Human eye

The human eye

is a sensory organ that
responds to visible light
and is a component of
the sensory nervous
system. It enables
people to use visual
information for a variety
of functions, including
seeing objects,
maintaining balance,
and regulating their
circadian rhythm. The
eye can be considered
as a living optical
device. It is
approximately spherical in shape, with its outer layers, such as the outermost, white
part of the eye (the sclera) and one of its inner layers (the pigmented choroid) keeping
the eye essentially light tight except on the eye's optic axis. In order, along the optic
axis, the optical components consist of a first lens (the cornea—the clear part of the
eye) that accomplishes most of the focusing of light from the outside world; then a lens
(the crystalline lens) that completes the final focusing of light into images, followed by a
light-sensitive part of the eye (the retina), where the images fall and are processed.
The pupil is an aperture in a diaphragm that controls how much light enters the interior
of the eye. Through the optic nerve, the retina is connected to the brain. The remaining
parts of the eye preserve it in the proper form, provide it with nutrition and care, and
provide protection.
The retina contains three different types of cells
that convert light energy into electrical energy used by the nervous system. Rods
respond to low light levels and help perceive low-resolution, black-and-white images;
cones respond to high light levels and help perceive high-resolution, colored images;
and the recently discovered photosensitive ganglion cells respond to a wide range of
light intensities and help regulate the amount of light reach.
Human eye Structure

Two eyes, one on

each side of the face, are a
feature of humans. The
orbits are bony spaces in
the skull where the eyes
are located. The
extraocular muscles, which
regulate eye movements,
number six. The whitish
sclera, colored iris, and
pupil make up the front
visible portion of the eye.
On top of this is a thin
covering known as the
conjunctiva. The anterior
segment of the eye is another name for the front portion.
The eye is made up of two segments, the anterior (front) segment and the posterior
(rear) and is not structured like a perfect spherical. The cornea, iris, and lens make up
the anterior portion. The bigger posterior segment, which is made up of the vitreous,
retina, choroid, and the outer white layer known as the sclera, is connected to the
cornea, which is clear and more curved. Typically, the cornea has a diameter of 11.5
mm (0.45 in) and a thickness of 0.5 mm (500 m) in its center. The remaining five-sixths
are made up of the posterior chamber, which has a normal diameter of 24 mm (0.94
in). The cornea and sclera are connected by a region known as the limbus. The
pigmented circular structure that surrounds the pupil, which appears to be black in the
center of the eye, is known as the iris. The iris's dilator and sphincter muscles govern
the pupil's size, which regulates how much light enters the eye.

The cornea, pupil, and lens are the three points through which light enters the eye. The
ciliary muscle regulates the lens shape to accommodate for close focus (near focus).
When photons of light strike the retina's photoreceptor cones and rods, they are
transformed into electrical signals that are relayed through the retina. The remaining
five-sixths of the brain are made up of the posterior chamber, whose data is
transmitted to the brain via the optic nerve and interpreted as sight and vision.

Human eye Size

Adults only differ in their eye size by one or two millimeters. The eyeball is often wider
than it is height. A human adult eye measures around 23.7 mm (0.93 in) in sagittal
height, 24.2 mm (0.95 in) in transverse width, and 22.0–24.8 mm (0.87–0.98 in) in axial
anteroposterior depth, with no discernible difference between sexes or age groups. A
significant association (r = 0.88) between the transverse diameter and the orbital
breadth has been discovered.

The average adult eye measures 24 mm (0.94 in) from anterior to posterior and has a
volume of 6 centimeters (0.37 cu in). The eyeball expands quickly, going from a
diameter of 16–17 mm (0.63–0.67 in) at birth to 22–23 mm (0.89–0.91 in) by the time a
child is three years old. The eye reaches its maximum size by the age of 12.

Human eye Components

Three coats, or layers, covering numerous anatomical structures make up the eye. The
cornea and sclera, which give the eye its shape and support the deeper components,
make up the outermost layer, sometimes referred to as the fibrous tunic. The choroid,
ciliary body, pigmented epithelium, and iris are all parts of the middle layer, also
referred to as the vascular tunic or uvea. The smallest is the retina, which receives
oxygen from both the anterior (retinal vessels) and posterior (choroid blood vessels)
blood vessels. Aqueous humor fills the crevices in the eye between the cornea and
lens at the front, while the vitreous body, a jelly-like substance, fills the entire posterior
chamber behind the lens.

