Practical Research 2 Quarter 1 - Module 1 Nature of Inquiry and Research

Lesson 1 INTRODUCTION TO QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Quantitative Research You have learned from Practical Research 1 that research method is classified into two main
types: quantitative and qualitative. While both methods utilize a specific data gathering procedure, the former is
generally concerned with understanding phenomenon relating to or involving quality or kind. The latter, on the other
hand, is based on the measurement or quantity. In this module, we will focus on quantitative methods of research and
its different kinds.

Quantitative research uses scientifically collected and statistically analyzed data to investigate observable phenomena.
A phenomenon is any existing or observable fact or situation that we want to unearth further or understand. It is
scientific for the fact that it uses a scientific method in designing and collecting numerical data. Once data is collected, it
will undergo statistical analysis like Pearson’s r, t-test and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for analysis. Since data is
analyzed statistically, it is imperative that the data obtained must be numerical and quantifiable, hence its name
quantitative research.

Numerical data are generally easier to collect than descriptions or phrases used in qualitative research. Information like
student’s grades in different subjects, number of hours of engagement in social media platforms of teens, percentage of
consumers who prefer the color blue for soap packaging, and average of daily Covid-19 patient recovery per region are
just few examples of research data expressed in numbers. Some data, on the other hand, are not directly countable and
thus require conversion from non-numerical information into numerical information.

For instance, determining which brand of canned sardines is the best choice for consumers in terms of taste cannot be
expressed in numbers unless we do a survey using a rating scale. Several forms of rating scales are available, e.g., the
Likert scale that we can use to quantify data. Usually, they come in a selection of numbers with a corresponding
meaning for each choice, for example: 1= tastes very good, 2 = satisfactory, or 3 = undesirable. Numerical choices
convert texts into numbers so the researcher can perform mathematical operations for faster, more accurate, and more
objective analysis.

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is commonly used in natural sciences research problems because of the following characteristics:
1. Large Sample Size. To obtain more meaningful statistical result, the data must come from a large sample size.
2. Objectivity. Data gathering and analysis of results are done accurately, objectively, and are unaffected by the
researcher’s intuition and personal guesses.
3. Concise Visual Presentation. Data is numerical which makes presentation through graphs, charts, and tables possible
and with better conveyance and interpretation.
4. Faster Data Analysis. The use of a statistical tools gives way for a less timeconsuming data analysis. 5. Generalized
Data. Data taken from a sample can be applied to the population if sampling is done accordingly, i.e., sufficient size and
random samples were taken.
6. Fast and Easy Data Collection. Depending on the type of data needed, collection can be quick and easy. Quantitative
research uses standardized research instruments that allow the researcher to collect data from a large sample size
efficiently. For instance, a single survey form can be administered simultaneously to collect various measurable
characteristics like age, gender, socio-economic status, etc.
7. Reliable Data. Data is taken and analyzed objectively from a sample as a representative of the population, making it
more credible and reliable for policymaking and decision making.
8. High Replicability. The Quantitative method can be repeated to verify findings enhancing its validity, free from false or
immature conclusions.

Advantages of Quantitative Research The following are the advantages of quantitative research or its strengths:
1. Very objective
2. Numerical and quantifiable data can be used to predict outcomes.
3. Findings are generalizable to the population.
4. There is conclusive establishment of cause and effect
5. Fast and easy data analysis using statistical software.
6. Fast and easy data gathering
7. Quantitative research can be replicated or repeated.
8. Validity and reliability can be established Disadvantages of Quantitative Research

The following are the disadvantages of quantitative research or its weaknesses:

1. It lacks the necessary data to explore a problem or concept in depth.
2. It does not provide comprehensive explanation of human experiences.
3. Some information cannot be described by numerical data such as feelings, and beliefs.
4. The research design is rigid and not very flexible.
5. The participants are limited to choose only from the given responses.
6. The respondents may tend to provide inaccurate responses.
7. A large sample size makes data collection more costly.

Kinds of Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is a broad spectrum that it can be classified into smaller and more specific kinds: descriptive,
correlational, ex post facto, quasi-experimental, and experimental.

Descriptive design is used to describe a particular phenomenon by observing it as it occurs in nature. There is no
experimental manipulation, and the researcher does not start with a hypothesis. The goal of descriptive research is only
to describe the person or object of the study. An example of descriptive research design is “the determination of the
different kinds of physical activities and how often high school students do it during the quarantine period.”

