P ER S ON A L 1
S ing . D ua l . P lur a l .
lo wit we
m ec , m e A u n c it , un c us ie , us
m in un c e r —
5 us e r ,
fir e
me un c 11 8
N om .
A ce .
Gen .
D at .
N OT E .
( )
1 The a cc us ti a v es m ec , Oec , un c it in c it, us ic, c owie,
a re ea rly or poetic al .
1
H e,
heo, hi t, is p op e y a dem on s t ativ e pr rl r r on oun Of the 3 r d p e r s on ,
b c
eing us e d to in di ate t hing s a nd p e sons a like r .
56 I N FL ECTI ON . 58
III . POSS ES S IV E ( A dj e ct iv es
) .
c a se .
P ar a digm
‘
: fir e , ou r .
Mas c . Fem .
Plur al .
is e owru .
us s um z urum .
( 4) Ur e an d cowe r , w h en t h ey are g en .
pl s . of r
the p e sonal p onouns r
an d n ot p os s ess iv e ad e j cti v es , are ap t to be rc
att a te d in to agr eem ent
f ll
with the o owing wo d, on w i r
in ea ity they depen d : cow a selfr a h ch r l r
onwea ld = 60 wer s elfra onwea ld r l
u e ov e you s e v e s ; ur es n ane s = ur e Mines
, r r l ,
o f n on e of us .
P R ON O U N S
"
59 . 7
D EM ON S T R A TIV E .
Bee t , t he , th t a .
Neut .
S in g u la r .
b ee t
Ste
"
Plu r a l .
55 .
S ara ( S i am
)
dfim ( 6 am )
NOTE r l . l m t l w y n ut r b i g u d hi fl
T he in s t um en ta tion is a os a a s e e ,
e n se c e v
e ith r with d rb i l f rc
e in S a m a th m r
ve a in d rb i l p hr
o e, a s
“
en , e o e, o r a ve a a s es ,
f ti th t cc un t t S n t th t x t n t t i c m p un d
“
or on, o n a a o ,
no o ,
o a e e , e c .
, or n o o co
j unc ti n i d n ti b f r t h r f rm in p r n th ltr
”
o t
s, e r Th o e, e o e, e c . e o e o s a e e s es ar e a e .
( 6) D e s 65 , 0 8, hi s , this .
M as c . Fem .
N om . Oe s
A ce . Ois h e
Ge n .
Dal .
Ins lr .
P lu r a l .
N A ce
. . Sas
Gen . Sis s a
D at . Ois ( s ) um
NOT E . h
T is adj r
p on is
-
. c om poun de d of the dem on s t r ativ e s e ( Nor th . 5 c)
a nd the p a rticl e -s
e = b ehold .
58 I N F LECT I ON . 60 , 6 1
V . R ELA TIV E .
The pla c e of
60 . a rela t i ve
p r on oun ,
whic h OE la c k s , is .
su
pplied in f our w ays
(a) By t he de m on s tr a t iv e Oeet, us e d r el t i v e of
’ ‘
s e, s eo, as a a
B 8 5 s ee O t im m e di t e l f a rt ic le Os
( )
b y y
, o llow e d b y,t he a
p ,
a
s é Os s o O O t Oe O tt
,
‘
e
( —
) 3 r d p e rs on on ly E : s um b ee O5
s, ee av e . x . a ,
.
N E ( 1 ) If 6 t i
OT .
p r t d fr m O it i t b r g rd d
3 e c .
,
th s se a a e o e, s o e e a e as e
a n t c d nt n t
e e p rt f th r l ti
e ,
o ; w
as l fid e a o O e e a ve e a so n s e
c
( ) B y t he pa rt ic l e Oe l on e — al l p e rs ons E : wis m Oe a . x .
( )
d B y t h e p rt i c le Oe f o ll ow e d b y p e r s on l
a
p r on oun of an y a a
NOTE .
(2 )h r w rd Ot e o s , as in the a b ov e ex .
, m ay in te r
ve n e b etween Oe
‘
a nd the f ll wing p r n l pr
o o e so a o n oun , espe ci lly in
a the genitiv e of the 3 rd
pe r s on : w h os e .
Mas c .
N om . hwa
A ce . hwon e
'
Gen . hw ees
D at . hwaem , b wani
hwy ( hwon )
“
Ins tr .
7
N OT ES .
( )
1 Hwa hwa t , ,
lik e hwwOer ( w hi h of t w o
) c a n d hwilc
( w hi h) ,
is c an in t e rr og a t iv e ( b ot h dir e ct an d in dir e ct ) an d in
de fi n it e p r on oun , b ut n ot a rel ti a ve
p r on oun .
su ch as for kwon ,
tO hwon, why .
62 P R ONO U NS . 59
V II . IN D EF IN IT E .
an d b wil o ( hwe lc ,
hwylc ) , y( on e ) ,
an a re us ed as in de fi nite
p ro n oun s in in te rr og at vei a n d n e a iv e
g t sen en t ce s . They m ay a ll
th ree be c om poun de d with a g nd a ge g i) ,
e a ae
g so tha t
we ge t th f llow ing c he m e o f inde fi n it e pr on o un s
e o s
hwa hwee Oe r
ahw seOe r ,
ne
f two
o
a re t im port n t inde f p on s in OE
t he m os a . r . .
N OT ES h d e c le n s ion of hw a is
( )
1 T e.
gi en in § 6 1 A ll v .
de c li n e d lik e s tr ong a dj s .
p r n oun ; t he othe r s re dj p on
o s i e m y b e us e d e it he r s
a a r s a a
-
.
,
. .
p on o in g r e m en t w it h
r s . r a n oun e a .
( 3 ) To e e r l of t he b ove w ords n c n b e pr e fix ed n d
s v a a a ,
a
diffe r from o n e n ot he r er
y c on ide r b ly T hu ég hwwOe
’
a v s a . s e r
i gO
e e e it he r
r thw O Ohw Oe ( 6 ( w) Oe n d wiht
ee er nd wuht ee r r
( )
nd u ht n u ht n d s o on
a a
g , .
60 I N F L EC T I ON . 63 64 ,
V ER BS .
63 . OE . ve rb sc l ses S trong a n d
a re div ide d in t o t wo m a in as ,
We k a n d t wo m in or c la s es P s t P re s en t nd A nom lous
a ,
s ,
a -
a a .
im pe r ti (p r s e n t ; on l
) t w t en s e s p res en t n d pas t ( the '
e a
yv e o , a
p r e s is o ft e n u s e d as a f ut u r e
.
) t w o n um b e r s n d t h r ee
p e r s on s a
t wo p rt ic iples p r e s en t ( a ct i e ) a n d p s t (p si e )
a ,
The in fi n it i e v a as v . v
b e followe d b y pas t pa rt
,
n d i t he r e f or e n ot tr e te d of he r e
a . a s a
‘
.
The p rin c ip al p a rt s of e rb ar e t he in fi n it i e
p as t a v v
,
in g ul r p l l n d p s t pa rt ic iple T o t he s e is oft e n
s
fl pp a g a , ,
a a .
a dde d t he 3 d s in g pres in M r e rb s t he
. st 1 is
. a .
omi tt e d b e c a us e in t he m it is f or m ed fr om t he s t s in
, p g ( S ee a .
67,
64 . We ak Ve rb s — S tr ong v e rb s m ay
S tr ong V e rb s an d
b e dis t in guishe d fr om w e ak v e r b s in s e v e r a l wa ys
B o rm at ion o f t h e p a s t t e n s e tr on g v e rb s
( )
a y t h e f S
fo rm their pa s t t ens e b y W
.
of t he r oot v owe l a s in -
,
wri ta n wr a t w r it e w r ot e ; w e a
,
v er bs b y a dding the te r m in a
, ,
tion de te) t o the r oot This 1 s the m ain dis tin ct ion T he re i s
- -
. .
n o g r a da t ion in w e ak v e rb s ; the r e a r e n o p a s t t e n s es in de te -
,
-
,
in s tr on g v e r b s .
ast a rt of s tr on v e r b s e n ds in en of we k v e r b s
( )
b T h e
p p g .
-
,
a
in d, t - -
.
NOT E l i f rm . T he p as t p a t r . a so s o ed by g r a dation in r
s t on g v e rb s . But ,
sinc Cl V VI
e VII h th as s e s , an d av e e s am e v owe l in the p as t p a t a s in the r .
in fin th i i m uch l
.
,
c clu i s s a es s on s ve te s t of a s tr on g p a s t p a t t an the r h .
e n din g .
c
( ) The roots of =
stron g v eg
W on os
yIla b ic , A l l poly
ab ic r oots b elon g t o t he we a k c on u o a t ion
'
s
yll .
1
The on ly r li f pe c o as s . in fl cti n i
e o s in the f rm
o s hd tte ( s ing ) , hd t ton
p r es . an d p a s t of hd tan , to be c ll d
a e .
g6 4 V ERB S . 61
d
( ) S t ron ve rb s a re r i in l ;
o a a wo d r s ho w in
g t he s a m e
g
g
:
verb s a re de r i t i va ve .
X( e
) a n s it iv e m ost trans iti e e rb s v v
i re wea tron g in tr n s e rb a . v s
S tr on g . Wea k .
c
p . MO
M and ewella n , k ill
lieg a u , l ie lgcg a n , la y
S i tta n , S it s e tta n
,
set ;
\
rn ( in t ra n s )
b eor n a n , b u b n n b ur n ( t r n s ) . ar a , a .
W r r j n ed ll p r s en t e n din gs t o t he
'
(f ) k b s o ig in lly oi ea ve a a e
roo t b y m e n f j o i n d t his j o i h s r e m in ed in t he
a s o r ,
a r a a
infin in i n (n g i n lufi n )
s .
-
n d h s le ft tr c e in t he m u t t ion
a r a ,
a ,
a a a s a
of root ow e l ( hi n ) n d in t he doub le d c on s on n t s
v s er ac on a a
son n t + j )
a ft e r s hort root owel (f gm m n ) N e rly ll we k
a a -
v r a . a a a
ve r b s in n nd fe w in i n h
-
a m ut t e d r oot
a we l
a No -
a av e a -
vo s .
t hos e with
NB . A m u ta ted r oot -
vo wel 3 ) ther efo re infa llibly de n otes
a wea k ve rb (o r a we a k p re s e n t , g
(g ) the r h n d m u t t e d ow l in t he 2 n d a n d
O n t he o a ,
a a
“ '
v e
r s . s ,
a a r -
s a
,
.
m r k of s tr n g e r b s
a w e k e r b s h e t he s m e owe l
o v a v av a v ,
whe t he r m ut t e d o un m u t t e d in t he in fin n d in t he 2 n d
a nd r a , . a a
3 d in g p r e
r s . s .
( h) T he followin g a re c h r c t e r is t ic
a a of we a k ve r b s ( b ut n ot
of al l we ak v e rb
) i s ig, i
g b e fo r e t he
e e n din s a n, — g
g anne fi
-
,
,
6
-
,
S in in e or
g W a
- -
. .
NB . t ( f ) (g ) ( h)
Tes s , ,
a re us e le s s for a doz en s tron g ve rb s
1
D ub l d n t d b l
o e , o ou e . T he r
s t on g v e rb s fea lla n wea lla n b gnna n , e tc
h rig i l d ub l c n b e fore j
, , .
,
av e o na o e o s on a n ts , n o t doub led .
62 IN FL ECT I ON . 65
65 . En din gs —F c om p r is on s c hem e of t he
or t he s ak e o f a a
n o r m a l e n din s of s tr on e r b s r es pe ct i el
g g a n d w ea k y is he re v v
them s el e s v .
St r ong . Weak .
Cl ass es I II .
PR ES EN T Indic a tive .
PR ES EN T S ubj un tive c .
te
-
Ode
-
t es t -
Odes t
-
te Ode
-
ton -
odon
PA S T S ubj un tiv e c
Imp er a tive .
Infinitiv e .
P a r tici
p les .
Pr es .
-e n de 1 en de
P as t .
( e ) d, t
-
0d
N OTE . It m us t
rem m b er d that as will b e s en fr om th
be e e ,
e e
i m r im p rt n t th n th
s o e n din g
o a f di t ingui hin g on p rt f th
a e e s or s s e a o e
verb fr m n oth r an d f
o adi tingui hing
e tr ng fr m a weak erb
or s s a s o o v .
64 I NFLECT I ON . 67
( ) c The rigin l
o a e n din gs of the s ing . r
p es in die we e : l et p e s -u, -0 ;
. . r r .
r
2nd pe s -is > -es ; 3 r d p e s
. r .
- iO . H nc e e the i -m utation of the oot-v owe r l
( t ehr
e c an b e n o i -m uta tion of i) in the 2 md and 3 rd s in g . p r es . in die . of
s tr ng
o rb ve s
( ) T h p t in di pl r ig i lly nd d in un l t r t x t ft n h
e e as e .
n . o na e e - a e e s o e av e -a .
t xte ft n t k
s o r th n f th indi
e a e ov e e -o o e e .
(g) Th u u l n ding f th d ti in fin
e s g r un d i
a e nn b ut n( n) o e a ve . or e s -a
e, -e e
3 3 ) i n t un c mm n
s o o o .
s tr on e r b r i da n has
v t l e as t t hr ee dif
f e r e n t s t em s : i d r ad a
g r ,
r id The n um b e r of diffe r e n t s t em s in a s tr on g e r b is s om e v
e -
a ,
'
ea ,
-
,
-
e ah ,
a r, -
,
whic h e n ot n ec The s e f ou r s t em s a e b e s t
'
ar s a r ily d fi en t es i er . r
shown in t he f ou r p r in c ip l p rt s : ( 1 ) in fin a a .
,
_p rt s s e e n in t he e x a m le s j us t
p gi e n
a .
,
a v .
by imp ly ch n g in g th en din g
s a s s h wn in the p a a di m o
g e f s a o r
fr om e a c h of th e p rinc ip al p a rt s :
F r om A e for m ed r
Infinitiv e A ll p s n t for m s re e
P as t 1 s t an d 3 r d S ing . Non e
g
7 P as t Pl u r . A ll p a s t f or m s
) s P as t In die .
2 n d S in g .
P as t S ub j .
P as t P a rt . P a s s iv e Voic e on l
y .
V ERB S .
2 nd an d 3 r d S in gul a r P r e s e nt .
w p p
as u r o el
y c ho e n b e c u e t he r e w ould h
s s e b e e n m ut t ion of
a s av a
alm t n y ot he r ow l in t he b
os a ev
p rt s ( e x l in e d in § 6 6 C
e
p ) a ov a as a .
2n d n d 3 d in
a rOf tr n g v e rb ( i) M ut t ion Of r oot
S cr . re s . s o s : a
S n d c on s e q ue n t c h n g es
v ow e l ;
( )
ii n e co a a .
()
i M ut at ion of r o ot v ow e l
- . Ru le : F orm t he 2 n d and
3 rd S in
g . r
p e s . in die tron g e rb s
. of s v wi h m ut t te d r oot
a -
v owe l,
a se 1 21 ) f r a a n, go
b lawa n , b low
i 98 , 1 2 0 ) helpa n , help
he a lda n , hold
hé a wa n , hew
weorOan , bec om e
c r é opa n , c
r eep
st O
n da n ,
s ta n d
b lOwa n , bloom
y c um an, c om e
y b ruc a n , en o
j y
6 , i, 1 , ie , as a r e n ot a ffect e d b y i m uta tion -
.
N OT ES .
( )
1 Em pir ic a l
r ule fo form ing the 2 nd n d 3 d s r a r
w . 5
66 I N FL EC T I ON .
5 69
s hould c le rly s ta ted Thus bir e6 c n b e tr c ed s tep b y
be as a . a a
s t ep fr om t he In do G e r m n ic f or m bhe eti to y t ha t it i a r sa s
-
(2 ) Sync p t d f rm with m ut t d w l
o a e o b s th rul in a e vo e s, as a ov e , are e e
vo w l l f un d bir 6 fr m b r n bgg 6 fr m b ng n w 6 6 fr m
e s ar e a so o : e o e a , e o a , eor e o
weor6 a n .
