COLLEGE OF HEALTH SCIENCES

SCHOOL OF NURSING AND PUBLIC HEALTH

NURSING RESEARCH I: (NS 322)

FOR BSCN/BSCMW THIRD YEAR

LECTURE NOTES

By

Madame SAADA A.

Course Description:

The focus in this course is to explore the types and methods for nursing and midwifery research,
examine the steps in the development of a research, review and evaluates current research findings
in nursing for its applicability to nursing theory and practice and to study the process of scientific
investigation and to assisting the learners to acquire skills in research proposal writing.

INTRODUCTION

Definition

The word research means “to search again” or “to examine carefully”. Therefore research is
defined as systematic inquiry, or study to validate and refine existing knowledge and develop
new knowledge. Or it is the systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data to generate
new knowledge and answer a certain question or solve a problem.

Nursing research is a scientific process that validates and refines existing knowledge and
generates new knowledge that directly and indirectly influences nursing practice. It is essential
for developing and refining knowledge that can be used to improve clinical practice

Therefore research involves:

 Diligent and systematic inquiry: which include Planning & organization and Persistence

 Discovery: of new knowledge about topics and learning about new areas of study

Research follows the scientific method which is why it can stand the test of time. A scientific
practice base for nursing means that nursing practice is guided by nursing theory or empirical

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clinical research findings. Nursing research involves scientific inquiry and so would require
knowledge of the characteristics of scientific methods.

Characteristics of Scientific Methods

1. Order and Control: Scientific methods follow a systematic approach to problem solving.
The aspect of control concerns the effort made to reduce interference in the study situation.
For example, in a study to explore the relationship between diet and heart disease, the
researcher must take steps to control other possible causes of heart disease like stress,
cigarette smoking, as well as age and sex.

2. Empiricism: The scientific method searches for evidence (empirical - real) through
observations, verified through our sense organs i.e. sight, taste, touch, smell, and hearing.
E.g. the colour of a patient’s eye, the presence or absence of skin inflammation. Sometimes,
our senses may not record fully what is real and so, extensions of our senses are used to
collect the empirical evidence in the form of instruments, equipment, tools e.g. weighing
scale, thermometer, questionnaires, or other instruments that aid the senses to gather the
necessary information.

3. Generalization: The goal of science is to understand phenomena or occurrences. The pursuit

of knowledge is focused on more generalized understanding of relationships among events.
The ability to go beyond the specifics at hand is an important aspect of the scientific method,
and that is generalization. The generalizability of research findings is an important criterion
for evaluating the quality of the research.

4. Theory Development: Scientific generalizations are enhanced by the development of

theories. Theories represent a method of organizing integrating, and deriving abstract views
about the manner of relationships that exist between phenomena or variables. They provide
the opportunity for explaining how and why phenomena are related to one another, and for
predicting the occurrence of future events and relationships.

Goals of Nursing research:

1. The ultimate goal of research is the development of a body of knowledge for a discipline or
profession such as nursing: Research helps the development and generation of knowledge in
each area of specialization. It strengthen the profession by generating knowledge through
scientific studies which guide the nursing practice.

2. It is helpful in evidence-based practice: Research findings give first-hand experience on

which evidence-based nursing practice can be build upon. Through evidence-based nursing,

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 cost- effective care can be rendered to clients, but also promotes improved outcomes for
Patients and families, Nurses and Health care system

3. Improvement in nursing education and nursing management is possible through research

studies.

4. Research help in standardization and refining nursing practice: It provides answers to guide
practitioner in the decision-making process. It enables the administrator to take prompt
decisions on health-related problems, and it is essential for moulding attitudes, intellectual
competencies and technical skills.

Example of importance of research in nursing:

For many years, nurses have performed lots of weird treatments in the hopes of healing
wounds. They really did:

 Pour bleach, iodine, or milk of magnesia into wounds, trying to kill bacteria that
caused infection

 Pack wounds with sugar to provide energy to the cells in the wound and promote
healing

 Power wash wounds to remove dead tissue and promote healing

But Solid nursing research showed that:

 Bleach, iodine, milk of magnesia and power washing actually damage cells that work
to heal wounds and form scar tissue

 Sugar provides an excellent medium for bacteria and promotes development of

infection

Nurse researchers came up with enough evidence to convince physicians to stop using these
useless treatments.