The correlational design identifies the relationship between variables. Data is collected by observation since it does not
consider the cause and effect, for example, the relationship between the amount of physical activity done and student
academic achievement.

Ex post facto design is used to investigate a possible relationship between previous events and present conditions. The
term “Ex post facto” which means after the fact, looks at the possible causes of an already occurring phenomenon. Just
like the first two, there is no experimental manipulation in this design. An example of this is “How does the parent’s
academic achievement affect the children obesity?” A quasi-experimental design is used to establish the cause-and-
effect relationship of variables. Although it resembles the experimental design, the quasi-experimental has lesser
validity due to the absence of random selection and assignment of subjects. Here, the independent variable is identified
but not manipulated. The researcher does not modify pre-existing groups of subjects. The group exposed to treatment
(experimental) is compared to the group unexposed to treatment (control): example, the effects of unemployment on
attitude towards following safety protocol in ECQ declared areas.

Experimental design like quasi- experimental is used to establish the cause-and-effect relationship of two or more
variables. This design provides a more conclusive result because it uses random assignment of subjects and
experimental manipulations. For example, a comparison of the effects of various blended learning to the reading
comprehension of elementary pupils.

Lesson 2 FORMULATING RECOMMENDATIONS BASED ON CONCLUSIONS

Importance of Quantitative Research Across Fields

The value of quantitative research to man’s quest to discover the unknown and improve underlying conditions is
undeniable. Throughout history, quantitative research has paved the way to finding meaningful solutions to difficulties.
For instance, the development of vaccines to strengthen our immunity against viruses causing highly communicable
diseases like polio, influenza, chickenpox, and measles to name a few, underwent thorough experimental trials. You bet,
scientists and medical experts all over the world today are working their best to fast track the development, testing and
release of the vaccine for the Corona Virus Disease of 2019 (Covid-19) as the pandemic has critically affected the world
economy, education, as well as physical and emotional well-being of people.

The findings of the quantitative study can influence leaders’ and law-makers’ decisions for crafting and implementing
laws for the safety and welfare of the more significant majority. For example, a community with high cases of Covid-19
positive patients is mandated by law to be under Enhanced Community Quarantine where only the most essential
businesses can operate. On the other hand, cities with less or zero case will be under General Community Quarantine
where some businesses, public and private offices are already allowed to operate

Using quantitative design helps us determine and better understand relationships between variables or phenomenon
crucial to reducing the range of uncertainty because the mathematics (more of this in the last module) behind
quantitative studies helps us make close estimates of the outcome (dependent variable) from a given condition/s
(independent variable). Relationship between demand and supply, age and health, discipline and academic
achievement, practice and winning at sports, depression and suicidal rates, algae population and Oxygen demand are
just few examples of real-life applications of correlation studies in the past that we still apply today.

Most inventions and innovations are products of quantitative studies. Before you can enjoy the uses and features of a
smart phone, it took years of research to establish compliance to standards for interoperability, to find the most cost-
effective raw materials, and to identify the sleekest and sturdiest design, the fastest data saving and processing power,
and most marketable add-ons according to consumer needs. Indeed, mankind will dwell in the darkness of ignorance if
not for the people who conducted their research before reading about it from books or manuals.
Lesson 3 SOURCES OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

To get an answer to an inquiry that they are investigating, researchers will observe and measure the quality or quantity
of the object of the study. It is therefore imperative for the researcher to identify the variables significant in explaining
observed effects or behavior.

A Variable is anything that has a quantity or quality that varies. For instance, during the quarantine period, your mother
planted tomato seedlings in pots. Now common understanding from science tells you that several factors are affecting
the growth of tomatoes: sunlight, water, kind of soil, and nutrients in soil. How fast the tomato seedlings will grow and
bear fruits will depend on these factors. The growth of tomatoes and the number of fruits produced are examples of the
Dependent Variables. The amount of sunlight, water, and nutrients in the soil are the Independent Variables. If there is
an existing relationship between the independent and dependent variables, then the value of the dependent variable
varies in response to the manipulation done on the independent variable. The independent variable is also identified as
the presumed cause while the dependent variable is the presumed effect. In an experimental quantitative design, the
independent variable is pre-defined and manipulated by the researcher while the dependent variable is observed and
measured. For descriptive, correlational, and ex post facto quantitative research designs, independent and dependent
variables simply do not apply.

