Joshuaedo

Wednesday, June 2, 2010

RELEVANCE COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN ENGLISH (GNS202) TO NIGERIAN STUDENTS
Abstract Communication can mar or make any human organization. It has intricate nature and structure, and can be quite demanding but useful in the context of institution administration. This paper examines the rotes of effective language and communication skills in the administration of tertiary institutions, especially in a context where English is used as a second language. The impediments to the acquisition of the skills are identified, and the strategies for removing them suggested. Introduction INTRODUCTION We hope that you find what you do in these communication courses stimulating, challenging and most of all, useful. They are designed to develop and extend skills you will use in your professional life. We also expect you will find the course useful in the range of communication tasks you will have as a student. Effective communication is important in our personal lives. Many students have said that communication-based subjects have given them a chance to meet and get to know other students in a way not provided for by other courses. Communication Skills Communication is a huge part in everyday life. Most people think they have good communication skills, but they do not. Most arguments and misunderstandings stem from lack of communication between people. There are many ways to benefit from having good communication skills. In addition, there are consequences to not having this skill. All people should learn how to master the skill of communication. Communication skills are of vital importance, in both your personal and professional lives. Great communication skills in the work place will excel you to the heights of your career. Your personal life will be a smooth ride with friends and family if you have great communication. Any relationship you create, whether professional or personal will benefit tremendously from having great communication skills. If you cannot effectively communicate, you may suffer from vast amounts of communication barriers. If you are not good at putting your thoughts and ideas into words, you will suffer from communication breakdowns. You will create roadblocks in your life, both professionally and personally, which can drastically decrease the chance of you achieving your goals in life. Communication is successful when both parties have a full understanding of the message being conveyed. When you do this, you will reap great rewards in life. Communication is a skill that will follow you throughout your entire life, from how you react or converse with every

individual person. If the skill of communication is mastered, not only will it help the person who mastered it, but it will also have an effect on everyone around that person. I believe High Schools should offer courses in Effective Communication Skills and How to Interpret Body Language. This will teach adolescents not only life skills, but professional skills as well. There are many ways for people to learn how to communicate effectively and how to interpret body language. Many ways to learn are through;... Importance Of Good Communication To be competitive in today's business world, a team needs to communicate openly and frequently. With the technology that is available, a business can now find it easier than ever to have meetings from all corners of the world, at any time during the day. Whether there are team members around the world or just across the hall team members must communicate with each other concerning a project or upcoming event. A team needs to communicate to be successful. If the team does not communicate, the results probably will be less than expected. A team leader or manager should find it important to talk with the members of his or her team frequently. A team leader or manager will be able to check up on individual progress and the progress of the group as a whole. The more frequent the contact, the less likely there will be missed deadlines or out of date information. Everyone needs to be notified if anything changes during the project. Direct communication with other team members is very important for team members. The exchange of information from team leaders is time consuming and a possible cause of misinformation. Fellow team members should be able to discuss ideas and information at any time during the day and anywhere in the office. They should be able to talk on the phone, send emails, or talk in the hall (Hoegl & Gemuenden, 2001). Studies have shown that the better the communication- the better the productivity and progress of a team. If everyone that is affected by the project is involved or consulted, then the outcome will be much better than if the project were handled by only a select few. Take Chrysler for example. The initial plan for creating a new line of cars started with the engineering department. The engineers would design a car; then they would give the information to manufacturing.

Abstract The subjects issue an invitation to you to consciously become a researcher in the area of communication. Observe all the incidental and important communication, spoken, written and visual, happening around you. Why is it happening like that? Is it effective? Is the surface meaning the same as the deep meaning? What is involved in preparing a text (written or spoken) for final presentation? How do I manage correctness? The observations and questions are endless. This study seeks to document Students conceptions of the relevance of communication skills in English language to the Nigerian students and to compare their conceptions with a composite view of CLS assembled, in part, from researchers accounts of the distinctive features of CLT. The research was prompted by a review of the relevant research literature showing that, though previous studies in this area have pointed to some significant differences between teachers and researchers conceptions of CLS, the results are still inconclusive. In this study, usual methods for accessing studens understandings of CLS, such as observation and questionnaire, have been replaced by one that examines teachers practical theories that guide their use of CLS approaches in classrooms. Semi-structured interviews and video-stimulated recall interviews were used to gain access to studentss practical theories of CLS. The interview data show that while these studentss collectively have internalized most of the elements of communicative approaches, there are many individual variations. The data also show that these students have integrated aspects of communicative approaches into an overall view of learnig that incorporates many features not normally mentioned in the second language literature. Language in practice In practical terms, these subjects provide opportunities to extend your skills in writing, speaking, listening and reading - we learn by doing these things. If you want to share any of your observations about the way language is used outside the subjects, or if you have any problems with the work, please use language to share, inform, clarify, question and negotiate.

1.0 Effective reading and Scouting for Reach Materials for Report Writing 1.1 Reading with a purpose Putting yourself in control of your own reading is essential for success, but it also means taking some risks. You cannot read everything, and you cannot read everything in the same way. You have to decide why you are reading and what you want to get out of it, and this means selecting what to read and how much attention to give certain parts of your reading. Establishing your purpose will determine the approach and depth of your reading: a set text or wider reading? for a lecture? for a tutorial/seminar? for an assignment? for an exam?

1.1.1.1 Set Texts Before reading in detail, get an overall perspective of what you have to read: Look at the title, details about the author and the date of publication, and work out how the work fits in with other texts in the subject; Scan the contents page and the index to gain an overview of the area covered by the work, as well as of significant names and terms; Skim through the work, picking up key paragraphs and sentences, particularly the opening and closing sections of chapters or articles. Then: Read the whole work carefully, noting major points and ideas in your own words, as well as sections to which you may wish to return later. 1.1.1.2 Wider Reading Treat the texts as above, but in order to select suitable material, go through the first three steps look, scan, and skim - with a number of works on the wider reading list before you read any of them in detail. This overview is an essential first step, and will help you to decide whether all or part of a work is worth careful reading and noting for your purposes. 1.1.1.3 New Material If the subject area is new or unfamiliar, you will need to develop a basic understanding of the material. Consult an encyclopedia for a general introduction. Take note of new terms that keep recurring, making sure that you understand their meanings (and can spell them correctly) by looking them up in a dictionary or more specific reference work. 1.1.1.4 Reading for Assignments If you find it hard to start your research, or if in earlier assignments you wasted time collecting more information than you could use, try these steps: Start with a book or article from the reading list which gives an overview of the topic. As you read, keep asking yourself exactly what you are looking for, and write down these questions as a guide to your reading. Keep doing the look, scan and skim procedure to make sure the material is both relevant to your needs, and that you are not duplicating information you have already found. Record the details of author, title, place of publication, publisher and date as you select each work so that you don't have the frustration of trying to find it again when preparing your reference list/bibliography. Record page numbers with any notes you take. Take notes from your reading as you would if you were reading for research purposes. 1.1.1.5 Reading for Revision Use the SQ5R Method: Survey: Briefly survey the whole topic. Look for sections in the text or notes which summarise. Question: Ask yourself general questions based on headings in the text or notes. Read: Read actively with definite questions in mind. Read section by section, carrying out the Record stage after each section. Record: Summarise your reading under headings in the margins, or mark important ideas and phrases in such a way that they will stand out later. Use lines, brackets and arrows to link and group sections. Recite: After each section, ask yourself questions and answer them without looking at your

notes. If you can't manage, check back over the Record stage. Review: Without looking at your notes, try to summarise each section in your own words. Check for errors, then try again. Reflect: Ask yourself, 'How does all of this fit together? How can I apply it?' Build a picture in your mind or create a story which pulls together all of the detail. Revise diagrams as you would notes under the SQ5R method. Base your questions and summaries on the labelled parts and the relationships between the parts. 1.2 When reading is difficult There are several strategies you can try: Be an active reader by asking yourself questions about what you are reading and how it relates to your research Prepare for reading by consulting your lecture notes beforehand for guidance and an overview. Turn section headings in the book or article into questions, and answer them in your own words after you have read the section. Break the reading into smaller sections and note one section at a time. If the language or style used make the work too difficult to grasp, seek help from your tutor or lecturer, who may be able to suggest a more straightforward introduction to the topic. 2.1 What is writing? One of the important functions of writing is to act as 'an instrument for conveying ideas from one mind to another' (Gowers 1987, p. 1). Therefore the writer's job is to make the reader(s) understand the meaning quickly and precisely. 2.1.1 What are the most important writing skills? writing clearly knowing how to organise information and ideas logically 2.1.2 What is clear writing? direct, straightforward expression precise, accurate expression 2.1.3 Why is clarity important? it shows respect for the reader it increases the credibility of a document it encourages honesty 2.2 Techniques for improving clarity 2.2.1 Use familiar words Instead of Use Prior to before Subsequent to after Pursuant to your request as you asked Accede to agree to Domicile house/ address Promulgate issue To the Arboreal Primates To the monkeys and apes 2.2.2 Avoid pointless repetition In these examples, the repetitive or unnecessary words are shown in parentheses: The two cars were exactly the same. (exactly)

