UNIT 2 CHARACTERISTICS AND

SIGNIFICANCE OF GROUPS
Contents
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Definition of Groups
2.3 Types of Groups
2.4 Factors of Group Formation
2.5 Theories Underlying Group Work Practice
2.6 Benefits of Groups
2.7 Influence of Groups on Personality Development
2.8 Types of Group Work Groups
2.9 Group Logistics
2.10 Let Us Sum Up
2.11 Key Words
2.12 Suggested Readings
2.13 Answers to Check Your Progress

2.0 OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this unit is to provide you with an understanding of groups. It is aimed
at explaining to you the meaning of groups and its significance for individuals. After
reading this unit you should be able to:
! identify the key characteristics of groups;
! enumerate the various types of groups;
! discuss factors of group formation;
! understand theories of group formation;
! list the benefits individuals gain from groups;
! explain the impact of groups on personality development;
! enumerate the various types of treatment and task groups in social group work;
and
! list the essential aspects in group work logistics.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
All day long we interact first in one group and then in another. We live in a dwelling as
part of a group, we learn in groups contained in the same classroom, we work in
22
groups, we interact with friends in groups, and we spend much of our leisure time in Characteristics and
Significance of Groups
groups. Our family life, our leisure time, our friendships, and our careers are all filled
with groups. In fact, if a person from outer space conducted a study of the people of
Earth, group membership would probably be the dominant characteristic noted. We
are born into a group called the family, and we would not survive the first few minutes,
the first few weeks, or even the first few years of our lives without membership in this
group. It is within our family and peer groups that we are socialised into ways of behaving
and thinking, educated, and taught to have certain perspectives on ourselves and our
world. Our personal identity is derived from the way in which we are perceived and
treated by other members of our groups. We learn, work, and play in groups. As
humans we have an inherent social nature. Our life is filled with groups from the moment
of our birth to the moment of our death. All these make groups one of the most important
factors in our lives. In business, government, and the military there is great interest in
improving the productivity of groups. There is great concern in our society with
strengthening the family. Educators are striving to better understand how the classroom
functions as a group. Drug abuse, delinquency and crime, and mental illness are all
being treated through group procedures, and there is continued concern with making
those procedures more effective. As the effectiveness of groups goes, our quality of life
goes. The more effective our family, career, and educational groups, the higher the
quality of our lives.

2.2 DEFINITION OF GROUPS

Not every collection of people can be considered a group. The Oxford English Dictionary
defines group as a number of persons or things regarded as forming a unit on account
of any kind of mutual or common relation or classified together on account of a common
degree of similarity. There are three criteria suggested by this definition to call a group
as a group:

a) Number of persons – more than one

b) Mutual or common relation
c) Similarity

Groups may be contrasted with aggregates. An aggregate is a collection of individuals

who are present at the same time and place but do not form a unit or have a common
degree of similarity. Individuals standing on a street corner, the members of an audience
at a music programme are aggregates, not groups.

While the Oxford definition has captured the basic essence of a group, different social
scientists have put forward their own views on what is a group with emphasis on the
various aspects of a group. We can see some of the definitions below.

Interpersonal Interaction

A group may be defined as a collection of individuals who are interacting with one
another. According to this definition, the individuals are not a group unless they are
interacting with one another. Three psychologists who have defined group in this way
are Bonner, Stogdill, and Homans. They stress that the primary defining characteristic
of a group is interpersonal interaction. It is questionable that a group can exist without
its members interacting with one another.
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Social Work with Groups Perceptions of Membership

A group may be defined as a social unit consisting of two or more persons who perceive
themselves as belonging to a group. According to this definition, the persons are not a
group unless they perceive themselves to be part of a group. Two psychologists who
have defined group in this way are Bales and Smith. They stress that the primary defining
characteristic of a group, is that the members perceive themselves to be part of a group.
It is questionable that a group could exist without its members being aware that they are
members of a group.

Interdependency

Group may be defined as a collection of individuals who are interdependent.

According to this definition, the individuals are not a group unless an event that
affects one of them affects them all. Four psychologists who have defined group in
this way are Cartright and Zander, Fiedler, and Lewin. These authors stress that the
primary defining characteristic of a group is that the members are interdependent in
some way. It is questionable that a group could exist without its members being
interdependent.

Goals

Group may be defined as a collection of individuals who join together to achieve a goal.
According to this definition, the individuals are not a group unless they are trying to
achieve a mutual goal. Three psychologists who have defined group this way are Deutsch
and Freeman.

They stress that the primary defining characteristic of a group is the craving of its members
to achieve a mutual goal. It is questionable whether a group would exist unless there
was a mutual goal that its members were trying to achieve.

Motivation

Group may be defined as a collection of individuals who are all trying to satisfy
some personal need through their joint association. According to this definition, the
individuals are not a group unless they are motivated by some personal reason to be
part of a group. Two psychologists who have defined group in this way are Bass and
Cattell. They stress that the primary defining characteristic of a group is that its members
belong to the group in order to obtain needed rewards or to satisfy other personal
needs. It is questionable that a group could exist without its member needs being satisfied
by their membership.

Structured Relationships

A group may be defined as a collection of individuals whose interactions are structured

by a set of roles and norms. According to this definition, the individuals are not a group
unless their interactions are structured by a set of role definitions and norms. Two sets
of psychologists who have defined group in this way are McDavid and Harari and Shel
and Sherif.