It is important to note other factors that may influence the outcome (dependent variable) not manipulated or pre-
defined by the researcher. These factors are called Extraneous Variables. In our example above, the presence of pests
and environmental stressors (e.g. pets, extreme weather) are the extraneous variables. Since extraneous variables may
affect the result of the experiment, it is crucial for the researcher to identify them prior to conducting the experiment
and control them in such a way that they do not threaten the internal validity (i.e. accurate conclusion) of the result.
Controlling the extraneous variable can be done by holding it constant or distribute its effect across the treatment.
When the researcher fails to control the extraneous variable that it caused considerable effect to the outcome, the
extraneous variable becomes a Confounding Variable. For example, if the tomato had been infested by pests
(confounding variable) then you cannot conclude that manipulations in sunlight, water, and soil nutrients (independent
variable) are the only contributing factors for the stunted growth and poor yield (dependent variable) of the plant or is
it the result of both the independent variables and the confounding variable.

The variables can also be classified according to their nature. The diagram below shows the different classifications:
 I. Quantitative Variables, also called numerical variables, are the type of variables used in quantitative
research because they are numeric and can be measured. Under this category are discrete and continuous
variables.

A. Discrete variables are countable whole numbers. It does not take negative values or values between fixed points. For
example: number of students in a class, group size and frequency.

B. Continuous variables take fractional (non-whole number) values that can either be a positive or a negative. Example:
height, temperature.

Numerical data have two levels of measurement, namely:

A. Intervals are quantitative variables where the interval or differences between consecutive values are equal and
meaningful, but the numbers are arbitrary. For example, the difference between 36 degrees and 37 degrees is
the same as between 100 degrees and 101 degrees. The zero point does not suggest the absence of a property
being measured. Temperature at 0 degree Celsius is assigned as the melting point of ice. Other examples of
interval data would be year and IQ score.
B. Ratio type of data is similar to interval. The only difference is the presence of a true zero value. The zero point in
this scale indicates the absence of the quantity being measured. Examples are age, height, weight, and distance.
II. Qualitative Variables also referred to as Categorical Variables are not expressed in numbers but are
descriptions or categories. It can be further divided into dichotomous, nominal or ordinal.

A. Dichotomous variable consists of only two distinct categories or values, for example, a response to a question
either be a yes or no.

B. Nominal variable simply defines groups of subjects. In here, you may have more than 2 categories of equivalent
magnitude. For example, a basketball player’s number is used to distinguish him from other players. It certainly
does not follow that player 10 is better than player 8. Other examples are blood type, hair color and mode of
transportation.

C. Ordinal variable, from the name itself, denotes that a variable is ranked in a certain order. This variable can have
a qualitative or quantitative attribute. For example, a survey questionnaire may have a numerical rating as choices
like 1, 2, 3, 4, 5ranked accordingly (5=highest, 1=lowest) or categorical rating like strongly agree, agree, neutral,
disagree and strongly disagree. Other examples or ordinal variable: cancer stage (Stage I, Stage II, Stage III), Spotify
Top 20 hits, academic honors (with highest, with high, with honors).

Practical Research 2 Quarter 1- Module 2 Identifying the Inquiry and Stating the Problem