(3 ) Un syn c op ate d f rmo s wit h out i-m utation are the rul e in A ng ian l .
The e of t he e n din g s -
es t, e6 ,
-
in
3 rd s in g p r e s in dic , is r eg ula r ly dr opped in EWS ,
an d . . . .
NB . Thes e cha n g es a r e n ot
p ecu liar to s trong v er bs , bu t take
a sses 1 a n d 2 when the s ec i
p la ce a ls o in wea k v er bs
( C l ) p fied con
dition s are
p r es en t .
P er s on s .
2 nd 3 rd
, .
(a) D oub le c on son n ts a a re s im pli ed : fi win n ( e) s t >
win s t, win n ( e) 6 win 6 , fyll( e) s t >fyls t fyll( e) 6 >fyl6 , .
( b) Be for e s t,
-
d > t, an d s, 6 an d s t ar e dropped
fi ( ) fin ts t s ten d( e) s t
nd e st > s ten ts t , ( )
c i es e s t ci es t
( c) t a fter a
v owel t he 2 n d
)5
e n t ic al
t) ()
s gt e 6
c wi6 e
( )6 cw i6 ( 6 ) .
( d) . s + 6 us ually -
s t, b ut in ea rly t e xts -
s6 als o
rem ain s : f or li es e
( ) 6 > for lies t ; wiex e ) 6 > wiex t
( ( x : h+ s) ,
(
c i es e
) 6 > ( thus the 2n d
c ves t and 3 rd s in g . of s e m s t
e n din g in s b e c m e ide n tic al ) a .
2 nd, 3 r d .
( ) g
e m tim > h b f r
so t
e es e o e -s an d -6 , b ut '
c hiefiy in l tra e
x
t e ts :
g 6 9 V ERB S . 67
NB . r ule
The e gi en
a he r e in or de r t h t t he
b ov e s ar v a
n ot hin g t o do m y n o t b e c um b e r e d w ith t he m
,
a n d b e c u e the
y ,
a a s
m y b e in
a pos ition t o c onj ug t e in f ull e e ry O E tr n g e r b
a a v . s o v .
On o t w e x m ples from e c h s tr on g c l
e r o a e a
“
ppe n de d ( we k ass ar a a
p r e nts
se n d c on tr a ct e d
”
a e rb e tr ea t e d s ep r a t e l
v
y) ; t he 2 md
s ar a
r
a is a n , a r is e
b i da n , wa it
b it a n , bite
m i6 a n , a v oid
II .
(
“
C r e ep b é odan , or der
s c é ot a n , s hoot
lfic a n , lock
IV .
(
“
Be a r b e r an , bea r
V ( .
“
T r ea d t r e da n , tr ea d
VI .
(
“
Fa re fa r a n,
g o
la
Tat a n , let
hea lda n , hold
'
hé awa n , hew
b louda n, blen d
b lé wa n , b loom
68 I N F L EC TI ON . 70
G R A D AT I ON ( A bla ut
) .
70 . S tron g rb
c onj ug t ed p rin c ip lly b y t he use
ve s ar e a a
of diffe r e n t s t e m s in t h m e e r b t he s e s t e m s b ein g r e la t e d t o
e sa v ,
c h n ge a G r a d at io n in OE t he n m y b e d e fin e d s
. e r ie of. a a a s s
in wha t m y b e c lled a a
G RA D A T IO N -R O WS .
Cla ss P r es . P a s t S in g . P as t P lu r . P ast P ar t .
I . S hin e
II .
(
“
C r eep
IIIa .
( H “
e lp
b .
(
“D rin k
IV .
(
“
Be a r
V T r e ad ”
.
)
VI .
(
“
F a re
‘
V II .
( R e dupl .
) e o, e e o, e
NOT ES .
( )
1 The p a s t s in g a n d plu r of t he 7 t h C la s s
NB . . .
i we re r
o gi in ally f o rm e d b y R e d u p lic a t ion of t he r oo t-
s lla b le
y
70 V ERB S . 9
( pc . La t . l di ; G k 858mm 868mm
do , ( e .
, ) ,
in s om e ve rb s t
w i h, in
r
o t he s w it hout, g r a da t ion S in c e t he . tr c a es of rigin l e
t he o a r
duplic t i ry fe w in OR a on a r e v e ,
it is b es t fo r t he pr s e n t t r n k
e o a
C l V II wit h t he othe r g r d
ass . a a t ion c l s s e -
a s, w hil t r e t in in g t he
s a
n me R e duplic t in g
a a .
( )
2 It will b e no tic ed th t a on l
y in C la s s e s II , IIIa . .
,
an d
IV . a re t he re f u r dif
o er en t s tem s t ha t in C la ss es I , IIIb . .
,
an d
V t he re e th e dif n t t m s n d th t in C l s e s V I n d
. ar r e er e s e ,
a a a s . a
V II t he r e e o nl
.
y tw d fie n t tem N e rt he les s e xc ludin g
ar o i re s s . ve ,
p t
as p rt ( whi c h c n n o t b e m i t k e n fo
a s . n
y ot he r
p rt ) n a s a r a a ,
o
p r f m
esf . tr n g b h
or s th m o o ta we l s a n y
o p ast v er a e sa e r o -
vo as
for m of the s a m e v er b .
le a rn in g t he p r in c ipa l pa rt s of t he v e rb s e le cte d a s t he n a m e of
ea ch c l a ss
(e xc e pt in C la s s V II , in whi h t he . c v o we ls of t he
pr e e n t s a re v a rious )
Clas s Infin . P a s t S in g . P a s t P lur . P as t P ar t .
“
I .
( S hin e s ei n a m s c an s c in on s c in e n
( C re ep
II “
c réo
'
an
.
p c r ea
p
IIIa . Help helpa n hea lp
b . D in kr dr in c a n dr on e
IV . Bea r b e ra n b ee r
V . Tr ea d t reda n tr ad
VI .
(
“
Fa re f r a an for
t r with t he
t oge he r ules of bfi 68 6 9 s uffic e fo t he c om ple te
‘
, ,
r
pl c e a .
70 I N F LECT I ON .
5 7 1
71 . H ow t o t e ll t h e c l as s o f a s t o r ng ve rb .
n owhe r e e l e in s tr on r a s t o t hose
1
e b s in the s m e p
s ts v
g a ar
C la s s Infin . P a s t S in g . P a s t P lu r . Pa s t P a r t .
“
I .
( S hin e i a i i
II . C r eep
( He lp
“
IIIa .
( r b .
“
D in k
IV Bea r
.
V ( T r ead
“
. e
V I ( F a re
“
. a
V II .
( R edupl ) . cc, e e o, e
2252
The on ly un e c rt in ty there fore lies b et we en Clas se s II III
a .
, .
,
IV . an d V .
, a n d t ha t is c om ple t e ly dis pe lle d b y t he f ollowin g
t t
s a em en s : t
T he s t e m -v o we l in C l as s e s II .
(
“
C re ep an d V .
t c t e r e is n o un c e rt in t —is fo l
“ — b e w e e n whi h
( T r e ad h y a
in p s t p rt s c n d o
a n f la n f .n h o n
or e s ee ,
r re ,
or or e ,
r or e ,
r re
T he s t e m -v o w e l in C l a s s III is fo l l ow e d b y t wo .
( or
m or e ) co n s on a nt s , th e fir s t of w h ic h is a n a s al in ( )
6
( a ) ( He lp
“
b ut n ot in
T he s t e m -v o w e l in C l as s IV . is fol l owe d b y
l or r o nl y ( e xc ep t in br e c n)a .
1 It is as s um e d t h at dr inc a n , e .
g .
,
l
wi l n ot b e tak en for a pas t p lur . or
p as t pa t r . of Cl as s I .
72 I N F L EC T I ON . 73
73 C l as s II ( “
C re e p G r a da t ion row :
‘
. -
éo fi , ea 11 o .
P a r adigm c r eo
pa n , c ré a
p ,
c ru on
p , e ro pe n .
Pr es ent
In dic a tiv e .
P lur .
S u bj un cti v e .
P lur .
Imp er a tiv e .
eré o
p , c r é op a6
Infin itiv e .
c r é opa n , da t .
-
an ne
P a r tic ip les .
e r eo e n de
p ge erop en
A m on g t he c om m on e r ve rb s of this c l a s s are
b é oda n , c om m a n d
b r é ot a n , br ea k
el é ofa n , s ev er
dr é oga n , en du r e b rfie a n , en oy
j
fié og a n , fl y b fig a n , b ow
fié ot a n , fl oa t dufa n , div e
g ré ot a n , weep hi t a n , s too
p
hr é owan , r ue s efifa n , s hov e
.
74 V ERB S . 73
Irr e gul a r .
( ) a f ollow in g c om e u n de r V e r n e r s L w
The
’
a wi h t r
in pl c e of
a n d d in p l c e of 6 in p s t
s, a
plur a nd p t ,
a . a as
pa rt :
cé o n ch o e
sa ,
o s c uron g e c ore n
dr eos a n , fa ll dr uron g e d r or e n
Whe r ea s V e rn e r s ’
La w f a ils in
ab r eo6 a n , f a il ab ro6 e n
( b) F or t he c on tr ct ed
a ve rb s fl e n o ,
teon ( d r )
aw , s ee 81 .
74 . C l as s IIIa G r a da tion r ow :
-
e, eo ea 11 o .
Pr es ent
In dic a tiv e .
S u bj u n c tiv e .
m
I p er a tiv e .
he lp, helpa6
Infin itiv e .
he lpa n , da t . an n e
-
helpe n de ge holpe n
74 I N F LEC T I ON . 74
b elg a n , be a ng r
y b eorga n , pi g tect
de l fa n , dig e eor fa n , c a r v e
m e lt an , m elt feohta n, fig ht
s we lga n , s wa llow hw eor fa n , tu r n
s w e lla n , s well m eolc a n , m ilk
s we ltan di s t eorfa n , die
, e
weor pa n , thr ow
N OT E .
(1 ) The ea of t he pas t s ing . is a b r ea kin g of a ,
an d t he r e s is a b re k in g of e
co of t he p . a . The r ea s on why om e s
v e r b s ha e e n d o the rs ea in t he p r e se n t
v a is, th t e b rok e b e for e I
a
o nl
y hen followed b y c o k
w r
Irr e gul a r .
( ) U n de r Ve r n e r La w 1 6 9) c om e s
’
a s
, p en e tra t e ,
s ee 81 .
c
( ) In t hre e ve rb s e ie a ft e r p a la a t lg ( s ee 1 43 )
d
( ) Two ve rb s hav e u in t he p r es
mu rn a n ,
m our n m ea rn m urn on
s
pur n a n ( s
p or n a n ) , sp ur n s
p e a rn s
purn on
( )
e M e ta thes is of r is s ee n in ber s ta n *
br es ta n
‘
an d 6 er sea u
* 6 r es a/nc c e t he n or m l c h
3 he n a an
ge of a to as
( s ee 1 0 0 ) in t he
pa s t s in g . in s t e d of b r e ak in g
a
b e rs ta n , bu r s t b aer s t b u r s ton g eb or s t en
6e rs e a u, thr es h 6 eers c 6 urs c on ge6ors c en
1
An as te ri k b f
s e o e a r r
wo d den ote s tha t it is n ot e x tan t in th at form .
70 V ERB S 75
fl
(f ) T he root -
v owe l is n ot follo wed b y c on son n t s th t p roduc e
a a
b rea k in g ( s ee 3 ) in
t
wi h whi h m ay b e c rem em b e red t he a n om a lous
Non e. ( 2) h
A ll t ese v e rb ft n dr
s o e op hc
9 wit om pen sa to ry l en g t h en ing
of the p rc e edin g v o w l (
e see th u s:
brud on
(3) S treg da n is l c
a so on ug ate d
j weak .
75 . C l as s IIIb (
“
D r in k G rad tion
a r ow :
-
i (
a u u .
Pr es ent
In dica ti v e
S u bj un c tiv e
Imp er a tive
dr in c , drin c a6
Infin itiv e
dr in c a n , da t .
-
a nn e
Pa rticip les
dr in c e n de g e dr un c en
( )
b linn a n , c eas e s m c a n , s in k s wim m a n , s w im
lim pa m, hgpp en s in
g a n , s ing win n a n , fig ht
76 IN F LEC I ION .
'‘
76
N oTE s .
(1 ) T he P rim itiv e G erm an ic gradation row
Cl III w - of as s as
e u n
a T h di rg nc . fr m th i f th Engl i h ub cl
e ve e H lp
es o s o e s s -
a s s es
“
e
”
a nd Dri k
“
du t ch ng n whi ch t nk p l c p rt l y in G rm nic n d
”
are e o a es o r
a e a e a a
p r tly in OE
a ( i) G rm ni c > i b f r n . 1+ n n e t p d in n
a e e o e a sa co so an z c . r ca
a n d h lp ( ii) G rm n ic u >
e an . in tr n g p t p rt e pt b f r
a o s o as a s ,
ex ce e o e
n l+
as a n n nt co p g h lp n g d un n
so a
( iiiz) OE
c > g
. b f re n o l e , e r ce . . a e o e a asa
(s ee d > ( br k in g ) b f r r l h + n n nt p d gn h lp
an ea ea e o e , , eo so a : c . r c, ea .
( iv ) S ee 7 4 , N ote
(2) D ubl c o e on s on an ts ar e ll
us ua y s im plified w h en fin a l : s wimma n ,
p as t s in g . sw
gm(m) , im perat . s in g . s wim .
Irr e gul a r .
i( e ) r n an r u n , or n a r n urn on g e u rn en ,
c
( ) F or br in a n s ee
g 9 0 a n d for 6 u n g on 6 u n g en § 8 0 N 6 ,
-
,
-
, ,
. .
76 . C l as s IV (
“
B e ar G r a da t ion —
row : e as as o .
Pr es ent
In dic a ti v e .
b ere
hir ( e) s t ( b ie r s t )
b ir (e ) 6 ( b ie r6 , 1 40 )
b e r a6
S u bj u n ctiv e .
P lu r .
b er, b era6
Infin itiv e .
be ran ,
da t .
-
a nn e
b e r en de geb or e n
77 V ERB S . 77
The on l
y im po rta n t ve rb s of t his cl a ss a r e
b re c an, br ea k hela n , c nc
o ea l te r an , tea r
c l
s t e a n , s tea l
Irr e gul ar .
( )
a S c ier a n , s he a r ,
c ut , t
has diph hon gis e d t he v owe ls of t he
fir t t hre
s e
p a rt s, ae > é a
,
un de t he in fl ue n e o f r c
p l t l s (
a a a o see g 1 43 ) b ut s a c r ,
s c eer on , a re a lso found in p oe try
—
i
s c e ra n s c ea r
( s erv
e r) s c é a r on
( s e aer on ) g e s c or e n
( b) Es p e c ia lly im p ort a n t a re
c um an, c om e o
( )
w om c
( )
w 6 m on
( g e ) c urne n ( c ym e n )
n im a n , ta ke n6m ( nam ) n 6 m on
( n am on
) g e n um en .
on the l
an a ogy of Cl as s VI . F or the oth r w l
e vo e s s ee 1 4 6 , 1 48 .
77 . C l as s V (
“
T re ad G r a da t ion -
r ow : e as as e .
P a r ad igm : t r e da n, treed ,
t r fidon , t r e de n .
Pr es ent
In dica tiv e .
S u bj u nc tive .
Imp er a tiv e .
t r e d, tred a6
Infin itiv e .
t re da n , da t .
- a nn e
P a r ticip les .
t r e de n de ge t r eden
78 I N FL EC T I ON .
g 7 8
drepan , s tr ike s
p r e e a u , s ea
p k
me tan ,
m e te, measu r e weg a n , c a rry
wre c a n , a v eng e
Irr e gul a r .