They say that the primary defining characteristic of a group is that the interaction
of its members is structured by role definitions and norms. It is doubtful whether
a group could exist unless role definitions and norms structure the interaction of its
24 members.
 Characteristics and
Mutual Influence Significance of Groups
A group may be defined as a collection of individuals who influence each other.
According to this definition, the individuals are not a group unless they are affecting and
being affected by each other and therefore, the primary defining characteristic of a
group is interpersonal influence. Shaw defined group in this way.
One solution to the profusion of definitions is to combine them all into one definition. A
small group may be defined as two or more individuals who:
a) pursue common goals
b) are interdependent
c) interact with each other
d) share norms concerning matters of common interest and participate in a system of
interlocking roles
e) influence each other
f) find the group rewarding and
g) define themselves and are defined by others as belonging to the group
Not all these characteristics are equally important and although it is impossible to gain
consensus among social scientists as to which characteristics are most important we
can arrive at a definition of group for the purpose of group work as follows.
A group is two or more individuals in face to face interaction, each aware of
positive interdependence as they strive to achieve mutual goals, each aware of
his or her membership in the group, and each aware of the others who belong to
the group.

Check Your Progress I

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer.
b) Check your answer with those provided at the end of this unit.
1) Indicate which collections of people listed below are groups and which ones are
aggregates.
---- The spectators at a college football game
---- All the students in a group work class
---- Individuals waiting in silence at the bus stop
---- The Hrithik Roshan fan club
---- All men in Mumbai who have brown eyes
---- A committee deciding the best way to handle a production problem
---- All people who drive Maruti cars
---- Afamily consisting of father, mother and two children having dinner in a hotel

2.3 TYPES OF GROUPS

All of us are simultaneously members of various types of groups. We are members of
the family, members of friendship groups, members of work organisations and members 25
Social Work with Groups of fan club or a religious group. Sociologists have attempted to classify/differentiate the
various types of groups as follows:

Voluntary and Involuntary Groups

Voluntary groups are those we join through our own choice and effort. We may join a
political party or a particular occupation. In contrast involuntary groups are those that
we are forced to join or those that we are automatically members of without choice.
For example, everyone is without a choice, automatically a member of sex, age and
racial groups.

Open and Closed Groups

An open group is one in which virtually anyone can become a member. For instance, all
can join the Hrithik Roshan fan club. A closed group, however, is much more difficult to
join. Some exclusive clubs restrict membership so that all cannot join. Only a few elites
manage to get memberships in such clubs. Similarly the mafia (underworld) is a closed
group.

Vertical and Horizontal Groups

A vertical group consists of members from all walks of life, while a horizontal group
consists predominantly of members from one social class. Occupational groups – of
doctors or electricians for instance – are composed largely of members from the same
social class. On the other hand religious groups may have members from all classes.

Primary and Secondary Groups

Primary group is one where members develop close, personal, intimate and enduring
relationships. Family, neighbours and work associates are examples of such groups.
Members know one another well, greatly influence each other and feel closely related.
On the other hand, in secondary groups individuals act towards one another in rather
impersonal, superficial and utilitarian ways.

Natural and Formed Groups

Natural groups consist of members who come together in a spontaneous fashion on the
basis of naturally occurring events, interpersonal attraction or the mutually perceived
needs of members. Family, peer groups and street gangs are examples of natural groups.
On the other hand formed group consists of members who come together through
some outside influence or intervention. These are groups that are formed for a particular
purpose. Therapy groups, encounter groups, committees and teams are examples of
formed groups.

The type of group that we discussed last – formed group – is of great interest to group
work as the groups that we come across in group work predominantly belong to this
type of groups.

2.4 FACTORS OF GROUP FORMATION

We can identify four major factors that influence our decision to join and remain in a
wide variety of groups: attraction to members of the group; the activities, goals, or the
task of the group; affiliating with the people in the group; and meeting needs or goals
lying outside the group.
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Attraction to members of the group grows out of proximity and frequency of interaction. Characteristics and
Significance of Groups
(Consider your own experience of friendship groups that are largely determined by
who is available for interaction: your neighbours, classmates, roommates, and so on.)
However, we must remember that proximity creates only the potential for, attraction;
other factors usually come into play when actually establishing a relationship. The power
of similarity, especially attitudinal similarity, appears to be as strong in group formation
as in interpersonal attraction.
The task of a group, as experienced in its activities and goals is often an important
reason for joining. You join a photography club because you enjoy taking pictures and
discussing that activity with others. You join a protest group against higher tuition fees
because you cannot afford to pay more. In these examples, you are gaining rewards
directly through group membership. The application of social exchange theory to group
formation predicts that we join and remain in groups when the rewards for doing so
outweigh the costs, thus yielding profits.
The third general factor of group formation is our desire to affiliate with the people in
that group. We satisfy our need for affiliation through interacting with people, just as we
meet our need for achievement through the activities and goals of the group. Whether
we affiliate for social comparison, or to reduce anxiety, or to satisfy an innate craving, it
is clear that the group is a powerful forum for meeting our basic social needs and a
strong influence on our behaviour.
Group membership may help us meet needs that lie outside the group – thus, group
membership may be a stepping stone to achieve an external goal, rather than a source
of direct satisfaction. A college professor may regularly attend meetings of a professional
association to enhance the probability of promotion. A candidate for political office
may join a host of community organisations to enhance his or her chances for election.
When we consider attraction to a group, we must also consider the characteristics of
the group itself. Several attributes of groups generally make them more attractive to
prospective members and thus contribute to group formation.
! The more prestige a group can offer a member, the more attractive the group.
Members who have positions of higher authority and prestige are usually most
attracted to remain in the group.
! Co-operative relationships and joint rewards heighten the attractiveness of a group,
whereas individual striving and competition detract from it.
! The degree of positive interaction among members directly affects attractiveness
since it increases the range of personal and social needs being met.
! The size of the group affects its attraction. Smaller groups generally offer more
possibility for interaction, for sharing similarities, and for meeting individual needs,
and therefore tend to be more attractive.
! Positive relations with other groups may add to the prestige of the group and make
it more attractive.
! Nothing succeeds like success. Groups that are perceived as meeting their goals
effectively usually appear to be more attractive.