Rewrite as The two cars were identical He thought out the plan in his head. (in his head) Rewrite as He devised/considered the plan The end result of this merger will be higher unemployment. (end) The underlying principle of this document. (underlying) This policy will completely eliminate computer crime. (completely) The problem of dishonesty still remains. (still) 2.2.3 Avoid wordy expressions and `slow starting' sentences Instead of It is for this reason that... use For this reason... Instead of There are three common types of splices that are used in electrical connections. use Three types of splices are used in electrical connections. Instead of It is important that all employees read the safety handbook. use All employees must read the safety handbook. 2.2.4 Use concise rather than wordy expressions Instead of Use A long period of time a long time At this point in time now Consensus of opinion consensus/ agreement Due to the fact that because For the purpose of for In view of the fact that because Despite the fact that although The majority of most On the occasion of on In reference to about In the majority of instances usually 2.2.5 Beware of double negatives A double negative in a sentence creates confusion and in many cases is grammatically incorrect. In standard English a double negative usually creates a positive meaning. Use a single negative word to mean `no' and leave out negative forms when you mean `yes': No one saw nothing. (ambiguous and/or grammatically incorrect) Rewrite as - No one saw anything. Not unnaturally, she realised her mistake. (pretentious and unnecessary) Rewrite as - Naturally, she realised her mistake.

2.2.6 Avoid trite, cliched phrases Instead of Use Numerous and sundry many Permit me to say (leave out altogether) In accordance with your request as you requested 2.2.7 Use the active rather than the passive voice whenever possible Passive: A refund will be sent to you. Active: You will receive a refund Passive: The product's safety has been shown by laboratory tests. Active: Laboratory tests have shown the product's safety. 2.2.8 Avoid vague expressions of opinion or belief I would consider (leave out altogether) I tend to believe Use I think / I believe 2.2.9 Avoid jargon unless it will aid clarity and brevity (when can jargon be used?) 2.3 Focusing information 2.3.1 Sentences In sentences put the main idea first This will usually be the subject of the sentence, which is why it is a good idea to write in the active rather than the passive voice (see 2.2.7) However, the structure of a sentence will depend upon the emphasis you wish to give to a certain word or words 2.3.2 Paragraphs Effective paragraphing involves the following characteristics. 2.3.2.1 UNITY Each paragraph should deal with a single topic or `thesis' Try to begin paragraphs with a `topic sentence' which announces the main idea Every sentence in the paragraph should contribute to the topic When you shift to another topic, begin a new paragraph 2.3.2.2 COHERENCE The sequence of thoughts and ideas should flow smoothly and logically from sentence to sentence within each paragraph Readers can be helped to see the relationships between sentences in a paragraph if you (a) repeat key words from sentence to sentence (b) use `pointing words' eg this, that, these, those (c) use (but don't overuse) conjunctive (`thought-connecting') words eg thus, however, then, nevertheless (d) arrange the sentences into some kind of perceptible, logical order 2.3.2.3 DEVELOPMENT The topic being discussed in each paragraph should be adequately developed, eg by (a) presenting examples, illustrations or anecdotes relevant to the argument (b) citing datafacts, statistics, evidenceto confirm your position (c) quoting, paraphrasing or summarising the testimony or opinion of others as support (d) defining terms, describing, comparing or contrasting (e) exploring causes, reasons, effects and consequences

 Paragraphs consisting of just one or two sentences should be used rarely, and only for special emphasis 2.4 Plain English Plain English is a new name for an old, essential part of effective communication. It simply means using clear, easily understood words to communicate, rather than `flowery', verbose, or pretentious words, which usually create confusion and resentment in your reader or listener. The following is an excerpt from a real report on two employees' performance: The attitude of each, that he was not required to inform himself of, and his lack of interest in, the measures taken by the other to carry out the responsibility assigned to such other under the provision of plans then in effect, demonstrated on the part of each lack of appreciation of the responsibilities vested in them, and inherent in their positions. As the manager you must rely on the written reports of your section managers. Would you feel confident to judge their performance, and their future, from this report? Compare the above with the following translation into clearer writing: Neither took any interest in the other's plans, or even found out what they were. This shows that they did not appreciate the responsibilities of their positions. Using Plain English ensures that you don't `lose' or hide the important information you need to communicate. It ensures that you are open, clear and honest about what you are saying. It never uses unnecessary jargon. Remember, however, that Plain English is not oversimplified language, or any form of `child-speak'. It does not apply to traditional notions of language as art, or literature (though many great writers have stressed the importance of clear, easily understood language). Most Australian federal and state government departments, and many large business organisations now have Plain English policies, though too many examples of poor quality, `muddy' writing are still produced by people and organisations who confuse sounding important with saying something important. Plain English is not only important for clear and honest communication. It also saves vast amounts of money and time. The NRMA (the NSW equivalent of the RAA) was an Australian pioneer in the use of Plain English. It introduced a Plain English Insurance Policy in 1976. The results of this policy were: customer relations improved through clearer information staff training time was reduced time used for explanations between staff reduced or eliminated improved general efficiency The Victorian Government's Plain English Policy saved $400,000 in salaries in one year by rewriting just one cumbersome, widely-used legal document. The British Government began reviewing its official forms in 1982. Since then: 126,500 forms have been reviewed 27,000 forms have been scrapped 41,000 have been redesigned over 14,000,000 have been saved When governments use Plain English they are seen as less alien and remote by the public, and the public can more easily understand government policy. Plain English is essential for a democracy to function properly.

3.1 Grammar People who are confident that they know and can apply the `rules' of grammar are a minority. There are many historical and social reasons for this general lack of confidence in relation to grammar. Many people have been given stronger messages about what they 'get wrong' as a writer, than what they can do. Many competent, published authors do not know the formal rules of grammar. What they work with instead is a strong faith in their ability to think, describe, explain, and a stronger belief that they can produce quality writing by rewriting, refining and polishing. Instead of using 'rules', they are depending on an intuitive sense that 'this...is an improvement on...that'. This intuitive sense has probably been developed by wide reading. Of course, most published writers have the advantage of having their work checked by professional editors. When most people talk about grammar, they are referring to the system developed from Latin, latinate grammar. They are not aware that this is a recently developed description for English. When Shakespeare was writing he did not have this system to help him as a writer. Latinate grammar is only one of several grammars. Two others are Chomsky's system of transformational grammar and Halliday's system of functional grammar. Plain English, clear writing and refinement in expression, and the control of a range of registers, particularly academic register, are important features of these communication subjects. Tutors will indicate where writing can be improved and often this involves elements based on latinate grammar. However, they do not have enough time to teach this system, or other grammatical systems, in detail. If you want to explore this area of latinate grammar further to develop your confidence both as a writer and in everyday communication, many books are available. Some references are: Bernard, J.R. (1896) A short guide to traditional grammar Parramatta, NSW: Sydney University Press Burt, A.(1991) A guide to better grammar Cheltenham, UK: Stanley Thornes Publisher Ltd Burt, A. (1991) A guide to better punctuation Cheltenham, UK: Stanley Thornes Publisher Ltd Burton, S. H. (1987) Mastering English grammar London: Macmillan Education Corbett, E.P.J. & Finkle, S.L. (1992) The little English handbook 6th edn New York: HarperCollins Fowler, H.W. (1991) A dictionary of modern English usage Oxford: Oxford University Press Gowers, E. (1987) The complete plain words Oxford: Oxford University Press 3.2 Punctuation The following information on punctuation is taken, with permission, from Christie, Frances (ed) (1989) Writing in schools: study guide Geelong: Deakin University 3.2 Editing The golden rule of editing is to keep your writing and your ego separate at all times! Distance yourself from what you have written by putting as much time as practical between finishing your writing and beginning your editing; at least leave it overnight. If you have no time at all, read your work aloud to yourself. Always try to approach your work as an outside editor would. A key question to address is Who is the audience? A specialist in the writer's field? An intelligent layperson? The intended reader(s) should always determine the writer's register (see section 4.0 Register). Keeping the appropriate register in mind throughout editing will make the task easier and more