Un de r V e r n e r s Law 1 6 9) c om e
’
( )
a
c we6a n , s ay c wae6 d
c w ae on ge c weden
w e s am, b e wees w aeron 96)
Whe r ea s t he la w f a ils in
( ge n e s a n , s ur v iv e
) ( ge ) mses ( ge ) n fis on g e n e s en
le san , collect lees l es s on g eles en
( )
b D iphthon gisa tion due to pala t al g is s e en in a ll pa rt s of
g ie fan ,
g ive 1 43 ) g e af
g ea fon n
-
g ie ta n , g et -
g e a t g
-
é a t on -
gie t e n
c
( ) Eta n an d it s c om poun d fr etan hav e a in pa s t s in
g
t
e a n , ea t
"
i t fi ton geet e n
fre t an , dev ou r fr fit fr é t on fr eten
78 . C l as s V I (
“
F are G r a da tion —
row : a o o a .
Pr es ent
In dic a tiv e .
S u bj u n ctiv e .
80 I N FL EC TI ON . 79
79 . C l as s V II ( R e du p lie atin g) .
Infin an d P a st P a r t .
S te m wels E
'
-
vo a, , e a, éa , <, 0
3
P ar adi gm s : fe a lla n , feoll, feoll on , fealle n .
Pr es ent
In dica tiv e .
S ing l . . fe a ll e la
Tet e feoll let
2 fiels t lé ts t feoll e le te
_
.
S ubj u n c tiv e .
l fite
l é te n
Imp er a tiv e .
fe all, feall a6 l é t, l ee
‘
t a6
Infin itiv e
—
.
P a r ti ip lesc .
fea llen de la
s t en de g e fea llen g el fite n
( n ) d é d n n d leor t fr om te a m
o r a ,
e p r e s e r ed in p oe t ic al or
a , ar v
n on WS te xt s
-
. .
di ided in to t wo s ub c l s s es a cc or din g t o t he ow el of t he p s t
v -
a v a
p r e se n t .
d
s ca a n , an d blgn da n ( b len d) .
79 V ERB S . 81
1 . P as t t ens e in 60 .
( i) b lawa n , b lo w m awa n , m ow
c h aw n kn w a ,
o s aw a n , s ow
e r aw n cr w a ,
o s w a a n , s weep
p
6 r aw an , thr ow
w ea x a n , g r ow
( )
iii b ea ta n , bea t
- hea w a n , hew
hlea pan , leap
a na n , s um m o n s
ponnan,
j oin
II . P as t t e n s e in e .
NOT E .
( 2) B es ide s sc d da n, s eed, e tc .
,
we fin d s c ea dan , g esc é a den , wit h
dip thh on gis ed v owe l ft r p l
a e a a ta l se an d an a n om a l ous p as t sc éa d .
( v ii) dr ea d rfi da n , c ou n se l
li t an , let s la
Ta a n , s leep
p
N OT E .
( )
3 Th re e of t hese ve rb s ha v e a ls o wea k f or m s
-
an as
p
-
as
pa s pa t rt . while r eeda n , c oun s e l, r ead, is a l wa
y s
e r on e o
.
, pa s . .
6
82 IN F LEC IION
’ ‘
. 80
Ir r e gul a r .
g gn g de, pp g eg gn g en
. In pr ose , on ly code, t he pa s t te n s e of g ai n
.
( see is us e d .
WEA K P R E S EN T S .
80 . In Clas s e s V the re e .
,
VI . an d V II . ar a fe w verb s,
i e we r e orig in a ll y fo rm ed wi t h j or Th
( . . e
y re a
Infin . P as t S ing . P as t P l . P as t P a r t .
C las s V T r e ad
b idda n , r e u es t
q b é don
liega n , lie
sitta n ,
s it
6ie gan , ta ke
C la s s V I (
“
Fare
s t ee
pp an
( s tg
pp an
) ,
s te
p
s w gria n , s wea r
Clas s V II ( R e dupl ) .
P R ES EN T In dica tiv e .
liege heb b e
lig ( e ) s t hef( e ) s t
lig ( e ) 6 ( li6 ) h@f( e ) 6
lieg a6 hgb b a6
P R ES EN T S u bj u n c tiv e .
lieg e hgb b e
lie ge n hgb b en
s ron
P A S T S ubj u n c tiv e .
l eege hofe
l eege n hofe n
Imp er a tiv e .
Infin itiv e .
Dat
.
P a r tic ip les .
g e le
g en
g e ha fen
g e s w or e n
g e wOp en
6 2
84 I NFL ECT I ON . 80
N OT ES .
( )
1 Lik e liog a n a r e c onj uga t ed t he p r e sen t s of
fr icg a n , 6 icg a n a n d lik e b idda n t he
p r e s en t s of a ll t he othe r
ve rb s with doub lec on s on an t s .
( )
2 T he
p r in c ipal p rt s as gi e n on p 8 2 m us t b e c om a ,
v .
,
us e le s s n e ss of pplying 7 0 7 1 t o t he m
a , ,
.
p r in c ip l p a rt s
a O t he r wis e t.hey a r e c onj uga te d in the p r e en t , s
v er bs .
( )
4 The s e ve rb s m ay b e r e c ogni s e d as ha v ing we ak
p r e s e nt s
in four w ay s , whic h will b e b es t a ppr e c ia t ed b y
c om pa ris on with t he tes t s for s tron g a n d for wea k v e rb s in 6 4
They hav e m u ta ted r oot-v owels thr oug hou t the p r es en t
()
i .
on ly
( )
ii In t he m aj or ity of them t he riginal owels t he
o v ,
t he pas t p rt ic iple s S tr on g e r b s of C l s s es V V I a n d V II
a . v a . .
, .
,
we k p r e s e n t s
a .
e im pe r t iv e s in g in e e xc ep t in we e c ulia r
( )
i Th v
( pa
)
a n is
p .
-
t o we ak v e r b s .
(5 ) B id th ir w k pr n t th
1
es es rb h w r l th r i gu
e ea es e s, ese v e s s o s ev e a o e r re
l iti
ar es W ft n m t with th in tru i
. e o e w l t which tt nti n w
ee e s ve v o e ,
o a e o as
c ll d in 3 4
a e in f i g ( ) n li g ( ) 6 i g ( ) n li g 6
r c t Sw i
e a , c e an, c e a , c ea ,
e c . er a n
a l t rn t with
e a es It i p ibl th t th p t p rt fr g n frig n s os s e a e as a s . e e , e ,
c m un d r V rn r L w B id e6 6 n th r i tr ng in fin
o e e e e
’
s a . 6 nes e s sc a e e s a s o
-
. s c ea a ,
a nd b id es ed w k p t
es s e c6 d D iph th gi ti n ft r p l t l i
a ea as se e e . on sa o a e a a a so s
If 1
the s tuden t is puz z l ed b y t is h n ote he wil find l
P rt II
a .
g8 1 V ERB S . 85
h
t is dip t ong is ation has hh b ee n f ll owed
b y m utation ( s ee g
o In hliehha n,
the s am e v owe lh r as es u l t d fr
e om m utation of ok en a The br . v owe l in 6 ea h,
as in s ea h is a br ki g
ea n of o rigi l na (1 . T he o of s woren
l ik th e a t of 6 wog e n r c ding w
(g is due to the in uen fl c e of the p e e .
Th in t rch ng
e f bl d f in heb b
e i a i d b y th f ct th t b b in
e o ) an an s e x pl a ne e a a
OE r pr .t rl i r fj Th d ubl d c n n t ( g gg ) f th pr nt
e ese n s e a e . e o e o s on a s c z o e e se s
t nd f
s a rl i r c n n n t +j d th u = th i ( = ri) f we i r b ing
or ea e o so a ,
an s e r o s r a n, e
th n ly c n
e o n n t th t w n t d ubl d
o ft r h rt w l th ugh in
so a a as o o e a e a s o vo e ro
flu f f ll wi g j
en ce o o o n .
C O N T R A C T ED V ER B S .
81 . A ll s trong
rb who e pre e n t s t e n originally e nde d ve s s s r
w it h owe l In f ct h r e m in s on ly b e for e t he —
a v . st 6 of t he
a a ,
-
,
2 md nd 3 d s in g p r e s
a n d w he n fi n l in t he 2 n d s in
r .
g im pe r .
,
a a . a
ti e n d l st n d 3 d s in g pas t ; it h s b ee n repl c e d b y g in t he
v a a r . a a
Ve rn e r s La w ( se e ’
C la s s .
“
6"
l
( leon , len d thr iv e )
( 6
I. Shin e on ,
a
II .
(
“
C r eep fié on , flee t eon ,
dr a w
( Help
“ e
IIIa . fé ola n , p en etr a te
V . T read ge fé on , j
r e oi e c s é on , s ee
plé on , a dv en tu r e
VI .
(
“
Fa r e fléa n , fl a y s lea n , s la
y
lea n , bla m e 6 wea n , wa sh
V II R e du lic a t in
.
( p g) fOn, se iz e hOn , ha ng
The num e s in
1
br
a ke ts e e to the o owin
g br c rfr f ll n ote s
rcl c rc rb (
.
2
S t i t y s p e aking , fEOla n is n ot a on t a te d v e s ee b ut
c
the m os t on v e n ien t p a e to g ive its onj ug ation l c c .
86 I N FL ECTI ON .
g8 1
P ar ad igm s .
I . t eon II t é on
.
PA S T
fea lh
f
[ ]b
a le f ulg e ( 2)
fe alh
[fT
aal ]
on fulgon
P AS T
—
[f—aale
] fulge
[faele n
] fu lg en
Infin itiv e
NOT ES c rc . l f th 2nd nd 3 d in g pr i
(1 ) T he un on t a ted v owe o e a r s . es . s a
m ut ti n f th un c n tr ct d
a o w l ( br k n in Cl
o eIII V VI ) wh ich i
o a e vo e o e as s es .
, .
,
. s
pr h i t ric f rm
e s o f th infiniti gi no s o e v e are ve :
I te n tib n
. o
*
a .
*
II . teon teub an .
( breaking)
* *
III . fé olan feolh an felhan .
V . s é on
*
se h (w) an
gefé on -fehan
VI . s l é an
*
s lahan .
*
V II . fon t an .
The p as t pl
( 2) .
fulg on ( an d deriv ed p a ts) is a r rr e, an d pp . is
wan tin g h r l c h b nfr
In t ei p . n d pp cc rding t
a e av e ee o m ed a p as t p u l r . a . a o o
Cl IV ( “ B r
as s ea
( 3 ) Th p t p lur nd pp eg n g n
e as n c ily gi n in th
. a . se o , se e , are e essar ve e
p r digm b c u
a a th y , th m d l fe a th th r
se rb f th cl b ut
e are e o e or e o e ve s o e as s ,
( lik pp l g ) th y
e . n t th u u l f rm
s a en A i en b th r t f
ar e o e s a o s. s s s ee a ov e , e oo o
L w ; g w> g
a in OE b ut > w in WS pr or 10 S 1 69 .
, . os e . ee .
(4 ) Th 9 f th p t p lur h b n x t n d d t th ing in Cl
e o e as VI . as ee e e e o e s . as ses .
( 5 ) T hr ugh th id n tity f th c n tr ct d f rm
o f te n ( L )
e nd e o e o a e o s o o a
te no th f rm r p d r in t Cl II n d w f ll w d b y w é n
e o e ass e ov e o as s . a as o o e r o ,
b l ngin g t rb f Cl I
e o o ve s o as s .
( 6) C nn c t d with 6 6 o th i th p t p l ur 6 ung n th pp 6 u g n
e e 0 72, r v e , ar e e as . o , e . n e ,
which cl 6e n as s it lf rigin ll y b l ng d
o se o a e o e .
82 V ERBs 89
II . WEA K V ER BS .
Wea n VVe en )
i
C lass I -
,
in -
a n and -
ia n , w it h
m ut at e d s t em -
v ow e l t h r ou gh out .
C lass II ( lis t t
1
in -
an in wi h
m ut at e d t
s e m -v o we l in th e p r e s e nt o n l y .
in ia n , wit h t he
1
C la ss III Look -
s t e m -v ow e l n ot m ut at e d .
C la ss I . an d pa rt ly lik e C la s s III .
( s ee lis t giv e n in
g
T he p in ipa l pa s r c rt d pa s t
a re fi t
t he in n i iv e , pa s t S in
gula r ,
an
a rt c c ar v e r ule s for fo r m in
p i ipl e It is un n e
es
. s
y t o g i g t he ot he r
pa rts from t he m , b eyon d t his : F ollow the p a r a dig m s F or t he .
§ 64 .
Weak ve rb b tr
s e ay h ir w
ch r ct r in c rt in h it ncy
t e e akn e s s of a a e a e a es a as
t th cl
o e ng t d
ass th y b l
t th l ng th f th ir r t yll bl
e e o whi ch
o an as o e e o e oo -
s a e,
l d th m t tim t tr f r th m l fr m n p r digm n d cl t
ea s e a es o an s e e s e v es o o e a a a as s o
an th r
o On c d cid th p r dig m th t
e . w k
e e rb f ll w n d th r t
e e a a a a ea ve o o s a e es
1 8 easy .
1
S iev e rdoes n ot m ake
s a s e pa ate r cl as s of T el ve l ”
rb H nc Cl
s . e e as s
III .
( ab ov e) = S iev e s
’
as s r Cl II Cl .
, as s IV ( b
. a ov e ) = S iev e s ’
r Cl III as s .
90 I N FLEC T I ON .
C las s I “
( We a n We e n
-
Or igin al s hort t
s em : wgn n a n , a cc us tom ( we an ) .
su o
pp .
wenn e
wgn es t
wgn e6
w gnn a6
P R ES ENT S u bj u nc tiv e .
P A S T In dica tiv e .
P A S T S u bj u n c tive .
Imp er a tiv e .
Infinitiv e .
( )
t o w gnn a n n e wena nn e
P ar tic ip les .
wgn n e n de wé n e nde
gew gn ed ( pl .
g e wgn e de) gew en ed ( p l .
92 IN FLEC TI ON § 84
84 . S e c on d a r y p ar adigm s : ne ri
an , s av e ; gier wa n , p re
p ar e ; s w gb b a n , p u t to s leep ; s et ta n , s et ; lec ga n , la y .
S ing l . n gr ie sett e
2 . n er e s t ( )
s gt e s t
3 . r
n e e6 se tt
Plu r .
g ier wa6
P R ES ENT S u bj u n c tiv e .
gi er we s web b e
P lu r ie r we n s wgb b e n
.
g
P A S T S u bj un c tiv e .
s wgfe de
g ier e de
P lu r ie r e de n s w efe de n
.
g
Imp er a tiv e .
2 . r
ne e
P lu r 2 . . n er i a6
Infin itiv e .
D at ( )
t o n gr ia nn e
gier w a n n e s w gb b a nn e s gt t a nn e lgc ga nn e
‘
P a r ticip les .
g e n gr e d e
g g ie
( )
r w ed
g e s wgfe d
g e s gt
( )
t g e lg
gd, l e -
p l ge n gr ede
.
geg ie r ede g es wgfe de g e s ette g elegde
94 I N FLECT I ON . 8 6, 8 7
86 . G ie rw an , s wgb b an , s
gt t an l gc g an ,
NOT E .
(1 ) In LWS .
, b es ides pas s ing ov e to r Cl III ass
( ) 11 S wgb ba n . F or bb <
f +j c
p hgbba n , 80 La t e r , t his v e rb
. .
a lso
p a s sed ov e r in t o Cl a ss III Look s wgfia n , s wg ode, e t c
f .
( )
iii S gtta n . Lik e s gtta n are c onj uga t ed a ll w e ak ve rb s
e n din
g in tta n , e g
-
. .
(3 ) Th p ly yll bl
e o r t in th
s a es e a e tt in the s in g . im pe r ativ e : Onette .
87 . 2 nd an d 3 r d S in g . P re s e nt : Ru les for C la ss es I .
an d II .
s ho rt s tem s onl
y a ft e r c, s a nd t n d o cc s ion a lly ft e r l
,
a nd g a a a .
.