Plausible Hypothesis about Group Formation

From the various factors influencing group formation the following hypothesis can be
confidently stated. 27
Social Work with Groups 1) People join groups in order to satisfy some individual need.
2) Proximity, contact and interaction provide an opportunity for individuals to discover
the need satisfactions that can be attained through affiliation with others.
3) Interpersonal attraction is a positive function of physical attractiveness, attitude
similarity, personality similarity, economic similarity, racial similarity, perceived ability
of the other person (his or her success or failure) and need compatibility.
4) An individual will join a group if he or she finds the activities of the group attractive
or rewarding.
5) An individual will join a group if he or she values the goals of the group.
6) There exists a need for affiliation which renders group membership rewarding.
7) An individual will join a group if he or she perceives it to be instrumental in satisfying
needs outside the group.
8) Group development follows a consistent pattern, which may be characterized as
orientation-evaluation-control.

Check Your Progress II

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer.
b) Check your answer with those provided at the end of this unit.
1) What factors influence the formation of groups?
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2.5 THEORIES UNDERLYING GROUP WORK

PRACTICE
From knowledge about small groups accumulated over the years in laboratory and
natural settings, investigators of group phenomena began to develop comprehensive
theories to explain group functioning. An enormous variety of these theories exist. This
section examines five of the most important theories: systems theory, psychodynamic
theory, learning theory, field theory and social exchange theory. An understanding of
these theories is important to place in the appropriate context the group processes and
human behaviour in groups experienced by you when you do group work.
Systems Theory
Systems theory attempts to understand the group as a system of interacting elements. It
is probably the most widely used and broadly applied theory of group functioning.
According to this theory, groups are social systems with several interdependent members
attempting to maintain order and a stable equilibrium while they function as a unified
whole. Groups are constantly facing changing demands in their quest to attain goals and
to maintain a stable equilibrium. Groups must mobilize their resources and act to meet
changing demands if they are to survive. According to Parsons, Bales and Shils (1953),
28 there are four major functional tasks for systems such as a group: 1) integration –
ensuring that members of groups fit together; 2) adaptation – ensuring that groups change Characteristics and
Significance of Groups
to cope with the demands of their environment; 3) pattern maintenance – ensuring that
groups define and sustain their basic purposes, identities and procedures; and 4) goal
attainment – ensuring that groups pursue and accomplish their tasks. Groups must
accomplish these four functional tasks to remain in equilibrium. The likelihood that a
group will survive depends on the demands of the environment, the extent to which
members identify with group goals, and the degree to which members believe goals are
attainable. By overcoming obstacles and successfully handling the functional tasks
confronting them, groups strive to remain in a state of equilibrium.
This theory also states that groups are in constant interaction with their environments.
They occupy an ecological niche. Homans suggests that groups have an internal system
and an external system. The external system represents a group’s way of handling the
adaptive problems that result from its relationship with its social and physical environment.
The internal system consists of the patterns of activities, interactions, and norms occurring
within the group as it attempts to function. Concepts derived from the various views of
systems theory that are particularly relevant for group workers include the following:
! The existence of properties of the group as a whole that arise from the interactions
of individual group members.
! The powerful effects of group forces on member’s behaviour.
! The struggle of groups to maintain themselves as entities when confronted with
conflicts.
! The awareness that groups must relate to an external environment as well as attend
to their internal functioning.
! The idea that groups are in a constant state of becoming, developing, and changing,
which influence their equilibrium and continued existence.
! The notion that groups have a developmental life cycle.
Psychodynamic Theory
Psychodynamic theory has had an important influence on group work practice. In his
work Group Psychology and the Analysis of Ego, Freud (1922) set forth his theoretical
formulations about groups and their influence on human behaviour. According to
psychodynamic theory, group members act out in the group unresolved conflicts from
early life experiences. In many ways, the group becomes a re-enactment of the family
situation. Freud describes the group leader as the all-powerful father figure who reigns
supreme over group members. Group members identify with the group leader as the
‘ego-ideal’. Members form transference reactions to the group leader and to each
other on the basis of their early life experiences. Thus, the interactions that occur in the
group reflect the personality structures and defense mechanisms that members began to
develop early in life.
The group leader uses transference and counter transference reactions to help members
work through unresolved conflicts by exploring past behaviour patterns and linking
these patterns to current behaviours. The group leader might, for example, interpret the
behaviour of two group members who are struggling for the leader’s attention as
unresolved sibling rivalry. When interpretations made by the group worker are timed
appropriately, members gain insight into their own behaviour. According to the
psychodynamic theory, insight is the essential ingredient in modifying and changing
behaviour patterns inside and outside the group. 29
Social Work with Groups More recent conceptions of psychodynamic group treatment have adapted and modified
classical psychodynamic theory to include a greater emphasis on the here-and-now
experiences of group interaction. This is useful in ensuring that members deal with issues
of immediate concern to them. From an analysis of the immediate behaviour patterns in
the microcosm of the group, the leader can help members reconstruct unresolved
childhood conflicts and have corrective emotional experiences. Through direct, mutual
interpersonal communications, members build interpersonal skills, adaptive capacities,
and ego-strength, as well as gain insight into their behaviour. The cohesiveness of the
group encourages members to reveal intimate details about their personal lives and to
describe and act out their conflicts in a safe and supportive environment.
Learning Theory
The primary focus of learning theory is on the behaviour of individuals rather than on the
behaviour of groups. Thus, learning theory has generally ignored the importance of
group dynamics. However, learning theory has had an important influence on current
methods of group work practice. The emphasis on clear and specific goal setting,
contracting, the influence of the environment on the group and its members, step-by-
step treatment planning, measurable treatment outcomes and evaluation can be traced
to the influence of learning theory.
According to social learning theory (Bandura, 1977), the behaviour of group members
can be explained by one of three methods of learning. In the classical approach
to learning theory, behaviour becomes associated with a stimulus. For example, a
worker responds by making a negative verbal comment each time a member turns and
speaks to another member while the worker or other group members are speaking.
After several times, the mere stimulus of the member’s turning, without speaking, will be
enough to cue the worker to respond with a negative verbal comment. Another theory
of learning is called operant conditioning. In this paradigm, the behaviours of the group
members and the worker are governed by the consequences of their actions. Thus, if
member A acts in a certain way and member B reacts positively, member A is likely to
continue the behaviour. In the group, the worker might use praise to increase member-
to-member communications and negative verbal comments to decrease member-to-
leader communications. To help a member with a problem he or she has experienced in
the outside environment, such as being overweight, the group leader might ask the
member to develop a plan that specifies self-imposed rewards for behaviour
that decreases caloric intake and self-imposed sanctions for behaviour that increases
caloric intake.
Bandura (1977) has developed a third learning paradigm called social learning
theory. According to Bandura, most learning takes place through observation
and vicarious reinforcement or punishment. For example, when a group member
is praised for a certain behaviour, that group member and other group
members reproduce the behaviour later, hoping to receive similar praise. When a group
member who performs a certain behaviour is ignored or punished by social sanctions,
other group members learn not to behave in that manner because such behaviour results
in a negative outcome.
Field Theory
Kurt Lewin conducted numerous experiments on the forces that account for behaviour
in small groups. According to Lewin’s field theory, ‘a group has a life space, it occupies
a position relative to other objects in space, it is oriented towards goals, it locomotes in
30 pursuit of these goals, and it may encounter barriers in the process of locomotion. The
unique contribution of field theory is that it views the group as a gestalt, that is, an Characteristics and
Significance of Groups
evolving entity of opposing forces that act to hold members in the group and to move
the group along in its quest for goal achievement. In developing field theory, Lewin
introduced several concepts to aid in understanding the forces at work in group. Among
these are: 1) roles, which refer to status, rights, and duties of group members; 2) norms,
which are rules governing the behaviour of group members; 3) power, which is the
ability of members to influence one another; 4) cohesion, which is the amount of attraction
the members of the group feel for one another and for the group; 5) consensus, which
is the degree of agreement regarding goals and other group phenomena; and 6) valence,
which is the potency of goals and objects in the life space of groups.