successful. 3.3.1 Editing checklist 3.3.1.1 First stage - wholeness refocus on topic skim-read whole report note purpose, context, register has all the content been included? 3.3.1.2 Second stage - balance and sequence of the whole examine the relative emphasis given to each section/point do the headings and sub-headings provide a cohesive structure and outline? are the headings and subheadings in sequence? 3.3.1.3 Third stage - focus on the parts examine section/paragraph structure is each section/paragraph relevant to the writer's purpose? is each necessary? is each in its proper place? are connections between sections/paragraphs clear? do ideas follow one another clearly and logically? 3.3.1.4 Fourth stage - focus on mechanical faults; syntax, punctuation, spelling is each sentence clear and easy to read? is each sentence necessary? does it repeat something already written? could the meaning of any sentence be expressed more clearly? are any words or terms overused? are any words unnecessary or ambiguous? are any words repetitious? could shorter or clearer words be used? do all words suit the register being used? check spelling and grammar. are all of your revisions improvements? 3.3.1.5 Produce amended version check layout and presentation Repeat this process until the report is ready for the intended audience. Professional editors can repeat this from three to twenty times. Whether you realise it or not, you are probably already an expert at using many different types or styles of languagemany registers. The term register simply describes the various styles of language available for writing or speakingfrom the informal register of slang and swearing, to the formal academic register used when writing at university or professionally. No register is right or wrong in itself. Correctness depends on the context of communication. Using slang is probably fine when relaxing with friends, but include it in a job application letter and don't hold your breath waiting for a positive answer. The features which interconnect to determine the register of communication, oral or written, are appropriateness context participants and their status situation.

A change in any one of these will probably create a change in the register. We are culturally so attuned to the 'appropriateness of the register' that we only pay attention to it when someone makes a mistake in their use of register. Your communication study will help you master the formal register which should serve you well in your academic and professional writing and speaking; a clear, precise register which includes neither informal language (slang, colloquialisms), or unnecessarily overformal language (verbosity, pretentious expression). Have a look at the article `Say, write, scream, language lives' (Stalker 1989) under 4.2 in this handbookit shows many of the features of the quality formal register. Below is an example of a very informal register (appropriate in its context, but not acceptable in most academic and professional contexts). This is contrasted with writing where the register could be described as overformal (note how unclear and confusing this bloated style of language is). Informal register I'm only a lazy old bludger. I don't do very, very little. Well, I can't. I'm not too, too, too, fit. Although just to give you a little bit of an idea that I can go just a tiny little bit, I went back to work the week after Easter. They said, You might want a quid for Easter. And I went back and done a week's work back there. It was just as much as I could do, too, but I surprised meself. When you're away from work you lose confidence in yourself and you think Well, I can't do that I'd get giddy here and giddy there, which I do all the damn time. I think if I go back to work, I'll fall arse over head but, no, I went back and they got value for money. (Boomer, G. 1969 unpub. manuscript) Overformal register This is an undertaking used by the federal Department of Health in the early 1980s. Would you sign the following if you had been injured at work and were entitled to compensation? (D) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF UNDERTAKING And I undertake if and when my entitlement to a payment (hereinafter referred to as `the payment of compensation') by way of compensation or damages (including a payment in settlement of my claim for compensation or damages) under the law of the Commonwealth or of a State or Territory has been determined to repay to the said organisation either: (a) the full amount of the said sum (if the payment of compensation is not less than the amount of benefits which would otherwise be payable in respect of the claim for expenses); (b) an amount being the difference between the said sum and the amount determined by the said organisation (if the payment of compensation is less than the amount of benefits which would otherwise be payable in respect of the claim for expenses). Formal report writing in professional, technical and business contexts has evolved certain conventions regarding format, style, referencing and other characteristics. These will vary in detail between organisations, so the information given below should be treated as general guidelines which hold good in the absence of any more specific `house styles'.

5.0 Report writing 5.1 Format The format will depend upon the type and purpose of the report, its intended readers, and the conventions of presentation and layout prescribed by the organisation in which you are operating. In general, there are two broad types of format which are differentiated by whether the summary and/or recommendations are placed after the main body of the report, or are placed earlier, before the main body. The eventual format chosen might be a combination or a condensed version of these two formats. 5.1.1 A format where the findings/recommendations follow the main body Cover sheet Title page Abstract Table of contents Introduction The body of the report Conclusion (and recommendations if applicable) References / Bibliography Glossary (if needed) Appendices 5.1.2 A format where the findings/recommendations precede the main body Letter of transmittal Title page Table of contents Summary and/or recommendations Body of report Conclusions Appendices Bibliography 5.2 Report checklist Here are some aspects which may be found in each section of a report and which may be of use in organising and checking the details in your own reports. Section 5.3 Report Sections provides more information on the content and setting out of some of these. 5.2.1 Title page title writer organisation date person/group who commissioned the report 5.2.2 Table of contents accurate, clear layout section numbering system and indentation

 complete page numbers list of illustrations if applicable 5.2.3 Abstract appropriate length complete summary of key information informative, not descriptive, in form impersonal tone connected prose 5.2.4 Introduction relating topic to wider field necessary background information purpose of report scope of report explanation of arrangement of report sections 5.2.5 Body format main headings indicating equal level of importance all subheadings relating to section heading choice of levels indicating hierarchy of importance hierarchy of importance shown by careful and consistent use of features such as capitals, different fonts, underlining, bold, italics indenting numbering/letter system space between sections to enhance readability and layout when using charts, statistics and illustrations check for suitability, captions, reference in text and positioning acknowledgement of all sources, including material referred to indirectly, direct quotations, copied diagrams, tables, statistics ensure a systematic link between references in the text and the reference list and bibliography 5.2.6 Expression correct own words concise clear to intended reader formal and factual 5.2.7 Content logical development of ideas from one section to another, and within each section citing evidence relevant objective specific 5.2.8 Conclusion(s) arising out of the facts convincing a substantial basis for the recommendations

5.2.9 Recommendations (if applicable) based on the conclusions practical specific well organised, with the most important first 5.2.10 List of references sources in the text listed by the Harvard system 5.2.11 Bibliography texts consulted but not referred to directly in the report 5.2.12 Glossary (if included) arranged alphabetically 5.2.13 Appendix (appendices) placed at end of a report if included arranged in the order referred to in the report 5.3 Report sections 5.3.1 Introductions Introductions to formal reports deal with the following aspects of the text: (a) Topic or subject matter: how the report relates to a field, discipline or area of knowledge (reference to external framework). This is normally expressed in terms of why the topic is of sufficient importance or significance to deserve detailed coverage in a report. (b) Purpose: what is the communicative intention in compiling the report (to describe, explain, examine, review, discuss etc.). (c) Scope: which aspects of (a) does the report seek to highlight in fulfilling this purpose; often takes the form of an overview of the organization and structure of the report, ie the focus of the major sections; may mention aspects of the topic which have been intentionally omitted. The above form of introduction differs from that of introductions to shorter scientific reports, in which a brief statement of the aim of the experiment or the hypothesis to be tested is all that is normally found. The above three-part structure also distinguishes formal report introductions from essay introductions; the latter normally place more emphasis on the topic/field relationship through taking up a position (the thesis of the essay) in relation to the aspect of the topic highlighted in the title (often in the form of an arresting statement or thought provoking quotation). Report introductions mayespecially in the case of longer or more formal reportsrefer in addition to the sources of the information incorporated within the document; this is done in terms of categories of sources (ie general statements about how and where you gathered your information: from books, articles, statistics, other reports, interviews and so forth). A final point to note: in this form of introduction the focus should be on the particular report which is being introduced, rather than on the wider field or area to which it relates. The length of the introduction will vary in proportion to that of the report. 5.3.2 Conclusions Report conclusions, unlike introductions, cannot readily be analysed in terms of characteristic structural features. Conclusions are distinguished more by function than by form. In general terms, the principal function of conclusions is to relate to the purpose and scope of the report, as stated in the Introduction. In other words, the conclusion should confirm for the reader that the communicative intention has been achieved, and that the previewed aspects of the topic have been covered.