,
e ae s
l
s g e6 s gl6 , lgg e6 lgg 6 .
( 2) C on s on ant -c h an ge in c on s e quen c e of s
yn c ope t a k e s
pla c e a cc or din g t o t he r ules la id down in § 6 9, when e v e r t he
c on dition s the r e s pe cifi ed ar e p resen t Ex s : ( hwgte6 . . hwgtt
fr om hwgtta n fylle6 >fyl6 from fylla n c376e6 cy6 (6 ) from cy6 an ;
lades t leets t, laden leet( t)
’
hyt( t)
hyda n ;
’
fr om
‘
for ielde6 >for ielt from for ielda n wgn de6 wgn t from wen da n , a n d
s o on .
§ 88 v
V ERB S . 95
88 . P as t T en s e — V e rb s
th t fO m their p s t t e ns e b y a r a
a ll or ig in l lon g s t m ;
a ee 5 8 3
) e s ubj e ct t o t he f ollow in
e s s
g ar
rule s
(1) D oub le s t e rn —
fina ls a re s im l
p i fie d : a fier r a n ,
a fier de
c gn n a n , c gn de ; fylla n fylde ,
.
( 2) A fte r c
a v oi e les s s em - fin a l, t c , p (p ), t, as, f , ss , -
de -
te
P ast Pa s t
pm
-
drgn c a n , g iv e to dr in k dr en c t e S la
TSpa n , s leep Si t g“
dyppa n , dip dypt e me t an , fin d me tte
liex a n , s hin e liex te pyfia n , p uf pyft e
c
ys s a n , kis s c
ys t e
(3) A ft e r a c on son an t -
dd e - de an d -t t e -
te
s en da n , s en d s gn de faes t an , fa s ten f s te
as
c ydde .
(5 ) V e rb s in c on s on n t l n r s hould ha e syll b ic l
a , , ,
v a ,
n, r,
in t he pa s t ,
b ut m or e fre q ue n t ly t hey t k e t he e n din g ede o a -
r -
ode
se
gla n , sa il se
g de
l b ytla n , bu ild b ytlede
a p erfo m
a n, r a de efn e de
t im b ra n , bu ild t im b r ede , t im b r ode .
m na n
( n am e ) los e s n: n em de n e m n ode
) .
NOT E . L ate r th , e se ve rb f rm
s o ed p r e s en ts a so a l cc rdio ng to Cl as s III
L ook t im b r ia n , e tc .
( 6) r t
A ppa e n ly in im i a ion of t t ve rb s in Cla s s II . ve rb s in c
som e t t
im e s a k e ht for c t in t he pa s t t en se an d pa s t pa rt
Past PP
Olec c e ( ) an fl a tter
,
Olec t e Oleht e
_
h ea ls ap p r oa ch n é a lé c te -
1 aehte
iec ( e ) an , inc r ea s e ie c t e ie ht e eie c ed e i ht
g g e
89 . P as t P a rt ic ip l e .
()
i Un infl ec ted . The uni n fl e c t ed pp . us ua lly e nds in -
c d
b ut ( ) fter
a ow el ded
a a v - as a rule d( d) , an d ted-
t t) , while
(
( 6) ft e r c on son n t
a d o a r t, t he e n din g -
cd wa s O fte n dropped .
Thus we fin d
( ) t é la n , bla m e E l d ld )
‘
a pp .
g e t a e g e t fi
ma
Tat a n , a/nn o
y Tet ( t )
ge n a
t ob r zTedan , c
s a tter t ob r § d( d)
—
leiedan , lea d
e ea 6 m eda n , hum b le
g
un de r6 i e da n , s u bdu e
( )
ii Infl ec ted
rigin a l s hort s t em s t he re i syn c ope of
. In o s e
S h r t c nys s n kn ck
o a ,g e n ys e d o
g e c n s e de
y c
s et ta n , s et g e s et
( )
t g e s gt t e
b e s en ca n , im m er s e b es en c e d b es gn c t e
awie rg a n , cu rse awie r g e d awier g ( e ) de
Of c our s e
pp t h t s
yn sc o.a t
p e in a t he un in fl e c t e d form ( nom . s in
g .
)
r em ain s yn c op t e d in in fl e ction
a .
1
Th t i th thr
a s, x t n t f rm
e ee e a o s ar e g eea6 meded, g eéa6 médd, g eea6 med .
98 I N FL EC TI ON . 90
N OT ES .
(1 ) F or the int usiv e r e, so o ft en f
oun d w hr e ev e r c or g was
o rigi lly f ll
na o owe d b yj , s ee 34, N 6 . .
T he us ual p as t o m s of b ep é c a n , r e
(3) b e a n , tes c an ,fr
av e h b rro owe d the
r
v owel O f the p es e n t , b ut r ahte , tak te a n d taht o u in EWS - cc r .
( 4) F or b reng an , the r
s t on g r
b ing a n ( rare pp . b run g en ) of Cl as s
(
“
Dr in k is m o e o ten r f f oun d.
g etele d .
of P art II .
,
the rl e a tion s b e tween the v owe s of l the p es en t an d t r h os e of the
p as t f rmo rb It i th r f r
s o f th es e v e s. s e e o e n ot don e for hi m e hr e, b ut the
f ll wi g n t m y h lp him i m f th chi f difficul ti
o o n o es a e n so e o e e es :
6 en n—6 oht G rm ic 6 ht ; b 6 ht *
ca6 akt e e e an an a so r e .
p n ti n f th l
e sa of th n l or e os s o e as a .
( )
b Or igin a l lon g t
s em s , se a n c .
P lu r .
P R ES EN T S u bj u n c tiv e .
s ec e n
90 V ERB S . 99
P A ST Indica tiv e .
S ohton
P A S T S u bj un ctiv e .
Imp e r a tiv e .
c
S e a6
Infin itiv e .
t glla nn e S ec a n n e
P ar tic ip les .
N OT ES . 7
( ) It is ob v ious t ha t t he on ly im po rt n t
a diffe r e n c e
b e twee n t he r
a b ov e
p g m s an d t ho e of
a a di 8 3 is in the c h n g e s a
of owe l in t he p s t f o r m s of tgll n a n d s ec n
v a a a .
ie
. . t em s with
s hort owe l f ollowed b y a doub le d c on s on an t
a s v
( ffe r en t ) c on s on n t s
di a .
1 00 I N F LEC T I ON . 91
C l as s III L ook
91 . The ve rb st hi s cl
ry n um erous so are thos e
of a s s are v e
s tron g n d we k a Look e rb s
a a ll ha e in fi n it i e in
. ia n -
v v v -
( e xc e t t he fe w c on tr a ct ed
p e r b s in t he r oot owel v -
v
is m ut t ed onl y in t he c s e of
a fe w l t e forma t ion s fr om n oun s
a a a ,
a n d g r en ia n t o b e c om e g r e e n fr om g r en e
, ,
.
Pres ent
In dica tiv e .
lOc ode
loc odes t
lOc ode
Imp er a tiv e .
lOc a , IOc ia 6
Infin itiv e .
lOc ian , da t .
-
a nn e
P a r tic ip les .
lec ie n de gelOe od
N OT ES .
( )
1 N ot e tha t t he -
a6 , whi c h in ev e ry othe r clas s
r
m a k s t he p e s plu r . r al ,
he r e r
m a k s the 3 r d S in
g .
p r e s whil e t he
,
pl u r
a l ha s -ia 6 .
(3 ) F or -o de, -
od, we fin d l es s fr q u tly
e en -a de, -
ude, -a d , -ud, r r ly
a e -e de,
-
cd ; b ut -
edon is no rm l cc rding t
a a o o 12 .
1 02 I NFLECT I ON . 93
C l as s IV : M ix e d V e rb s .
f g
ol ode, e t c .T he f ou r v e rb s ha bba n , ha v e, libb a n , liv e , s gc
g ( e) a n ,
s ay, a n d hycg ( e) a n , think re giv en in f ull b elow
,
a
,
with t he pa rt s
tha t b elon g t o ea ch clas s in s ep r te c olum n s
a a .
Cl as s 1 . Cl III
as s . Cl as s I . Cl as s III .
lib b a6
PA ST In dica tive .
PA ST S ubj un tiv e c .
Imp er a tiv e .
lib b a6
Infinitive .
hab b an lib b an
P a r tic i
ples .
lib b en de lifiende
gelifd
93 V ERB S . 1 03
Cl as s I . Cl as s III . Cl as s I . Cl as s III .
PR ES ENT In di c a t ve i .
hyg( e ) s t hogas t
hyg( e ) 6 hoga6
hyc g ( e ) a6
PR ES EN T S ubj un tive c .
PA S T In dica tiv e .
—
S ing l . . s segde , s eade 98 2 ) hogde
. b ogode
2 . s ae n St ,
s fi de s t hogdes t hogodes t
3 . s eegde , s i de hogde hogode
sa
e gdon , s eedon hogdon hogedon
Plur . 2 . hyc g( e ) a6
Infi nitiv e .
s ec g e an ( ) hyc g( e ) an
P rticip l
a es .
hyc gen de
gehogod
NOT ES .
c
un om m on , b ut ar e r
p op e y dia e ta rl lc l
E o egu a y ep a es to in . r l rl r l c l tra e
f rm
o s, leofa6 , e tc .
,
a n d t en we h f h
av e p as t o m s leo ode ,
ge leofod fr .
odd c om b in ation of the two eowa n . T he f llo owin g f rmo s o ccur in EWS
Infin . iewan eowian cowan
3 r d s ing p . r es . iew(e ) 6
‘
eowa6 cowe6
3 rd p l . iewa6 cowia6
S ubj p . r es . ie we é owi( g) e
P as t . iewde ( LWS . é owode ) é owde
P as t p a t r .
g eiewe d ( p l geiewde ) .
geé owod
94 . How We ak V e rb
t o t e ll th e C l as s of a .
e rb s of C l s s II n d C l s s IV M x
( ) Th
a e v
( i ed
) a . a a .
V e rb s in n b e lon g t o C las s I
( )
6 -
a .
III ex c p t thos e n me d in .
,
e a
85 ( all S hort s t em s ) .
c
( ) V e r b s wit h m ut a t e d r oot owe l b elon g t o C l s s I -
v a .
unm ut a t e d III .
III . P A S T P R ES EN T -
V ER BS .
95 . The r e
twel e e rb s in OE wh s e p re s e nts ar e ol d
are v v . o
s t r on g p as t t e n s e s fr om w hi c h n ew we k p s t t e n s es ha e b een
, a a v
a n d a ls o
“
S tr on g We ak e rb s The ir p s t te n s es
-
e c onj uga t ed v . a ar
1 .
( ) , dea r ( r) da r e
e gu n , 6 earf, n eed ( ge ) m gn , r emem be r
know ( how to)
2 . c gn s t de ar s t ( g e) a s t
3 . c gn n ( ) dea rr ( ge) m gn
c un n on dur r on ( ) m un on )
‘
ge a6
-
PR ES EN T S ubj un c tiv e .
PA S T In di ca tive .
1 . c u6 e do rt s e 6 orft e
2 . c u6 e s t dors tes t 6 orft es t
3 . c u6 e do rt
s e 6 orft e
PA ST c
S ubj un tiv e .
S ing . c 11 6 e
‘
dort s e 6 orft e
Plu r . cu6 en dor ten
s 6 orfte n
Imp er a tive .
Pa rticip les .
P r es . 6 earfen de ( ge ) m un ende
P a st .
( )
ge c un n en (ge ) m un en
( adj ) , known
95 V ERB S . 1 07
IV V VI
PR E EN T Indic
S a t ive .
PR ES EN T S ubj un tive c .
PA S T Indi c a tive .
S ing 1 . . s c e olde
( ) m eaht e , m ihte
2 . s c ( e ) oldes t m eahtes t, m ihtes t
3 . s c ( e ) olde m eaht e, m ihte
s c e oldon
( ) m e a ht on , m ihton
PA S T S ubj un tive c .
S ing . s c e olde
( ) m ea hte , m ihte
s c ( e ) olde n m eaht en , m ihte n
Plu r . 2 .
s c ulan -
n ugan ] [m otan]
( b y o m utat ion )
-
. t r f rm
A n o he o of te n
t he p as t s es in EWS . is wis se .
T he n e ga t i f rm
ve o of wita n is n
yta n, with y thr ugh o out .
( 2) A g a n has ti f rm n ag
a n e ga ve o a n, n ah, e tc .
1 08 I N FL EC T I ON .
g 9 6
IV . A N OM A LOU S V ER BS .
o
, ( ) g ri n
go ; ,
( d) willa n , will .
B e on we s an b e
'
(a) , , .
Pr es ent
wiéron
S ubj un c tiv e .
b e)
b eon
Imp er a tiv e .
Infin itiv e .
c
P a r ti ip les .
we s en de b é on de wa n ting
N OT ES .
(1 ) T he form s of this ve rb b egin nin g wit h a v ow el
n ees, n ecr on , e tc .
an om al ous ve rb s on ec bl e ong ed to th cl
e f as s o ve rb s in -
mi (c p . Gr eek
( E
u/d , 7 1 0mm) .
wit h b fr om o n e, t h os e with w fr m o a c
s e on d, an d all th th
e o fr m er s o a
t h ird .
1 10 I N FL ECTI ON . 96
( d) Willan ,
will .
Pres ent
Indi ca tive .
Plu r .
Imp er a tive .
P lur . 2 .
[n ylla6 ,
n ella6 ]
Infi nitive .
willan
P a r tic i
p le .
willen de
N OTE .
(5 ) Willa n t
un i e s with ne to f rmo rb
a n e gat iv e v e ,
whi ch
t r t
has y or e for i h oughou t he p es en : nyl( 1 ) e , n el( l) e , r t n olde, e tc . In
WS n o im pe a iv e is found b ut the nega iv e plu al
. r t t r .
PA RT II . PHONOLOGY .
a dopt e d it w ill b e c on n ie n t t o t t e s u cc in ct ly he r e
ve A tt e n tion
s a .
ar e es se n t i l t o t he u n d r s t n din g o f t he c h n g es in s tr e s e d
a e a a s
v owels ; fe w p r g r phs
a e de ot e d t o t he m os t im ort n t
a a a ar
p v a
to k pl c e b e t wee n In do G e r m n ic n d G e rm n ic ( e t he t a b le
o a -
a a a se ,
§ ) l ,
or d ur in g t h e G e r m n ic p e r io d t h n is n e c e s a
s r y fo t he ,
a a r
e x l n t ion of s ub e q u e n t c h n g e
a s A fe w de e lopm e n t s m n i a s v a
p a .
sa k e of c om ple t en es s b ut in e a c h c s e it is c le r ly in dic t d th t
,
a a a e a
t hey e l te
ar a .
G w er of tr es e d ow el w e fin d t he n orm l e q ui
s s v s, a
OE p r im r y ow els
. a 1 00
v T hes e e t he n in c lude d ar
in ac om p r ti e t b le with t ho e of othe r G e rm an ic l n gu g es
a a v a s a a
112 P H ON O LO GY . 98
g i e nv u n d e r e c h he d 1 1 4 ( ) Thae u p w r d his t o ry a 0 a
of e c h OE s tr es s ed
a ow e l n d di hth n g b ot h p rim a ry n d v o
p . a ,
a
se c on d r y is
gi e n in t b ul r for m
a , ( d ) T he pr in c ip l
v a a a
h e n om e n a se e n in t he de e lo m e n t of t he O E c on s on a n t a e
p p v . s r
b r ie fl y s e t f ort h 1 64
ST R ES S ED V OWELS .
b e c am e t he G e rm ni c lan g u ge t he s ys t em of s tr es s ed owels
a a s, v
w s s f oll ow s
a a
1
a, e , ll)
i , u; a w
) in , , s , i t“, 6 , E
M a i, a n , e n
e in th G rm n ic p ri d ( ) b f r n
e e l+ na n n t wh n c th diff
e nc o , a e o e as a co so a , e e e ere e
Of w l in OE d in n
vo e d h lp n b l ngin g t th . m cl
r f tr g
ca an e a e o o e sa e ass o s on
ve rb ; ( b) b f r i j i th m th n x t yll bl wh c th diff r c
s e o e or n e sa e or e e s a e, en e e e en e
of w l in OE bidd n ( b dj n) n d th p t p rt g b d n
vo e . a < e a a e as a . e e e .