Relying on one principle of this theory that suggests individuals will not change their
behaviour unless they see their behaviour and attitudes as others see them, the t-group
experience attempts to provide participants with extensive feedback about their own
behaviour. Members are confronted with the effects of their own behaviour on other
group members and on the group worker. Role plays, simulations, and other experiential
program activities are often used to illustrate how group processes develop and how
they affect members.

Social Exchange Theory

Social exchange theory focuses on the behaviour of individual group members.

The theory has its origin in animal psychology, economic analysis and game theory.
Social exchange theorists suggest that when people interact in groups, each attempts
to behave in a way that will maximize rewards and minimize punishments. Group
members initiate interactions because the social exchanges provide them with something
of value, such as approval. According to social exchange theorists, because nothing is
gained ordinarily unless something is given in return, there is an exchange implied in all
human relationships.

In social exchange theory, group behaviour is analyzed by observing how

individual members seek rewards while dealing with the sustained social interaction
occurring in a group. For an individual in a group, the decision to express a given
behaviour is based on a comparison of the rewards and punishments that are expected
to be derived from the behaviour. Group members act to increase positive consequences
and decrease negative consequences. Social exchange theory also focuses on the way
members influence one another during social interactions. The result of any social
exchange is based on the amount of social power and the amount of social dependence
in a particular interaction.

Guided group interaction and positive peer culture are two specialized group work
methods that rely heavily on principles from social exchange theory. They are frequently
used with delinquent adolescents in residential and institutional settings. In both
approaches, structured groups are used to confront, challenge, and eliminate antisocial
peer group norms and to replace them with pro-social norms through guided peer-
group interaction.

The importance of groups for humans has led a number of social scientists to perceive
groups as the salvation or the bane of our species. To some social scientists groups are
the basis for everything that is good in our lives. For other social scientists groups are
destructive influences on our lives. Both views are oversimplified. Groups can have
constructive or destructive effects depending on how they are used.
31
Social Work with Groups
Check Your Progress III
Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer.
b) Check your answer with those provided at the end of this unit.
1) What are the salient features of Systems theory?
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2) What are important aspects of psychodynamic theory?
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2.6 BENEFITS OF GROUPS