The anterior chamber, which is located between the cornea and the iris, and the
posterior chamber, which is located between the iris and the lens, both contain the
aqueous humor, a clear, watery fluid. The suspensory ligament (Zonule of Zinn), which
is made up of hundreds of tiny, translucent fibers and suspends the lens from the
ciliary body, transmits muscle forces to the lens to cause it to change shape for
accommodation (focusing). Water and proteins give the vitreous body, a transparent
material, its jelly-like and sticky consistency.

surrounding structures of the eye

external eye muscles
There are seven extraocular muscles in the orbit of each eye. Six of these
muscles regulate eye movement, and the seventh regulates the lateral
upper eyelid. The six muscles consist of two oblique muscles, the inferior
oblique, and the superior oblique, as well as four recti muscles: the lateral
rectus, medial rectus, inferior rectus, and superior rectus. Levato palpebrae
superioris is the sixth muscle.

The globe turns almost entirely in rotation with barely a millimeter or so of

translation when the muscles contract and release at different rates. As a
result, the eye can be thought of as rotating around a single point in its
center.

Human eye Vision

Field of view
 Depending on facial anatomy, a person's eye's approximate field of vision (measured from
the fixation point, or the point in which their gaze is directed) is typically 30° superior (up,
constrained by the brow), 45° nasal (constrained by the nose), 70° inferior (down), and 100°
temporal (towards the temple).The binocular field of view (seen by both eyes) is roughly 120
degrees, with two uniocular fields (seen by only one eye) of around 40 degrees on either side.
The visual field for both eyes together (Binocular vision) is approximately 100° vertical and a
maximum 190° horizontal.

For binocular vision, the area is 4.17 steradians, or 13700 square degrees.[12] The iris and pupil
may still be visible when viewed at extreme angles from the side, indicating that individual may
have peripheral vision at that angle. The blind spot produced nasally by the optic nerve
measures around 7.5° high and 5.5° wide and is located about 15° temporal and 1.5° below the
horizontal.

Dynamic range

The static contrast ratio of the retina is around 100:1 (6.5 f-stops). The iris of the eye, which
controls the size of the pupil, is adjusted as the eye moves quickly to acquire a target
(saccades). Dark acclimatization occurs first in around four seconds of complete darkness; full
acclimatization via modifications in retinal rod photoreceptors is 80% complete in thirty
minutes. Due to the complexity and nonlinear nature of the process, it is necessary to begin
dark adaptation after a light exposure stoppage.
From 106 cd/m2, or one millionth (0.000001) of a candela per square meter, to 108 cd/m2,
or one hundred million (100,000,000) candelas per square meter, the human eye is capable
of detecting brightness. (i.e., it has a dynamic range of 1014 cd/m2, or 100 trillion
100,000,000,000,000, or approximately 46.5 f-stops). This range excludes exposure to
lightning or the midday sun (109 cd/m2).

The absolute threshold of vision for a constant light over a large field of view is at the low
end of the range and is around 106 cd/m2 (0.000001 candela per square meter). The high
end of the range is specified as 108 cd/m2 (100,000,000 or one hundred million candelas per
square meter) in terms of normal visual performance.

The lens in the eye is comparable to lenses in optical devices like cameras, and the same
physical principles can be used to explain it. The human eye's pupil serves as its aperture,
and the iris acts as the diaphragm and aperture stop. The effective aperture (the entrance
pupil), which results from refraction in the cornea, is somewhat larger than the actual
pupil diameter. The entry pupil generally has a diameter of 4 mm, although in dim light it
can be as small as 2 mm (f/8.3) or as large as 8 mm (f/2.1). Older people's eyes may
occasionally dilate to no more than 5-6mm in the dark and as little as 1mm in the light;
this value gradually diminishes with age.

Human Eye movement

If images are moving over the retina at a rate of more than a few degrees per second, the
visual system in the human brain cannot absorb the information quickly enough.[26] Thus, to
perceive while moving, the brain must turn the eyes to account for head motion. The fovea
centralis, a little region of the retina with exceptionally high visual acuity, is present in frontal-
eyed mammals. It covers around two degrees of the human visual angle. The brain must turn
its eyes such that the image of the object of regard falls on the fovea to have a clear picture of
the outside world. Any incorrect eye movement can result in substantial visual impairment.

Stereovision, which offers the perception of three dimensions to the vision, is made possible
by having two eyes because it enables the brain to calculate the depth and distance of an
item. To induce stereovision, both eyes must aim precisely enough so that the object of gaze
lands on corresponding spots on the two retinas; otherwise, double vision may happen. Some
people with congenitally crossed eyes tend to neglect one eye's vision, which prevents them
from experiencing double vision or stereovision.
Six muscles linked to each eye control the motions of the eye, allowing it to elevate, depress,
converge, diverge, and roll. Both deliberately and involuntarily, these muscles are controlled to
monitor objects and adjust for concomitant head movements.
• quickly moving eyes
The term "rapid eye movement," or "REM," usually refers to the stage of sleep that yields the
most vivid dreams. The eyes are currently moving quickly.

• Saccades
The frontal lobe of the brain directs saccades, which are fast, simultaneous movements of both
eyes in the same direction.
 • Focused Eye Movements
The eyes move about even when focused on a single area. As a result, various levels of
stimulation are continuously applied to each individual photosensitive cell. These cells would
ordinarily stop producing output if input did not change. Drift, ocular tremor, and micro
saccades are all types of eye movements. Some irregular drifts, which are movements between
a saccade and a micro saccade in size, can extend up to one tenth of a degree. The definition of
micro saccades by amplitude used by researchers varies. 27 Martin Rolfs
The bulk of micro saccades seen in a variety of jobs had amplitudes less than 30 min-arc,
according to the statement. Some claim that the "current consensus has largely consolidated
around a definition of micro saccades that includes magnitudes up to 1," though.
• Vestibulo-ocular reflexes
In response to neural input from the vestibular system of the inner ear, the vestibulo-ocular
reflex is a reflex eye movement that stabilizes images on the retina during head movement by
producing an eye movement in the direction opposite to head movement, maintaining the
image in the center of the visual field. For instance, the eyes shift to the left while the head
moves to the right. This holds true for head movements that cause the ocular muscles to
contract and relax to preserve visual stability, such as head tilts to the right and left, up and
down, and left and right.
• Effortless pursuit motion
Eyes can also move around with a moving object. Due to the need for the brain to analyze
incoming visual information and provide feedback, this tracking is less precise than the
vestibulo-ocular reflex. Although the eyes frequently execute saccades to keep up, it is very
simple to follow an object moving at a steady speed. In adult adults, the eye can move
smoothly at speeds of up to 100°/s.
Unless there is another reference point for speed, it is more challenging to visually estimate
speed in dim light or while moving.
• Optokinetic reflex
Through visual feedback, the optokinetic reflex (also known as optokinetic nystagmus)
stabilizes the image on the retina. It is brought on when the entire visual scene moves across
the retina, causing the eyes to rotate in the same direction and at a speed that slows down the
movement of the image. A compensating saccade is triggered to restore the gaze to the center
of the visual field when it veers too far from the forward direction. For instance, when staring
out the window at a moving train, the eyes can stabilize the train on the retina for a brief
period before the railway leaves the field of vision. The eye is then shifted back to the spot (by a
saccade) where it first noticed the train.
Near response

• Moving in a vergence
The eyes of a species with binocular vision must spin around a vertical axis when viewing an
object so that the image is projected in the middle of the retina in both eyes. The eyes spin
"towards each other" (convergence) when looking at something close by, and "away from each
other" (divergence) when looking at something far away.
• constricted eyes
Light rays cannot be refracted by lenses at their edges as well as they can toward the center.
Therefore, spherical aberration causes the image produced by any lens to have a little bit of
blur around the edges. By blocking out stray light rays and concentrating just on the better-
focused center, it can be reduced. When the eye is focused on surrounding things, the pupil in
the eye narrows to accomplish this. Additionally, small apertures result in a greater depth of
field, enhancing the range of "in focus" vision. In this approach, the pupil works to both
decrease spherical aberration and broaden the field of view for close-up vision.
• Accommodation of the lens
The lens's curvature is altered by the ciliary muscles surrounding it; this process is known as
"accommodation". By relaxing the fibers of the suspensory ligament connected to its periphery,
accommodation decreases the inner diameter of the ciliary body, which in turn allows the lens
to relax into a more convex, or globular, shape. Closer objects get sharper because a more
convex lens more forcefully refracts light and concentrates divergent light rays from close
objects onto the retina.

Human Eye disease

The eyes and accompanying structures may be impacted by a wide range of illnesses,
disorders, and aging-related changes. Certain changes that can only be ascribed to aging take
place in the eye as it ages. Most of these physiologic and anatomical systems degrade
gradually. The quality of vision declines with age for causes unrelated to disorders of the aging
eye. Although the non-diseased eye undergoes numerous significant changes, the most
functionally significant changes appear to be a decrease in pupil size and the loss of
accommodation or focusing capacity (presbyopia). The amount of light that can enter the
retina is determined by the pupil's size. With aging, the pupil's ability to dilate lessens, which
significantly reduces the amount of light reaching the retina. It's as if older folks are always
sporting medium-density sunglasses compared to younger people. Therefore, older people
need more lighting for any intricate visually guided jobs were performance changes with
illumination. Herpes and genital warts are two sexually transmitted infections that can cause
certain eye disorders. The STD can spread to the eye if there is contact between the eye and the
infected area. Arcus senilis, a noticeable white ring that grows on the cornea's edge with aging.
Laxity, a downward movement of the eyelid tissues, and shrinkage of the orbital fat are all
effects of aging. Numerous eyelid problems, including ectropion, entropion, dermatochalasis,
and ptosis, are caused by these alterations. The vitreous gel liquefies (posterior vitreous
detachment, or PVD), and the number of its opacities, which can be seen as floaters, steadily
increases. Ocular and visual diseases are treated and managed by specialists in eye care, such
as ophthalmologists and optometrists. One kind of eye chart used to assess visual acuity is the
Snellen chart. A prescription for corrective lenses for eyeglasses may be given to the patient by
the eye doctor following a thorough eye examination. .

Diagram of a human eye (horizontal section of the right eye)

1. Lens, 2. Zonule of Zinn or Ciliary zonule, 3. Posterior chamber and 4. Anterior chamber with 5. Aqueous humour flow; 6.
Pupil, 7. Corneosclera or Fibrous tunic with 8. Cornea, 9. Trabecular meshwork and Schlemm's canal. 10. Corneal limbus and
11. Sclera; 12. Conjunctiva, 13. Uvea with 14. Iris, 15. Ciliary body (with a: pars plicata and b: pars plana) and 16. Choroid); 17.
Ora serrata, 18. Vitreous humor with 19. Hyaloid canal/(old artery), 20. Retina with 21. Macula or macula lutea, 22. Fovea and
23. Optic disc → blind spot; 24. Visual axis (line of sight). 25. Optical axis. 26. Optic nerve with 27. Dural Sheath, 28. Tenon's
capsule or bulbar sheath, 29. Tendon.
30. Anterior segment, 31. Posterior segment.
32. Ophthalmic artery, 33. Artery and central retinal vein → 36. Blood vessels of the retina; Ciliary arteries (34. Short posterior
ones, 35. Long posterior ones and 37. Anterior ones), 38. Lacrimal artery, 39. Ophthalmic vein, 40. Vorticose vein.
41. Ethmoid bone, 42. Medial rectus muscle, 43. Lateral rectus muscle, 44. Sphenoid bone.

“Macular degeneration”

Every year, macular degeneration affects around 1.75 million Americans, making it a
particularly common disease in this country. A higher risk of age-related macular degeneration
may be linked to reduced amounts of lutein and zeaxanthin in the macula. The antioxidant
effects of lutein and zeaxanthin shield the retina and macula from oxidative harm caused by
high-energy light waves. The electrons that the light waves excite as they reach the eye can
hurt the cells there, but they can also result in oxidative damage that can cause cataracts or
macular degeneration. The free radical electron is reduced when lutein and zeaxanthin attach
to it, making the electron safe. The best method for ensuring a diet high in lutein and
zeaxanthin is to is to consume vegetables that are dark green, such as kale, spinach, broccoli,
and turnip greens. To attain and maintain appropriate eye health, proper nutrition is a crucial
factor. Two important carotenoids found in the macula of the eye, lutein and zeaxanthin, are
currently being studied to determine their function in the pathogenesis of eye illnesses like age-
related macular degeneration and cataracts.

Human sexuality
Human eyes, especially the iris and its color, as well as the area around the eye (lids, lashes,
and brows), have long been considered important indicators of physical attractiveness. Human
nonverbal communication is heavily reliant on eye contact. A dark limbal ring, which is
prominent, is seen to be appealing. Long, thick eyelashes are also prized as a sign of beauty
and are thought to be a desirable face feature. Additionally, it has been demonstrated that
pupil size influences both attraction and nonverbal communication, with dilated (bigger) pupils
being viewed as more appealing. Additionally, it should be remembered that sexual arousal
and stimuli cause dilated pupils. Women in the Renaissance utilized the juice of the belladonna
plant's berries in eyedrops to enlarge the pupils and give their eyes a seductive appearance.