This general function can be more specifically expressed in a number of ways, including to restate purpose and scope to review or synthesise the main sections or units of the discussion to reiterate the principal points or findings to affirm the validity of argument or judgement To assert the viability of approach or interpretation Two further points to note: Though normally and substantially retrospective, conclusions can extend or advance the topic, for instance by disclosing a further perspective (to be pursued elsewhere) or by making an additional, final judgment. Thus it is not strictly true to say that conclusions never contain anything `new'. In reports, the conclusion section can take the form of a series of separately stated points and for these the plural term `conclusions' may be used. Subsequent recommendations would then be intended to address these points. 5.3.3 Abstracts 5.3.3.1 The form and function of the abstract of a report include the following: definition, providing the essence of the report in a few words informative form, or descriptive form impersonal tone connected writing length 150-250 words (for longer reports, 1/2-1 page single-spaced) 5.3.3.2 American academic Kenneth K. Landes, irritated by what he perceived to be the inadequacies of many abstracts in professional journals, wrote in `A scrutiny of the abstract' (1966): The abstract is of utmost importance, for it is read by 10 to 500 times more people than hear or read the entire article. It should not be a mere recital of the subjects covered. Expressions such as is discussed and is described should never be included! The abstract should be a condensation and concentration of the essential information in the paper. (Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists vol 50, no 9) 5.3.3.3 Informative abstract An informative abstract is usually written by the author(s) of a report. It appears in the same document as part of the complete text. This abstract describes the research or project and presents the main ideas of the report in a summarised form. Informative abstracts do not duplicate references or tables of results. To achieve economy of expression, the style of informative abstracts often omits terms which identify the particular report (such as `this paper' or `this report'). Lawson, J. (1990) `The education of the future senior health manager'. Australian Health Review vol 13 no 3 pp 184-8 Primarily due to economic forces, health services are being forced into a tight organisational framework of hospitals, clinics and services which need to be managed by educated professional managers. These managers need to be competent general and financial managers, competent planners, knowledgeable about health status, health issues, the Australian health care systems and knowledgeable about society, law and ethics. Assumptions that recruitment of people with such a formidable array of talents would be difficult are incorrect as judged by current experiences. Very talented and experienced candidates are being attracted to graduate education

programs in health service management in many Australian universities. Accordingly the future management of Australian health services should be in good hands. 5.3.3.4 Descriptive abstract A descriptive abstract is compiled by someone other than the author of the report to appear in another source, such as a data bank or library catalogue. A descriptive abstract describes the contents of a report but does not include interpretive statements, conclusions or recommendations. It is possible to base a descriptive abstract on the table of contents of a report. It is usually much briefer than an informative abstract. Edwards, P. & Gould, W. (1988) New directions in apprentice selection: self perceived `On the job' literacy (reading) demands of apprentices. Victorian TAFE Papers 8, 14-17 This article is based on an investigation of the self-perceived, on-the-job literacy tasks of electrical mechanic apprentices. Among other things it indicates the nature of the reading they commonly undertake and suggests implications for the kinds of reading experiences provided for them in trade courses. 5.4 Section/point identification systems An important difference between an essay and a report is the layout. This aspect of a report is not merely a surface feature of the presentation. It represents important choices made by the writer regarding the range of the material covered, the relative importance of the sections in the report, and the relatedness of information within sections. As such, it plays a very important role in communicating meaning to the reader. The report presents meaning and information in two complementary and equivalent ways: the meaning represented by the words, thought, research, information the meaning represented by the layout A writer usually chooses one of the following two layout systems: decimal numbering or number-letter. Once a system is chosen, the writer must present this system consistently throughout the report. 5.4.1 Decimal numbering First level 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 (of importance/generality) (also termed the A heading) N.B. The `point-zero' is not always used in decimal numbering systems Second level (also termed the B heading) 1.1 2.1 3.1 4.1 5.1 Third level (also termed the C heading) 1.1.1 2.1.1 3.1.1 4.1.1 5.1.1 Fourth level (also termed the D heading) 1.1.1.1 2.1.1.1 3.1.1.1 4.1.1.1 5.1.1.1 This is generally used with indenting to structure the text in the following way. It is possible for a reader to gain a strong indication of the relatedness, and relative importance of the parts of the text as a result of this layout, even though no meaning from the content is provided. 1.0 ______________________________________ 1.1 _______________________________ 1.2 _______________________________ 1.2.1 ________________________ 1.2.2 ________________________

1.2.2.1 _______________ 1.2.2.2 _______________ 2.0 ________________________________________ 2.1 _________________________________ etc. 5.4.2 Number - letter (still encountered, but becoming less commonly used) First level (of importance/generality) (A heading) I II III IV V VI VII Second level (B heading) A B C D E F G Third level (C heading) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Fourth level (D heading) (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) Fifth level (E heading) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) I ________________________________________ A ________________________________ B ________________________________ 1 __________________________ 2 __________________________ (a) ___________________ (b) ___________________ II ________________________________________ A ________________________________ 5.5 Table of contents The table of contents is assembled from the headings and subheadings of the report's sections, and includes the appropriate identification numbers/letters as well as the page numbers. Here are two examples of setting out, although there are many variations. 5.5.1 Example A Abstract i INTRODUCTION 2 1.0 Computer crime 2 1.1 Main types of computer crime 2 1.1.1 Theft of computer time 3 1.1.2 Theft, destruction, or changing programs/data 3 1.1.3 Alteration of data stored in computer files 3 1.1.4 Accessing a private computer system 3 1.1.5 Percentages of computer crime in Australia 4 1.2 How computer technology has changed traditional crimes 4 1.2.1 The modem 4 1.2.2 Organised crime 5 1.2.3 Old laws 5 1.2.4 Access to computers 1.3 Why computer crime is so costly and widespread 5

1.3.1 Cost 5 1.3.2 Extent of computer crime 6 2.0 The profile of a computer criminal 7 2.1 The novice 7 2.2 The student 8 2.3 The tourist 8 2.4 The crasher 8 2.5 The thief 8 2.6 Other types 9 3.0 The law and penalties 9 3.1 Current law and intangible property 9 3.2 New laws - resistance to change 9 3.3 Examples of poor laws 10 CONCLUSION 11 BIBLIOGRAPHY 13 5.5.2 Example B CONTENTS 1 Introduction ..............................................3 2 Professional footcare in Sunraysia.........................4 2.1 The practitioners 2.1.1 The pioneers .................................4 2.1.2 The early chiropodists........................5 2.1.3 The modern day podiatrists....................6 2.2 The changing roles 2.2.1 Chiropodial treatment.........................7 2.2.2 Podiatric treatment...........................7 2.3 State registration: The Chiropody Act of 1968 2.3.1 Implication for unqualified chiropodists......8 2.3.2 Employment of podiatrists.....................8 2.3.3 Effects on the consumer.......................8 2.3.3.1 free podiatric treatment..............8 2.3.3.2 health benefits cover.................8 2.4 Footwear vs footcare 2.4.1 The availability of quality footwear..........9 2.4.2 Specialist and sports shoes...................9 3 The role of the podiatrist in education...................10 4 Conclusion and Recommendations............................11 5 Bibliography..............................................12 6 Appendices................................................13 6.1 Time line of significant events.....................13 6.2 Directory of podiatrists in current practice........14 5.6 Referencing The Harvard (author-date) system is the one usually encountered in the sciences and social sciences, and is the system promoted in Professional Writing & Communication subjects and the University of South Australia generally. All the examples below relate to the author-date system of referencing.