1) Under most conditions, the productivity of groups is higher than the productivity
of individuals working alone. You may have seen this happening in most companies
and even in small-scale industries where more numbers of a particular product is
made by a group effort rather than an individual effort. You would have also seen
this in games involving teams where the chance of hitting a goal is high when they
work towards it as a team rather than as individual players.
2) Groups make more effective decisions and solve problems more effectively than
individuals working alone. This is the reason why we have committees in
organisations. It has been proved by social scientists and management experts
that better decisions are arrived at by a group of persons working at the problem
rather than an individual who is trying to solve the problem on his/her own. When
problems are discussed in groups there is greater clarification of the problem.
Similarly, a variety of solutions are suggested by group members out of which a
good solution emerges.
3) It is through group memberships that we learn the values of altruism, kindness,
consideration for others, responsibility and so forth. We are born in a primary
group called family, which ingrains in us a wide range of human values. We learn to
be kind to each other in the family. In our friendship groups we learn to be
considerate to others and in our workplace we learn to be responsible. Thus, all
the groups we are in teach us a variety of human values.
4) The quality of emotional life in terms of friendship, love, excitement, joy, fulfillment
and achievement is greater for members of groups than for individuals acting alone.
A person who does not have any relationship with others will not be able to
experience most of the emotions. Family provides the experience of love while
friendship groups provide excitement. The office where we work may provide us
32 with fulfillment and also a sense of achievement.
5) The quality of everyday life is greater in groups because of the advantages of Characteristics and
Significance of Groups
specialization and division of labour. Our material standard of living, for example –
our housing, food, clothing, transportation, entertainment etc. – would not be possible
without the help of others and unless we interact with them.
6) Conflicts are managed more productively in groups. Without group standards,
social values and laws, civilization would be impossible. Groups normally establish
standards or norms for its members to function effectively. Without these norms,
which generally reflect societal norms, there would be confusion. Group norms
exert considerable influence over individuals and keep them under control.
7) A person’s identity, self-esteem and social competencies are shaped by the groups
to which he/she belongs. If you are asked a question, ‘who are you?’, you will
immediately say ‘I am a student’, which means you are part of the students group
which provides you with an identity. Similarly, you may say you are the son/daughter
of a certain person or the friend of a certain person or a manager in a particular
organisation. Thus, being a member of different kinds of groups provide you with
identity. Groups also help develop the self-esteem of its members by being very
supportive. Friendship groups in particular provide you with a lot of emotional
support and understanding that builds up your self-esteem. You can experiment
with different kinds of behaviour in a friendship group without the threat of rejection.
8) Without co-operation, social organisation and groups of various kinds, human
beings would not survive. Humans have a basic social nature and our survival and
evolution are the results of the effectiveness of our groups.
While groups provide a lot of benefits, social scientists have also pointed out aspects of
groups that are not very constructive.
One of the important points they have mentioned is that, people in groups are more
likely to take greater risks than they would alone. Groups tend to take more extreme
positions and indulge in more extreme behaviour than individuals. In large groups
individuals can become anonymous and therefore, feel freer to engage in rowdy, shocking
and illegal behaviour. When one member engages in impulsive and antisocial behaviour,
others may do likewise. Another negative aspect of groups pointed out is that groups
often influence their members to conform. The identity of the individual can be threatened
if conformity is too extreme. Social scientists also point out that sometimes group
affiliations become so strong that group members treat non-members and other groups
in impersonal ways. Intense grouping behaviour leads to several conflicts in the society.
However, a correct understanding of groups and its proper application will help us reap
the immense benefits from using groups. Experiments conducted by social scientists
have proved time and again the strengths of using groups for the development of the
individual and society. That is the reason why an understanding of groups is crucial to
the practice of group work. In the context of group work, groups contribute immensely
to the personality development of individuals.

2.7 INFLUENCE OF GROUPS ON PERSONALITY

DEVELOPMENT
a) The formation of proper attitudes that are crucial to personality of an individual
takes place through groups. It is the attitude that guides every action of human-
beings. Groups provide opportunities for individuals to expose themselves to a
variety of situations that shape their attitudes. 33
Social Work with Groups b) Groups also change the levels of aspiration that individuals have. It is well known
that individuals reach higher goals if their aspiration level is also high. Individuals
constantly check their aspiration level with those of others in the group and change
it if theirs is at a lower level. For instance, candidates aspiring for civil services join
IAS study circles where they meet other IAS aspirants and get inspired by their
hard work and perseverance. Thus, they are able to set higher goals for themselves
after joining the group than when they would have acted individually.
c) Individual patterns of living, working and life pursuits also determine one’s
personality. These patterns could also be modified by participation in groups.
Individual’s hobbies are greatly influenced by groups. Similarly in work life, how a
person manages time and how he/she responds to stress would be greatly influenced
by the group he/she is in. Groups also influence one’s mission in life. We see a lot
of individuals who join groups to serve society in different ways. Whether an
individual becomes self-serving and materialistic or altruistic may greatly depend
on the group he/she belongs to.
d) Groups help individuals gain a perception of one’s self and his/her role in society.
The constant feedback an individual gets from other group members helps build
the self-image of one’s self. One can understand the type of personality he/she has
with the help of groups. Individuals can also determine what their role is based on
the feedback given by others.
e) Groups provide immense psychological support and help individuals express both
positively and negatively. One of the key determinants of personality development
is the psychological support required by the individual by which he/she can
experiment with behaviour as well as express his/her ideas, opinion and feelings
freely without the threat of rejection. Groups provide ample opportunities for this
leading to personality development.

