PR2 NOTES (Q1)

Module 1 Nature of Inquiry and Research

L1: Introduction to Quantitative Research
Quantitative Research
● Quantitative research uses scientifically collected and statistically analyzed data to
investigate observable phenomena. (A phenomenon is any existing or observable
fact or situation that we want to unearth further or understand.)
● It is scientific for the fact that it uses a scientific method in designing and collecting
numerical data. Once data is collected, it will undergo statistical analysis like
Pearson’s r, t-test and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for analysis. Since data is
analyzed statistically, it is imperative that the data obtained must be numerical and
quantifiable, hence its name quantitative research.

● Numerical data are generally easier to collect than descriptions or phrases used in
qualitative research. Information like student’s grades in different subjects, number of
hours of engagement in social media platforms of teens, percentage of consumers who
prefer the color blue for soap packaging, and average of daily Covid-19 patient recovery
per region are just few examples of research data expressed in numbers.

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is commonly used in natural sciences research problems because of the
following characteristics:
1. Large Sample Size. To obtain more meaningful statistical results, the data must come
from a large sample size.
2. Objectivity. Data gathering and analysis of results are done accurately, objectively, and
are unaffected by the researcher’s intuition and personal guesses.
3. Concise Visual Presentation. Data is numerical which makes presentation through
graphs, charts, and tables possible and with better conveyance and interpretation.
4. Faster Data Analysis. The use of statistical tools gives way for a less
time-consuming data analysis.
5. Generalized Data. Data taken from a sample can be applied to the population if
sampling is done accordingly, i.e., sufficient size and random samples were taken.
6. Fast and Easy Data Collection. Depending on the type of data needed, collection can be
quick and easy. Quantitative research uses standardized research instruments that
allow the researcher to collect data from a large sample size efficiently. For
instance, a single survey form can be administered simultaneously to collect various
measurable characteristics like age, gender, socio-economic status, etc.
7. Reliable Data. Data is taken and analyzed objectively from a sample as a
representative of the population, making it more credible and reliable for policymaking
and decision making. 8. High Replicability. The Quantitative method can be
 repeated to verify findings enhancing its validity, free from false or immature
conclusions.

Advantages of Quantitative Research

The following are the advantages of quantitative research or its strengths:
1. Very objective
2. Numerical and quantifiable data can be used to predict outcomes.
3. Findings are generalizable to the population.
4. There is conclusive establishment of cause and effect
5. Fast and easy data analysis using statistical software
6. Fast and easy data gathering
7. Quantitative research can be replicated or repeated
8. Validity and reliability can be established

Disadvantages of Quantitative Research

The following are the disadvantages of quantitative research or its weaknesses:
1. It lacks the necessary data to explore a problem or concept in depth
2. It does not provide comprehensive explanation of human experiences
3. Some information cannot be described by numerical data such as feelings, and beliefs
4. The research design is rigid and not very flexible
5. The participants are limited to choose only from the given responses
6. The respondents may tend to provide inaccurate responses
7. A large sample size makes data collection more costly.

Kinds of Quantitative Research

● Descriptive design is used to describe a particular phenomenon by observing it as it
occurs in nature. There is no experimental manipulation, and the researcher does not
start with a hypothesis. The goal of descriptive research is only to describe the person or
object of the study. An example of descriptive research design is “the determination of
the different kinds of physical activities and how often high school students do it during
the quarantine period.”
● Correlational design identifies the relationship between variables. Data is collected by
observation since it does not consider the cause and effect, for example, the relationship
between the amount of physical activity done and student academic achievement.
● Ex post facto design is used to investigate a possible relationship between previous
events and present conditions. The term “Ex post facto” which means after the fact,
looks at the possible causes of an already occurring phenomenon. Just like the first two,
there is no experimental manipulation in this design. An example of this is “How does the
parent’s academic achievement affect the children obesity?”
● Quasi-experimental design is used to establish the cause-and-effect relationship of
variables. Although it resembles the experimental design, the quasi-experimental has
lesser validity due to the absence of random selection and assignment of subjects. Here,
the independent variable is identified but not manipulated. The researcher does
not modify pre-existing groups of subjects. The group exposed to treatment
(experimental) is compared to the group unexposed to treatment (control):
 example, the effects of unemployment on attitude towards following safety protocol in
ECQ declared areas.
● Experimental design like quasi- experimental is used to establish the
cause-and-effect relationship of two or more variables. This design provides a
more conclusive result because it uses random assignment of subjects and
experimental manipulations. For example, a comparison of the effects of various
blended learning to the reading comprehension of elementary pupils.

L2: Formulating Recommendations based on Conclusions

Importance of Quantitative Research Across Fields
The table below shows some of the contributions of quantitative research to other fields and
their example.

L3: Introduction to Quantitative Research

To get an answer to an inquiry that they are investigating, researchers will observe and measure
the quality or quantity of the object of the study. It is therefore imperative for the researcher to
identify the variables significant in explaining observed effects or behavior.

A Variable is something that can change, like how a plant grows. For example, when your mom
planted tomato seeds, how fast the plants grew and how many tomatoes they made depended
on things like sunlight, water, soil type, and nutrients in the soil.
The things that affect the growth, like sunlight and water, are called independent variables.
The results, like the growth of the plants and the number of tomatoes, are called dependent
variables. If the independent variables have a strong effect on the dependent variables,
changing the independent variables can change the results.
The independent variable is also identified as the presumed cause while the dependent variable
is the presumed effect. In an experimental quantitative design, the independent variable is
pre-defined and manipulated by the researcher while the dependent variable is observed and
measured. For descriptive, correlational, and ex post facto quantitative research designs,
independent and dependent variables simply do not apply.

It is important to note other factors that may influence the outcome (dependent variable)
not manipulated or pre-defined by the researcher. These factors are called Extraneous
Variables.In our example above, the presence of pests and environmental stressors (e.g.
pets, extreme weather) are the extraneous variables.
Since extraneous variables may affect the result of the experiment, it is crucial for the
researcher to identify them prior to conducting the experiment and control them in such a way
that they do not threaten the internal validity (i.e. accurate conclusion) of the result.
Controlling the extraneous variable can be done by holding it constant or distribute its effect
across the treatment. When the researcher fails to control the extraneous variable that it caused
considerable effect to the outcome, the extraneous variable becomes a Confounding
Variable. For example, if the tomato had been infested by pests (confounding variable)
then you cannot conclude that manipulations in sunlight, water, and soil nutrients
(independent variable) are the only contributing factors for the stunted growth and poor yield
(dependent variable) of the plant or is it the result of both the independent variables and the
confounding variable.

The variables can also be classified according to their nature. See below the different
classifications:

I. Quantitative Variables, also called numerical variables, are the type of variables used
in quantitative research because they are numeric and can be measured.

A. Discrete variables are countable whole numbers. It does not take negative
values or values between fixed points. For example: number of students in a
class, group size and frequency.
B. Continuous variables take fractional (non-whole number) values that can either
be a positive or a negative. Example: height, temperature.

Numerical data have two levels of measurement:

A. Intervals are quantitative variables where the interval or differences

between consecutive values are equal and meaningful, but the numbers
 are arbitrary. For example, the difference between 36 degrees and 37 degrees
is the same as between 100 degrees and 101 degrees. The zero point does
not suggest the absence of a property being measured. Temperature at 0
degree Celsius is assigned as the melting point of ice. Other examples of interval
data would be year and IQ score.
B. Ratio type of data is similar to interval. The only difference is the presence of a
true zero value. The zero point in this scale indicates the absence of the
quantity being measured. Examples are age, height, weight, and distance.

II. Qualitative Variables also referred to as Categorical Variables are not expressed
in numbers but are descriptions or categories.

A. Dichotomous variable consists of only two distinct categories or values, for

example, a response to a question either be a yes or no.
B. Nominal variable simply defines groups of subjects. Here, you may have more
than 2 categories of equivalent magnitude. For example, a basketball player’s
number is used to distinguish him from other players. It certainly does not follow
that player 10 is better than player 8. Other examples are blood type, hair color
and mode of transportation
C. Ordinal variable, from the name itself, denotes that a variable is ranked in a
certain order. This variable can have a qualitative or quantitative attribute.
For example, a survey questionnaire may have a numerical rating as choices
like 1, 2, 3, 4, 5ranked accordingly (5=highest, 1=lowest) or categorical rating
like strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree and strongly disagree. Other
examples or ordinal variable: cancer stage (Stage I, Stage II, Stage III), Spotify
Top 20 hits, academic honors (with highest, with high, with honors).

Module 2 Designing Research Topic

L1: Designing Research Topic

Steps in Developing Research Topic

Developing a research problem can be done in four (4) steps:

1. Choose a Broad Topic.

a. Choose an interesting topic.Research is a very challenging task that demands
your time and persistence. Your motivation to find the answer to the problem
should keep you going, thus building momentum along the way. Therefore, your
research topic must be something that you are passionate about.
b. Select a significant topic. A topic that is worth researching must be able to
 answer or solve problems in the community. No one will take an interest in
your topic if it is obsolete and does not address any real problem. To be
proactive and to take part in solving problems with socio-economic
relevance gives a sense of accomplishment. You do not even have to look far,
just look at your household, neighborhood, school, group of friends or local
community for a common problem or difficulty.
c. Choose a topic relevant to your field. One of the goals of this course is for you to
be able to produce a quantitative research study that is aligned to your chosen
track. An SHS student under ABM must choose a topic related to business and
management while students taking HUMSS may consider choosing a topic about
politics, culture, and arts. Choosing a topic that you can relate will certainly make
your research project less challenging

2. Do a Preliminary Research. Once you have chosen a broad topic, you need to have a
better understanding of it by reading some more articles, journals, and related research
studies. Find out how other researchers gathered their data, what research
instruments were used, how the data were analyzed, and what important findings
they shared. Take note of every relevant research study for future reference. If you
started the topic search (first step) by doing a literature review, the second step is
just a continuation of what you started.

3. Define the Problem. After getting enough information, you may be able to list some
questions or problems that you want to research. At this stage, you should be able to
narrow down a broad topic into feasible and manageable research questions. A broad
topic can be narrowed down by limiting the population, place, period, or a certain
characteristic. However, be very mindful that your problem may not be too narrow, that it
becomes very simple and does not need to collect unique data or does not generate
new information. A very narrow research question can be developed by doing a
comparative study or expanding the scope of the study.

4. Refine the Question. This step lets you evaluate the questions formulated. What
specific questions should you ask? How should you gather your data sufficient to answer
the questions? Are the questions too narrow, or does it need to be trimmed down? While
evaluating the research question, consider the requirements of the course. How much
time are you given to finish the research? What resources do you need and are
they available?

L2: Research Title

Basic Guidelines in Make Research Title

The following are the basic guidelines in making a research study title:
1. Use an accurate description of the subject and scope of the study instead of using
general terms.
 2. Do not use abbreviations except for commonly known ones like DNA and ICT.
3. Do not include words like “The study of,” “analysis of,” “an investigation of” or
similar construction as these would only lengthen the title.
4. Include the main dependent and independent variables.
5. Be mindful of the proper use of grammar and punctuation.
6. Capitalize all nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs as well as the first letter of the
first and last words.
7. State in a declarative form, although you may also see titles in question form from time
to time.
8. The year the study has been conducted should not be indicated unless it is a
historical study.
9. Use current terminology.
10. Depending on the institutional requirements, 5 to 15 words are sufficient to describe the
research study.
11. Use the common name instead of chemical formula (e.g., NH4)
12. Write and italicize the full scientific names.
13. Must reflect the tone of the paper. An academic research paper has a title that is not
casual, or informal, or does not contain humor.

The following steps can guide you in writing your research title:

1. Determine what it is that you wish to accomplish or know from your study. Write one to
two sentences to state the main objectives of your research project.
2. Include important keywords and variables. Revise the sentences into one complete
sentence that includes important keywords and variables of the study.
3. Shorten the title by eliminating unnecessary words. You may also shrink a phrase into a
simpler phrase or a single word. In doing this, make sure that the main thought of the
research study is retained. Correct grammar and punctuation errors if there is any.
4. Observe proper formatting. The format may vary according to the requirements of the
course or school. Please seek guidance from your professor.

L3: Background of Research

Background of the Study

The background of the study is the part of your paper where you inform the reader of
the context of the study. When we say Context, it means the situation or circumstances within
which your research topic was conceptualized. Ideally, this part is written when you have
already conducted a literature review and has a good perception of the topic so you can
articulate the importance and validity of the research problem. It is also in this part of the paper
where you justify the need to conduct a research study about the topic selected by establishing
the research gap.

A research gap is an under or unexplored area of a topic that requires further

exploration. The gap can be in a form of other variables, conditions, population, methodology,
or test subject. To identify research gaps, an exhaustive literature review regarding the topic
is required. You may have to look for similar or related studies employing quantitative,
qualitative, or mixed methods from sources and examine the gray areas. Reading
through the Discussion, Conclusion, or the Recommendations sections of the articles will help
you know potential areas of study that need further attention. Identifying research gaps
sometimes would even make researchers modify their research problem as they get
noteworthy ideas from fellow researchers.

While both the Background of the Study and the Review of Related Literature involves
reading past related studies, they differ in some aspects. The former is at the introductory part
of the paper, with the purpose of relaying the importance of your research study; the latter is
more comprehensive and thoroughly discuss the studies mentioned in the background of
research. Moreover, the background of the study will answer the following questions:

1. What is already known about the topic?

2. What is not known about the topic?
3. Why do you need to address those gaps?
4. What is the rationale of your study?

While answering these questions, keep in mind that the studies you include in this part of
the paper are laid down as part of the introduction and should not be discussed in great detail.
The depth and length of the background information largely depend on how much information
you think the reader needs to know to have a full grasp of the topic being discussed.

L4: Research Questions

Characteristics of Good Research Questions

Once you have already enumerated your research questions for your study, you must consider
its quality to answer and explain your research problem. The following are good
characteristics of research questions, as described by Fraenkel and Wallen (2020).

Feasible. Consider the amount of time, energy, money, respondents, and even your
current situation as a student-researcher. Is the research problem possible? Will it not spend an
unreasonable amount? Consider these examples: “How do parents feel about the blended
learning modality for elementary learners?” and “How would giving each learner their laptop to
be used in this blended learning modality affect their performance tasks?” The first example is a
more feasible research question. Considering the resources, it is more possible to gather the
data needed to answer the question.

Clear. The readers of your study have a uniform agreement as to the meaning of the
questions stated. Since your research questions are also considered as the focus in the
gathering and analyzing of the data, it is therefore very important that these are stated clearly.

Significant. Ask if your research questions are relevant or important to ask. Will
answering these questions provide an additional contribution to address the given research
problem? In other words, are the research questions worth investigating?
At this point, you do not just consider the time and money that you will spend, but more
importantly, the value of what you are trying to investigate. So aside from the reason that your
chosen research problem is within your interest, you should also provide a sound justification of
your choice as a researcher.

Ethical. Always consider the welfare of people, animals, or who so ever involved in your
study. Look into ways of answering the research questions without inflicting physical and
psychological harm to persons involved.

Formulating Research Questions

Research questions can be generally classified into two: general and specific. The general
question of the study is derived from the research problem while the specific questions are
anchored on the general research problem.

● Research Questions for Descriptive Research focuses on observing and reporting

factors or aspects of the research problem. Phrases such as how often/frequently,
how many/much, what is/are, to what extent/degree and the likes are used in these
questions.

● Research Questions for Correlational Research aim to determine the relationships

among two or more variables in your research problem. Correlational research
questions usually begin with the phrases “Is there a significant relationship” or “What is
the relationship between/among”.

● Research Questions for Ex Post Facto Research attempt to identify the causes of the
phenomenon in the context of your research problem. It is also assumed that no control
or manipulation of variable has been done in order to cause the effect. It is understood
that the cause of the problem already exists before you conducted your study.

● Research Questions for Experimental and Quasi-experimental Research

suggests that answers to these questions are brought about by manipulation or control
of a certain variable during the conduct of the study. These questions provide
explanation to the causal relationship of variables.

L5: Research Questions

Characteristics of Good Research Questions

In doing a research study, we make sure that we have certainty and reasons for
drawing the inclusion and exclusion of research variables. We do not write for the sake of
writing the parts of the research paper, such as setting the scope and delimitation of your
study. It is important because it draws the boundary of your study. Without doing so, research
procedures and results will not be coherent to the goal of your study.
The Scope specifies the coverage of your study such as variables, population or
participant, and timeline. Delimitation cites factors of your study that are not included or
excluded or those you will not deal with in your study.
In this section of your research paper, you may also state the reasons why you did not
include the variables. A clearly written scope and delimitation of the study will make it easier to
answer questions that are related or not related to your study.

Components of Scope and Delimitation

● Topic of the Study. What are the variables to be included and excluded?
● Objectives or Problems to be Addressed. Why are you doing this study?
● Time Frame. When are you going to conduct this study?
● Locale of the Study. Where are you going to gather your data?
● Characteristics of the Respondents. Who will be your respondents?
● Method and Research Instruments. How are you going to collect the data?

Difference between Delimitation and Limitation of the Study

● The limitation of the study describes the various restrictions that are out of your
control. These limitations arise as you conduct your study. Limitations will affect the
design and findings of your research study; hence, it must be included in your research
report.
● On the other hand, the delimitations are constraints in the study that are within your
control. An example of this are the variables included and excluded in your
study. The delimitation defines the scope of your research study.

Module 3 Conceptual Framework and Review of Related

Literature
L1: The Conceptual Framework
The Conceptual Framework
● It is defined as an analytical tool that explains the main concepts to be studied or
investigated in one’s research.
● It offers the foundation and fundamental basis of the entire research.
● It is like a blueprint, a master plan, or a recipe that provides an outline of the plan on how
the research is to be conducted.
● It is a graphic or visual form of the different variables of the study and the alleged
relationship among these variables although not all conceptual frameworks have to
include a diagram or graphic.
 ● It is used in research to plan possible sequences of action or to present an ideal method
to an idea or thought.
● The literature review is the logical basis of the conceptual framework

Purposes of a Conceptual framework

The conceptual framework aims to:
● Explain ideas and suggest associations among the ideas in a study;
● Provide an outline for interpreting the findings of the study, since conceptual framework
defines the scope and the limitations of the study;
● Explain observations
● and Encourage the formulation of useful and practical theories.

How to Formulate the Conceptual Framework of your Study (EXAMPLE

ONLY)
Supposed that the formulated Statement of the Problem based on the background information
are as follows:
1. What is the demographic profile of the respondents?
2. What is the level of the respondents’ financial literacy?
3. What are the factors affecting the respondents’ finances?
4. Is there a significant relationship between the level of financial literacy of the selected
professionals and the factors affecting one’s finances?

What are the variables of the study which is shown from the SOP?
Level of financial Literacy
Strengthened Financial Status
Demographic Profile of Respondents
Factors affecting finances
Formulation of Financial Literacy Program

By carefully studying the formulated Statement of the Problem stated above, we can say that
the level of the respondents’ financial literacy and the factors affecting their finances are the two
variables under study.
If we are going to visualize the above said variables and its presumed relationship, the
conceptual framework will look like this:
The sample conceptual framework presented above can also be presented in a narrative way
as:
The conceptual framework presents research variables: respondents’ demographic profile, level
of financial literacy, and factors affecting respondents’ finances. It also shows that factors
affecting respondents’ finances have something to do with their financial literacy level.

Summary of the Lesson

Examining the above example of how a conceptual framework is being prepared, one can say
that conceptual framework is an excellent visual summary of the study as it helps the reader to
easily identify the research variables and the presumed relationships amongst it. It is therefore
important to carefully write the research questions, identify the variables of the study, and craft
the conceptual framework well to correctly identify the method or the procedures to be used in
the study.

L2: Definition of Terms

Definition of Terms is also called Operational Definition of Variables (ODV). The word
operational refers to “how the word/term was used in the study. At the same time, the variables
are the elements essential to the study.
There are two ways in defining the terms:
● The conceptual definition is the meaning of the term that is based on how it is defined
in the dictionary or encyclopedia.
● Operational definition on the other hand is the meaning of the term based on how it
was used in the study.graphic.
Generally, there are two cases in which important terms need to be defined. First, if the term is
not common or widely known and second, if the term has a specific or unique meaning in the
context of the study

Benefits of Having Definition of Terms

1. It is a useful place to include technical terms in the topic of the research questions.
 2. It can clarify the definition of a term, especially if it has a different meaning. Define the
term according to how it was used in the study.
3. It makes it easier to revisit or check the meaning of a term instead of trying to locate it
through the paper.
4. Helps to ensure that the reader can understand the technical terminologies and jargons
while reading the paper.

Guidelines on How to Write the Definition of Terms

1. Write a brief introductory statement. It shortly describes the content of the definition of
terms.
2. List/write the words/terms (which are technical) that would be included (make sure that
the variables and key terms found in the title are included).
3. The terms should be arranged alphabetically.
4. Indentation should be applied to each term.
5. The term should be followed with a period.
6. It can be underlined or not.
7. It can be bold and italic or not.
8. It does not have to be lengthy (direct to the point).
9. Acronyms/initials should be defined clearly. Complete name should be written first,
followed by the acronym/initials in open-close parenthesis, then the definition/meaning.
10. Do not overflow with technical terms (only those relevant and significant to the study).
11. Keep the definition brief and basic. You will elaborate on it more in the body of your
paper.

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