5.6.1 Citations When you write an assignment you must cite in your text references to all material you have used as sources for the content of your work. These citations must be made wherever and whenever you quote, paraphrase or summarise someone else's opinions, theories or data (in your text). Your references may be to books, periodicals, articles, newspapers, reports or personal communications. A list of references, in alphabetical order of authors' surnames, must be attached to the end of your report, giving complete details of all references actually used in the report (see 5.6.2). 5.6.1.1 For the citations in your text, only the author's surname, year of publication for the material cited, and page numbers, if required, should be listed. Page numbers for your references are necessary only when you quote or paraphrase particular passages, lists or figures from your sources: Smith (1971, p. 45) has argued that 'the relative seriousness of the two kinds of errors differs from situation to situation.' 5.6.1.2 If you paraphrase material from your sources you must make it clear from your reference that you are giving a modified version of someone else's work in your own words: A recent study (Jones and Smith, 1974) has shown . . . 5.6.1.3 Reference to material written by more than two authors should include the surnames of all authors the first time the citation appears. In later citations of the same reference, include only the surname of the first author and the abbreviation et al. (meaning 'and the others'): A recent study (Jones, Smith, Brown and White, 1973) has shown . . . The research previously cited (Jones, et al., 1973) 5.6.1.4 Reference to different authors with the same surname should be distinguished by use in the authors' initials: A recent study (C.L. Jones, 1974) has shown . . . but A.G. Jones (1956) has suggested . . . 5.6.1.5 When you have read an account of original work by one author (primary reference) in another book or article (secondary reference), both sources must be acknowledged in your reference: Smith (Jones, 1961) states that . . . or Smith's experiment in 1952 (cited in Jones, 1961) states . . . or Jones (1961), in reporting Smith's 1952 study, states that . . . Smith is the primary reference, Jones is the secondary reference. 5.6.1.6 If you need to cite several references at the same point, separate the authors' names by semi-colons, with surnames in alphabetical order: Recent studies (Brown, 1971; Miller and Smith, 1972; Jones, 1966) show . . . 5.6.1.7 References to two or more publications in the same year by a given author should be distinguished by adding a, b, and so on: A recent study (Jones, 1974b) has shown . . . Recent studies (Jones, 1972, 1973a and b) have shown . . . 5.6.1.8 References to personal communications should include initials, name, pers. comm. and date: they probably represent distal turbidities (K.A.W. Crook, pers. comm., 1971) . . . 5.6.2 References The reference list is placed at the end of the report. It is arranged in alphabetical order of authors'

surnames and chronologically for each author. The reference list includes only references cited in the text. The author's surname is placed first, immediately followed by the year of publication. This date is often placed in brackets. The title of the publication appears after the date followed by place of publication, then publisher (some sources say publisher first, then place of publication). There are many other minor differences in setting out references (eg use of commas, colons, full stops) depending upon personal preferences or house styles. The important thing is to check for any special requirements or, if there are none, to be consistent. Some lecturers require only a reference list. Others require, in addition, a bibliography. While the reference list includes only those texts cited in the body of your paper, a bibliography includes all material consulted in the preparation of your report. Notice that the titles of books, journals and other major works appear in italics (or are underlined when handwritten), while the titles of articles and smaller works which are found in larger works are placed in (usually single) quotation marks. REFERENCES Beasley, V. (1964), Eureka! or how to be a successful student, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia. Betts, K. and Seitz, A. (1986), Writing essays in the social sciences, Melbourne, Thomas Nelson. Clanchy, J. and Ballard, B. (1981), Essay writing for students, Melbourne, Longman Cheshire. Marshall, B.R. (1985), 'Common Writing Problems in Tertiary Education' Australian Educators Journal, Vol 7, No.3, pp. 56-64. White, R.V. (1979a), Functional English, Sunbury-on-Thames, Nelson. White, R.V. (1979b), English for Academic Purposes, Sunbury-on-Thames, Nelson. 5.6.3 Quotations When the exact words of a writer are quoted, they must be reproduced exactly in all respects: wording, spelling, punctuation, capitalisation and paragraphing. Quotations should be carefully selected and sparingly used, as too many quotations can lead to a poorly integrated argument. Use of a direct quotation is justified when: changes, through paraphrasing, may cause misinterpretation the original words are so concisely and convincingly expressed that they cannot be improved upon a major argument needs to be documented as evidence the student wishes to comment upon, refute or analyse the ideas expressed in another source. Unless it is clearly stated otherwise, the citation of another's opinions or conclusions often signifies your acceptance of the point of view as your own. The intention of the original text must not be altered. 5.6.3.1 Short quotations (up to 4 lines) Incorporate the quotation into the sentence or paragraph, without disrupting the flow of the text, using the same spacing as in the rest of the text. The source of the quotation is either acknowledged in a footnote or in the text. Use single quotation marks at the beginning and end of the quotation: The Style Manual (1978, p. 46) states that 'the modern tendency to use single quotation marks rather than double is recommended.' 5.6.3.2 Long quotations (more than thirty words) Do not use quotation marks. Indent the quotation from the remainder of the text. Some writers recommend the use of smaller type or italics to set off indented quotations. Introduce the quotation appropriately, and cite the source at the end of the quotation as you would in your text.

5.6.3.3 Interpolations These may be used in quotations when words in the original text need to be changed (eg, in tense) or added to fit in with the essay, the material may be introduced into the quotation by enclosing it in square brackets [ ]. A common interpolation is the use of the term sic in square brackets. This is Latin for `thus' or `so', and indicates that the original has been reproduced exactly, even though it appears to have an error. 5.6.3.4 Ellipsis Irrelevancies within very long quotations can be omitted by the use of an ellipsis which is indicated by three spaced dots (. . .). Nowadays it is not usual to place an ellipsis at the beginning or the end of a quotation which is intended to stand alone or forms part of one of your own sentences. 5.6.4 Referencing practice How would the following citations be entered in your text, and recorded in your reference list or bibliography, using the Harvard system? 1. A reference to James Elliot's article 'Nursing citizenshipa neglected issue', which appeared in 1985 on pages 53-61 of issue number 4 of the second volume of The Australian Journal of Advanced Education. 2. A quotation from page 15 of the book Socialization after childhood, which was written by Oliver Graham Brim and Sharon Wheeler, and which was published by John Wiley and Sons in New York in 1966. 3. A reference to the 1983 publication Developments in design and materials in Engineering, a book resulting from the joint authorship of Julia Elaine Miller and Grant McGrath, and published in Sydney by Science and Design Press. 4. A reference to an issue raised in 1986 by Susan Eisley in her article in The Australian Podiatry Journal (vol. 16, no. 3, pages 48-51) entitled: 'Regulation of podiatry: an emerging responsibility for the profession'. 5. A quotation from one of the contributions to a 1978 collection of papers/articles edited by Louise Norman under the title of Ergonomics and computers and published by McGraw-Hill in New York. The lines are taken from the first paragraph of 'Psychological factors in stress-related fatigue' by Alessandro Jacox, found on pages 36-42 of the book. 6. A reference to an article called 'Ethical issues for the surveyor' on pages 40-47 of the International Surveying Review. The article was written by Julia Claire McClosky in 1981, and appeared in an edition of the journal published in that year (vol. 28, no.2). 7. A reference to the second volume of the journal Physiotherapy today, to Brian K. Miller's 1985 article 'Just what is a professional?', found in issue number 4 on pages 21-27. 5.7 Style sheets Most journals and many organisations produce style guides for people who are writing papers or articles for them. These style guides describe how the work should be set out, and often the method of referencing required.

6.0 Other professional communication 6.1 Memorandum

A memorandum (or memo) is a short report or communication to someone in-house. The subject is often familiar to the recipient. The writer needs to be direct and concise in presenting information. Organise material so that it is easy to readuse lists, headings, an outline, white space, numbered points. Write in a direct 'to-the point' style. Companies and institutions often have a 'house' format for memos. Standard memo format is as follows: __________________________________________ Memorandum To: From: Subject: Date: ___________________________________________ Message written in this space Optional information which may appear at the bottom of the page (depending on house style): Signature of author Name of author Date (if not placed in heading) Copies to (sometimes placed in heading) --------------------------------------------------------------6.2 Formal letter Sample format 43 Brentwood St Warradale SA 5046 (Heading - sender's address or letterhead) 14 December 1994 (Date - month named, not as a number) Ms Veronica P Sims Secretary Environment Protection Council 55 Grenfell Street ADELAIDE SA 5000 (Inside address - receiver's name, position, organisation, postal address) Dear Ms Sims (Salutation) Subject: or Re: (optional) Requested price for product(Subject line if needed) Opening of the letter......................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................ (Double line-space between paragraphs) Body of the letter with as many paragraphs as needed................................. ............................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................