Therefore the evidence based practice helps to use of research findings to:

 Promote the understanding of patients’ and families’ experience of health and illness

 Implement effective nursing interventions to promote optimal patient health

 Provide quality, cost-effective care within the health care system

And now nurse researchers are working on studies in a wide variety of areas, including:

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  Nursing shortage and nursing education

 Roles of advanced practice nurse

 Disease management

 Health promotion

 Caregiver support

 Physician-nurse collaboration

Therefore, the BSN role in nursing research include:

 Identify research problems in own clinical practice

 Assist with data collection for established studies

 Critique research studies for use in own clinical practice

 Use research findings in clinical practice

Characteristics of research

1. It demands a clear statement of the problem

2. It requires a plan (it is not aimlessly “ looking” for something in the hope that you will come
across a solution)

3. It builds on existing data, using both positive and negative findings

4. New data should be collected as required and be organized in such a way that they answer
the research question(s)

Types of research

1. Basic or Pure Research: It is investigation or study carried out to satisfy a desire to increase
the knowledge base in an area of interest. Basic or pure research provides the baseline
information in the area of knowledge which could be necessary to undertake further research
in that area. For example, a research to establish factors responsible for poor compliance to
dietary regimen by diabetic patients will result in a list of many factors. Those factors could
form the basis for more research in the future that could lead to certain important decisions in
the care of diabetic patients.

2. Applied Research: It is the research whose findings could have immediate practical utility.
The result of research could be used to solve a problem, make a decision and develop new

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 programmes, products or procedures. Applied research could also be used to evaluate a
programme, product or procedure. Example of research to find ways to manage
schizophrenia, finding type anti-smoking campaigns that can reduce smoking among youth.

3. Experimental Research: It is research that requires manipulation of some of the variables

after the research subjects have been divided into treatment groups. Researcher looks to
compare outcomes of patients who receive a new nursing treatment as compared to patients
who received the traditional treatment. Explanatory studies come under this group and are
able to provide a cause-effect relationship between variables under study.

4. Non Experimental Research: It is one where the study subjects are studied as they are in the
natural environment without any manipulation or active effort to control them. Exploratory
and descriptive studies come under the non experimental research. Exploratory and
descriptive researches seek to explore or identify the kinds of factors responsible for the
variables under investigation. The final result is a list or factors as revealed by the
respondents in the research.

History of nursing research

Research in nursing began with Florence Nightingale. Her landmark publication, Notes on
Nursing (1859), described her early interest in environmental factors that promote physical and
emotional well-being.

Most studies in the early 1900s concerned nurses' education. During the 1940s, government-
initiated studies of nursing education continued, spurred on by the high demand for nursing
personnel during World War II. An increase in the number of nurses with advanced degrees, the
establishment of a research center at the Walter Reed Army Institution of Research, increased
availability of funding and the inception of the American Nurses' Foundation-which is devoted to
the promotion of nursing research-provided impetus to nursing during this period. In the 1960s,
nursing leaders began to express concern about the dearth of research in nursing practice.

By the 1970s, the growing number of nursing studies and discussions of theoretical and
contextual issues created the need for additional communication outlets. During the 1970s, there
was a change in emphasis in nursing research from areas such as teaching and nurses themselves
to improvements in client care- signifying a growing awareness by nurses of the need for an
evidence base from which to practice..

The 1980s brought nursing research to a new level of development. More attention was paid to
the types of questions being asked, the methods of collecting and analyzing information being
used, the linking of research to theory and the utilization of research findings in practice. Nurses
also began to conduct formal projects specifically designed to increase research utilization.

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Nursing science came into its maturity in the United States during the 1990s. Funding for nursing
research has also grown. Several journals were established in the 1990s.

Terminology used in research

 A study: is an investigation or a research project or a researcher answers to a question using

the scientific approach.