( 2 ) G rm n ic h d l t rigin l e m yba n by c m p ri n f
a os o a 0 , as a e s ee a o a so o
L t h tu with G th ic y d E g y r d
a . or s E ry G rm nic o in tr d ar s, n . a . ve e a o s ess e
syll bl ath n h d ri n du i g th G rm
e s, e ic p ri d i
, a cc rd n c with
a se r n e e an e o n a o a e
th f ll win g im p rt
e o t l w
o E rl i r G erm nic u > u d r th i fl u c
o an f a a e a o n e e n en e o
wr
.
w w w ww
r t ct d fr ch h r
Mr
in te v e n e d, u was p o e e om an e . T is l aw has the m o s t m a k ed
ol ogy . T hu
( a ) dep en ds thes, on
diffe c b tw n uch OE p t p rt
en e e ee s . as a s . a s g edr unc en (Cl as s 3 b ) a n d all s tron g
p t
asp rt w i th ra t w l s ( Cl
. 2 3 F t
oo h w-
l f
vot h n di g
e 0 a s s es , a, or e vo e o e e n
- n w
e in G rm as a ic n d thi cc rdin g t th l w c u d th ch g
e an , a s, a o o e a ,
a se e an e
u> in ll tr ng p t p rt wh r u w
o a s o t p r t ct d b y n
as l c a nt s . e e as n o o e e as a on s on a .
A g in a n k n wl dg
,
o f ( b) d p n d th u d r t din g f OE i m ut ti n
a o e e o e e s e n e s an o .
-
a o .
F wh r
or i OE g ld b ing n
e e as t m th
n rigi l u f th
. o t> in
, e a o-s e , e o na o e roo o
T h num b r in br ck t r f r t th n t
1
e e s a e s e e o e o es .
1 14 P H ON O L OGY . 1 0 1 , 1 02
( )
2 OE . a is al wa f
ys oun d in t he im pe r ti
a v e s in
g . of s trong
ve rb s of C la s s 6 fa r fr om fa r e/n .
is n ot w e ak e n ed fr om 0 o u : d g day ; f t es s el bleec b l c k r ee ,
a ,
v ,
a
b r tr d
a ,
n d t he ot he r p s t s in g s
ee ,
a of t he 4th n d 5 t h s tr on
g a . a
b g d pas t of br g d n b r n dis h
rx ,
7 4 e f ) ; desg es d ge e t c
e a ,
a ,
.
,
x ,
.
sac e fi e ld ; fe g er f air
f a de
( e )r < a r, e , .
E s s t ea df s t in t he ge n n d da t s in g of
N OT E ( )
3 O i
. . x a . a . .
m as c n d n e u t e r n ou n s of t he o r din r y de c l e n s ion s u c h
. a s da g a ,
a ,
n o rm l : hw te in s tr um e n t l m s c a n d n e u t s in g
a a , n d n om ac e a a . . . a . .
m as c pl of ht . a ct iv e ; hw te
.
g e n s in g m s c ,n d n e ut e r on a s, . . a . a ,
t he a n a lo
gy of kwa tu, kwa ta , hwa tu m ; SO fa r e f a/ren far en de
, , ,
followin g fa r a n , et c .
101 .
(W ) . G erm . e O ft en r em ains in OE e g . . . in m a n y v e b s r
of t he 3 r d, 4 t h and 5 th s tr n g c l s s e s s u c h s
o a , a help a n , ber a/n
b r ec a n , tr eda n , pp .
ge t eden ; a n d in f ld fi eld ;
r e ,
helm , helm e t ;
weg , way, et c .
W G e rm i 98 , N ot e 1 ) fte n r em ains in O E ;
i
102 .
( ) . .
( s ee o
e
g in t he p a s t plur a l a n d pa s t pa rt s t e m s
. . v . of s tr on g e r b s of t he
pa s t p r es e n t v e rb
”
in t he wi ta n ; in is , is ; in fis c, fish ;
-
m ic el, g r e at
rb s of t he s tron g Cla s s IIIb
,
e tc .
; in ve
’
3 d s in g of s tr on g
r e r b s of t he 3 d
. 4th a n d 5 th C l s s e s v r ,
a :
p r es e n t s of t he 5 th Cla ss of s tr on g e rb s
“w
t n ; a n d in
e a/ e k a v
b idda n , a sk ; sitta n , e t c .
1 03 — 1 0 5 P RI MA RY V OWELS . 115
N OTES .
(1 ) (W ) . G rm ;
e i has weak en e d t o e in m ec , m e , an d in s ev e a rl
ot h r pr
e on om in a l f rm o s in w i h ch th e e was su s e b qu tly l en e ng t h e n e d, e .
g .
me, to m e, m e ( s ee
( 2) OE i is . r pl c
e a ed b y y ( s om e tim e s e ) in the n e ga tiv e f rm f wit no s o a
e s pe ci lly in LWS
a . Cp t he
. r pl c
e a e m e n t of EWS ie b y LWS y . .
103 .
(W ) . Ge m r . 0
( see 98 , N 2 ) . us ua lly rem a in s in O E ; .
e g in pa s t pa s of Cla s s e s II , IIIa
. . rt . . . and IV . of s tron g ve rb s
g eboden , g eholp en , g ebor en a n d in
c or n c r n ,
o
a nd m ny o t h r wor ds a e .
N OT E W
( ) G e rm o u in . . . a n um b e r of w o ds , r e .
g .
luf u lo e w ulf w lf
,
v ,
o fur 6 or , fu r ther ( c
p .
for 6 )
F or this c han ge n o re a s on ha s b een ass i n ed
g .
104 . W
( ) . Germ . u ften r em in s ; e g in p s t plur ls of
o a . . a a
of s tr on
t he 2 n d an d 3 rd C la s s es g e r b s bu don hulp n ch n con ;v : ,
o ,
a
N OT E .
(W ) . G e rm . u > o in t he s tres se d pre fix ar
( out of,
wi hou t t) e .
g .
or l Qg e, wa r or s org La t . se eu r u s
)
or 6 a , s kill or m od, desp on den t
OE . ziti .
( ) a O E d is . found ,
i e. . W . Germ d . rem ain s ( 1 ) b efor e w ,
e .
g . t he pas t pl u r al et c of s eon ,
'
s awon c ldwu
( cla w) tawia n ,
8 —2
116 PHON OL OGY . 1 0 6— 1 0 9
( p r ep r e ) a ,
an d t he foreign w ord p awa ( c
pe a oc k ) ( ) In n
2 . a
op en s
yllab le b e fo r e a gutt u r l a v ow e l, in t e rc h n gin g wit h a : a
s ldp a n oc s le
ep a n , t o S leep ; lag on leég on , st l f li g n ; ld
‘
oc
p a
p o . c a c
n ia n cc leEc n ia n ( i O ) ,
t o hea l ; m dg a s cc m a g a s, m ag um cc m aag u m ,
l of m ag , kin s m a n
p . .
( W
( b)S ) as IS t he n or m a l de v e lo m e n t of G e r m a ni c
OE .
p . as
through W G e rm a j us t a s C E 3 3 is of G e rm a ( c p
. .
, . . .
v .
, , ,
p r iv a ti e
p r e fix e
g
v m en un in ha b it e d a n d in r e
e d
x
( r ede . . se ,
‘
wxp n ( we a pon ) s tr at t L s tr at a ) e tc ,
.
, .
N OT E G e r m a n ic a 98 N 3 ) > OE 6 ; b ut a s t his is in
.
, . .
106 .
( W tte r th t p s sed in to
) . G e rm . 5 is t he on ly le a a
10 7 . W
( ) . G e r m i > O E i in t he g r e a t m aj ority of in s t a n c es ;
. .
e .
g . a ll the p re s en
pa t rt s of s tron g ve rb s of C la s s I . : s c in a n , s cin ,
s ci n en de, e t c .
fer 6 ih6
o 81 an d 98 , N 4 ) . from of er6 § on xc
( el)
e
108 . W
( ) . G e rm 6 . a lm os t a lwa
ys OE 6 . e .
g p . as t te n ses
of s tr on g e r b v s of Clas s V I .
for f5 r on
‘
,
hen c e in m et ( m ay) , a
a s t p r es e n t of Cla s s V I s om e R e duplic a t in g v e r b s
p
-
.
b lOwan , to bloom r
g owa n , to g r ow s g a n , to s ou nd
an d in
dom , doom Ofos t , ha s te s wot e, s weetl
y
w r oht , a ccu sa tion
g od, g ood S oht e, s ou ht
g
109 . W
( ) . G e rm
rem ains in O E e g . fi a lm os t a lwa
ys . . .
a oris t r e n t s of t he 2 n d c l s s of s tr on
p e s
g v e rb s : liic a n ( loc k ) a
-
,
( s e e g 98 N 4 ) fr om 6 ync a n
, ( see m.
) .
118 P H O N O L O GY .
g 1 1 3
es
pe ci
ly w he r e t he y a r e a s n um e r ous as in Ic ela n dic an d Old
al
N OR M A L CORR ES P ON D EN C ES OF S T R ES S ED
V OW ELS .
a ( g 98 N , . 3)
75:
2
( W . G e r m a)
.
jO ( y) eo, _
io ( iu)
g 1 1 4 SO U N D LA WS -
. 1 19
1 14 . Un de r t he c on e nie n t nd c om pr he n s i e he d
a b ov e v a e v a
s tre om th n o m l c esp n de n c s ) h c
d
s se owe l v
( p t f s a ar r w i h e r a or r o e ,
o n eighb ou r in c on s on n t s c s of c on s on n t s ;
( b ) t g ( ) t o t he lo a ,
s a
d L e n g t he n in d S h rt w t h rr an ge m e n t
( ) g n o e n in
g F a
o llo in g is . a
t he l ws of
a oun d c h n ge a e c on s ide r e d un de r t he followin g
s -
a r
nam es
( )
a I . I or J -
M ut at ion
II . U or O M ut a t ion
-
( U
( )
b III . P a la ta l M uta t ion ( M ut .
IV . Br eakin g ( Erk g ) .
X . N as al ( Infl .
( Los s N ) -
.
XII . C on tr a ct ion
d
( ) XIV . Le n g the nin g ( Le n g thg ) .
XV . S hort en in g ( S horts ) .
1 20 P H ON O L OGY . 115
of t he
p r oc s se s which t hey de n ot e
e T he ab b r e i t ion s in p a r e n . v a
a nd fr e q ue n t l s a e m akin a r e fe r e n c e
v
y g .
115 . It is n ot p o x a ct c hr on ologic al
s s ib le to a ssi n
g t he e
o r de r in w hic h t he p r oc e s s e s r e p r es e n te d b o e c m e in to Ope r a v a a
m u t h e b ee n in ope r t ion o e r
s av c on ide r b le pe riod of t im e
a v a s a ,
e.
g . P a l a t l M u t a t
a io n B u t b y c r e f ul. ob s e r t ion of t h e
p o a va r
in t h s u cc e s s i e s oun d c ha n g es of t he s am e w or d the p r e s e n t
e v -
,
a p p r o xim at e o r d e r o f t h e ir a p p e a r a n c e w hic h is p r ob a b ly ,
n ot e ry f v from t he tr ut h Thos e on t he s am e le el ar e
ar . v
su
pp os e d t o b e n e a r ly y
s n c h r o n ou s b u t d t es ar e n ot s si ned
g ,
a a
( for ab b r e v ia t ion s s ee b o e ) a v .
S horte n in g
Le n g t he n in g
P al D iph
. . Los s —
N
I M ut a t ion
U M u ta t ion Infl . W
W Infl-
. M ut P al. . Los s G, H - -
I . I -
M UTA T ION .
118 . I -
M ut a tion is t he in fl ue n c e
follow ng i e x e rted by a i
"
or j upon t he ow el s oun d of s tr e s ed s ll b le b w hi c h t h t a s a a
v
y y
-
,
s oun d is
p rt i lly s s im ila t e d t o t he s oun d of t he m u t t in g le tte r
a a a a .
a
p la
a t lis aat ion i e t h e r e pl c e m e,
n t of l
. e s s p
.a la t l v ow e l b
y a a a a
m or e p la t l o we l in e e r y in t n c e
a a v The i o j t ha t c u e d t he
v s a . r a s
n gr ia n z n gr a nj and in som e ad s
j g .
, e . . hgfig ( heav
y) ,
wielisc ( f or e i n
g ) w hile n um e ous r tr c es
a Of m ut a t in g i an d j hav e
b een oin t ed out in the A ccide n c e On t he o the r ha n d, t he i in
p .
ve rb s of t he 3 rd w e a k cl a ss
(
“
Look loc ia n , lufia n , is a we ak en
in g of 6, the r e fore does n ot c ause i m ut tion ( see
an d -
a
p h e n om e n on ; b u t t he s ub j e ct h s b ee n o b s c u r e d n d c on f use d b y a a
G r ad ation is r el tion of di f e n
a t o w els in wor ds de r i e d fr om
a er v v
on e r oot e xis t in
g side b y s ide a t the s m e tim ; M ut atio n is a a e
m ut t e d owe l )
a vG r ad tion is a r ela tion of difi ren t v owels to
. a e
wwns c i n wus c ia n
a wy ca n b ut un fort un at ely t he OE s , ,
.
1 20 SO U N D LA WS -
. 1 23
n oun
*
wu n sc p r ob b ilit
nev e y E r e x is t ed
e n S ie e ,
in a ll a . v v rs
Europe n P r e n t S pe c h w a r eg ul rly c h n ge d t o G e r m n ic i
a e as a a a
w he n t he n xt s yll b le c n t in e d n i o e t h t is t o y in
a o a a r a sa ,
ev er y w r d in which OE i m u t tion c ou ld p
o ,
ibly t ke p l .
-
a os s a ac e,
G e m ni c r an d en i n d iu w hic h in t he p e —
e a m u t t ion p e r iod
a ,
r a
Of O E i n d io
.
( n d n ot o acc u r t el
y p S k in g co nda ,
a a ea ,
a
OE f or m t ion s t ll s w e k n ow fr om t he ir e x is t in g in on e o
. a a a ,
a r
m or e of t he c ogn t e l n g u g es n d t he r e for e l o in t he p r e n t
a a a a a s a
G e r m n ic M ny of t he m a e of im m em or i l an t iquity Thi is
a . a r a . s
j u t s true of t he 2n d a n d 3 d s ing p re of e rb s of t he
s a r . s . v s a
p r in c'
ip l p rt F r
a o m t he r e m
a o t e n
s c es
. t r of hat n e g t he re a o a ,
. .
,
On c e f r m d t hi wo r d h d n in dep n de n t e x is t e n c an d c m e
o e ,
s a a e e a
ot he r w o r d n m e d a b o e Gyld n n d t he C HG g u ldin p r o e
s a v . e a . v
t h e x i t e n c e o f a G e r m a n ic p r e n t dj e ct i e whos e i pr es e r e d
e s a a v ,
v
the r dic l u fr om c h n ge t o o
a a 98 N 2 ) un t il t he OE a ,
. .
i m ut a t ion pe r iod
-
OE wy c n n d OHG wun ken p ro e t he . . s a a . s v
a ,
a
p r e n t of
a e r b w it h r e l b lue G e r m n ic b lood in its
a v e in s a a v .
120 . We ha v e r
y s ee n t ha t the r e wa s wha t m ay b e
a l ead
ch g e , a s in hilp ( e) 6 , 3 rd s in g
an . of help an , bir ( e ) 6 of ber a n , tr itt of
tr eda n , in bidda n a n d t he o he p r es e n t s of t he T r ea d t r “w
e ak
” ”
t o ie , and t hen un de rw n t in
e OE . a s e on d c i mu-
t a t ion , v iz . io is .
