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Environmental Gradients

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Chapter Title Environmental Gradients

Copyright Year 2014
Copyright Holder Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
Corresponding Author Family Name Barletta
Particle
Given Name Mario
Suffix
Division/Department Laboratório de Ecologia e
Gerenciamento de Ecossistemas
Costeiros e Estuarinos, Departamento
de Oceanografia
Organization/University Universidade Federal de Pernambuco
Street Cidade Universitária
City Recife
State PE
Postcode CEP 50740-550
Country Brazil
Phone +55 (021 81) 2126-7223
Fax +558121268225
Email barletta@ufpe.br
Email mario.barletta@pq.cnpq.br
Author Family Name Dantas
Particle
Given Name David Valença
Suffix
Division/Department Laboratório de Ecologia e
Gerenciamento de Ecossistemas
Costeiros e Estuarinos, Departamento
de Oceanografia
Organization/University Universidade Federal de Pernambuco
Street Cidade Universitária
City Recife
State PE
Postcode CEP 50740-550
Country Brazil
Phone +55 81 2126-7223
Email davidvdantas@gmail.com
Comp. by: DRajalakshmi Stage: Proof Chapter No.: 136 Title Name: EOE
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1 E

(2) a middle estuary subject to strong saltwater and fresh- 34

2 ENVIRONMENTAL GRADIENTS
water mixing, and (3) an upper or fluvial estuary, charac- 35
terized by freshwater but subject to strong tidal action. 36
3 Mario Barletta and David Valença Dantas The limits between these sectors are variable and subject 37
4 Laboratório de Ecologia e Gerenciamento de to constant seasonal changes in the river discharge. 38
5 Ecossistemas Costeiros e Estuarinos, Departamento de Estuaries may be classified as positive, neutral, or neg- 39
6 Oceanografia, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, ative depending on their salinity regime and the extent of 40
7 Recife, PE, Brazil evaporation (McLusky and Elliott, 2004). In positive estu- 41
aries, the evaporation from the surface of the estuary is less 42
8 Definitions than the volume of freshwater entering the estuary from 43
9 Environmental gradients in estuaries refer to gradual rivers and land drainage. In such an estuary, the outgoing 44
10 changes in abiotic factors and, consequently, in biotic fac- freshwater floats on top of saline water entering from the 45
11 tors, through space and time. sea. Therefore, the water gradually mixes vertically from 46
12 Ecotone is a transition area between two different hab- the bottom to the top in the estuarine basin. This type of 47
13 itats, ecosystems, or biomes. estuary is thus characterized by incoming saltwater along 48
14 Ecocline is a gradation from one ecosystem to another the bottom, with gradual vertical mixing leading to an out- 49
15 when there is no sharp boundary between the two. going stream of fresher surface water (salt wedge). In neg- 50
ative estuaries, evaporation from the surface exceeds the 51
16 Introduction freshwater runoff entering the estuary, and evaporation 52
17 Estuarine ecosystems are characterized by a constantly causes the surface salinity to increase. The saltier surface 53
18 changing mixture of saltwater and freshwater (McLusky, water is then denser than the water underneath, causing 54
19 1989). The flux of saltwater and freshwater presents phys- it to sink. The circulation pattern is thus opposite to that 55
20 iological challenges to estuarine organisms. Gradients of of a positive estuary because, in a negative estuary, the 56
21 salinity, for example, restrict many animal species in the seawater and freshwater both enter the estuary on the sur- 57
22 adjacent sea or rivers from entering estuaries. In highly face, but after evaporation and sinking, they leave the estu- 58
23 stratified estuaries, denser marine water entering an estu- ary as an outgoing bottom current. Finally, in neutral 59
24 ary along the bottom gradually mixes vertically with the estuaries, freshwater input equals evaporation and, in this 60
25 outgoing surface flow of freshwater. Environmental gradi- case, a static salinity regime occurs. Depending on the 61
26 ents in estuaries depend on seasonal and daily fluctuations tidal amplitude and volume of freshwater flow, four main 62
27 of abiotic factors. types of positive estuaries are recognized: highly strati- 63
fied, fjords, partially mixed, and homogeneous (Dyer, 64
28 Environmental gradients 1973, 1974). 65

29 Abiotic factors Along an estuarine gradient, there are definite changes 66

in salinity ranging from seawater to freshwater and associ- 67
30 Fairbridge (1980) defined an estuary as an inlet of the sea ated changes in sedimentary conditions from coarse sedi- 68
31 reaching into a river valley, as far as the upper limit of tidal ment (sand or gravel) outside the estuaries to fine 69
32 rise, usually being divisible into three sectors: (1) a marine sediments (mud) within the estuaries (Miranda et al., 70
33 or lower estuary, in free connections with the open sea,

M.J. Kennish (ed.), Encyclopedia of Estuaries, DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8801-4,

© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
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2 ENVIRONMENTAL GRADIENTS

71 2002). The horizontal distribution of average salinity in (Figures 1, 2, and 3), the variation in the seasonal ecocline, 127
72 estuaries typically varies between 1 and 36, indicating that principally the salinity gradient, controls the distribution 128
73 the saltwater was gradually diluted by the freshwater dis- and movements of the estuarine fish assemblages along 129
74 charge. Moreover, the mixing and layering processes of a spatial gradient (Barletta et al., 2005, 2008; Dantas 130
75 salinity in the estuary depend on its geometry, freshwater et al., 2010). 131
76 discharge, tidal range, salinity, circulation of the adjacent Studies in neotropical estuaries of South America 132
77 oceanic region, and wind acting directly or indirectly on (Barletta et al., 2005, 2008; Dantas et al., 2012) suggest 133
78 its surface. Other possible changes in estuarine gradients that for the catfish species Cathorops spixii (Agassiz) 134
79 are alterations in turbidity of the water column or chemical and C. agassizii (Eigenmann & Eigenmann), salinity gra- 135
80 composition, including changes in nutrients, dissolved dients and dissolved oxygen levels influence the seasonal 136
81 gases, and trace elements (McLusky and Elliott, 2004). distribution not only of adults but also of all the different 137
ontogenetic phases, along the estuarine ecocline (upper, 138
middle, and lower estuary). The seasonal fluctuations in 139
82 Biotic factors salinity (late dry and late rainy) and dissolved oxygen 140
83 Estuarine organisms and habitats often experience steep (early rainy and late dry) (Figures. 1, 2, and 3) define the 141
84 gradients in salinity. Estuarine fauna must adapt to the middle estuary nursery area for C. spixii and C. agassizii 142
85 dynamic environmental conditions. Many fishes, for (Barletta et al., 2005, 2008; Dantas et al., 2012). The 143
86 example, have the physiological capacity to tolerate high importance of this habitat as nursery for C. spixii and 144
87 fluctuations of salinity along an estuarine gradient. Estua- C. agassizii juveniles is determined by the strength and 145
88 rine fauna can be classified based on their salinity toler- position of the seasonal environmental gradient along the 146
89 ances (McLusky and Elliott, 2004). For instance, estuarine ecocline (Dantas et al., 2012). Estuarine ecosys- 147
90 oligohaline organisms are those that live in rivers/freshwa- tems provide critical habitats for many commercial and 148
91 ter and do not tolerate salinities greater than 0.5. Most recreational species (mainly feeding, mating, spawning, 149
92 fauna with marine affinities that live in the central segment and nursery grounds), and they exhibit dynamic variabil- 150
93 of estuaries (salinities of 5–18) are the truly estuarine ity of environmental conditions. 151
94 forms. They can live in the sea, but the estuarine waters
95 provide space and food resources as well as less competi-
96 tion with other marine species. Euryhaline marine species Ecotone and ecocline 152
97 constitute the majority of organisms living in estuaries Ecotones are areas of relatively rapid environmental 153
98 with their spatial distribution ranging from the sea up to change, producing a narrow ecological zone between 154
99 the central segment of estuaries. Each species has its two different and relatively homogeneous community 155
100 own range of salinity tolerance. Stenohaline is a term types. Ecotones are highly dynamic and usually unstable, 156
101 describing organisms that cannot tolerate a wide fluctua- resulting in an environmentally stochastic stress zone 157
102 tion in salinity. They are often fish and crabs that spend (Attrill and Rundle, 2002). They have been well studied 158
103 only part of their life cycles in estuaries, using these waters in terrestrial systems and at terrestrial/aquatic interfaces, 159
104 as pathways to and from their breeding areas in rivers or including the interface between rivers and estuaries. 160
105 the open sea. The composition of estuarine fish assem- Ecoclines have been only recently defined as gradient 161
106 blages is determined by a combination of biotic and abi- zones containing relatively heterogeneous faunal commu- 162
107 otic factors, particularly competition for space and food, nities, which are environmentally more stable than those 163
108 tolerance of diel and seasonal changes in salinity and tur- of ecotones (Attrill and Rundle, 2002). Ecoclines repre- 164
109 bidity, and temperature gradients (Barletta and Blaber, sent a boundary of more gradual and progressive change 165
110 2007). between two systems, resulting from a response to step- 166
111 Many studies on fish assemblages in estuaries and their wise differences of a major environmental driver that con- 167
112 relationships with habitat types and environmental gradi- trols the transition process and is followed or modified by 168
113 ents demonstrate that geology, geomorphology, and more other forcings. 169
114 immediate environmental gradient conditions, such as The environmental gradients occurring in estuaries can 170
115 salinity and temperature, are associated with fish distribu- be either classified as ecotones, represented by the transi- 171
116 tion, species richness, and fisheries catch (Mathieson tion community between the freshwater and marine spe- 172
117 et al., 2000; Thiel et al., 2003; Barletta et al., 2005; cies, or ecoclines comprised of a series of assemblages 173
118 Barletta and Blaber, 2007; Barletta et al., 2008). For exam- along the estuarine salinity gradient (Attrill and Rundle, 174
119 ple, the relative proportions of freshwater and marine 2002). Other potential environmental influences on estua- 175
120 species using estuaries may be different depending on rine ecoclines would be the seasonal changes in freshwater 176
121 environmental gradients of salinity and other physical- flow (long-term process) or daily rhythm of the tides 177
122 chemical and geomorphological factors (Barletta et al., (short-term process) that have a strong influence on the 178
123 2000, 2003, 2005, 2008; Blaber, 2000). Many functions estuarine community. 179
124 of estuarine fauna, such as breeding, recruitment, nursery,
125 and food supply, are subject to diel and seasonal fluctua-
126 tions of environmental gradients. In neotropical estuaries
Comp. by: DRajalakshmi Stage: Proof Chapter No.: 136 Title Name: EOE
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ENVIRONMENTAL GRADIENTS 3

180 Consequences of man-driven changes in in a North Brazilian intertidal mangrove forest. Hydrobiologia, 235
181 environmental gradients 426, 65–74. 236
Barletta, M., Barletta-Bergan, A., Saint-Paul, U., and Hubold, G., 237
182 Estuaries have been historically impacted by anthropo- 2003. Seasonal changes in density, biomass and diversity of 238
183 genic activities, such as land reclamation, functioning of estuarine fishes in tidal mangrove creeks of the lower Caeté Estu- 239
184 ports and maritime terminals, harboring of industrial ary (Northern Brazilian Coast, east Amazon). Marine Ecology 240
185 estates, and dredging of waterways, all of which are part Progress Series, 256, 217–228. 241
186 of a non-sustainable economic model which has failed to Barletta, M., Barletta-Bergan, A., Saint-Paul, U., and Hubold, G., 242
2005. The role of salinity in structuring the fish assemblages in 243
187 take into consideration any ecological limits of the estua- a tropical estuary. Journal of Fish Biology, 66, 1–28. 244
188 rine environment (Barletta et al., 2010). The effects of fre- Barletta, M., Amaral, C. S., Correa, M. F. M., Guebert, F., Dantas, 245
189 quent and intense dredging activities in estuaries, for D. V., Lorenzi, L., and Saint-Paul, U., 2008. Factors affecting 246
190 example, can drastically alter the physical-chemical con- seasonal variations in demersal fish assemblages at an ecocline 247
191 ditions of the system and change the patterns of their envi- in a tropical\subtropical estuary. Journal of Fish Biology, 73, 248
192 ronmental gradients. For example, comparisons of 1315–1336. 249
Barletta, M., Jaureguizar, A. J., Baigun, C., Fontoura, N. F., 250
193 demersal fish communities in the main channel of the
Agostinho, A. A., Almeida-Val, V., Val, A., Torres, R. A., 251
194 Paranaguá estuary (South Brazil – tropical and subtropical Jimenes, L. F., Giarrizzo, T., Fabré, N. N., Batista, V., Lasso, 252
195 transition zone) before, during, and after dredging C., Taphorn, D. C., Costa, M. F., Chaves, P. T., Vieira, J. P., 253
196 (Barletta et al., 2008, 2010) showed evidence of impacts. and Corrêa, M. F. M., 2010. Fish and aquatic habitat conserva- 254
197 The authors concluded that, in this estuary, during dredg- tion in South America: a continental overview with emphasis 255
198 ing, significant differences were observed in fish species, on neotropical systems. Journal of Fish Biology, 76, 2118–2176. 256
Blaber, S. J. M., 2000. Tropical Estuarine Fishes: Ecology, Exploi- 257
199 species composition (biodiversity), Genidens genidens
tation and Conservation. Oxford: Blackwell. 258
200 (Cuvier), and C. spixii (density and biomass). Most of Dantas, D. V., Barletta, M., Costa, M. F., Barbosa-Cintra, S. C. T., 259
201 these species had the highest densities and biomasses in Possatto, F. E., Ramos, J. A. A., Lima, A. R. A., and Saint-Paul, 260
202 the main channel of the estuary during the dredging pro- U., 2010. Movement patterns of catfishes (Ariidae) in a tropical 261
203 cess. However, Cynoscion leiarchus (Cuvier) and semi-arid estuary. Journal of Fish Biology, 76, 2540–2510. 262
204 Menticirrhus americanus (L.) had the lowest density and Dantas, D. V., Barletta, M., Lima, A. R. A., Ramos, J. A. A., Costa, 263
205 biomass values during and after the dredging process. M. F., and Saint-Paul, U., 2012. Nursery habitats shifts in an 264
estuarine ecosystem: patterns of use by sympatric catfish species. 265
206 These results strongly suggest that dredging had an influ- Estuaries and Coasts, 35, 587–602. 266
207 ence on the fish assemblage composition and its distribu- Dyer, K. R., 1973. Estuaries: A Physical Introduction. London: 267
208 tion in the estuary. Wiley. 268
Dyer, K. R., 1974. The salt balance in stratified estuaries. Estuarine 269
and Coastal Marine Science, 2, 273–281. 270
209 Summary Fairbridge, R., 1980. The estuary: its definition and geodynamic 271
210 Environmental gradients in estuaries are directly linked to cycle. In Olausson, E., and Cato, I. (eds.), Chemistry and Geo- 272
chemistry of Estuaries. New York: Wiley, pp. 1–35. 273
211 the seasonal and diel fluctuations of freshwater discharge Mathieson, S., Cattrijsse, A., Costa, M. J., Drake, P., Elliott, M., 274
212 from rivers and tidal action that influence abiotic and Gardner, J., and Marchand, J., 2000. Fish assemblages of Euro- 275
213 biotic changes and generate ecoclines (Barletta et al., pean tidal marshes: a comparison based on species, families 276
214 2008). These abiotic parameters affect the biotic commu- and functional guilds. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 204, 277
215 nities inhabiting estuaries that must adapt to the variable 225–242. 278
216 environmental conditions. Fishes, for example, must have McLusky, D. S., 1989. The Estuarine Ecosystem. London: Blackie 279
and Son. 280
217 a strong eurythermohaline capacity to tolerate frequent
McLusky, D. S., and Elliott, M., 2004. The Estuarine Ecosystem: 281
218 fluctuations of salinity and temperature. Moreover, some Ecology, Threats, and Management. Oxford: Oxford University 282
219 anthropogenic factors that can cause changes in estuarine Press. 283
220 gradients, such as dredging of waterways and removal of Miranda, L. B., Castro, B. M., and Kjerfve, B., 2002. Princı́pios de 284
221 riparian vegetation, result in significant sediment and Oceanografia Fı́sica de Estuários. São Paulo: Editora da 285
222 nutrient inputs that can impact the systems (Barletta Universidade de São Paulo. 286
Thiel, R., Cabral, H., and Costa, M. J., 2003. Composition, temporal 287
223 et al., 2010).
changes and ecological guild classification of the ichthyofaunas 288
of large European estuaries – a comparison between the Tagus 289
(Portugal) and the Elbe (Germany). Journal of Applied Ichthyol- 290
224 Bibliography ogy, 19, 330–342. 291
225 Attrill, M. J., and Rundle, S. D., 2002. Ecotone or ecocline: ecolog-
226 ical boundaries in estuaries. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Sci-
227 ence, 55, 929–936. Cross-References 292
228 Barletta, M., and Blaber, S. J. M., 2007. Comparison of fish assem- Anthropogenic Impacts 293
229 blage and guilds in tropical habitats of the Embley (Indo-West Dredging 294
230 Pacific) and Caeté (Western Atlantic) Estuaries. Bulletin of
231 Marine Science, 80(3), 647–680.
Fish Assemblages 295

232 Barletta, M., Saint-Paul, U., Barletta-Bergan, A., Ekau, W., and Tidal and Nontidal Oscillations 296
233 Schories, D., 2000. Spatial and temporal distribution of Tidal Hydrodynamics 297
234 Myrophis punctatus (Ophichthidae) and associated fish fauna Tides 298
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4 ENVIRONMENTAL GRADIENTS

Environmental Gradients, Figure 1 Total rainfall (mm) and mean values of water temperature ( C) and salinity in Caeté Estuary
(upper, middle, and lower estuary).
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ENVIRONMENTAL GRADIENTS 5

Environmental Gradients, Figure 2 Total rainfall (mm) and mean (sd) values of water temperature ( C) and salinity in Goiana
Estuary (upper, middle, and lower estuary).
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6 ENVIRONMENTAL GRADIENTS

Environmental Gradients, Figure 3 Total rainfall (mm) and mean (sd) values of water temperature ( C) and salinity in Paranaguá
Estuary (upper, middle, and lower estuary).

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