 Subjects or the study participants: are people who are being studied.

 Respondent or informant: is when the subjects provide (answer) information to the

researchers by answering questions directly or indirectly.

 The researcher or investigator or scientist: is the person who undertakes research.

 Principal investigator (PI): is the leader of a research team.

 Conceptualization: is the process of developing and refining abstract ideas.

 Concept: is an abstract based on observations of certain behaviors or characteristics (e.g.

stress, pain, fear), concepts are building blocks of theories.

 Theory is an abstract generalization that presents a systematic explanation about the

interrelationships among phenomena.

 Operational Definition is a specification of the operations that the researcher must perform to
collect the required information.

 Data (singular, datum) of a research study are the pieces of information obtained in the
course of the investigation it includes:

o Quantitative data refers to numerical values.

o Qualitative data refers to narrative descriptions.

 A variable is a characteristic or attribute of a person or object that varies or takes a different

value within the population under study (e.g. body temperature, age, heart rate). It includes:

o Dependent variable refers to the outcome variable of interest or variable that is caused
by another. For example examination marks.

o Independent variable refers to the variable that is believed to cause or influence the
dependent variable. For example; the type of teaching.

 Population is a specific group of people.

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 o In a research context, population refers to all members or objects of any defined
group from which measurement might be taken or about which information might be
collected.

o A research population refers to the entire group to which the results of the research
are to apply. For example; all people of a specific age group, all items of equipment
e.g. syringes.

 Sample is a sub set of a population selected to participate in a research study, in every aspect
of the population from which it is selected.

 Sampling is the process of selecting a portion of the population to represent the entire
population.

 Pilot study refers to a small-scale version or trial run, of the research method, in preparation
of the major study to ensure that the design is feasible. May be on a small number of subjects
only, but may help to determine a variety of practical questions.

 Generalizability refers to the degree to which the research procedures justify the inference
that the findings can be generalized from the sample to the entire population.

 Hypothesis is an intelligent guess or inference that is formulated and provisionally adopted to

explain observed facts or condition and to guide further investigations. E.g. people who
smoke will develop lung cancer than people who do not smoke.

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VARIABLES

The characteristic to be measured on the elements is called variable. It is called a variable

because the value may vary between data units in a population, and may change in value over
time. 
For example; 'income' is a variable that can vary between data units in a population (i.e. the
people or businesses being studied may not have the same incomes) and can also vary over time
for each data unit (i.e. income can go up or down). 

Example of Variables: No. of patients, Height, Sex, Educational Level etc.

Types of variables

There are different ways variables can be described according to the ways they can be studied,
measured, and presented.
Understanding the data types that you are analyzing is important because it determines the most
appropriate way to summarize them. It also dictates the types of statistical tests that should be
used to analyze the data...e.g Chi square, t-test, Pearson correlation etc. Variables can be
qualitative or quantitative.

1. Quantitative Variables:

Numeric variables: have values that describe a measurable quantity as a number, like 'how
many' or 'how much'.  Numeric variables may be further described as either continuous or
discrete:

 A continuous variable: Observations can take any value between a certain set of real
numbers. Examples of continuous variables include height, time, age, and temperature.(Have
decimal points)

 A discrete variable:  Data can take only certain fixed numerical values usually whole
numbers (integers). Examples number of patients, number of business locations, and number
of children in a family, all of which measured as whole units (i.e. 1, 2, 3).

2. Qualitative Variables

Categorical variables: have values that describe a 'quality' or 'characteristic' of a data unit, like
'what type' or 'which category'. They tend to be represented by a non-numeric value. Categorical
variables may be further described as ordinal or nominal:

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  An ordinal variable: Observations can take a value that can be logically ordered or
ranked. The categories associated with ordinal variables can be ranked higher or lower
than another, but do not necessarily establish a numeric difference between each
category. The response is low, medium and high. Examples of ordinal categorical
variables include academic grades (i.e. A, B, C), clothing size (i.e. small, medium, large,
extra large) and attitudes (i.e. strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree).