Lesson 1 Designing Research Topic

Steps in Developing Research Topic Despite the advancement in knowledge and technology, there is still a lot to
discover in this world. There is still an ocean of things that we are yet to explore. It can be a difficult situation that we
want to improve or eliminate, a better understanding of the unfamiliar, information gaps we wish to fill, or theories that
we want to validate. What limits our choice of a topic are our capacity, understanding, resources, and skill.
Most researchers will agree that choosing a good topic is a challenging and tedious task. Because a research topic serves
as the groundwork for any succeeding actions, it must be defined appropriately at the beginning of the research work.
Otherwise, it may result in unanticipated complexities to the researcher.
Developing a research problem can be done in four (4) steps:
1. Choose a broad topic
2. Do a preliminary research
3. Define the problem
4. Refine the question
As a student researcher, let us go through these steps to guide us in choosing a quantitative research topic related to
our chosen field.
1. Choose a broad topic. The first step is quite simple. As a Senior High School student, these tips will surely guide
you in selecting a broad topic for quantitative research:
A. Choose an interesting topic. Research is a very challenging task that demands your time and persistence. Your
motivation to find the answer to the problem should keep you going, thus building a momentum along the way.
Therefore, your research topic must be something that you are passionate about. Review your answers in
Activity 1, and it might lead you to the right path. After all, nothing is more satisfying than accomplishing
something that matters to you.
B. Select a significant topic. A topic that is worth researching must be able to answer or solve problems in the
community. No one will take an interest in your topic if it is obsolete and does not address any real problem. To
be proactive and to take part in solving problems with socio-economic relevance gives a sense of
accomplishment. You do not even have to look far, just take a look at your household, neighborhood, school,
 group of friends, or local community for a common problem or difficulty. Activity 2 will help you identify some
main points that can serve as a basis for choosing your research study.
C. Choose a topic relevant to your field. One of the goals of this course is for you to be able to produce a
quantitative research study that is aligned to your chosen track. A SHS student under ABM must choose a topic
related to business and management while students taking HUMSS may consider choosing a topic about
politics, culture, and arts. Choosing a topic that you can relate will certainly make your research project less
challenging.
In the event that the three tips above do not shed some light on your minds, do not despair; other sources of ideas
like the ones below may be available for you.

i. Resources. Department of Science and Technology (DOST) harmonized National R & D Agenda for 2017-
2022. Early in 2017, DOST, together with researchers from the health, agriculture, industry, and academe,
released research priorities for 2017 to 2022 that are relevant for the economic growth of the country. Visit
this link https://bit.ly/3hHTf2Y for a list of suggested studies.
ii. Review of Literature. Some researchers reveal that reading previous studies fueled their minds with tons of
research topics. Reviewing the literature lets them know what has been studied, what is not yet done, and
what other researchers suggest working on. Journals, periodicals, and peer-reviewed articles are a good
read.
iii. Field experts. Gather up some guts to approach anyone you know that are experts on the field of your
choice because they may give valuable inputs or may currently be working on a study where you can
collaborate. Your teacher may also give you some advice, especially on the possible obstacles, resource
limitations, and expanse of the study.
iv. Brainstorming. Do not underestimate the ideas from classmates, friends, and family members. You may be
overwhelmed at first by the outpouring of ideas. Just build a list, then cross off any topic unrelated to your
field or not so interesting to you. Of course, you must take precautionary measures in doing this by
observing physical distancing. You can use any social media platform to do this.
2. Do a preliminary research. The second step is much more time-consuming. Once you have chosen a broad topic,
you need to have a better understanding of it by reading some more articles, journals, and related research
studies. Find out how other researchers gathered their data, what research instruments were used, how the
data were analyzed, and what important findings they shared. Take note of every relevant research study for
future reference. If you started the topic search (first step) by doing a literature review, the second step is just a
continuation of what you started. A much deeper discussion of the literature review will be done in module 3.
3. Define the problem. After getting enough information, you may be able to list some questions or problems that
you want to research. At this stage, you should be able to narrow down broad topic into feasible and
manageable research questions. A broad topic can be narrowed down by limiting the population, place, period,
or a certain characteristic. However, be very mindful that your problem may not be too narrow that it becomes
very simple and does not need to collect unique data or does not generate new information. A very narrow
research question can be developed by doing a comparative study or expanding the scope of the study.
4. Refine the question. This step lets you evaluate the questions formulated. What specific questions should you
ask? How should you gather your data sufficient to answer the questions? Are the questions too narrow, or
does it need to be trimmed down? While evaluating the research question, consider the requirements of the
course. How much time are you given to finish the research? What resources do you need and are they
available? You will learn more about research questions in lesson 4.