Close of the letter ........................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................ (Line space) Yours sincerely (Complimentary close) Space for signature Janet G Thomas (Typed signatory) JGT:cd (Identification) Enc. (2) (Enclosure) cc: Mr John Smith Ms Jane Adams (Copy line) 6.3 Formal speech 6.3.1 Preparing an effective speech Preparing an effective formal speech is governed by two time factors: you will need extended time to preparing something which must communicate in very limited time. 6.3.1.1 EXTENDED TIME: as in a formal written text, extended time is needed to prepare and to plan to select a topic (if not prescribed) to collect information to organize information (grouping and sequence) to outline a textual structure to take into account other relevant factors relating to context 6.3.1.2 LIMITED TIME: because the text is presented in spoken mode, it must communicate what is intended (ie get the message across) within a strictly limited span of time. Limited time necessitates less complex content a straightforward, easy to follow structure, normally in four parts: TITLE INTRODUCTION BODY CONCLUSION assisting the listeners to follow the prepared structure in more obvious ways than in writing ie PROVIDING THEM WITH ACCESS TO YOUR STRUCTURE this access involves the inclusion of a number of additional statements or comments which give information not about the topic but about the way in which the talk has been organised: (a) identifying the four major components plus the sections of the body (b) identifying key points (c) linking one section to the next and, where helpful, one point to another (d) providing helpful repetition, thus assisting the listeners to anticipate what will be said, and to recall what has been said. 6.3.2 Other relevant context factors 6.3.2.1 MODE The mode is SPOKEN therefore personal in process:

 link your speech to your audience include personal experience, examples, illustrations, as well as facts (if applicable) make the personal angle/opinion/evaluation more apparent 6.3.2.2 TOPIC select a topic in which you are genuinely interested translate complex and/or very detailed information into a more easily understood form develop more ideas than you will think you will need consider the use of audio-visual aids (eg overhead projector) 6.3.2.3 PURPOSE for information for entertainment for persuasion for inspiration 6.3.2.4 AUDIENCE size? professional or lay audience? age? education? interests? any other unique/ relevant traits? why are they there? what do they know about the topic? what viewpoints might they have on the topic? what reactions can you expect? 6.3.2.5 SITUATION Know the occasion how large will the audience be? will the audience be in front of you or all around you? will you be distant from the audience or close? will audio/visual equipment be set up? will the occasion be formal/ semi-formal/ casual? time allocated for your talk? will you have a lectern? will you have a microphone? (if so, portable or fixed?) 6.3.3 Delivering the speech never read your speech speak at a well measured, relaxed pace maintain eye contact with your audience beware of any distracting mannerisms allow pauses allow yourself to gesture naturally keep your sense of humour decide whether to use note cards or folder use visual aids if they add to the clarity and interest of the delivery, BUT prepare them very thoroughly practise several times but don't memorise

 know your introductory comments especially well title your speech or include a summarising sentence in your introduction ensure you offer access to structure if needed anticipate likely questions develop a strong conclusion If you feel nervous breathe deeply concentrate on your material, and on looking relaxed and confident if nerves become a problem, don't try to hide them at all costs 6.4 Listening skills We learn 75 percent of all we know through listening, but usually listen at only 25 percent of our efficiency. 6.4.1 Inefficient listening Poor listening is caused by selective inattention selective memory expectations of people and their familiarity with the topic fear of being influenced or criticised bias boredom listening only to words thought is three times quicker than speaking or listening; thoughts often 'race ahead' 6.4.2 Effective listening Effective listening requires practice and depends on wanting to hear good listening is an active, participatory skill listen for more than facts use speed of thought to your advantage reserve judgement on subject and/or speaker(s) don't let poor delivery undermine benefits 6.4.3 Benefits Good listening brings its own rewards you will gain as much information as possible misunderstandings, problems, or disagreements are minimised relationships improve through effective listening or bullet and number styles use the bullet and number icon on the toolbar. teaching of English as a second language in public schools in Nigeria. To guide the study three research questions were posed. The questions examined the following three variables: (1) Frequency of the use of instructional media; (2) Frequency of the use of instructional techniques; and (3) The school learning Conclusion Communication is central to keeping people together. It has intellectual, socio-cultural, psychological, technological and linguistic dimensions. Also, communication can be written, oral, symbolic or gestural. It involves sending, receiving, and acting on messages in desirable ways. A number of pitfalls may assail a communication act thereby destroying an organization. So that the world may appreciate the nature, scope, and functions of communication, experts have viewed it differently. Yet, all experts are agreed that effective communication leads to

effective management of men and resources. Thus, the administrators of tertiary institutions, especially in Nigeria where English is used as a Second language, and where ever-increasing thrusts are placed on the education process, should possess the right communication skills. The administrators, through efficient communication network, should cause students and staff to work harmoniously in group way, and should attain the desired town-and-gown dividends for their institutions. Many factors would seem to prevent the administrators from deliberately cultivating effective communicative skills: the institutions run tight schedules that take a lot of the administrator's time; issues like over-population of students, students' behavioural problems, and demanding curricula all eat up the administrators' time. Yet, they are expected to make a good success of their job. As such, they should develop personal programmes for the enhancement of their communication skills. They should identify and sustain all communication indexes appropriate for educational administrators also need sound knowledge of linguistic elements and formats of communication. Only their personal efforts at strengthening their communication skills can make them achieve their goal of producing enlightened graduates and genuine leaders of tomorrow. 5.8 A Sample of A REPORTS A Sample Of A Report (Thesis/Project) of Factors affecting quality of English Teaching and Learning in Schools in Nigeria By Joshua O.Edo et al Mat No: ACC/08/MLD/007 Course Code: GNS 202 Course Lecturer: Mr. Sanusi A. Factors affecting quality of English language teaching and learning in schools in Nigeria This study examined the factors responsible for the poor quality of the teaching of English as a second language in public schools in Nigeria. To guide the study three research questions were posed. The questions examined the following three variables: (1) Frequency of the use of instructional media; (2) Frequency of the use of instructional techniques; and (3) The school learning environment. A questionnaire was distributed to 3000 students across the six geopolitical zones in Nigeria. Results revealed that English language teachers do not frequently use modern instructional technologies and variety of teaching techniques in their English language lessons. It was also found that students learn under harsh environment, which is often rowdy, congested and noisy. BACKGROUND Though, many people would agree that there is an observable fall in standard of education in Nigeria, nobody in his widest imagination would have believed that university education in Nigeria has fallen to an abysmally low level as a World Bank study came up with a report that university education in Nigeria has degenerated in the past 15 to 16 years. The shocking news which was reported as one of the lead headlines in The Guardian, one of Nigeria's major daily newspapers, was published on the 19th of February, 2001. The screaming headline reads; "World Bank report scores Nigerian graduates low" The Guardian Newspapers quoted the World Bank