 A nominal variable: Observations can take a value that is not able to be organised in a
logical sequence. The response is binary, i.e. Yes/No, Dead/ Alive. Examples of nominal
categorical variables include sex, business type, eye colour, religion and brand.

Types of variables flowchart:

Variables can also classified as:

i. Dependent variable (effect):

 These are variables that are affected or influenced by the independent variable.

 It is also called criterion, effect, response or outcome variable which capture the
interest of a researcher

 For example examination marks, utilization of ANC, birth preparedness etc.

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 ii. Independent variable:

 Refers to the variable that is believed to cause or influence the dependent variable.

 These are factors that are being manipulated by the researcher

 Also called as experimental, treatment, causal or stimulus.

 For example; the type of teaching, distance to health center, knowledge

iii. Intervening variable (mediator)

 These are variables or factors that exist between the independent and dependent variable.

 Explains why the relationship exists and bears influence on the effect of the independent
variable on the dependent variable.

 Objective of the mediator variable is to explain the relationship between IV & DV e.g. IV is
not directly influencing DV but rather IV is indirectly influencing DV through mediator
variable.

 That is: Independent variable Dependent variable

Mediator variable

 For example, level of education (IV) is positively influencing income (mediator variable)
and then income is positively influencing spending (DV). When the effect of income is
removed, the relationship between level of education and spending disappears.

iv. Moderator variable

 This is a variable that affect the strength or direction of the relationship between the
dependent and independent variable.

 The independent variable interact with the moderator variable which makes the relationship
between independent and dependent variable be stronger or weaker.

 Objective of the moderator variable is to measure the strength of the relationship between the
IV & DV.

 That is: moderator variable's arrow line is pointing to the mid point of the arrow-lined
relationship between independent and dependent variable

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(stress)Independent variable (depression) Dependent variable.

(Social support) Moderator variable

 For example: if social support is a moderator variable between stress (IV) and depression
(DV), then relationship between stress & depression can be stronger for people with no social
support and less strong for people with social support.

Levels of Variable Measurement

Level of measurement (or scale of measure) is a classification that describes the nature of

information within the numbers assigned to variables. The best known classification is that
developed by the psychologist Stanley Smith Stevens, who proposed four levels, or scales, of
measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.

(i)Nominal Measurement

The nominal scale measures nominal variables. It classifies persons or things based on a
qualitative assessment of the characteristic being assessed. It is the lowest level of measurement
and it neither includes information on quantity or amount nor does it indicate ‘more than’ or ‘less
than’.

o Example 1: Gender (male or female) is a common nominal variable used in

epidemiologic studies.
o Example 2: Country telephone codes are an example of numeric variables that do not
indicate more or less (country code 82 is not more than country code 37).
o Other examples: These used for identifying various categories that make up a given
variable e.g. Religion: 1 = Muslim, 2 = Christian, 3 = Other. Note that the numbering
codes does not signify ranking and that the categories comprising a nominal variable
cannot occur together and are not related.

(ii)Ordinal Measurement

The ordinal scale measures ordinal variables. It also classifies persons or things based on the
characteristic being assessed but does indicate ‘more than’ or ‘less than’. In this sense, it provides

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more information than the nominal scale. However, the ordinal scale does not indicate how
much more than or less than. This is the medium level of measurement.

o Example: Rating students’ performance as being poor, average, good, or excellent

indicates how well students perform and provides a basis for comparison. However, it
does not indicate how much better an excellent performance is compared to a good one.

(iii)Interval Measurement

The interval scale measures numerical variables. It has the same characteristics of the ordinal
scale – classifying persons or things based on the characteristic assessed and indicating more
than or less than – but the interval scale indicates how much more than or less than.
The interval scale does not indicate a true zero point, meaning that there cannot be an absence of
a characteristic being measured. Additionally, ratios made with two numbers in the interval
scale do not have meaning.
o Example: Temperature is an interval in that different values can tell you how much more
or less. However, there is no true zero point. The value of zero in temperature does not
indicate absence of temperature. Also, when comparing two temperatures, their ratio is
not meaningful. We would not say that a 90 degree temperature is twice as hot as a 45
degree temperature.