Lesson 2 Research Title

Basic Guidelines in Making a Research Title

A research study title is the very first thing a reader comes across when searching for scientific literature. It is a concise
description of the content of the research study containing the fewest possible words, yet adequate to describe the
contents of the paper for a simple reason that we do not want to mislead the readers. After conceptualizing a most
probable research topic, drafting the title early in the research process helps in keeping your focus on the subject. The
following are the basic guidelines in making a research study title:
1. Use an accurate description of the subject and scope of the study instead of using general terms.
2. Do not use abbreviations except for commonly known ones like DNA and ICT.
3. Do not include words like “The study of,” “Analysis of,” “An investigation of” or similar construction as these would
only lengthen the title.
4. Include the main dependent and independent variables.
5. Be mindful of the proper use of grammar and punctuation.
6. Capitalize all nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs as well as the first letter of the first and last words.
7. State in a declarative form, although you may also see titles in question form from time to time.
8. The year the study has been conducted should not be indicated unless it is a historical study.
9. Use current terminology.
10. Depending on the institutional requirements, 5 to15 words are sufficient to describe the research study.
11. Use the common name instead of chemical formula (e.g., Ammonium instead of NH4)
12. Write and italicize full scientific names.
13. Make sure to reflect the tone of the paper. An academic research paper has title which is not casual, or informal, or
does not contain humor.
The following steps can guide you in writing your research title:
1. Determine what it is that you wish to accomplish or know from your study. Write one to two sentences to state the
main objectives of your research project.
2. Include important keywords and variables. Revise the sentences into one complete sentence that includes important
keywords and variables of the study.
3. Shorten the title by eliminating unnecessary words. You may also shrink a phrase into a simpler phrase or a single
word. In doing this, make sure that the main thought of the research study is retained.
4. Correct grammar and punctuation errors if there is any.
5. Observe proper formatting. The format may vary according to the requirements of the course or school. Please seek
guidance from your professor.

Lesson 3 Background of Research

Background of the Study
The background of the study is the part of your paper where you inform the reader of the context of the study. When
we say context, it means the situation or circumstances within which your research topic was conceptualized. Ideally,
this part is written when you have already conducted a literature review and has a good perception of the topic so you
can articulate the importance and validity of the research problem. It is also in this part of the paper where you justify
the need to conduct a research study about the topic selected by establishing the research gap.

A research gap is an under or unexplored area of a topic that requires further exploration. The gap can be in a form of
other variables, conditions, population, methodology, or test subject. To identify research gaps, an exhaustive literature
review regarding the topic is required. You may have to look for similar or related studies employing quantitative,
qualitative, or mixed-methods from legitimate sources and examine the gray areas. Reading through the Discussion,
Conclusion, or the Recommendations sections of the articles will help you know potential areas of study that need
further attention. Identifying research gaps sometimes would even make researchers modify their research problem as
they get noteworthy ideas from fellow researchers.

While both the Background of the Study and the Review of Related Literature involve reading past related studies, they
differ in some aspects. The former is at the introductory part of the paper with the purpose of relaying the importance
of your research study; the latter is more comprehensive and thoroughly discusses the studies mentioned in the
background of research. Moreover, the background of the study answers the following questions:
1. What is already known about the topic?
2. What is not known about the topic?
3. Why do you need to address those gaps?
4. What is the rationale of your study?
While answering these questions, keep in mind that the studies you include in this part of the paper are laid down as
part of the introduction and should not be discussed in great detail. The depth and length of the background
information largely depend on how much information you think the reader needs to know to have a full grasp of the
topic being discussed.

Lesson4 Research Questions

Nature of Quantitative Research
Problem Once we encounter uncertainty, being inquisitive, we always find ways for answers or solution. Ignited by
interest, curiosity, or need, we always find ourselves pondering about the current problem we are facing. When we are
thinking and behaving this way, we are then confronted by a problem that can be a source of a research problem.

A research problem is simple as a problem you would like to research. Quantitative Research Problem deals more with
the precision and specificity of the problem. Furthermore, the quantitative research problem describes trends and
patterns of a phenomenon.

When you have identified your quantitative research problem, you can now state it and make sure to establish its place
in your study. In your written paper, this can be found as Statement of the Problem, where it formally introduces the
problem that you want to investigate or address. By this time, you can start specifying what you want to answer in your
study.

Research Problem and Research Questions

The research questions help clarify and specify the research problem. They are also considered as sub-problems of your
research problem and are informative in nature. They specify the method of collecting and analyzing data, and the type
of data to be collected when exploring a quantitative research problem.

Characteristics of Good Research Questions

Once you have already enumerated your research questions for your study, it is important that you consider its quality
to answer and explain your research problem. The following are good characteristics of research questions, as described
by Fraenkel and Wallen (2020).
Feasible. Consider the amount of time, energy, money, respondents, and even your current situation as a student-
researcher. Is the research problem possible? Will it not spend unreasonable amount? Consider these examples: “How
do parents feel about the blended learning modality for elementary learners?” and “How would giving each learner
their own laptop to be used in this blended learning modality affect their performance tasks?” The first example is
definitely a more feasible research question. Considering the resources, it is more possible to gather the data needed to
answer the question.