1
S iev e r s
’
OE G . r a mm a r C , ook s
’
t r an s ation ,l 45 .
1 24 P H ON OL O GY .
g 1 2 1
hi de he rds m n
er , S im il r ly u un de r we n t doub le m ut a t ion
a . a e ,
fir s t in G e r m an ic t he n in C B u iu OE i o ie ,
: e . .
Lo s N s -
n d C on tr ct ion
a n d c n it s e lf b e followe d b Infl W a a a
y
-
, , .
,
S x on Con q ue t
a P og t s he s ugg e s t s a b out t he ye r 6 0 0 A D
s . a c r a . .
as follows
( i) ( a se
q ( ) se ( ii ) a 5
( iii) ea ie ( iv ) ea ie
(v ) io ie ( v i) (iu 10 ie
( v ii) o 5
( x)
i 11 V
121 .
()
i ( a a
g . In p osi tion s in which o rigin a l a
c ould s uf
fe r
M uta tion it ha d a lr ea dy b e c om e as or Q
I -
,
1 0 0 ( b) ,
1 4 8 ) b e for e t he I M u ta t ion pe r iod ( e xc ep t a s s t a t ed in
-
N ot e
Ex a m ple s : lgcg a n ( y) ,
la
p l g p
ee , a s t s in
c .
g of licg a n ; . s gtta/n
( ) p
se t , c . s ec t, pa s t S in
g . of s itta n ; tglla n , c p ta lu ( t a le ) ; . n gr ia/n
t t —
j S t em and
“
we ak
( t o s av e
) ; m gte
( ea ) ,
m an i
-
s em ; hgll, a
p re s en ts r cl ( r a is e )
” “ ”
of t he Fa e ass : hgbba n ,
c
p pp g ehofen
. .
s c g66 a n
( in j ure ) ,
a n d s wgr ia n
( s we a r) .
N OT ES .
( )
1 x in s t e a d of g is r egul rly foun d
a in t he 2n d
an d 3 r d s ing p r es of s tr on g v e r b s of Cla s s V I feer s t, fa r6 , fr om
. . .
f a r a n in t he m ut a t e d pa s t p a rt s o f t he s a m e C la s s , g e
f a r en oc .
g f e a r en , e t c .
fs t, haf 6 ,
in hae fr om ha b ba n in s a gs t, s a g 6 cc s gg s t,
s e c ure r
( ) h f t n ( i
,
m p is on ) e t c
x a ,
.
fl n c e of t he i fi
( )
2 T he in u e
( b ut n ot j) of n l s llab le
y a a
e n e tr t ed t o t he in it i l s yll b le a n d c a us e d m ut t ion if t he a a a
p a ,
126 .
( v i) io ie , He re b e long ples us ua lly a ll t he e x am
g iv e n un de r 20 , as e x p l a in e d in 1 1 9 cr iep 6 , s ci et, 3 r d s in g p e s . r .
of c r eop a n
( cr ee p
) ,
s c é ota n t
( S hoo ) ; g etr iewe ( ue ) , c p tr éow tr .
u n a , pc .
da n c e ; s tr i en a n t
cp . s teor
( g ui ) ( ob a in ) , c p g es tr é on ( pos ses s ion s ) ;
.
'
as we ll a s f i en d, fr i en d, da t s in g a n d . . n om .
p l . of f i ond ( en em y) ,
fr i on d ( frien d) .
127 .
( ( )
v ii
) g , o
g . a Ex am ples of Q >g: s tgn t, 3 rd
s in
g p.r es of s tgn dam
(
. s t an d
) b g (
n d b on d
) i s t em c p b pn d pas t ,
-
, .
,
of b in da/n ; m gn ( n ) da t a n d pl of a
s in g .
( )
n m an
; s tr gn g r a , . .
, ,
( t o n am e ) c p a (
a nam e
, ) s gn da n t o sen d
.
( ) c
p (
s gn d m ess a e )
g , .
tgm ia n ( t o ta m e ) c p igm ( t a m e ) ,
. .
a ught e r ; gae n rg en ( m or n
( d ) p l of oxa ( ox
) m g ) c p m org en ;
, .
, .
gf es
( e a v es
) gl e ( )
oil .
. o . . : , . .
R e duplic a t in g ve rb s blOw an
( b l )
oom , g r owa n ; t he weak p r es e n t
“ ” -
.
p .
t o e ase ; es , p o . . .
s m 66 e ( s m oothly) ; g es e6 a n ( t o p r ov e ) c p 3 66 ( tr ue ) ; ehta n ( t o
'
.
,
of fan ( t o s e iz e ) .
129 .
( )
ix 11 > y . Ex s . 3 rd S in g p r es of c u m a n ( c om e ) ;
: cym 6, . .
t he “
p as t p re s en t
-
”
s ubj un ctiv e s dyg e, dyr r e, g em yne, s e le, g
6 yrfe,
'
c
p dug on , .
p ku ng or ; g esyn to
etc .
; hyng r a n ( t o hu ng e r) ,
c .
( fill) , c
p .
fu ll . In n ea rly a ll o t he r in s t an c es , su ch as
gylden
(g olde n
) , gyden ( g oddes s
) ( b uy ) , y, bycg a n
app ea r s t o b e t he
i m ut a tion
-
of o
( in g old, g od, bohte) , a s it is s ill O e n s a id t o b e t ft .
1 3 0, 1 3 1 SO U N D L A WS -
. 1 27
n ot on ly i g t he m u t t ion o f o
s nd 0 o w l h s t w o m ut t da ,
a 11 v e a a e
b y f ollow in g i j fr om t he c h n g e in t o 0 whic h w s un de rg n e
a , ,
a ,
a o
b y t he p ir w or d g ld g d b ht e t
a -
( e e g 98 N
s o ,
o ,
o e, c . s ,
.
N OT E . A ft e r p a la a l t g c ,
w e n ot
,
in fr e
q u
s o, e n t ly fin d i fo r
13 0 .
(x) u > §i . Ex a m ple s : bry
7e6, lgc6 , 3 rd S in g .
pre s of .
b r uc a n ( e nj oy) ,
l ei cun ( lock ) ; br yd ( b id )
e ,r
fys t ( fis t ) ,
i s te m s
c j 6a n ( to m a k e k n own ) ,
cp . 0 1 26
( k n o wn ; fy
) sa n
( t o ha s te n ) ,
cp .
fus ( e a ge r) wgs c a n ( to wis h) .
II . U M U TA TION .
131 . U M ut at ion
-
( un de r c
whi h w e in lude O c -
M ut a tion ) is
t he infl ue n c e e x e rc i ed b y a following l s w el upon a g utt u r a vo
t he f oll owi n g g ut t ur l ow e l g u tt u r al
g lide oun d a r os e a ft e r
a v ,
a -
s
t he s tr e s s e d ow e l n d in t im e f or m e d
v dipht hon g wit h it
,
a a .
T hus
( i) i + a, o, u > io ,
( )
ii e a, o, u e o,
( iii) a u ea se a
) .
T he v ow el a tion in W S n d u m ut tion
doe s n ot s uffe r o- m ut a .
,
a -
a
g e n e s a
s tr e s s e d s ll b les ha e s o fr e ue n t l
y qa
y w e k e n e d in his tor ic tim e s
,
v a ,
n e ce s s r
y in or de r t o dis cr im in t e u m ut t ion s from o ( )
a a - a a
m ut tions a .
1 28 P HON O LOGY . 1 3 2—1 3 4
U—
M uta t ion c ould
follow ed in t he his t ory of the s m e
be , a
wo rd b y WIn fl
,
b ut n o ot he r c h n g e e ithe r p r e c e ded or
-
. a
vowe l un c h n g e d e l o f oun d
a ar a s .
13 2 .
( i)
( ) T hii > io
s is b
y fa r the m os e en si v e
eo . t xt
Of t he h e e e ffe s in W S
t r It is e s pe ia lly om m on in EWS
ct . c c .
t r r
La e , t he s oun d e v e e d t o s im ple i, or t he e ffe rt
wa s dis guis e d ct
b y t he ope a ion of WIn flr t E a m ples a r e -
. x
( )
a u - mu a t tion s
fr e o6 o, p ea c e s iolofr , s e olfor , s ilv er
wiot n c u n s ello a ,
o rs c lio
pian , to c all
b ior a of them ,
t iolia n , to a im a t
n io6 or , down wa r ds liofa6 , lives ( fr om libba n )
n eo6 a n , fr om ben ea th
13 3 .
( ii) e eo r tt c
is p e y om m on , b ut is n ot as a r ule c a us e d
infl e c tion al u . x
E a m ples a r e :
( )
a u—
mu a t tion s
e ofor , boa r weor od, tr oop
he ofon , hea v en s w e os t or , s is ter
he or ot , ha r t s eofon , s ev en .
( b) o a
( ) -
mu t tion s
a
13 4 .
( iii) a > ea is yv er rare in EWS p r os e, b ein g foun d
.
( )
iii ea e in L WS . b e fo r e h ( x ) . Ex am ples : s eh s ea h
( s trik e ) .
. v . < ,
a < ,
< ,
e a .
,
Br ea kin g did n ot p r e c e de .
IV . BR EA K IN G .
13 6 r o c e s s of t he s m e n t ur e as U—
Br eak in g is M ut t ion
a
.
p a a a ,
a o a . a
()
i ( a as u h, r l c on s t ) . ea et c .
( )
ii e o h, r l ( c + or h) eo e tc .
( )
iii i o h, r io (cc ) et c .
it s c us e s n d c on dit ion
a a a n d it s r es ul t s Al th ugh t he owels s, . o v
a ffe ct e d a n d t he r es ul t s e t he s m e s in t he s im ila r
p r o c es
ar of a a s
s on n t s ;
a whe r e s u m u t t ion did n ot pe n e tr te throug h t wo
a -
a a
6 iss u m ) .
tion ,
P al M on . .
,
W—
In fl .
,
an d LOS S -
H .
1 37 —1 3 9 SO U N D LA WS -
. 1 31
13 7 .
( i) ( a m> ea b e fo r e h ( x ) , c ov e r ed r ,
and c o e re d
v l .
(g r ow
) of t he R e duplic t in g c l s s of
,
tr on g e rb s ; p
a s t s in g of a s v a .
in the p s t—
“
pr e s e n t erb s d r tr c
”
a
( ) 6 rf o f t h e 3
v d s o n
g las s
ea r ,
ea ,
r
sea h fr om r st r s en t e r b be
“ ”
eo n
( )
s ee ; s i
sm il ly in t h e p p e a a - v
g n h ( it s uffi c e ) ; le h s in g im p e t of s lé n ( s tr ik e ) ; m e ht
e- ea s s a , . ra . a a ,
me hte p rt s of t he p s t— p re sen t e r b m g fe (h ir ) ; We lh
“ ”
a ,
a a v a ax a a
( W e ls hm n ;
) S x n a
( S x on
) ; l ea
( c h al k ) f or e ig n wor d
a s c ea c a ,
a
be lu ( e v il)
a u
( rm our ) n d of t he dj s g u (y r e) n e u
,
s ea r a ,
a a . ca r a ,
ar
( r e tc hed) ; e ht ( e ight ) ;
w ni n
a
( to e r n )
a ea r a a .
N OT ES (1 ) b e f or e c o e r e d l s om e t im es r em in s : f ll n
'
. a v a a a ,
h ld n
a lda ll W lh
,
a ,
a ,
a .
M e t t he s i f t ok pl c e ft r r e kin g pe r iod
( 3 ) o o
a es t h e B r a a a -
tr n s ) n ( hous e) g s ( gr ) no in b s ta n ( b urs t) 6 s a n
a ,
ee r ,
eer ass ,
r er ,
er c
ha s a b r ok e n owe l v .
13 8 .
(1 1 ) e > eo b efor e h, c o e re d
v r, lo an d lh
. Ex am ple s
feohta n ( fight ) ( thr ow ) Help cl s ; s h
“ ”
,
weorp a n ,
of t he as eo ,
i g im pe r a t of s é on ;
s n . . c n eoht
( a se r v an t) ; c or 6 ( ea rth) ; h
e d eor
( he dr
) se
( ) p helm
olh s ea l , c
( he lm e t ) s teor r a
. a se
( s t r) f ( s elf )
ol ,
139 i e o b e f or e I
c o e r ed ; b ut e x m ples e
.
( )
iii > io ( ) t an d v r a ar
s im il r in c h r ct e r t o U M ut t ion n d Br e k in g
a a a n d pe rh p -
a a a ,
a a s
g u tt u r l i ai b e f or e r, p l t lised en d t he n t he s a m e di h
pa a a a r, a
un ch n g e d i is
a lso foun d Ex am ple s a e : bi( ) n n ( b urn )
a . r e r a ,
i er na n ( ru n ) of t he D r ink
“
,
cl s s bi( ) s t bi( e) 6 2n d an d 3 d a e r ,
r ,
r
e r) s t n ( b ur s t ) ;
s in g of b . n
( b b i ( )
er a s t 2 n d n d 3 d s in g of b
a e r ,
a r . er a
hi( e) e n a n d d t of heo ( s he ) hi ( )
e ne c e of In"
a
( h e
) g i ( f
) 6 a e
gr e, . .
,
.
,
( a re ) .
VI . P A L A T A L D IP HTH ON G IS A TION .
v ow el gli d e
; t h
ae e w a ds o m e d a di ph hon g wi h t he ft r r f r t t
foll owin g v ow e l, a n d hen , b e in g t he s e le m en of t he t fir t t
t
diph hon g , ook ov e t he s es s t
This is t he ge n e a l n a u e r tr . r t r
of t he chan ge ; the p rt icula r c s es e s om ewh t n um erous a a ar a ,
s tr e s s e d e o u a 6 u ,
i a,They e c on enie n tly um m ris ed
, , , , ,
a . ar v s a
in thr e e c l s s es a
( )
ii P l t lis t ion of
p r im r
a a a
y e ft e r in itial p l t lis ed
a a
2
,
as, ee a a a a
c g s
, ,
e .
( )
ii i P l t li t ion of a a a a
0 Q u a a ft e r in it i l
sa
pala t , a, , , o, , , a a
lis e d se .
h q l l c bl
T i s n am e is e ua l y app i a e to U Mutation and B ea kin g ; b ut t ey
1 -
r h
ar e a eady et telr b
n a m e d ; an d a s im i a r l r b c
o j e tion m ig t b e ur g e d ag ain s t h
r
the t e m M uta tion , whi ch c l c
ou d of our s e b e use d of a ny an ge W atev e ch h r
.
2
L e the nor ma l OE dev e op m en ts o f e m an i e , a , £6
. l .Gr c .
1 34 P H ONOL OGY . 1 44, 1 4 5
( c) 5 Ex a m ple s : s c é a/r on ,
pa s t pl of s c ier a n ; g éafon ,
.
-
g éa ton , pa s
. t pl .
g iefa n , g ieta n
of -
s c é ap ( s he ep ) In 0 5 68 6 *
c éas i,
.
P a l D iph ha s
. . b ee n f ollowe d b y I— M uta tion .
m ut a t e d v owels g, a , Q 1 2 1 , 1 22 , 1 2 7 ) a r e un a ffe ct e d b y it
144 .
( iii) A ft e r initial s e, guttur al ffe red t he
v owe l s s u
s am e t e xt .
e r b s of t he Fare cl
( )
a ea s een in a, ,
v a ss , e .
g . s ceaca n oc
s ca ca n
( s ha k e ) , pp .
( )
s c e a c en .
( b) d > Ea , s ee n in s c é a da/n oc s c d da m
( t o dis in g uis h) t of t he
Reduplic a t ing c las s .
( d) Q 3 0 , s ee n in s c eom u cc sc gm u
( s ha m e) .
3 0 61) fr om
s céoc cc 3 0 60
( s hook
) ,
cc s ciepp a n .
(f ) u 6 0 , s e en in s ceolon cc s c u lon , pl of
. t he p as -
p t res en t
ve rb s cea l ( s hall ) This 6 0 m y b e b orr . a ow ed om s c eolde fr a b ov e ,
s in c e it is t he onl y in s t n c e in EWS a .