(iv)Ratio Measurement

The ratio scale measures numerical variables and it includes all the characteristics of the interval
scale but does indicate a true zero point.

o Example: Height and weight measurements indicate how much more or less, but also
have a true zero point. A weight of zero indicates an absence of weight.

Note:
Data gathered at a higher level can always be converted to data at a lower level. However, the
reverse is not true.

For example, if you collect data on the number of cigarettes smoked per day, discrete data, you
can convert these data to ordinal data: < ½ a pack; ½ a pack to 1 pack; >1 pack. While this may
have made it easier to summarize the data, information has been lost in the conversion.

Had you collected these data by category, it would have been impossible to express them as
discrete data as the actual number of cigarettes smoked per day would not be known.

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An easy way to keep these terms straight is to think of these data types as comprising a hierarchy
from nominal at the lowest and least informative level to continuous data at the highest and most
informative level.

Example of statistical test (techniques) used:

Quantitative Data:
i. 1 sample T-test
ii. 2 sample t-test
iii. One Way ANOVA
iv. Sign Test
v. Wilcoxon Signed Rank test
vi. Pearson correlation

Qualitative Data
vii. Chi Square test
viii. McNemar Test
ix. Kappa estimate

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v.

RESEARCH APPROACHES

Research can be done through quantitative and or qualitative approaches.

Quantitative research approach:

Quantitative research relies primarily on the collection of quantitative data. It deals with numbers
and anything that is measurable in a systematic way. It is used to answer questions on
relationships within measurable variables with an intention to explain, predict and control the
environment in which the data is collected to avoid the risk of variables, other than the one being
studied, accounting for the relationships identified.

Quantitative research is perhaps the simpler to define and identify. The data produced are always
numerical, and they are analysed using mathematical and statistical methods. If there are no
numbers involved, then it’s not quantitative research.

Quantitative methods presume to have an objective approach to studying research problems,

where data is controlled and measured, to address the accumulation of facts, and to determine the
causes of behavior. As a consequence, the results of quantitative research may be statistically
significant but are often humanly insignificant.

Strengths of using quantitative approach:

1. Allows for a broader study, involving a greater number of subjects, and enhancing the
generalization of the results.
2. Allows for greater objectivity and accuracy of results.

3. Applying well established standards means that the research can be replicated, and then
analyzed and compared with similar studies;

4. You can summarize vast sources of information and make comparisons across categories and
over time; and,

5. Personal bias can be avoided by keeping a 'distance' from participating subjects and using
accepted computational techniques.

Limitations associated with using quantitative methods:

 Quantitative data is more efficient and able to test hypotheses, but may miss contextual detail
 Uses a static and rigid approach and so employs an inflexible process of discovery;

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 Results provide less detail on behavior, attitudes, and motivation;
 Researcher may collect a much narrower and sometimes superficial dataset;
 Results are limited as they provide numerical descriptions rather than detailed narrative and
generally provide less elaborate accounts of human perception;
 Preset answers will not necessarily reflect how people really feel about a subject and, in some
cases, might just be the closest match to the preconceived hypothesis.

Qualitative Research Approach

Qualitative research relies on the collection of qualitative data. Qualitative research is any which
does not involve numbers or numerical data. It often involves words or language, but may also
use pictures or photographs and observations. Qualitative analysis results in rich data that gives
an in-depth picture and it is particularly useful for exploring how and why things have happened.

The word qualitative implies an emphasis on the qualities of entities and on processes and
meanings that are not experimentally examined or measured [if measured at all] in terms of
quantity, amount, intensity, or frequency. Qualitative researchers seek to answers questions that
stress how social experience is created and given meaning. In contrast, quantitative studies
emphasize the measurement and analysis of causal relationships between variables, not
processes. The advantage of using qualitative methods is that they generate rich, detailed data
that leave the participants' perspectives intact and provide multiple contexts for understanding
the phenomenon under study. In this way, qualitative research can be used to vividly demonstrate
phenomena or to conduct cross-case comparisons and analysis of individuals or groups.