Clear. The clarity of how the questions are stated lead to agreement of meaning of the readers of your study. Since your
research questions are also considered as the main focus in the gathering and analyzing the data, it is therefore very
important that these are stated clearly.

Significant. Ask if your research questions are relevant or important to ask. Will answering these questions provide an
additional contribution to address the given research problem? In other words, are the research questions really worth
investigating? At this point, you do not just consider the time and money that you will spend, but more importantly, the
value of what you are trying to investigate. So aside from the reason that your chosen research problem is within your
interest, you should also provide a sound justification of your choice as a researcher.

Ethical. Always consider the welfare of people, animals or whosoever are involved in your study. Look into ways of
answering the research questions without inflicting physical and psychological harm to persons involved.

Formulating Research Questions

Research questions can be generally classified into two: general and specific. The general question of the study is
derived from the research problem while the specific questions are anchored on the general research problem.

For example:
This study aims to determine the relationship between the types of learning delivery mode and students’ learning
styles. Furthermore, it seeks to answer the following research questions: (1) What are the different learning delivery
modes of the school? (2) What are the various learning styles of the students? (3) Is there a significant relationship
between the different learning delivery modes of the school and the learning styles of its students?

Notice that a general problem was presented first. Then it was followed by the specific questions considered as research
questions of the study.

In stating quantitative research questions, you should also consider the design of your quantitative research.
Quantitative research designs will be elaborated in Module 4. For the purpose of writing your research question, here’s
a quick guide of research questions for descriptive research, correlational research, Ex Post Facto research,
Experimental, and Quasi-experimental research.

Research Questions for Descriptive Research focus on observing, describing, and reporting factors or aspects of the
research problem. Phrases such as how often/frequently, how many/much, what is/are, to what extent/degree, and the
likes are used in these questions. For example, you study the use of social media among Senior High School Students,
you can ask the following questions:

What are the various social media platforms used by Senior High Students?
How many hours students spend on social media per day?

Research Questions for Correlational Research aim to determine the relationships among two or more variables in your
research problem. Correlational research questions usually begin with the phrases “Is there a significant relationship..”
or “What is the relationship between/among..”. In the study of use of social media and level of digital literacy of
students following questions can be asked:

What is the relationship between the length of hours spent on social media and level of digital literacy of students?
Is there a significant relationship between the type of social media used and the level digital literacy of students?

Research Questions for Ex Post Facto Research attempt to identify the causes of the phenomenon in the context of your
research problem. It is also assumed that no control or manipulation of variable has been done in order to cause the
effect. It is also understood that the cause of the problem already exists before you conducted your study. For example,
ex post facto study on family background and digital literacy of students, the following questions can be asked:

Is there a difference in the literacy level of students between their cultural and educational family background?

Research Questions for Experimental and Quasi-experimental Research suggest that answers to these questions are
brought about by manipulation or control of a certain variable during the conduct of the study. These questions provide
explanation to the causal relationship of variables. The following research questions can be asked on studies on
elementary student’s remedial sessions and academic performance of students:

Is there a significant difference in the posttest scores of the control group and experimental group?
Lesson 5 Scope and Delimitation of the Study

Scope and Delimitation

In doing research study, we make sure that we have certainty and reasons for drawing the inclusion and exclusion of
research variables. We do not write for the sake of writing the parts of the research paper; such as setting the scope and
delimitation of your study. It is important because it draws the boundary of your study. Without doing so, research
procedures and results will not be coherent to the goal of your study.

The scope specifies the coverage of your study such as variables, population or participant, and timeline. Delimitation
cites factors of your study that are not included or excluded or those you will not deal in your study.

In this section of your research paper, you may also state the reasons why you did not include the variables. A clearly
written scope and delimitation of the study will make it definitely easier to answer questions which are related or not
related to your study.

Components of Scope and Delimitation

In writing the scope and delimitation of your study, you are also asking the basic profile questions of your research. The
following are the components of the scope and delimitation of the study but not limited to:

Topic of the Study. What are the variables to be included and excluded?
Objectives or Problems to be Addressed. Why are you doing this study?
Time Frame. When are you going to conduct this study?
Locale of the Study. Where are you going to gather your data?
Characteristics of the Respondents. Who will be your respondents?
Method and Research Instruments. How are going to collect the data?