Check Your Progress IV

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer.
b) Check your answer with those provided at the end of this unit.
1) Write any five benefits that you can get from groups.
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2.8 TYPES OF GROUP WORK GROUPS

Groups for the purpose of group work are generally classified into two types: treatment
and task groups. They are classified according to their primary purpose.
Treatment Groups
Five primary purposes of treatment groups are: support, education, growth, therapy
34 and socialisation.
Support Groups Characteristics and
Significance of Groups
Support groups can be distinguished from other groups using supportive intervention
strategies by their primary goals: to foster mutual aid, to help members cope with stressful
life events, and to revitalize and enhance members’ coping abilities so that they can
effectively adapt to and cope with future stressful life events. Examples of support
groups include the following:
! A group of children meeting at school to discuss the effects of deaths in their
families on their lives.
! A group of people diagnosed with cancer, and their families, discussing the effects
of the disease and how to cope with it.
! A group of recently discharged psychiatric patients discussing their adjustment to
community living.
Leadership of support groups is characterized by a facilitative approach that emphasizes
helping members share their collective experiences in coping with a stressful event. The
group worker helps members share their experiences and empathically respond to
each other. Simply recounting events, ventilating feelings, and reflecting on efforts to
cope can promote self-understanding and help overcome loneliness, isolation and despair.
A major role of the worker is to facilitate hope in the future and motivate members to
improve coping skills through self-help and mutual aid. Strong emotional bonds often
develop quickly in support groups because of member’s shared experiences. Emotional
bonding may also occur because members are stigmatized by the larger community and
find comfort and power in their association with each other.
Educational Groups
The primary purpose of educational groups is to help members learn new information
and skills. Educational groups are used in a variety of settings, including treatment
agencies, schools, nursing homes, correctional institutions and hospitals. Examples of
educational groups include the following:
! A group of women in slums who want to know about reproductive and child
health.
! A group of parents who are going to adopt children.
! A group of NGO leaders who want to be more effective.
All educational groups are aimed at increasing members’ information or skills. Most
groups routinely involve presentations of information and knowledge by experts. They
also often include opportunities for group discussion to foster learning. When leading
educational groups, workers concentrate on both the individual learner and the group
as a whole as vehicles for learning, reinforcement, and discussion. Also, workers
consider each members’ knowledge of the subject matter and level of skills and
experience so that members derive at most benefit from the learning process.
Growth Groups
Growth-oriented groups offer opportunities for members to become aware of, expand,
and change their thoughts, feelings, and behaviour regarding themselves and others.
The group is used as a vehicle to develop members’ capabilities to the fullest. Growth
groups focus on promoting socio-emotional health rather than remediating socio-
emotional illness. Examples of growth groups include the following: 35
Social Work with Groups ! A group for newly married couples
! A value clarification group for youth
! A consciousness raising group for Rotary club members
Growth groups generally stress self-improvement and the potential of human beings to
live a full and rewarding life, especially through improved relationship with others. They
provide a supportive atmosphere in which individuals can gain insights, experiment with
new behaviours, get feedback and grow as human beings. The bond in growth groups
stem from members’ commitment to help one another develop and maximize their
potentials. When composing growth groups, workers often select members who have
diverse backgrounds and the potential to enrich and broaden each others’ experiences.
Communication in growth groups is members centered and highly interactive.
Therapy Groups
Therapy groups help members change their behaviour, cope with personal problems or
rehabilitate themselves after physical, psychological or social trauma. Examples of therapy
groups include the following:
! A psychotherapy group for outpatients at a community mental health centre.
! A group sponsored by an NGO for people who want to stop smoking.
! A group for children who are first time offenders.
In therapy groups, members come together to solve their problems. The group leader is
often viewed as an expert, an authority figure and a change agent. Members’ problems
are assessed and treatment goals are developed with the help of the worker. Although
the group has a common purpose, each member may have a different problem with
different symptoms. Therefore, to achieve individual goals, the worker often focuses on
one member at a time. The level of member’s self-disclosure is usually quite high.
Socialisation Groups
Socialisation groups help members learn social skills and socially accepted behaviour
patterns so that they can function effectively in the community. Socialisation groups
frequently use program activities such as games, role plays or outings to help members
accomplish individual goals. Examples of socialisation groups include the following:
! A youth group in Nehru Yuvak Kendra
! A social club for outpatients of a psychiatry centre
! A group for children from poor and disadvantaged neighbourhoods
There are at least three common forms of socialisation groups: social skills groups,
governance groups and recreation groups. Some social skills groups such as
assertiveness training groups are formed for adults who wish to improve their existing
skills. Social skills groups can be particularly useful for individuals who are unable or
unwilling to communicate effectively and for those who have difficulty engaging in
satisfying social relationships. Young children, shy adolescents and mildly retarded adults
are examples of people who can benefit from such groups. Program activities can help
draw out these types of group members by helping them form meaningful relationships
and learn social skills. Governance groups are often found in residential settings such as
nursing homes, psychiatric hospitals, correctional facilities and residential treatment
36 centres. The purpose of these groups is to involve residents in the daily governance of
the institution. Through their participation in the governance process, members learn Characteristics and
Significance of Groups
advocacy, communication, conflict resolution and empowerment skills. They also learn
to share with others, take responsibility for their actions, and participate in decision
making processes. Recreational groups are particularly important for working with
children, adolescents and older adults in neighbourhood centres. They can help members
learn community values and accepted forms of behaviour, develop interpersonal skills
and feel a sense of belonging. In addition recreational groups help members develop
confidence in their ability to function as apart of a group and to function in other social
situations.
Task Groups
Task groups are common in most agencies and organisations. They are used to find
solutions to organisational problems, to generate new ideas and to make decisions.
Task groups can have three primary purposes: meeting client needs, meeting
organisational needs and meeting community needs.
Teams
Team members coordinate their efforts and work together on behalf of a particular
client group. Example of teams include the following:
! A group of workers in charge of a particular department in a company
! A group of professionals who work in psychiatric hospitals
The functioning of the team is the responsibility of the team leader. Team leaders are
often appointed by an administrator in the organisation. The team leader is a facilitator
and coordinator for the group and is accountable to the organisation for the actions of
the team. The team leader is responsible for conducting meetings, motivating team
members, coordinating individual efforts and ensuring tea functioning. Members are
bonded by a team spirit that assists them in their work as a group rather than being a
collection of individuals representing different concerns and professional agendas.
Committees
The most common type of task group is the committee. A committee is made up of
people who are appointed or elected to the group. Their task is to accomplish a task
delegated to the committee from a higher authority. Examples of committees include the
following:
! A group of students in charge of a rural camp for the college
! A group of employees assigned the task of studying and recommending changes in
the agency’s personnel policies.
Although members are expected to share their personal views during deliberations, the
level of self-disclosure in committees is low. Most committees tend to follow a standard
set of procedures. It is useful for each meeting to have an agenda so that committee
members can follow the activity of the group and know what to expect during the rest of
the meeting. The chairperson is responsible for seeing that the agenda and the formalized
procedures are carried out.
Social Action Groups