Strengths of using qualitative methods:

 Obtain a more realistic view of the lived world that cannot be understood or experienced
in numerical data and statistical analysis;
 Provide the researcher with the perspective of the participants of the study through
immersion in a culture or situation and as a result of direct interaction with them;
 Allow the researcher to describe existing phenomena and current situations;
 Develop flexible ways to perform data collection, subsequent analysis, and interpretation
of collected information;
 Yield results that can be helpful in pioneering new ways of understanding;
 Respond to changes that occur while conducting the study e.g., extended fieldwork or
observation and offer the flexibility to shift the focus of the research.

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 It is very much true that most of the limitations you find in using qualitative research
techniques also reflect their inherent strengths. For example, small sample sizes help you
investigate research problems in a comprehensive and in-depth manner. However, small
sample sizes undermine opportunities to draw useful generalizations from, or to make broad
policy recommendations based upon, the findings. Additionally, as the primary instrument of
investigation, qualitative researchers are often imbedded in the cultures and experiences of
others. However, cultural embeddedness increases the opportunity for bias to enter into the
way data is gathered, interpreted, and reported.

Limitations associated with using qualitative methods:

 Drifting away from the original objectives of the study in response to the changing nature of
the context under which the research is conducted;
 Arriving at different conclusions based on the same information depending on the personal
characteristics of the researcher;
 Replication of a study is very difficult;
 An inability to investigate causality between different research phenomena;
 Difficulty in explaining differences in the quality and quantity of information obtained from
different respondents and arriving at different, non-consistent conclusions.
 Data gathering and analysis is often time consuming and/or expensive;
 Requires a high level of experience from the researcher to obtain the targeted information
from the respondent.

Comparison between Qualitative and Quantitative research approaches

CRITERIA QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
Purpose To test hypotheses, look at cause & To understand & interpret social
effect, & make predictions. interactions.

Group Studied Larger & randomly selected. Smaller & not randomly selected.

Sampling Probability sampling Non-probability sampling

Variables Specific variables studied Study of the whole, not variables.

Type of Data Numbers and statistics. Words, images, or objects.

Collected

Form of Data Quantitative data based on precise Qualitative data such as open- ended
Collected measurements using structured & responses, interviews, participant
validated data-collection instruments. observations, field notes, & reflections.

Type of Data Identify statistical relationships Identify patterns, features, themes

Analysis
Objectivity and Objectivity is critical. Subjectivity is expected.

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Subjectivity

CRITERIA QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE

Study designs descriptive, explanatory and
experimental designs
Results Generalizable findings that can
be applied to other populations.
Exploratory, phenomenological,
ethnographic, grounded theory,
historical studies, case studies,
and action research
Particular or specialized findings
that is less generalizable.

Scientific Method Confirmatory or top-down: the Exploratory or bottom–up: the

researcher tests the hypothesis researcher generates a new
and theory with the data. hypothesis and theory from the
data collected.

Most Common Research Describe, explain, & predict Explore, discover, understand &
Objectives construct.
.
Final Report Statistical report with Narrative report with contextual
correlations, comparisons of description & direct quotations
means, & statistical significance from research participants.
of findings.

Which approach to choose will depend on your research questions and your preferences and
skills. Finally, it is important to say that there is no right and wrong answer to which methods
you choose. Sometimes you may wish to use one single method, whether quantitative or
qualitative, and sometimes you may want to a mixture. It is your research and only you can
decide which methods will suit both your research questions and your skills.

By looking at your research question(s), you should be able to determine whether you are
looking at causal relationships (quantitative study) or exploring a phenomenon (qualitative
study). The wording and structure of quantitative and qualitative research questions differ
significantly.

Examples of Quantitative and Qualitative research question

Quantitative Research Questions:

 How many pockets of cigarette do you use per day?

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  How often do people aged 30 to 40 visit their parents?
 How do lean participants compare to obese participants in their frequency and intensity
of food cravings?
 Does stress at work relate to quality of life in people working night shifts?
 Does a stressful work environment lead to higher turnover rates?