. e cc s cd a n .
V II . P A LA TA L M ON OP HTH ON G IS A TION
145 .
p r oc e s s w c
This is
hi h c on s is t s in t he c h n gae of t he a
a, ea , a a o ,
e,
a, a "an d a u .
1 46 SO U N D L A WS -
. 1 35
C la s s ifi e d e x am
ples a re
(p rc ei e v ed
) ,
soel s c ea l
( s ha ll) , oes ter c eas ter
( c s t le
a
) on g e ten
'
on
g é a ten , pa s t s ub u n j ct i ve o f ong ieta n . A ft e r j —
g ér g éar .
( )
6 F ollowin g on Br e a kin g — c elf ‘
<
f(
c ea l c l f ) a .
—on gé n in s t )
( ) F ollow in g Los s G ( ng é a n
'
0 on -
a
ga o Ong ea g n
( P al .
(d) In L WS . éa G e rm . an
) E, as in t he pa s t s in g . of
ve rb s of t he “
C ree p c la s s 0 63 c éa s
( c hos e
) , 9 86 g é a t ( pou red) ,
8 0 56 s c éa t
( s hot ) .
V III . IN F LU EN C E O F P R EC ED IN G W .
u an d O, an d it s in fl ue n c e
t en d t o s ub s titute on e of them fo s r
t h dipht hon g i
e rise n thr ugh Bre king or U M ut tion
s o, 30, a o a -
a .
W w b b ot h wi a n d wio
( ) i o a u s u al l y u ( nd e en u ) ut a v ,
s om e t im e r e m in _ wu du ( wood) r rely wi du ; wu du we
s a , a o
( wid ow
) b e ide widu w ; w ht ( W ight t hin g) b es ide wiht
,
s e a , ,
s wu t l ( c le r )
o b es ide s wiot l ; b et ( w) u h b t( w) u x ( b e t wixt )
a ,
o ,
e ,
( is te r ) LWS
s ,
. s w u s te r , s weos tor LWS . s wwr d
( s wo r d) s weor d
'
.
pp . , .
1 36 PHON O L OGY . 1 47 , 1 48
IX . IN F LU EN C E OF F OLLOWIN G W .
w ,
u glide
a r os e whic h with t he pr e c edin g owels for m ed t he
’
a ,
v
( ) w a uw é a w, in f éa we, fe w
‘
a a s e en .
r
s e v an t ,
k n ee , tr éo(w) , tree ,
e .
g ge n
. . s
g Oéowes,
. c n éowes .
N OT E S .
(1 ) T he 60 of the n om . sg . is due t o vo a c l i ti sa on of the w an d
c ont a r ct i on , w b e in g a ft rw rd b rr
e a s o o wed fr om the O bliqu c e a s es .
X . IN FLU EN C E OF F OLLOWIN G N A SA L .
t he fiv e followin g well m a r k e d c h n ge s a
G rme .
s
y n chron ous re k in g
wi h B t a . It c an be followe d b y P a l D iph , . .
Los s N , -
a n d I M u t tion a n d
-
a ,
ev e n b y t he la s t t wo in su cc es sion
in t he sa m e w or d ( e g . .
1 38 P HONO L OGY . 1 5 3, 1 5 4
a a n d is fr e q ue n t l
y f ollowe d b
y I—M u t a t ion 1 28 ,
C la ssifi ed x am ples a re
e
— s EO j our n e
tr
( ) a i>i on g f E
f y ,fi e s v .
( ) Q
6 > 0 — g g oos e ; we t oot h ; Od r s e c on d ; 3 6 6 tr ue ;
z
‘
os , , e ,
,
c
( ) u u — hz Zs l hous e l z m out h as us c Oe c d Oe
,
‘ ’
, , , ,
p rt s of t he p s t p r e s en t
a e r b s ca n n n k n ow
a
( ) n n n gr n t
( ) v a a a
-
, a .
XII . C ON T R A CTION .
s ou n ds in t o on e t us The t wo s oun ds
in o rde r to a v oid hia .
c on s on n t ; b ut the r e r e m n y in t n c es in which n o c on s on a n t
a a a s a
h s b en los t
a e The r e e t w o k in ds of C on tr a ct ion
. Con tr ct ion
ar . a
los s of a c on s on n t ; n d A b s o r t ion
p in aw h ic h a lon
g o wel
a ,
v ,
.
,
a , , , , ,
a
v ow e l an d whic h is oft en n ot r ec e de d b t h e l os s of a c on s on n t a
, p y .
a n d c an f ollow Br e a k in n d I M u t t ion
g a a
-
.
1 5 5—1 5 7 SO U N D LA WS -
. 1 39
( i) a, a h W) , gutt ur a l v ow e l ea
( ii) e h) eo
( iii) i i , h j) ,
io ( 0)
5
( iv ) i j) e ie
( )
v A b s o r p t ion s .
15 5 .
()
i W G e rm . . a, a gu t t u r a l v o we l ea a fte r los s
Ex a m ples — c on tra ct ed rb s “
re ”
of h or w . t he ve of t he Fa
cl ass : l an
f
a
e la /
ta n
) ,
S la y ; flEan , fl a
y ; lEa n , b la m e ; OwEan ,
wa s h ; an d a ll
pr es e n t f or m s of t he s a m e , e xc e t 2 n d a n d 3 r d
p
S in
g . in di c . an d 2n d S in
g . im p e ra t . : l a,
( I) S la
y, e t c ; tEa r .
Ha hur ) ,
te r ;
a Ea wa ter ; c lEa < c lci wu , cla w ;
né a r *
n ci h0 r
) ,
n ea e r r .
15 6 .
( )
ii e + g ut t u r a 1 v ow e l > éo afte r loss of h . Ex
z — t he
c ontr c t ed e rb s of the T re d cl s
“ ”
: go n
am
ple s a v a a s e
* eha n
f ), rej oic e ; p lEon dv e n ture ; sEon see ; ,
a
go e
( )
I r ej,oi c e e t c ; p s t t e n s e in E0 o f t he R
,
e dup l ic t in
g
. a s a
s
y ll b l e a w it h t h e f o ll ow in
g s tr e s e d o w e l hE ld *h h ld
e ) s v o a ,
j lf lol) folde d e t c ; t
* *
hE ldon he ld ; o ld
o ,
tw h0 ) e a , , . o e ,
doub t ; tE E S *
teh0 5 ) t e n t h
‘
o a a , .
fte r los of h o gu tt u r al v ow e l
“'
15 7 .
( )
iii i , 1 50 a s r
j, o w rit ho u t lo s of c on on n t E x m pl e — the c on tr ct e d e r b s
s s a . a s : a v
S hin e c l s s O on ) thr i e ; lE n le n d ; tE n
“ * h n ”
o f t he 5 a : i i a ,
v o ,
o ,
e t wee n
* i wi h n
b t
e n m o b t a u um
) b f i ond en e m y ; ,
f r Eon Z frie n d ; hi o
c ,
hé n
) s he Eo fe m of S E t h t ,
s , .
,
a .
N OT E T he m u t t ion of t his i o ( E ) is s e e n in t he d t in g
. a 0 a . S .
a n d nom .
p l .
f iend fr i en d , .
g 1 5 8
v ow e l — tci tahe) , t oe ;
( ) a a a r d, r oe in
; ga 9 6a m ) ,
v ow e l z —s a s
*
( 6) a Ees
se
) , g en . of 3 a , s ea ee
q
ob li u e S in g . of Q ,
la w .
( c) o v ow e l o —t he c on tra ct ed ve rb s of t he R e duplic at
in g cl a ss : f on
*
j 5 ha n ) ,
hon , ha n g ; a n d a ll p r es e n t for m s
s e iz e
of t he s am e , e xc e pt 2 n d a n d 3 r d S in g in die a n d 2 n d s in g . . .
*w
im pe rat .
f E,
( )
I s e iz e , e t c ; dé n
. do ; was okes ) ,
g en . of woh, cr ook e d .
( )
d ii v owe l s om e tim es ii — g ebiin g ebii en ) , g ebii d
*
ge
bri ed) , pp . of (M a n , b rig ea n , dwell .
( ) e y
‘
(f ) ea v ow e l
‘
éa —fr Ea * ran a
j )
f ,
lo d r s e v e al r in
fl e c t ed form s of hea k, high : hEa s
‘
*h a h
E es ) e t c , . 4 6) it s we ak
form ,
hEa , et c .
fEa da t .
f Ea m ,
fe w .
cla s s : fl Eon *
fl eu ha n ) ,
fl ee ; tEon dr a w ; fl Eo ( I) fl ee ; flEon de
, , ,
fl eeing ,
etc .
NOT ES .
(1 ) It s ee m s b ette r to att rib ut e su ch f rm o s as Eos , gen . O f eoh,
h r o g
o s e, s, en . of feoh m on ey ,
L
, tof C om p e n s a o t ry L n gth e en in g for OS S o
h p l u A b rp ti th im p l C n tr cti n i h r th r * *
s so on , t an o S E E e o a o ,
. e . os < oes < eo es a e
f ll w d B r ki
o o e ea n g whi ch
, m im p r b bl ; wh rsee A b rp ti n i
s m uch o a e e e as so o s a
l t r ch g
a e an e , as h asb n ttd ee s a e .
( 2 ) U n tr s es se d i l t in b
e s d n in c m p iti n with w rd b gin in g
os e an e o os o o s e n
wil la ii .
1 42 P HON OL OGY . 1 6 1 — 1 63
XIV . L EN G T HEN IN G .
fi n a l c on s ona n t —m E ( t o),
me ; z oE,
we ; g E, ye ; hE, he ( a ll fou r
with E e i) hwa, who and t he p re fix d
XV . S HOR T EN IN G .
162 . S horte n in g
followe d b y Br e k ing of i to i, a ,
is s e en in
t he adj e ct i e l oht = lioht *
liht) light ( n ot heav y)
v e , ,
an d in t he
pr ep betweoh betwih b e t wixt ( g
.
,
on t he D o wn w r d His t or y a n d t he S oun d L w
a of t he s tr e s s e d -
a s
v ow e ls we s t rt he r e with the OE
,
a ow e l s oun ds nd
gi e in . v -
a v
G e r m n ic owels A l m os t e e ry p os s ib le g e n e logy of t he O E
’
a v . v a .
w or d fr om le ft t o r ig ht e gi en t he s u cc e s s i e s t a ge s t hr oug h
ar v v
of t he or ig in l owel fr om a n othe r G e r m n ic l n g u ge
a v The a a a .
a b b r e i ti n s
v a w hen n o s uc h in dic t ion is giv en it is
o a ,
im plie d th t the c h n ge is n or m l
a 1 00 a or in dep en de n t a .
It m u s t b e r em em b e r e d t h t t he s e e on ly illus tr a t ion s s om e of
a ar
w or d ; in t he c s of
s few it m ight b e diffic ult t o dduc e a
a e a ,
a
v r ie t
in a
y of w ys
a a .
$ 1 63 U P WA RD I
H ST O RY : L C
S E E TE D EXA M P ES L . 1 43
S h o rt V owe l s .
a a O HG .
l
f r a an
ae < a
( hi nt
) se a
e e
e ( P al . M on ) . ea ( P al .
D iph 213 a
e ( Pa l M on ) ea ( Br k g)
c c lf OH G c a lb
. .
e li, a .
ae a
LWS fex , ha i . r
e ( M ut . Pa l .
) ea ( Brk g
)
ae a
m ec , m e e i
“
13 6
leog a n , la g ( M ut ) . as a G o la gja n
.
s en da n , s en d
e ( M ut
) .
9 ( Infl N
) .
-
a G o s a n dj a n
.
r
m e ge n , m o r r ow
g ( M ut ) . 0 G o m aurgin s
.
c 1 1 3)
i
hit, it i 1 G O ita .
m iht , ca ns t ( M ut . Pa l .
) ea
( Brk g
) O HG m a ht .
nim a n , ta ke i ( Ind N ) -
e OH G . n em a n
s ix , s ix i ( M ut P a l . .
) co ( Br kg
) e OHG . s eb s
(s 1 1 3 )
1
0 HG = Ol d Hig
. h G rm e an , OS = Old S a
. x on , I = Ic elan dic , G o = G othic ,
. .
Gr e m . e m a ni Gr c .
1 44 P H ON OL OGY .
5 1 63
0
O HG g old
gold, g old
0 o .
LW S . wo ro,
w or k 0 ( W—Infl ) . eo ( Brk g ) e O HG we r k .
s wos t or , s is te r 0 ( W—
I nfl
) .
eo
‘ U M ut
-
.
) e O HG . s w es ter A
OS ur logi
or lege , wa r 0 11 .
9
hQ n d, ha n d Infl N ) a G o han dus
Q (
- .
.
11
s un u, s on u 11 Go . s un us
LW S s wus t or ,
—
.
u WIn fl-
. eo ( U M ut ) . e OH G . s wes t er
s is ter
LW S s wur d,
rt
.
u ( WInfl
) -
. eo (E rk g
) e O HG . ew e
s wor d
wudu , w ood u ( W—
Infl
) . iO ( U—
M ut .
) < 1 O HG . vvit u
c um e n c om e u ( In d N ) -
0 OHG qu om an .
c
p
rt )
. .
h I
( S s
tween o
y ( M ut ) . 11 OS k us s ian.
ea
c e a ru , c ar e ea ( U—M ut .
) a
fe ax , ha ir ea ( Brk g
) se a
P a l D iph )
ge a f, g av e ea ( . . as a
a l D iph )
s c e a c an , s ha ke ea ( P . . a
eo
U M ut ) OHG s we s t er
s w e os t or , s is ter eo ( -
. e .
OHG werk
we or c , wor k eo ( Brk
g
) e .
eo ( P al D iph . .
) 9 OHG c
s am a
s c e om u, s ha m e
.
N) a
OHG s c of
s c e op, ba/r d eo ( P l Daiph . .
) 0 .
Go S k ul un
~ s c e olon
,
s ha ll eo ( P a l D iph . .
) u .
G o le iht s
le oht , n ot heav y eo ( Brk
g
) < i( Short g
) I .
1 46 P HONOL OGY . 1 63
e e G0 . hé r
e ( M u t < 5 ( Infl N
) .
-
a G o fahip
.
e wen , woma n ( M ut ) . 5 ( In fi N .
-
) <W
G o qé ns 1 1 3)
G e rm 5 Ge m r .
. . as
( P al . M on ) . 5a ( P al .
g er , yea r D iph .
) a W . G erm . Go .
j er 1 1 3)
5 G erm . fi
e
s Ec a n , s eek e ( M ut ) o . OS . s okia n
LW S t eh, dr ew
. e ( M ut P a l ) 5 a au
. . G o t auh
.
LW S g é t, p our ed 5
.
( P al M on
.
) e a a u . G o gaut
.
( M ut
) .5 ( L os s N) (
3
-
g e n é b a n , v en tu r e G O gan an pj a n
( nd N )
.
I -
a
lede, la id ( L os s G
) e( M u t ) 29 a . G 0 la gida
.
a l M on
on gé n , ag a in s t
( P .
) Ea ( LOS S G) .
-
OHG in gaga n
) ae
.
e a ( P al D iph . .
e ( LOS S G) e -
OS . t heg a n
e
( L en g thg
) e < i OHG wir .
1 ( LO
i ( LOS S 0 ) i
I ( Len g t hg) i
5 0 G o g ods
.
5 ( In fl N ) .
-
a G o , OHG
. . fahan
5 ( Ind N
) -
< W G erm G o q é m un
c om on
. . .
c am e
’
Ge m r . ae
g os , g oos e 0
( Los s N ) -
9 ( Infl N ) .
-
a OHG ga n s .
b r oden , br a ided 0
( L SS G
) OHG gib rott a n
‘
O -
o .
r
b udon , shook u ( LOS S G) -
u O HG b r ut t on .