Social action groups empower members to engage in collective action and planned
change efforts to alter some aspect of the social or physical environment. Social action 37
Social Work with Groups groups serve the common good of both members and non-members. Examples of
social action groups include the following:
! A tenant’s group seeking support for a playground in their housing complex.
! A group of women in poor neighbourhoods working to improve water supply in
their locality.
A worker involved in a social action group can assume one of many leadership roles,
depending on the nature of the change effort and the needs of the group. A worker
assumes an enabler role to help the group acquire information or resources, determine
priorities and procedures and plan a strategy for action. The bond that holds members
of action groups together is a shared perception of injustice, inequity, and a need for a
change in the current social structure. Communication patterns vary with the
circumstances of the group. The worker helps the group develop open communication
patterns so that all members have a chance to become involved. The worker also helps
the group establish communication links with its environment.

Check Your Progress V

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer.
b) Check your answer with those provided at the end of this unit.
1) Based on your understanding of task and treatment groups list out the differences
you are able to point out between the two.
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2.9 GROUP LOGISTICS

Group Composition

Whether a group should have a homogeneous membership (members from similar

age-groups, sex and socio-economic background) or a heterogeneous one depends
on the group’s goals. In general, for a specific target population with given needs, a
group composed entirely of members of that population is more appropriate than a
heterogeneous group. Consider a group composed entirely of elderly people. It can
focus exclusively on the specific problems that characterize their developmental
period, such as loneliness, isolation, lack of meaning, rejection, deterioration of the
body, and so forth. This similarity of the members can lead to a great degree
of cohesion, which in turn allows for an open and intense exploration of their life
crises. Members can express feelings that have been kept private, and their life
circumstances can give them a bond with one another. Similarly self-help groups for
women also benefit greatly from the homogeneity of the composition of their group.
They are able to pursue the common goal of credit management or self-development in
38 a united fashion.
Sometimes a microcosm of the outside social structure is desired, and in that case a Characteristics and
Significance of Groups
heterogeneous group is best. Personal-growth groups and certain therapy groups tend
to be heterogeneous. Members can experiment with new behaviour and develop
interpersonal skills with the help of feedback from a rich variety of people in an
environment that represents everyday reality.

Group Size

What is a desirable size for a group? The answer depends on several factors: age of
clients, experience of the leader, type of group, and problems to be explored. For
instance, a group composed of elementary school children might be kept to 4 to 6,
whereas a group of adolescents might be made up of 8 to 12 people. For a weekly
ongoing group of adults, about 10 to 12 people with one leader may be ideal. A group
of this size is big enough to give ample opportunity for interaction and small enough for
everyone to be involved and to feel a sense of “group.”
Frequency and Duration of Meetings
How often should a group meet? For how long? Should a group meet twice weekly
for 1-hour sessions? Or is 1 ½ to 2 hours once a week preferable? With children
and adolescents it may be better to meet more frequently and for a shorter period
to suit their attention span. If the group is taking place in a school setting, the meeting
times can correspond to regularly scheduled class periods. For groups of college students
or relatively well functioning adults, a 2-hour weekly session might be preferable. This
2-hour period is long enough to allow some intensive work yet not so long that fatigue
sets in. You can choose any frequency and duration that suit your style of leadership
and the type of people in your group. For an in-patient group in a mental health centre,
it is desirable to meet on a daily basis for 45 minutes. Because of the members’
psychological impairment, it may not be realistic to hold their attention for a longer
period.
Length of a Group
What should be the duration of a group, and is it wise to set a termination date? For
most groups a termination date should be announced at the outset, so that members
will have a clear idea of the time limits under which they are working. Groups in
educational institutions typically run for about 15 weeks. It is long enough for trust to
develop and for work toward behavioural changes to take place, but it is not so long
that the group seems to be dragging on interminably. A major value of this type of time-
limited group is that members are motivated to realize that they do not have forever to
attain their personal goals. At different points in this 15-week group, members are
challenged to review their progress, both individually and as a group. If they are dissatisfied
with their own participation or with the direction the group is taking, they have the
responsibility to do something to change the situation.
Some groups composed of the same members meet for years. Such a time structure
allows them to work through issues in some depth and to offer support and challenge in
making life changes. These ongoing groups do have the potential for fostering
dependency, and thus it is important that both the leader and members evaluate the
impact of the group on the clients’ daily living.
Place for Group Meetings
Where should the group hold its meetings? Many places will do, but privacy is essential.
Members must be assured that they will not be overheard by people in adjoining rooms. 39
Social Work with Groups Groups often fail because of their physical setting. If they are held in a day hall or ward
full of distractions, productive group work will not occur. You would require a room
that is not cluttered up with chairs and tables and that allows for a comfortable seating
arrangement. Members must be able to sit in a circle. This arrangement lets all the
participants see one another and allows enough freedom of movement that members
can spontaneously make physical contact.
Open Versus Closed Groups
Open groups are characterized by changing membership. As certain members are
ready to leave, new members are admitted, and the group continues. Closed groups
typically have some time limitation, with the group meeting for a predetermined number
of sessions. Generally, members are expected to remain in the group until it ends, and
new members are not added.
There are some advantages to open groups that incorporate new members as others
leave, one of which is an increased opportunity for members to interact with a greater
variety of people. A potential disadvantage of open groups is that rapid changing of
members can result in a lack of cohesion, particularly if too many clients leave or too
many new ones are introduced at once. Therefore, it will be better to bring in new
members one at a time as and when opening occurs.