Qualitative Research Questions:

 What is it like growing up in a single-parent family in a rural environment?

 What are the experiences of people working night shifts in health care?
 How would overweight people describe their meal times while dieting?
 What is your perception toward male involvement in antenatal care?

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RESEARCH PROCESS

Main components of any research work

I. Preparing a research proposal (producing a book of research proposal)

II. Fieldwork (i.e., data collection)
III. Analyzing data and preparing a research report (producing a book of
research report)

What is a Research Proposal?

A document with two major objectives:

 To analyze and synthesize the existing research about particular topic.
 Describe the researcher’s idea for a new study.

This is a concise and coherent summary of your proposed research. It sets out the central issues
or questions that you intend to address. It outlines the general area of study within which your
research falls, referring to the current state of knowledge and any recent debates on the topic. It
is written using future tense.

Why do you need a Research Proposal?

 It is prerequisite for degree
 Needs approval from the committee to start the work
 It conceives the project
 It impresses the senior as a potential researcher
 It serves as a contract between the researcher and funder.
 Personal interest.

Be prepared for:
 To make mistakes and to learn.
 To write and rewrite many times.
 To spend many hours looking for information.
 To have your writing criticized.
 To feel confuse and hopeless some times.

Before start writing, ask yourself:

 Do I have the clear research question?

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  Have I read broadly and deeply in that area?
 Have I discussed the topic with peers?
 Have I enough time and fund to start?
 Do I feel support from faculty and friends?

Basic components of a Research Proposal (Book)

These should have Roman numbers

i. Cover page
ii. Title page
iii. Declaration
iv. Certification
v. Abstract
vi. Table of Contents
vii. List of Tables
viii. List of Figures
ix. List of abbreviations
x. Definition of Terms

These should have Arabic number

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1..........................................................................................................Background
1.2...............................................................................................Problem statement
1.3...........................................................................................................Objectives
Broad objective
Specific objectives
1.4............................................................................Research questions/hypothesis
1.5.....................................................................................Significance of the study

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Study design
3.2 Study area
3.3 Study population
3.4 Sample size estimation
3.5 Sampling technique
3.6 Data collection method
3.7. Data collection tool
3.8. Validity and reliability
3.9.Variable measurement
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3.10. Data analysis
3.11 Ethical consideration
3.12.Limitation

4.0 REFERENCES

APPENDIX
Appendix 1. Data collection tool
Appendix 2. Consent form (English and Swahili version)
Appendix 3.Work plan
Appendix 4. Budget
Appendix 5. Map (optional)

The Major Phases and Steps in Research Process

Research as a multi-stage process that you must follow in order to undertake and complete your
research project.

Phase 1: The conceptual phase

 This involve activities with a strong conceptual or intellectual element such as thinking,
reading, rethinking, theorizing, and reviewing ideas with colleagues or advisers.
 The researcher uses such skills as creativity, deductive reasoning, insightfulness and a firm
grounding in knowledge on a topic of interest.
o Formulating and delimiting the problem or statement of the problem
o Reviewing the related literature
o Developing a theoretical framework
o Formulating a hypothesis or research objectives and research questions.

Phase 2: The Design and Planning Phase

 The researcher or investigator makes a number of decisions about:
o Methods to be used to address the research questions and test the hypothesis.
o Selecting the research design
o Identifying the population to be studied.
o Designing the sampling plan.
o Specifying the methods to collect the research data.
o Carefully plan for the data collection.
o Finalizing and reviewing the research plan.
o Conducting the pilot study and making revisions.

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Phase 3: The Empirical Phase
 This involves the actual collection of research data and preparation of those data for
analysis. This is the most time consuming part of the investigation. It may require several
weeks or months of work depending on the method used.
o Collecting the data.
o Preparing the data for analysis.

Phase 4: The Analytic Phase

 The collected data is subjected to various types of analysis and interpretation.
o Analyzing the data.
o Interpreting the results.

Phase 5: The Disseminations Phase

 The results of the study are disseminated to various stakeholders.
o Communicating the findings.
o Utilizing the research findings.

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