sponsored study that; "Nigeria University graduates are poorly trained and unproductive on the job.... Graduate skills have steadily deteriorated over the past decade" (p. 1). According to the report, the poor performance of Nigerian graduates is particularly evident in two areas; poor mastery of the English Language and lack of requisite technical skill. It was ascertained in the report that the deficiencies in both vital areas make Nigerian graduates of the past fifteen years unfit for the labour market, and sometimes the larger society. Shortcomings were particularly observed in oral and written communication, and applied technical skills. The study also indicated that a serious disconnection exists between university training and the needs of the labour market and this has been socially costly to the country. The report showed that, in many cases, employers of labour compensate for insufficient academic preparation by organizing remedial courses for new employees at great expenses. This often increased the companies operating cost and reduced profitability. Though the study may have identified major areas of the decline in the university education, the actual problem may have its roots at the secondary school level. For it is at the secondary school level that the potential undergraduate is given adequate foundation in the use of English. A mastery of written and spoken language is highly desirable, yet its teaching and learning is beset by a myriad of problems at the secondary school level. (Kolawole 1998). THE PROBLEM Majority of the students who are admitted into Higher Institutions in Nigeria have no ample opportunity to study English Language any more, except those who are admitted to study English and related subjects such as linguistics and literature in English. Though, all students admitted into Higher Institutions in Nigeria are encouraged to take few courses in the use of English, the content of these English courses are grossly inadequate for the students to acquire requisite skills in effective use of language for communication and for the give and take of social experience. In order to study English as a second language and be successful at it, the student must be helped by the teacher to acquire skills in the four language arts skills; namely: Speaking, reading, listening and writing. Language is the vehicle of social interaction and we need effective language to function properly in the work place, social interaction, and indeed, for functional literacy. It must be emphasized that "a person is functionally literate when he has acquired the knowledge and skills in reading and writing which enable him to engage effectively in all those activities in which literacy is normally assumed in his culture of group" (Gray, 1969:24). In an analysis of the senior secondary school certificate results in English language between 1988 and 1996, Olapoopo (1998), indicated that the percentage of failure was between 53.36% and 72.71%. A rich and stimulating language environment during the early years and beyond is essential to the development of verbal and intellectual skills necessary for language learning. Malinowski (1991), asserted that composition writing is a difficult skill to acquire, and recommended therefore, that teachers must use a variety of methods for teaching English Language. Ellis and Tomlison (1980), recommended some basic skills to be taught to learners so that they can write essays proficiently. Such skills include spelling, punctuation, linguistic skills and convention of style. Reyner et al (2001:57), ascertained that "many good teachers are adaptive rather than rigid in their approach to teaching children and only loosely base their instruction on a given method". There are odds against the Nigerian students in learning English. Trifonovitch (1981) indicated that a student is automatically placed at a disadvantage when he already has a language of his own and he is asked to learn another language. Majority of secondary school students in Nigeria already have various mother tongues before they are admitted into school. Nigeria is reputed to

have over 250 languages. With the poor performance of students and graduates in English Language in Nigeria, educators, parents, employers are worried and concerned. The problem therefore is, what factors are responsible for the general poor performance of Nigerian students in English as a second language. RESEARCH QUESTIONS The following research questions have been formulated to guide the study: (a) Do secondary school teachers use instructional resources frequently in teaching English language? (b) Do the English Language teachers use appropriate methods in teaching English Language frequently? (c) Do secondary school students in Nigeria learn English language in environment conducive to learning? METHODOLOGY The main instruments used for this study were a questionnaire and observation schedules. The researchers designed the questionnaire by generating a list of items, which solicited students' responses on teaching strategies, instructional resources/media used by the teachers and the teaching/learning environment. The items in the questionnaire were derived from literature and the researcher's experience in the field. The range of data collection instruments employed increased the researcher's ability to examine the nature and frequency with which certain variables occurred in the research setting. The specifics for each of the two data collection instruments used in the study are as follows: (a) Questionnaire: This instrument had four sections dealing with demographic items such as school type and location; instructional resources/media used by the teachers frequently, methods teachers frequently adopted for teaching English language, and the school environment. (b) Observation: Research assistants were trained to observe each classroom and some classroom proceedings during administration of the questionnaire noting the features or characteristics of the learning environment. The face validity of the instrument was ascertained by presenting the questionnaire to a group of referees in the areas of educational psychology, educational technology, and curriculum and instruction. The experts made some observations and modifications on the items. The section on instructional resources had 17 items; the section on teaching techniques had 10 items, while the section on environment also had 10 items. There were 27 items in the questionnaire. The reliability coefficient of the instrument was calculated by using Cronbach alpha and it was found to be 0.86. The questionnaire was anonymous in order to respond to items in the questionnaire in all honesty. Sections 2 to 4 of the questionnaire were Likert-type items. PARTICIPANTS The population of this study included senior secondary school students in public secondary schools in the six geopolitical zones of Nigeria. There are over 6 million secondary school students in Nigeria and slightly less than half of the number is in senior secondary school while the rest are in Junior secondary school. Participants were drawn from senior secondary school students in public schools through a stratified random sampling technique. The country was stratified along the six geopolitical zones and five schools were randomly selected from each zone, thus, making a total of 30 schools. From the thirty schools, 3000 senior secondary school students were randomly selected for the study. RESEARCH DESIGN

This is essentially a survey research utilizing a questionnaire based on the Likert-type rating scale. The statistical tests used for the study were the mean and standard deviation. The means were used as statistical standard due to the conformity of standard deviation for all questionnaire items. Since sections B and C of the questionnaire Likert scales comprise five-response ratings of very frequently (5), frequently (4), occasionally (3), seldom (2), and never (1), respectively, a theoretical mean value of 3.0 * was determined as a criterion to judge the means of the items in these sections of the questionnaire. Therefore, any item in both sections with a mean equal to or higher than 3.0 indicates it was frequently used for teaching English Language, while item with a mean less than 3.0 but between 2.5 and 2.99 indicates it was occasionally used. However, any item with a mean less than 2.5 was regarded as rarely used. Items in section D of the questionnaire had four-response ratings of Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree. A theoretical mean of 2.5 was taken as a criterion to judge the means for the items in that section. Therefore any item in section D of the instrument which had a mean equal to or higher than 2.5 was regarded as agree while items with less than 2.5 was regarded as disagree. Using formula [1 2 3 4 5/5] = 3.0 DATA COLLECTION Due to the vast nature of the country, 18 doctoral students in the Faculty of Education, University of Benin, from the six geopolitical zones of Nigeria were recruited and trained for two days as research assistants to administer the questionnaire to students in their respective geopolitical zones. All the 3000 students randomly selected for the study were given the questionnaire to examine their experience with the teaching and learning of English Language as well as the conduciveness of their school environment to effective learning. All 3000 copies of the questionnaire were returned properly filled, thus representing 100% return rate. In addition to the questionnaire, observation was also used as instrument for data collection. This was done to authenticate the veracity of answers given by students in the questionnaire. According to Babbie (1979: 216), "The greatest advantage of the field research method is the presence of an observing, thinking researcher on the scene of the action" RESEARCH FINDINGS Research Question 1. Do secondary school teachers use instructional resources/media frequently in teaching English Language? Table 1 shows that only five items were located above the predetermined theoretical mean value of 3.0. These are chalkboards, English workbooks, posters, English textbooks and dictionaries in that order. Charts are used by the teachers occasionally. All other items are rarely used. Research Questions 2 Do the teachers use appropriate methods in teaching English language frequently? Only items 1 and 6 met the predetermined theoretical mean of 3.0. This means that the lecture method and intensive reading of textbooks are the only teaching techniques frequently used in public secondary schools in Nigeria for teaching English language. The group and debate methods are occasionally used with means of 2.82 and 2.57 respectively. Research Question 3 Do secondary school students in Nigeria learn English language in environment conducive to learning?

Mean scores and standard deviations for all items on environmental factors showed that secondary school students in Nigeria do not learn English Language in environment conducive to effective learning. The students agreed that their schools are overcrowded, that the furniture is not comfortable for proper sitting and that classrooms are without proper lighting and ventilation. They disagreed that their schools have well stocked libraries, adequate chairs and tables, and adequate classrooms. DISCUSSION Use of Instructional Resources/Media This study has revealed the dominance of textbooks, dictionaries, chalkboards, workbooks and posters in the teaching of English Language in secondary schools in Nigeria. Modern media such as audio and video tapes, language laboratories, programmed texts, flash cards, computers, magazines and newspaper are rarely used. These findings agree with those of Kolawole (1998) who found that the teaching of English Language is bedeviled with many problems such as inadequate period of teaching, method of teaching and lack of adequate and useful resources. What this means is that secondary school teachers in Nigeria are not altering their instructional practices in spite of the coming of the new instructional technologies. Traditionally, teachers have depended on textbooks and the chalkboards as media for disseminating knowledge in the classroom. With the current practice by English Language teachers in secondary schools in Nigeria, their students are greatly deprived without access to modern instructional media. English Language teachers in public secondary schools in Nigeria are still the chief performers and dispensers of knowledge in the classroom. With the coming of new instructional technologies, Galliher et al (1995) asserted that teachers' roles are beginning to change. Paris (2002) stated that the teachers' role as the "sage on stage" who dispenses knowledge will shift to a role in which teachers are facilitators of learning when technology is integrated into the school curriculum. With the application of modern technology in the classroom, instruction can be more student-centred and individualized. Use of Instructional Techniques Galliher et al. (1995) states that teachers must assume the role of "resource brokers". The implication of this is, that teachers should become familiar with a variety of instructional delivery methods, rather than rely on one "best way". The findings in this study run contrary to the above assertion as the English Language teachers in public secondary schools in Nigeria still depend heavily on the traditional lecture method in English lessons. While the intensive use of prescribed textbooks and the use of lecture method in delivering English lessons are prevalent, the debate and group methods of teaching are occasionally used. In addition to the use of the lecture method, Cleve (1992), and Oluikpe (1979) advocated the use of method such as guided controlled and free writing techniques in essay writing. The goal of controlled expression is to instill in the learner the facilities needed to produce clear piece of composition free from all grammatical errors. This is based on the premise that the use of language is the manipulation of fixed patterns, which are learnt by imitation, and not until these have been learnt that originality occur in their writing endeavours. The technique advocated here include, presenting teachers model essays, reading other materials such as journals, novels and magazines, and allowing students free expression so that their language experience can be enriched. The Teaching and Learning Environment Our observation of the schools visited revealed the following environmental deficiencies: (a) Many schools, especially those in urban centers, are located in areas where there is a busy

movement and activities of many people. It was observed that many people used the schools' premises as short cut to their destinations. Many people often move through the paths and across the playing fields in many of the schools. (b) Many schools have dilapidated buildings with leaking roofs and cracked walls. Many of these dilapidated buildings are still being used for classroom activities. (c) We also observed that most of the schools, especially those in urban areas, are not only overcrowded with some classroom housing as many as 70 to 100 pupils, that the teacher had little or no room to move around to give individual attention to students. (d) There is no electricity in majority of the schools. (e) It was also observed that most of the schools have no adequate staff rooms and offices. (f) We observed that most of the schools have no libraries, and where they are available there was scarcity of books in the shelves. The situation in most of the schools in the six geographical zones in the country is so bad that, in one of the states visited, the state Ministry of Education was using radio and television jingles to compel parents and guardians to pay one thousand Naira (about $10) per child in public and private secondary schools to help rebuild dilapidated secondary schools in that state. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS The public secondary schools in Nigeria are far behind time in offering multiple pathways to the teaching and learning English as a second language. Little wonder that the system has been witnessing steady decline with the percentage of students who failed English Language examinations fluctuating between 55% and 75% in the past ten years (Olaboopo, 1998). The effect of this is that secondary school students who find their way into the university are already at a disadvantage due to poor background and preparation in language education. Public secondary schools in Nigeria should be provided with adequate and a variety of instructional media. If teachers in public secondary schools in Nigeria are to assume new roles and use new technology-supported instructional tools, they should become familiar with a variety of instructional delivery methods, rather than relying on textbooks, chalkboard and lecture method. Technologies such as audio and video recordings, language laboratories and computer can be more effective teaching tools for English Language lessons as they offer authentic learning experience when interwoven with existing curriculum. We are convinced that the high potential for enhanced learning through the provision of conducive-learning environment can be attained in public schools in Nigeria. It is strongly recommended that the learning environment in public schools in Nigeria should be given priority attention by state and federal governments so that children can learn well. REFERENCES Barbie, E. R. (1979).The practice of Social Research. Belmont, California: WadsworthPublishing Co. Inc. Cleve, L. (1992). A new look at evaluating the college application essay; suggestions for high schools and colleges. Journal of College Admission 10. Dabalen et, at. (2000). Labour market prospects for university graduates in Nigeria (World Bank Report). Nigeria University System Innovation Project. Ellis, R & Tomlison, B. (1980). Teaching secondary English: A guide to the teaching of English as a second language. London: Longman Group Ltd. Galliher, R., O'Neil, P., Parks, M.B & Wimmer, B.J. (1995) Preparing technical educators for interactive instructional technologies: A review of research and practice. Paper Presented at the

Annual American Vocational Association Convention, Denver, Co. Kolawole, C.O (1998). Linguistic inputs and three models of presentation as determinants of students' achievement in senior secondary schools essay writing. Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation, University of Ibadan. Lasisi, M.J (1984).The effect of cultural context on reading comprehension. The Nigerian Language teacher 6, 17-23. Malinowski, P.A (1991). A writing course designed for development college students. New York: Community College of the Finger Lakes. Nwokedi, R.E (1984) Language problems in teaching and learning science in Nigeria: Physics. The Nigeria Language Teacher, 6, 8-16. Odejide, B.A (1980). The use of model in the teaching of composition. West African Journal of Education, 17. Olapoopo, A.A (1998). Effects of error-treatment model based and skill-based instructional strategies on students' attitude, motivation and achievement in English composition in senior secondary schools, Paper presented at the Joint Staff/Higher Degree Students, Seminar sense. University of Ibadan. Oluikpe, B. (1979). Teaching the art of continuous writing in tertiary education. In Ubahakwe, E.(Ed). The teaching of English studies, Ibadan: Ibadan University Press. Pace, R.W (1990) Trends in the basic course in organization communication. Bulletin of the Association for Business Communication. Reyner, K, Foorman, B.R., Perfetti, C.A, Pesetsky, D., and Seidenberg, M.S (2001). How psychological science informs the teaching of reading. Psychological Science in the Public Interest: A Journal of the American Psychological Society. 2, 31-67. Trifonovitch, G. (1981). English as an international language: An attitudinal approach. In Smith, L.(Ed) English for Cross Cultural Communication Hong Kong: Mcmillan Press Ltd. DR. S.E ADUWA-OGIEGBAEN Department of Educational Psychology and Curriculum Studies University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria DR. E.O.S. IYAMU Faculty of Education University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria EDO O. JOSHUA Student of Accounting, Accounting Department Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu, School Of Part-Time Studies Annex, Mainland. Bibliograhies: Flexible Learning Centre, University of South Australia Prepared: 28 January 1997 URL: http://www-i.roma.unisa.edu.au/07118/language/writing.htm Kressel, K., & Pruitt, D. G. (1989). Conclusion: A research perspective on the mediation of social conflict. In Kressel, K., Pruitt, D. G., & Associates, Mediation research (pp. 394-435). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. References Ajibade, B. (1990). Organizational communication. In E.B. Bolaji, & M.A. Alabi, (eds.), The principles and practice of communication, llorin: Unilorin Press.

Carysforth, C. (1998). Communication for work. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Publishers. Copland, S. (1976). A communications skills course for administrators in gapua, New Guinea. ELT Journal, xxx, 3. April. Fulmer, R.M. (1974). The new management. Nee York: Macmillan Publishing Company. Lawal, B. (1989). The role of the mother tongue in the decolonization of education in Africa. In B. Lawal & K. Olugbade, (eds.), Issues in contemporary African and political thought. Ibadan: Vantage Publishers. Obasanjo, O. (1978) Opening address. In Federal Ministry of Information, Colloquium on black civilization and education. Lagos: Federal Government Press. Ogunsaju, S. (1983). Educational supervision: Perspectives, and practices in Nigeria. Ife: Unife Press. Olajide, S.B. (1999). Essentials of communication writing in English. Lagos: Frontline Publishers. Olajide, S.B. (2000). Introduction to language teaching methods. In B. Aliyu, & S.B. Olajide, (Eds) A general introduction to language students, llorin: Kwara State College of Education. Parker, F. (1986). Linguistics for non-linguists. Boston: Little Brown and Company. Taiwo, M.B. (1997). Student unrest in Nigerian tertiary institutions: age and sex as determinants. International Journal of Educational Management, 2 1, 134-134. Unoh, S.O. & James, S. (eds.) (1987). Reading Association of Nigeria, Monograph C: Reading for career development, 1 Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books (Nigeria Posted by Joe at 12:25 PM 0 comments: Post a Comment Home Subscribe to: Post Comments (Atom)

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