5 11 , thou u ( Le n g th‘i
) u Go .
pu
o fe r hyd a r r og a n ce if ( LOS S G)
, y ( M ut ) -
. u c
p G o hugs
. .
te a h, dr ew Ea au G0 . t aub
5a ( Pa l D ip h ) a: W
r
. . .
g é ar , yea Go j r
e 1 1 3)
G e rm 5 r " .
. Ge m 5 .
5 a ( Con tr .
) W . G erm . a G0 . nét z
n é a r , n ea r er
G erm : a
e
sc Ea da n , s e a a te
p r 5 a ( P a l D iph ). . 5 ai Go . s k aida n
fé a w e , few ea au
( Infl . W) a G o fa wa i
.
é a, w a ter 5a C n tr a hw a
( o ) . a Go .
Ea ( Los s H) ea ( Brk g
) OHG w a lh
WEala s
-
Br iton s
.
,
as a
( S in
g .
)
ag a in s t
5a ( Loss G
) -
ea ( Pa l .
OHG ingag a n
on
gé a n, .
D iph ) . ee a
—
10 2
1 48 P H ONOL OGY .
g1 6 3
60
c é os an , choos e 50 6 11 G o k ius a n
.
al D iph ) 5 ( In fl
50 ( P . . .
g é om or, sad N) W G e rm . . 5 OS . j am a r
G e rm . ee
s c é op, c r ea ted eo
( P al D i h
p . .
) < 5 G o ga sk op
.
sc fan , shov e 50 ( P al D i h
p . .
) 5 I. s k fifa
m é owle, gir l
50 ( Infl W) .
e ( M ut ) .
G o m a wilo
.
as a
c n é ow es , o f a kn ee eo eu ( Infl W) . e O HG k n e wes .
s é on , s ee ao ( Con tr ) e . Go . s aihwa n
g eo, f or m er ly
11
GO .
j u
ie ( M ut ill
ie ( M ut ) . ea
ie ( M ut ) . 5 a ( P a l D iph ) . .
Q W . G erm 5 .
ie ( oss
L -
H) ie ( M ut ) OHG wa lhi s c
.
wielis c , foreig n
( Brk g
)
.
e a, a a
on tr j ai
s ie , be Te ( C .
) < i GO . si
frien d f ,
r ien ds 15 ( M ut
) . 10 ( C on tr .
) < i G o frij on ds
.
io
II . A SS IM ILA TION .
( )
a d > t b e f or e nd ft e r a oic e les s c on son n t
a in t ha
e 2 n d v a :
a nd 3 d in g in die of e r b s
r s .n d in t he .
p s t t en s e s of we k
v ,
a a a
v e r b s of C l s s I 69 a n d in blE
. ts i n b less ( c p b lod) e t c
,
a a ,
.
, .
( )
b 5 > t in t he 2n d ( r i des t ri desfi r i des 5d) an d 3 rd S in
g .
tha t of r ,
whic h is s om e w ha t fr e q uen t, e s pe c ially b e for e r m a n d
c o e r e d 3 : bu
v rna
* r un n a
b ) ,
s
pr in g beer n a n *br a n n a n
j ) ,
b ur n ( tr a n s ) bi( e) r n a n b ur n ( in tr an s .
) ( )
i e rnan
r in n a n
) ,
r un ber s ta n * r
b es ta n ) ,
b ur s t ; Eer s c a n *5 r es ca
n) ,
IV . G EM IN A TION .
e xc ep t r w a s doub le d b e f or e j
,
s ub s e quen tly t his j m ut a t e d t he
“
we a k pr esen t s 8 0 ) of Cla s ses V a n d V I an d m a ny ot her . .
,
w or ds
hredda n , r es cu e fr em m a n , p erform s et t a n , s et
V . V ERN ER S LA W ’
.
a ll c on tr ct e d tr on g e r b s n d of s om e othe r s tr on g e r b s t he
a s v a v ,
P r im it i e G e r m n ic j , h h s In do G e r m p k t s ) r e m in e d
’
v a , ,
-
.
, , , ,
a
t he p r in c ip l cc e n t o f the wor d f, h b In La t e
‘
a a s v, z
9 , , , , .
G e r m n ic a in O E t he p r in c ip l a cc e n t f e ll on t he r oot s yll b le ;
,
as .
,
a -
a
b ut in the P r im it i e G e r m n ic pe r iod t he a cc e n t m ig ht f ll on
v a a
r in ci l cc e n t on t he r oo t—
a s ll b le w h e r e ll t he o t he r p as t a as a
p p a
y ,
ppm n d t he p s t s in g of
a tr on g z e b s r e t a in e d t he
a oi c e le s
. s r v s
S ir a n t s s b
p h f
,
O E‘
,
s 5 h
i)
,
w h ic h i n ll t h e o t he r
.
p ,
st , , ,
a a
a n d for m u l t e d b y K r l V e r n e r of C op e n h ge n in 1 8 7 5
a a n d has a ,
a
v s . a r r
b y t he am b iguo u s t r m “
g r m m t ic l c h nge e a a a a
t he r e f or e t he c ha n g es t h t e ex l in e d b V e r n e r s La w c n
’
a ar a a
p y
on l
y b e s ee n in the in t e r ch n ge of t he f ollowin g p ir s of c on a a
s on n t s
a
( )
a S r
( )
b 5 d
( C) h g
( d) we w
(sa or
aw)
The ve rb s tha t c om e un de r this la w t hose in whic h t he
an d
la wfails h e b een in dic te d in t he
av a A cc ide n c e t he r e for e on ly a
few e x m ples ae n e eded he r e ar .
H r 1 nd 5
1
e e u d with th ir pr
) a are se e ope r ph on eti c l
v a ue , b cl
v oi e ess
( th) n d 5 ic d ( dh)
‘
z a vo e z .
1 52 P H ONO LOGY . 1 69
( )
a s r
( C r e ep choose c uron c oren
“
C ss
la II eEO an ,
s
V ( “T
re a d w e s a n , be wees
In g en es a n , t o s ur v iv e , t he law b ut is s e en in t he
de r iv a t iv e v e r b gen er ian , t o s a v e .
01
( )
6 5
Cp . s nide , cu tting .
Cp . c wide , sp ee ch .
(0) h z g
s ee b ut t hos e of C la s s es V I n d V II we r e a pt t o b or r ow t he g
. a .
of t he p s t pl in t he p s t S in g
a . a .
Cp s lgg e s tr ok e
. n d s lag a s
,
l ye r ,
A nd t e we k pr es en t
a h “
,
a . a
of t he s m e cl s s
a a
hl iehhan , la ug h h15 g
( )
d h (W ) = or g (w )
s aw on s e we n
C la s s V (
“T re a d S eon , s ee
s segon se
gen
l h s tag s tah
( c
a s en ded) bu r g bur h ( trson ghold
) .
1 54 A PP EN DIX . 1 71 , 1 72
(1) A c c us a t iv e ( neut . of ad j)
.
t
li ( el ) , little n or 5 weard, n or thwar ds
( 2) G eni iv e t
e alles , a lto ether des ge s , by day
g
n ealles , n ot a t a ll n iht es , by n ig ht
ham we ar des , homewa rds n ie des , n eeds
D at iv e S ing . an d pl
eln e , c ur
o a
g eous ly hwilum , sometim es
st
yc c e m eelum , p ie cemea l, here a nd ther e
or a ll
Enun ga, onc e f
ea ll un ga , a ltog ethe r
ierringa, an
g rily
gr un dlun ga , fr om the founda tions
1 74 P R EF I XES
"
1 73 , . 15O
R es t
hEP, he r e
r e
in n e, inn an , within
fl t e , ti ta n , outside
up pe , up pa n , u , a bove
p
ufa n , a bo ve
n e o5 a n , ben eath n e o5 a n
fr
o an , fr
o e, before
hi nda n , behind
fe orr ( an ) , far , f
a a r
n é ah, nea r
11 . P REF IXES .
5 (l) r
un s t ess ed f rm
o of or a wa
y, and t he n m e r el
y inte n s iv e
af a ra n, t o depa rt ar is a n, t o a rise ( i o da n , t o o de r r .
( 2 ) weak e n ed fr m o ou g aweg , a wa
y.
(3 ) S ho rt ene d fr m o (t wo , ev e r ,
‘
an y ahwwr , a n ywhe e, r ev e ry
whe re
5 a r
p iv a t iv e p rfi e x, wit hout
’
: E/nod,
e dis c uro a
ged ees wind, idle .
a f, rr
a e s t es s e r d f rm o of o f
‘
ofl ,
'
fr om
’
: wfwea rd, ab s e n t ; f 5 gnc
ee ,
g rudg e .
saf e t r ‘
a fter ’
: fter boren
ee ,
t
p os hum ous wft erfylg end, f ollowe r .
fig eve ry E
e
g hweEr . ev e rywh r e e
a t ,
‘
at , fr om
’
: se t wita n, t o t wit ; sets gm ne, t oge the ; r az tn im a n
,
to
t ak e a wa y .
1 56 A PP EN DIX .
g 1 7 4
be r
un s t ess ed f rm
o of bi ‘
b y, a b out
bi by
’
( s ee be bileofa , s us t e n an e c ; bisp ell, e x am ple .
cd
‘
re edlEan, reward ; dniwi n t r n w e a ,
o e e .
( 2 ) = the p r ep .
for : fors tgnda n , t o defend ; forfa ra n forridan , , to
in t rc pt
e e .
fore f re ‘
o
forec we5 a n ,
t o fo rt e ell ; fore5 9n c , forethought ; for e
mee re, v e ry gr t ea .
e
g z
-
( ) a origin ally= toge ther (L . c um ) ,
as in g efer e,
'
c om p any ;
g en a n, to fit t o e
g ther
( b) m ak es in tr ns a . ve rb s t rans iti v e, O ft en with the added n o tion
of a ttainm nt gain , s u es s : g ewinna n, t o win, c p winn a n, t o
e ,
cc . fight ;
b y as k ing, hea of r .
e o o .
in ‘
in
’
: ing gng , ing r es s ; infyr dia n, t o inv ade .
m id - 1
,
with ’
m idwyrhta , cooper t r a o .
un de r ‘
unde r ’
: und er s tgnd a n , t o unde rst and .
wan ‘
u a n hal, unhealthy; wa ns E
eli , unhappy
'
un
'
g .
Wi5 ‘
wit h again s
’
:
f
ui 5 eohtend,
adv e s a r ry .
Wi5 er ‘
ag ain s t , re wi5 erfl ita , wi5 er winn a , oppon en t ,
adv e s a r ry;
wi5 ers ta l, re s is t an e c .
ymb (ym b e )
‘
a oun d r ’
:
ym bsitta n, inv es ; ym be5 gnc, t r fle cti
e on .
III . S UF FIXES .
c
in lude d e xi t d l s e a so as indep en de n t wo ds in OE , r . and m ight m r o e
c rr ctly b r g rd d
o e e e a e as r
fo m in g c om p oun ds ; b ut c om p oun ds
p as s in t o
d ri ti
e va in th c ur
v es e o s e of tim e, a nd it has b een t hought b e t t e t o r err ,
-
a5 n oun m as c .
,
ab s t a r ct : fis ca 5 fi hing ; hun t
,
s o5 , hun ing t .
b§
-
r e, a d j .
,
‘
b ea ing r ’
: wass tm beEr e, fruitful ; lu tbd s r e, de s i r ab le .
dOm, -
dom ,
’
n oun m as c .
,
us u ab s . tr ct a frEodOm , fre e dom ; leEcedom
m e di in e c .
-
eh n oun n eu t .
,
so m tim e e s dimin . : c liewen , s phe e r ; cy cen,
chick en .
-
en n oun fem .
,
ft n p rs n gyd n godde ; by g n tom b
o e a e o : e ,
ss r e ,
.
-
en ad j . of ma t ri l et ; gyld n gold n h£ 5 en heathen
e a c . e ,
e : ,
.
frEon d , friend .
-er
e, -
er ,
’
n oun m as c .
,
age n t: b Ecer e, s crib e ; fiscere , fis he ; g od r
s
p eller s , ev an ge lis t .
-e rne ,
-
ern , ad
’
j lo c al : nor5 ern e, n rt h rn
o e .
1 75 S U FF I XES . 1 59
-
es t re ,
-
s te r ,
n Oun fe m .
, pe r s on : webbestr e, s p in s t e r; witc ges tre,
p r op he t es s .
: e tt an er b ,
v : licetta n , t o f e ig n .
-
feald f ld ,
-
o ,
’
ad j . : m gn zgfea ld, m an i old ; 5 r itigfea ld, t hi ty old f r f .
-
fu11 , -
ful, ’
ad j . c ea r ull, a n f xi u ; o s s
ynnfull, guilty .
-
h5 d, -
hood, ’
n oun m as c ab tr c t
.
,
s a : c ildhci d, childh ood m eeg denhad,
vi rginity .
-
ig , -
y,
’
ad j . : halig , holy ; m odig , p roud ; welig , wealt hy .
-
iht, ad j . heor uhoc iht, s a v age ly r b a b ed ; hr Eodiht, r eedy .
-
ing , n oun m as c .
; (a ) pa tr nym ic
o : ee5 eling , pr in c e ; E iselwulfing ,
s on of Et he lwulf .
( b) t
wi hout as s igna b le f rc o e : ier ming , p oo w r r et c h ; hearing , he rr ing ;
s cilling , s hillin g .
- isc , -
is h,
’
ad j . : Eng lis c ,
Englis h ; wielis c, f r ign ; ildi childi h
o e c s c, s .
4 5 0, -
lo k , c ’
n oun n e ut .
,
a bst r c t f htla
a : eo c, fighting ; w dl i w dl ck e c c, e o .
—
-
1§ c a n, v e rb : nEa leEc a n, t o a ppr ch ; 5 r i tlee oa s ca n , to e m b olde n .
-
l ie s t ( 15 as t ) ,
- les s nes s ,
’
n orm fem .
,
ab s t a r ct :
g iem elies t, n eglig e n e ; c
s le
Ep lEa s t, s le eple s s n es s .
-
1ing , - ling , ’
n oun m as c .
,
dim in .
, or de not ing a ff cti
e on or c on tem pt
r
dEor ling , da ling ; g eo ng ling , youth ; hyr ling , hi e ling r .
- ne s , -
n es s ,
’
n oun fe m .
,
ab s t a r ct : g Ednes, goodn ess ; forsewennes ,
c ont em p t .
o
-
0 1 , ad j . : s tic ol, r ough s wic ol, de ceitful .
wi den ,
n oun fe m .
,
ab s t a r ct : meEg reEden , relation s hip ; g ec wedreeden,
'
- ric e ,
-
r ie ,
’
n oun n eut . bis cop r ice, b is hop i rc cyner ice, kingdom .
1 60 A PP EN DIX . 1 75
-
s cip e, -s hip, ’
n oun m as c .
,
ab s tract : frEondscip e ,
friendship ;
hweetsczpe, b oldne ss .
-
S t afas, noun m as c .
pl .
,
ab s tract : arstafas, fa v ou r; facens tafas ,
t r ch ry
ea e .
-
s um, -
s om e ,
’
ad j . : tedious
wynsum, Wins om e ; lgng sum, .
t t
hos ili y .
- u oo -
e ,
n oun .
,
- ung ( ing) , in g
-
,
’
n oun fem .
,
ab s tract : blEtsung , b less ing ; miltsung ,
me rcy .
-
weard, -
ward, ’
ad j .
,
lo cal an d tem por al : n or 5 wear d , n orthward
tEwea r d, future .
-
weor5 , wier5 9 , wo hy adj : -
rt ,
’
. ar weor5 , v ene ab le r ; teElwier5 3 ,
b lam e wo rt hy; un té lwiertse, b lam ele s s .
C A M B R ID GE : P R I N TED BY J . A ND C . F. C LA Y , AT T HE UN VE S T I R I Y P R ES S .
Hya t t , A l f r e d John
An e l e me nt a r y Ol d En g l i s h
g r amma r
PLEA S E DO NO T REM O V E