Difference between Delimitation and Limitation of the Study

The delimitation of the study describes the various limitations that arose during the design and conduct of the study.
Along the way of conducting your study, you will encounter limitations which you have not drawn before you start –
these are the delimitations of study. Most of the delimitations arose from the applicability or usefulness of the findings
of the study to the current problem.

Variables not included in your study are also determined by delimitation of your study. While on the other hand,
limitation of the study are those variables included in your study. Hence, limitation of the study is actually the identified
scope of the study.

Lesson 6 Presenting Statement of the Problem

Getting this far means you have already completed the first part of the research paper. The next step is to present your
Statement of the Problem. The following topics were already discussed and practiced, so it is time to present your
output for this Module. Research Title Background of the Research Research Questions Scope and Delimitation of the
Study Significance of the Study or Beneficiaries (if applicable)

Practical Research 2 Quarter 3- Module 3 Conceptual Framework and Review of Related Literature

Lesson 1 Research Framework

As you begin writing your research project, you must consider the framework that is suitable for your study. What is a
research framework? A research framework illustrates the structure or blueprint of the research plan and helps the
researcher formulate relevant research questions.

The framework consists of the key concepts and assumed relationships of the research project. It is normally used as a
guide for researchers so that they are more focused on the scope of their studies. It can be presented using visual
(diagrams, chart, etc.) and narrative (paragraph stating the concepts and relationships of the study) forms.

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

The types of research frameworks are classified as the theoretical and conceptual frameworks. A theoretical framework
is commonly used for studies that anchor on timetested theories that relate the findings of the investigation to the
underpinning relevant theory of knowledge. At the same time, a conceptual framework refers to the actual ideas,
beliefs, and tentative theories that specifically support the study. It is primarily a conception or model of what is out
there that the researcher plans to study.

Similarities of the Theoretical and Conceptual Framework The following are the similar characteristics of Theoretical and
Conceptual Framework:
1. Provide an overall view of the research study;
2. Anchor a theory that supports the study;
3. Guide in developing relevant research questions/objectives;
4. Help justify assumptions/hypothesis;
5. Aid in choosing appropriate methodology;
6. Help in gathering and interpreting data and
7. Guide in identifying possible threats to validity.

Guidelines and strategies in choosing and developing a Research Framework

In deciding on what research framework you are going to use in your study, you have to take into consideration the
following vital information about the theoretical and conceptual framework.

Concept Map

A concept map is a visual representation of information that helps show the relationship between ideas.
Concept maps begin with the main topic and then branch out into sub-topics, reflecting the connection of all the
elements in the study. It can also provide and organize new ideas.

It is composed of different figures such as lines, circles, boxes, and other marks or symbols which represent the
elements of your research. It can take the form of charts, graphic organizers, tables, flowcharts, Venn Diagrams,
timelines, or T-charts. Concept map arranges related ideas in a hierarchy. You start broad, and the sub-topics will get
more and more specific. It also helps you in formulating a specific topic from the general or the main idea with
significant connections of information. In other words, understanding the big picture makes the details more significant
and easier to comprehend.

Concept maps are very useful for researchers and readers who understand better visually. With the proper
connection of lines and linking arrows to shapes and other symbols representing your concepts about the research, the
readers can visualize a comprehensive picture of your study.

However, in the concept map, you are not yet actually researching your study. It is developing or creating your
plan or blueprint so that you will be guided on the flow and direction of your research study. And that includes your
research questions, variables, and methodology. It means that you are just gathering and soliciting ideas on what you
could learn about your chosen topic.
 Before creating your conceptual framework, you have to understand first the different variables of your study.
Although these were already discussed in the previous module for the purpose of utilizing it in your framework, an in-
depth concept is a need.

The independent variable is the “presumed cause” of the research problem. It is the reason for any “change” or
difference in a dependent variable. It can be purposely manipulated by the researcher, depending on the focus of the
study. It maybe can cause, influence, or affect the result or outcome of the study. It is also called as the experimental,
treatment, antecedent, or predictor variable. Moreover, it refers to the variable that is stable and unaffected by the
other variables you are trying to measure.

The dependent variable is the “presumed effect” of the research problem. It is usually the problem itself or the
element that is being questioned. This variable is altered as a result of experimental manipulation of the independent
variable or variables. It is also called as the criterion, effect, response, or outcome variable which captures the interest
of the researcher and requires analysis, interpretation, and implication of the findings of the study. The variable that
depends on other factors that are measured and are affected or influenced by the independent variable.

The moderating variable is an independent variable which influences the direction and the strength of the
connection between independent and dependent variables. The independent variable interacts with the moderator
variable, which makes the relationship of the independent and dependent variable stronger or weaker. It alters the
effect that an independent variable has on a dependent variable base on its value. The moderator thus influences the
effective component of the cause-effect relationship between the two variables. This is also called as the interaction
effect.

Mediating variable or Intervening variable is an element that exists between the independent to the dependent
variable. A mediator (or mediating) variable is an integral part of the cause-effect relationship and helps us to
understand the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable. It is a variable that describes the effect
and influence of the relationship between the variables and what is controlling that relationship. This is also called as
correlated or mediator variables.

The control variable is a special type of independent variable that can influence the dependent variable. It takes
an active role in quantitative studies. Statistical procedures are used to control this variable. It is useful to integrate the
control variables into your research study, but it is not the main focus.

It has somehow an effect on the dependent variable and an extension of the independent variable. However, if
you omit the control variable from your study, the findings would be less accurate. It is mostly relevant if your study is
about to prove a cause-effect relationship by undertaking statistical analysis.

The Input-Process-Output Model

The Input-Process-Output Model (IPO) is a conceptual paradigm which indicates the inputs, required process,
and the output. This approach is seated on the premise of acquiring essential information by converting inputs into
outputs through the required processing steps in obtaining the result. The IPO Model is also referred to as a functional
model that is usually used in action research where an intervention or solution is necessary to solve the identified
problem.

The Input is usually the independent variable of the study. Meanwhile, the Process is the intervention or
solution consist of the instruments and analyses used to acquire the result. Lastly, the Output is the findings or outcome
of the interventions being made to solve the identified problem.

Common Example of Conceptual Framework

As you read on different research studies, the common conceptual frameworks used of most studies are the
independent and dependent variable model and the input, process, and output model.
 This conceptual framework shows the independent and dependent variables of the study. It is presumed that
the more number of hours a student prepares for the exam, the higher would be the expected academic performance.

This conceptual framework shows the input, process, and output approach of the study. The input is the independent
variable, which includes the socio-demographic and food safety profile of the respondents. The process includes the
tools and analyses in gathering the data, while the output is the outcome based on the results of the study.

Lesson2 Definition of Terms

Usually, in writing a research paper, the definition of terms is included. It helps in simplifying some of the technical
terms which are vital in the understanding of the research project. Although this part of the paper is optional, it is
advantageous for the reader to include this to prevent the ambiguous meaning of terms that might otherwise be
interpreted in different ways, causing confusion.
It can also enhance comprehension of important key terms.
Definition of Terms is also called as Operational Definition of Variables (ODV). The word operational refers to “how the
word/term was used in the study. At the same time, the variables are the elements essential to the study.
There are two ways in defining the terms, the conceptual and operational definition.

The conceptual definition is the meaning of the term that is based on how it is defined in the dictionary or encyclopedia.
Operational definition, on the other hand, is the meaning of the term based on how it was used in the study.
Generally, there are two cases in which important terms need to be defined; first, if the term is not common or widely
known, and second, if the term has a specific or unique meaning in the context of the study.

Benefits of Having Definition of Terms

1. It is a useful place to include technical terms in the topic of the research questions.
2. It can clarify the definition of term, especially if it has a different meaning. Define the term according to how it was
used in the study.
3. It makes it easier to revisit or check the meaning of a term instead of trying to locate it through the paper.
4. Helps to ensure that the reader can understand the technical terminologies and jargons while reading the paper.

Guidelines on How to Write the Definition of Terms

1. Write a brief introductory statement. It must shortly describe the content of the definition of terms.
2. List/write the words/terms (which are technical) that would be included (make sure that the variables and key terms
found in the title are included).
3. The terms should be arranged alphabetically.
4. Indention should be applied to each term.
5. The term should be followed with a period.
6. It can be underlined or not.
7. It can be bold and italic or not.
8. It does not have to be lengthy (direct to the point).
9. Acronym/initials should be defined clearly. Complete name should be written first, followed by the acronym/initials in
open-close parenthesis, then the definition/meaning.
10. Do not overflow with technical terms (only those relevant and significant to the study).
11. