NURSING RESEARCH-LECTURE-PRELIM
I. Introduction to Nursing Research period, and practice-oriented research on various
Evolution of Research in Nursing
• Nursing Research Research
-systematic inquiry that uses disciplined methods to
answer questions or solve problems.
- The ultimate goal of research is to develop, refine, and
expand knowledge.
- systematic inquiry designed to develop trustworthy
evidence about issues of importance to the nursing
profession, including nursing practice, education,
administration, and informatics.
The Early Years: From Nightingale to the 1960s
- research in nursing began with Florence Nightingale.
- Her landmark publication, Notes on Nursing (1859),
described her early interest in environmental factors
that promote physical and emotional well-being.
- Her most widely known research contribution involved
an analysis of factors affecting soldier mortality and
morbidity during the Crimean War.
- Based on her skillful analyses, she was successful in
effecting some changes in nursing care—and, more
generally, in public health.
- Most studies in the early 1900s concerned nurses’
education.
- As more nurses received university-based education,
studies concerning nursing students—their
characteristics, problems, and satisfactions—became
more numerous.
- During the 1940s, government-initiated studies of
nursing education continued, spurred on by the high
demand for nursing personnel during World War II
- In the 1960s, nursing leaders began to express concern
about the dearth of research in nursing practice.
- Several professional nursing organizations, such as the
Western Interstate Council for Higher Education in
Nursing, established research priorities during this
clinical topics began to emerge in the literature.
Nursing Research in the 1970s
- During the 1970s, there was a change in emphasis in
nursing research from areas such as teaching and
nurses themselves to improvements in client care
signifying a growing awareness by nurses of the need
for an evidence base from which to practice.
- Nurses also began to pay attention to the clinical
utilization of research findings.
- The 1980s brought nursing research to a new level of
development.
- An increase in the number of qualified nurse
researchers, the widespread availability of computers
for the collection and analysis of information, and an
ever-growing recognition that research is an integrate
part of professional nursing led nursing leaders to raise
new issues and concerns.
Nursing Research in the 1990s
- National Institute of Nursing Research (NINR) was
launched in 1993
- Several journals were established in the 1990s in
response to the growth in clinically oriented research
and interest in EBP, including Clinical Nursing Research
and Journal of Clinical Nursing.
- Another new journal, Qualitative Health Research,
signaled the emergence of in-depth studies using
different methodologies than had typically been used in
earlier research.
Current and Future Directions for Nursing Research
- Continued focus on EBP.
- Development of a stronger evidence base through
multiple, confirmatory strategies. Practicing nurses are
unlikely to adopt an innovation based on weakly
designed or isolated studies. Strong research designs
are essential, and confirmation is usually needed
through the replication- (i.e., the repeating) of studies
with different clients, in different clinical settings, and at
different times to ensure that the findings are robust.
 NURSING RESEARCH-LECTURE-PRELIM

- Greater emphasis on systematic reviews (overview of
several randomized trials of the same intervention or
treatment for the same situation or condition.)
- Systematic reviews are a cornerstone of EBP, and will
take on increased importance in all health disciplines.
- The purpose of a systematic review is to amass and
integrate comprehensive research information on a
topic, to draw conclusions about the state of evidence.
Best practice clinical guidelines typically rely on such
systematic reviews.
Current and Future Directions for
Nursing Research
• Expanded local research in healthcare settings.
• Strengthening of interdisciplinary collaboration.
• Expanded dissemination of research findings.
• Increasing the visibility of nursing research.
• Increased focus on cultural issues and health
disparities.
• Shared decision making.
Paradigms for Nursing Research
- A paradigm is a world view, a general perspective on
the complexities of the world
- Paradigms for human inquiry are often characterized
in terms of the ways in which they respond to basic
philosophical questions, such as: What is the nature of
reality? (ontologic) (What is the relationship between
the inquirer and those being studied? epistemologic).
• Historical Events Influencing Nursing Research
1850 – Florence Nightingale is the 1st nurse researcher
with studies conducted to improve soldiers’ health.
1859 – Nightingale’s Notes on Nursing is published
1980 – Quantitative and Qualitative research conducted
to build a sound knowledge base for nursing practice.
such as patient health status, quality of care and cost-
effectiveness of care.
20th-21st century – development of an evidence-based
practice (EBP) for nursing.
Definition of Nursing Research
• Research
- Old French word “cerchier”- seek or search.
- Diligent, systematic inquiry or investigation to
validate and refine existing knowledge and
generate new knowledge. (Burns and Grove,
1997).
Nursing Research
• Nursing Research – systematic search for and
validation of knowledge about issues of
importance to the nursing profession (Polit and
Hungler, 1999).
Goals of Nursing Research
1. Efficiency and effectiveness in Nursing Care.
2. Worthiness and Value of the Nursing Profession
to Society.
3. Identifying, Implementing and Evaluating
Effective Health Care Modalities.
4. Utilize Clinical Nursing research as evidence-
based data to provide quality care to clients.
Evidence-Based Nursing Research
• Conscious and intentful use of research and
theory-based information to make decisions
about patient care delivery.
- latest research findings to make practice
improvements.
• Cost-effectiveness
• Cost-efficiency
Specific Purposes of Nursing Research

1990 – Outcomes research is conducted to examine 1. Identification/clarification

both short-term and long-term results of health care,
 NURSING RESEARCH-LECTURE-PRELIM

2. Description- It observes, defines and documents 3. Generalization. Findings are deemed to have an
nursing situations inquiry applicability to entire population.

- Determine the relationship between and among 4. Intensive. In-depth approach used to ensure that all
the variables investigated. possible loopholes in the study are covered.

3. Exploration. It answers “what” questions on the Roles of Nurses in Research

phenomenon.
1. Principal Investigators
4. Explanation- ask “why” a phenomenon occurred. 2. Member of a Research Team
3. Evaluator of Research Findings
5. Prediction and Control
4. Consumers of Research Findings
-Prediction. Research projects situations or events that 5. Client Advocates in a Research Study
could arise from research investigation. 6. As Subjects of Research

-Control. Research puts up a barrier to hinder or

minimize the effects of anticipated outcomes or Hallmarks and Qualities of Good Nurse Researchers
reactions
1. Honest and Credible
Characteristics of Research 2. Accurate in Data Collection
3. Organized and systematic
1. Orderly and Systematic/ordered sequence of 4. Logical
steps: 5. Self-awareness
a. Identify the problem 6. Imaginative and Curious
b. Determine the purpose of the study 7. Persistent with Barriers
c. Review of Related Literature 8. Establishes good relationships with respondents
d. Theoretical/Conceptual Framework and other researchers
e. Study assumptions 9. Updated and informed of present issues and
events
Steps…….
II. Ethical considerations in Research,
f. Acknowledge the limitations of the study
Kinds of Research, Variables
g. Formulate the null hypotheses
Ethical principles and guidelines in research
h. Define the study variables
When humans are used as study participants, care must
i. Choice of research design be done to protect their rights.

j. Identify the Target Population ▹ Informed consent

k. Choose the study Samples ▸ Participants must have a power of free

choice to voluntarily consent or decline
l. Conduct the field Test participation in the study.
Characteristics of Nursing Research ▸ If the patient cannot give consent
1. Control. Researcher identifies and eliminates specific because of being a minor, or in cases
constraints or limitations to ensure precision and when the individuals who are incapable
validity of results. (physically disabled, terminally ill,
pregnant or breastfeeding mother and
2. Empirical. Objective data/reality as sources of children (Polit and Beck, 2009) a family
knowledge.
 NURSING RESEARCH-LECTURE-PRELIM
member or legal representative can
give informed consent.
▸ Children who are 7 years and above are
required to give their assent, or consent
given by a child. But still the consent of
parents or guardian is necessary (Tan,
2011).
Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
▸ Beneficence – “to do good”
▸ Nonmaleficence – to do no harm
Under this principle are the following issues:
2.1. Freedom from physical and psychological harm
The researcher must prevent injury and discomfort.
Anticipate any unforeseen eventualities and events
2.2. Freedom from exploitation- Being safe from
situations that expose participants, researchers and
research assistants to threats and liabilities
Respect for dignity
▹ The right to self-determination
No undue pressure or coercion such as penalty for not
participating or excessive rewards to those who
participate
▹ The right to full disclosure
Fully explain to the participant the nature, purpose of
the study and their right to refuse to participate, and
the researchers’ responsibilities and the potential risk
and benefit of the study.
Do not conceal information, or give false information
Show respect to the participants attending to their
emotional rights and nature of interaction
Debriefing session is a way to communicate respect
especially when data collection is stressful.
▹ Justice and fairness
▸ The right to fair treatment – provides all
target participants equal chances in the
selection process
▸ Anonymity and confidentiality –
exercise prudence in making
pronouncements in revealing the
results of the study.
▸ Right to intellectual property – “no
plagiarism” or presenting the ideas and
words of another as your own.
▸ RA 8293 (Philippine Copyright Law
protect the intellectual property rights
of authors and artists
THE RIGHTS OF HUMAN SUBJECTS
▹ To receive a description of any alternative
procedures, drugs, or devices that might be
helpful, and their risks and benefits compared
to the proposed, drugs or devices.
▹ To be told of what sort of medical treatment, if
any, will be available if any complications
should arise.
▹ To be given a chance to ask any questions
concerning the research study both before
agreeing to participate and at any time during
the course of the study.
▹ To refuse to participate in the research study.
Participation is voluntary. You may refuse to
answer any question or discontinue your
involvement at any time without penalty or loss
of benefits to which you might otherwise be
entitled. Your decision will not affect your right
to receive the care you would receive if you
were not in the experiment.
▹ To receive a copy of signed and dated written
consent form and a copy of this form.
▹ To be given the opportunity to freely decide
whether or not to consent to the research study
without any force, coercion, or undue influence
Kinds of Research
 According to the points of view or purpose:
 NURSING RESEARCH-LECTURE-PRELIM

1. Basic research is under taken to extend the base of

knowledge or refine a theory Purpose Explores Evaluates objectives
human and examines cause
⬞ Usually suggests for experiences and effect
clinical applications
Data Thematic Mathematical/
2. Applied research - focus on finding solutions
analysis analysis statistical
⬞ Applied research poses
questions from basic Sampling Purposive / Random sampling
research technique based on
criteria

 According to measurement of variables or ▹ According to levels of

statistical content: investigation/explanation:

⬞ Quantitative - uses reliable methods of 1. Descriptive – a non-experimental study

measurement which has been in which the purpose is to observe,
developed (purpose is to evaluate, describe and document the aspect of
examine, assess, compare). the situation as it naturally occurs and
sometimes to serve as a starting point
⬞ Qualitative – Narrative and subjective in for hypothesis generation of theory
nature. (Purpose is to explore, development.
understand, discover, develop,
describe) 2. Exploratory- It is the study of the full
phenomenon, the manner in which it is
manifested and the other factors to
QUANTITATIVE VS. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH which it is related are explored and its
STANDARD QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE hidden meanings are determined.
Researcher’ Personally Least involvement 3. Experimental – researchers actively
s engaged
introduce intervention or treatment.
involvemen
This study is designed to test causal
t with the
participants relationship
of the study OUTLINE OF THE RESEARCH PAPER
Expression Verbal Numerical/statistics
of data language ▹ Title page
▹ Approval sheet
Research Takes place as Plans all research ▹ Abstract
Plan the research aspect before ▹ Acknowledgement
proceeds collecting data ▹ Table contents
gradually ▹ List of Figures
▹ List of Tables
Researchers Desires to Controls or ▹ List of Appendices
behaviour preserve the manipulate research
presearch natural setting conditions
conditions CHAPTER 1
Obtaining Multiple Scientific method THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING
knowledge methods
▹ Introduction (1.5 pages)
 NURSING RESEARCH-LECTURE-PRELIM

▹ Statement of the problem (Interrogative ▹ Labels of tables located at the upper left corner
format) Interpretation of the table
▹ Interpretation of the table
▹ Hypothesis
▹ Analysis of the interpretation must be backed
▹ Scope and delimitation up by references , Cite references properly.
State other researches that either confirm or
▹ Significance of the study have a different result from your findings
▹ Theoretical/ conceptual framework

▹ Research paradigm CHAPTER 5

Summary of Findings, Conclusions and
▹ Definition of terms (defined operationally Recommendations
CHAPTER 2 ▹ Summary
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES ▹ Conclusions
▹ Review of related literature (Sub titles are ▹ Recommendations
written as side headings)
▹ REFERENCES
▸ Literature related to the independent
variable ▹ Books
▸ Literature relates to the dependent ▹ Unpublished materials
variable ▹ Journals and magazines
▹ Related studies (Must be at least a minimum of ▹ Handouts, Pamphlets and brochures
10 related studies , 5 local and 5 foreign ▹ Electronic sources
studies) ▹ Journals and Magazines
▹ Theses and Dissertations
▹ Synthesis (include the research gap) ▹ Appendices/Exhibits
▹ Curriculum Vitae
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Variables
▹ Nature of the Study
▸ Research Design ▹ Are measurable qualities of people, things,
▹ Population and sample events or situations under study that vary from
▹ Research locale one subject or participant to another
▹ Sampling design
▹ Research instrument TYPES OF EXPLANATORY VARIABLES
▹ Bioethical considerations 1. Independent variable
▹ Data gathering procedure
▹ Plan for data analysis  Also called experimental, causal,
treatment or stimulus variable. The
factors that are being manipulated by
CHAPTER 4 the researcher.
DATA PRESENTATION, INTERPRETATION AND
ANALYSIS 2. Dependent variables

Entries on this chapter are based on the order to the  criterion, effect, response, outcome
statement of the problem. variable. They are factors that are
affected or influenced by the
▹ Textual description of the table independent variable.
 NURSING RESEARCH-LECTURE-PRELIM
3. Extraneous variables
 Not the direct focus of the study but
affect the result to a certain extent
Variables that are quantitatively measured and
statistically tested in the hypothesis
iii. COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH
MANUSCRIPT
Title of the Study
‧ Gives the idea of what the research is
all about
‧ Must be clear, concise and consist of
not more than 15 words.
‧ Must reflect THE VARIABLES AND
POPULATION OF THE STUDY. The
intervention/s, the effect and
population of the study
Introduction
‧ Brief discussion of the rationale and
background of the problem or subject
of inquiry. Must stimulate the readers’
interest.
‧ Set the stage for the presentation of the
statement of the problem
THE SIX COMPONENTS OF A BACKGROUND OF THE
PROBLEM (background of the study)
1. Problem identification – what is wrong with the
current situation? What are the evidences of
the existence of the problem.
2. Background – the nature of the problem. Is the
problem serious? Who are affected?
3. Scope – how big is the problem? Is the problem
widespread? How many are affected (statistics).
How often the problem occur?
4. Consequences of the problem – the cost of not
fixing the problem
5. Knowledge gaps – what information about the
problem is lacking, Why does it remain a
problem?
6. Proposed solutions – the basis for believing
that the proposed study would contribute to
the solution of the problem.
Purpose of the Study (Aim/Goal)
1. Includes the statement of purpose,
which reflects the major problem and
the specific objectives. It presents the
rationale or justification of the inquiry.
2. It consists of: The major problem or the
goal of the study.
1. Requires broader
solution or long-term
inquiry.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY ( RESEARCH QUESTION)
– usually in one to two sentences and tells the general
direction of the inquiry.
‧ ... the purpose of the study is...
‧ It suggests the manner in which the
researcher will solve the problem or
state the knowledge on the topic.
╸ Uses verbs like :
‧ to explore, to describe, to understand,
discover, develop, generate ( connotes
an investigation of little researched
topic/ exploratory or descriptive)
‧ to test, to evaluate the effectiveness, to
examine, to assess, to compare
 NURSING RESEARCH-LECTURE-PRELIM

(suggests an existing knowledge base,
quantifiable variables and research
designs with scientific controls)
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
‧ Consists of two parts:
‧ The main problem
‧ The scope of the study must be well
defined. The scope of the sample
population must be delimited or
narrowed down to the target
population.
‧ Sampling must be reliable enough to
ensure reliable results

‧ The statement of the problem ‧ Limitations of the study are ensured.

or objectives (must be worked
‧ Variables should be factual and
out to solve the main problem.
hypotheses is derived from theory can
‧ Must be stated clearly be validly supported and tested.

‧ It indicates the population and the ‧ AVOID:

major variables of the study which are
‧ Broad, general findings instead
the subject of observation.
of specific information needed
‧ Research problems can be stated in for their solution.
declarative as well as in interrogative
‧ Shallow inquiries
form.
‧ Statements that elicit emotional
‧ It suggests the manner in which the researcher
reaction.
will solve the problem or the type of research to
be done. ‧ Avoid problems that cannot be
observed and tested through
‧ Example:
empirical scientific investigation
‧ to explore, to describe, to
‧ Statement of the problem (SOP)
understand, discover, develop,
generate ‧ They are drawn from the major
problem (or goal of the study) and their
‧ to test, to evaluate the
answers lead to the solution of the
effectiveness, to examine, to
major problem or goal of the study.
assess, to compare
‧ Has the following characteristics
‧ to demonstrate or to show
(SMARTER):
something – suggests bias and
should not be used in a ‧ Specific
statement of purpose ‧ Measurable
‧ Attainable
‧ The Statement of the Problem (SOP) or
‧ Realistic and results oriented
objectives of the study must be well stated
‧ Time bound
because this will determine the research
‧ Evidence based
design. The researcher must observe the
‧ Rewarding
following:
Example :
‧ Variables must be clearly identified and
stated. Statement of variables must be
always grammatically correct to avoid
confusion
 NURSING RESEARCH-LECTURE-PRELIM
╸ Definition of Terms
‧ Explains the meaning of variables used
in the study.
‧ Why should variables be defined:
‧ It will quantify and qualify the
variables
‧ Makes the meaning clear and
prevents readers’
misconception
‧ Directs the reader to the
meaning of words according to
researcher’s interpretation.
╸ Three types of definitions:
‧ 1. Conceptual definition –
‧ definition that is universally
understood. It refers to the
subjective, theoretical, textual
meaning of the word.
‧ Taken from the dictionary,
related literature and
authoritative sources.
‧ 2. Operational Definition –
‧ The researcher’s own
definition of terms.
‧ Defined based on observable
terms in the context of the
situation being investigated.
‧ The objective, practical and
functional meaning of the word.
‧ Definition taken from empirical
data, related literature,
research studies, established
theories.
‧ Operational definition can be
denotative or connotative
‧ Denotative – definition in terms
of what the concept is or what
it represents (literal meaning)
‧ Connotative – definition based
on implications and
associations one makes with
the variable.
3. Lexical definition
‧ Are definitions taken from
authorities on the subject or
terms being defined. It should
be written with citations
╸ Definitions supplied by the researcher are
needed so the reader may know what the
researcher mean about the concepts or
variables.
╸ The variables are open to interpretations so it
should be the researcher’s meaning of the
variable so that the reader can understand the
meaning intended by he researcher.
Kinds of variables
A. Explanatory variables
‧ the focus of research that indicates
direction of influence to what the
researcher would like to discover.
TYPES OF EXPLANATORY VARIABLES
1. Independent variable
 NURSING RESEARCH-LECTURE-PRELIM

 Also called experimental, causal,

treatment or stimulus variable. The
factors that are being manipulated by
the researcher.

2. Dependent variables

 criterion, effect, response, outcome

variable. Factors that are affected or
influenced by the independent variable.

3. Intervening variables or mediating

 Influence the effect of the independent

variables on the dependent variables

4. Moderator variable

 The independent variables interact with

the moderator variable which makes
the relationship of the independent and
dependent variable weaker or stronger
(interferes with the result)
Significance of the Study
‧ the importance, responsiveness or
relevance of the expected outcomes of
the investigation and its probable
effects on theory or practice.
‧ It will emphasize the significant
contribution of the proposed research
study to its target population, to the
different sectors members of the health
care team, to the profession and its
implication to future researchers.
‧ What gap in knowledge will it fill in.
What is unknown which this study can
make known.
Scope and Delimitations
‧ Constraints and restrictions in the study
which may decrease the credibility and
generalizability of the findings
‧ Delimitations set parameters by
accepting what should be included and
rejecting what should be excluded.
╸ Delimitations include the following:
‧ Scope or coverage
‧ It spells out the study in terms
of participants, the situation,
treatment, sampling and time
frame. The who, what, how
when, where and why is
clarified.
‧ Expected manageability of the
problem

‧ Takes into account the internal

and external constraints that
may affect the validity and
reliability of the findings.

‧ Limitations of the study

‧ Unforeseen weaknesses in
methodology and design,
exclusion of certain sectors of
 NURSING RESEARCH-LECTURE-PRELIM
the population, statistical
treatment and analysis, failure
to get representative sampling
must be clearly stated.
╸ State the purpose of the study
╸ Treatment (plant)/ source of plant
╸ Subjects/ test animals (Number of animals )
╸ Place of experimentation
╸ Tests done (standard test or confirmatory tests)
HYPOTHESIS
RESEARCH FRAMEWORK
Review of Related Literature
‧ This is not a mere summary of the
articles or abstract related to the
research problem.
‧ It provides an evidence-based
research proposal
‧ It allows the researcher to
determine what has happen in
situations similar to what
he/she intends to study. It sets
the foundation of the rest of
the study.
‧ Review of literature pertains to
all readings related to the study
while review of related studies
refers to researchers, theses
and dissertations made similar
to the topic of the study or the
problem being investigated.
What is related literature
‧ It consist of pertinent readings published or
unpublished data-based research, reports or
articles in local or foreign setting that supports
the study. It will provide discussions of facts,
principles, trends and practices to which the
present study is related.
‧ The sources of these literatures consist of
books, articles, pertinent documents,
publication, speeches, programs, theses and
dissertations. All empirical investigations should
be built on previous knowledge taken from
these sources.
TYPES OF RELATED LITERATURE
1. Conceptual or theoretical literature
‧ Non research reference materials
written by authorities on the subject.
2. Research or Empirical Literature
‧ Consist of theses and dissertations
published or unpublished also called
data based literatures.
‧ Taken form journals or books and
published or unpublished studies
Purposes of related literature
1. Demonstrate the researcher’s grasp of
issues
2. Reflect researchers’ awareness of
recent developments
3. The researcher can gain a frame of
reference
4. Have a view of previous researches. The
similarities and differences of related
researches to current research
5. To discover findings that can have a
bearing on the current research
 NURSING RESEARCH-LECTURE-PRELIM
6. Helps determine the research ability
and feasibility of current study.
7. Reveals research methods and
techniques, good source of procedure
for data gathering, clues on sequence of
research activities to be pursued and
clues to ensure accuracy and
effectiveness to data analyses.
8. Link the findings of previous researches
to results of current study.
9. Defines terms and suggest assumption
10. Promotes critical thinking and critical
reading skills
HYPOTHESIS
Hypotheses are based on theories that are proposed
and tested with reality. They are tentative statements
that propose a possible explanation to some
phenomenon or event.
They are statements that translate the problem into
precise, unambiguous predictions of expected
outcomes
A shrewd guess or inference. They are statement
expectations regarding the relationship between and
among variables under investigation.
(Polit and Beck, 2008)
FORMULATING AND WORDING
THE HYPOTHESIS
 Qualitative studies do not have hypothesis. They
are guided by research questions.
 Quantitative studies, experimental studies and
some descriptive studies require hypotheses to
explain the value and meaning of the
phenomenon.
 Do your review of literature and theoretical
framework before making a hypothesis. The later
serves as your basis for making your hypothesis.
 The hypothesis not the research problem but is
subjected to empirical testing through data
collection and analysis.
- Research problems that are experimental, causal,
comparative, correlational or normative need
hypothesis for their in-depth solution.
 The hypothesis is based on the literature review
and theoretical framework, theories, concepts and
principles that support the study.
 Hypothesis is stated in declarative form.
 Wordings in the hypothesis is Clear and concise
and must be in present tense.
 The hypothesis indicates the population, the
independent variable, dependent variable and the
anticipated relationship between them.
Characteristics of hypothesis
 Testability – observable, quantifiable capable of
analysis
- NOT testable when:
 Variables are not observable, quantifiable cannot
be subjected to factual testing and analysis
 Variables do not state any predicted relationship.
 If a hypothesis lacks a phrase such as more than,
less than, greater than, different from related to.
Associated with or something similar, it is not
testable.
 Clarity
 Verifiable
- States anticipated relationship
 When stating relationship between variables, use
terms such as more than, greater than, significantly
or not significantly related, significantly or not
significantly different from
- Set the limits of the study
- Can be accepted or rejected.
 Formulated in simple and understandable terms
 NURSING RESEARCH-LECTURE-PRELIM

 Corresponds to existing knowledge  Most scientific studies utilize null hypothesis.

- Logical and justifiable – consistent with a body of  Testing the hypothesis is the HEART of the
knowledge empirical investigation and for it determines the
solution to the research problem.
- Based from the research problem
 Influenza patients that manifest optimism will heal
Types of hypotheses:
faster.
Simple vs. Complex
 Among babies in the nursery, length and frequency
1. Simple : - one independent and one dependent of the crying is related to length of human contact.
variable
 The number of traditional doctors are related to
2. Complex – the distance of the barrio from the barangay health
center.
- two independent variable and one dependent variable
 Women who marry late tend to have small spacing
- one independent variable and two dependent variable between their children.
directional vs. Non directional

1. Directional

 specifies clearly the characteristics of the variables

- older professionals are less likely to accept expanded

roles than younger health professonals .

2. Non directional

- Health professionals in the hospital are less likely to

accept expanding role than Health professionals in the
community.

Research or alternative hypothesis vs statistical or null

hypothesis

1. Research or alternative hypothesis

 There is a significant relationship between

maternal heroin addiction and birth weight of
infants.

2. Statistical or null hypothesis

 There is no significant relationship between heroin

addiction and birth weight.

Advantages of null hypothesis

1. Scientific

2. Reflects the impartiality of the researcher

3. Minimizes research bias