Check Your Progress VI

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer.
b) Check your answer with those provided at the end of this unit.
1) What are the practical considerations you will require when you are planning
to start group work?
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2.10 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we discussed how we are part of groups most of the time in our lives and the
benefits offered by groups and its influence on personality development. We looked at
various definitions of groups and consolidated them into one definition that captures
the essential characteristics of groups.
We discussed the various types of groups such as voluntary and involuntary groups,
open and closed groups, vertical and horizontal groups, primary and secondary groups
and formed and natural groups. After this we went on to discuss why people are
attracted to groups. This was followed by the significance of groups with regard to the
benefits individuals get from groups. At the end we saw how groups contribute to
40 personality development.
 Characteristics and
2.11 KEY WORDS Significance of Groups

Group : A group is two or more individuals in face to face interaction, each

aware of positive interdependence as they strive to achieve mutual
goals, each aware of his or her membership in the group, and each
aware of the others who belong to the group.

Aggregate : A collection of individuals with very little interaction among themselves.

2.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

Corey, Marianne Schneider (2002), Groups Process and Practice, Brooks/Cole,
USA.

Johnson, D W and Johnson, P F, Joining Together, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.

Shaw, Marvin E. (1977), Group Dynamics, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi.

Toseland, Ronald W. (2001), An Introduction to Group Work Practice, Allyn and

Bacon, USA.

2.13 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress I

1) i) Aggregate v) Aggregate

ii) Group vi) Group

iii) Aggregate vii) Aggregate

iv) Aggregate viii) Group

Check Your Progress II

1) One of the most important factors of group formation is the attraction that a group
offers to its members. The attraction may arise due to reasons such as similarity of
attitudes, availability of something that fulfills the needs of the members etc. Another
factor in group formation is the goals of the group. If the goals suit the members
they join the group. The prestige one attaches to the group also enables the group
to form by recruiting more members who join because of the prestige it offers.
The need for affiliation among humans is a strong factor of group formation. All
human beings want to affiliate themselves with one group or the others as the
group satisfies several socio-emotional needs. Another factor is the proximity of
the individuals and the interaction among them. These factors enable the formation
of groups.

Check Your Progress III

1) The salient features of systems theory are as follows:

! Groups are social systems with several interdependent members attempting

to maintain order and a stable equilibrium while they function as a unified
whole. 41
Social Work with Groups ! Groups are constantly facing changing demands in their quest to attain goals
and to maintain a stable equilibrium.
! Groups must mobilize their resources and act to meet changing demands if
they are to survive.
2) The salient features of psychodynamic theory are as follows:
! Group members act out in the group, unresolved conflicts from early life
experiences. In many ways, the group becomes a re-enactment of the family
situation.
! Group members identify with the group leader as the ‘ego-ideal’. Members
form transference reactions to the group leader and to each other on the
basis of their early life experiences.
! Insight is the essential ingredient in modifying and changing behaviour patterns
inside and outside the group.
! From an analysis of the immediate behaviour patterns in the microcosm of
the group, the leader can help members reconstruct unresolved childhood
conflicts and have corrective emotional experiences.
Check Your Progress IV
1) Any five benefits you can get from groups:
a) Groups provide opportunities for individuals to expose themselves to a variety
of situations that shape their attitudes.
b) Groups also change the levels of aspiration of individuals.
c) Groups also influence one’s mission in life.
d) Groups help individuals gain a perception of one’s self and his role in society.
e) Groups provide immense psychological support and help individuals express
both positively and negatively.

Check Your Progress V

1) Differences between Treatment and Task groups

Treatment groups Task groups

The purpose is to enable group The purpose is to achieve specific tasks
members change themselves or
cope with stressful situations

The role of group worker is more Group worker has a limited role

The focus is on the problems of The focus is on group work and

individuals and their ability to cope achievement of the group
with situations

The emotional bond among members Emotional bonds will be lower

will be higher

Self disclosure is high Low self-disclosure

42
Check Your Progress VI Characteristics and
Significance of Groups
1) Practical considerations required before starting a group
! The group composition must be homogenous. The background of members
must be similar as far as possible.
! The size of the group must be kept small. It is ideal to have not more than 8
members in a group. Task groups can have upto 15 members.
! The duration of one session should not exceed 2 hours. It is ideal to have one
session per week.
! The number of sessions will depend on the type of group. 10 to 12 sessions
should be enough for most purposes.
! The place for group work must be convenient for members and the seating
arrangement must be comfortable. Circular seating arrangements will enable
better interaction.

43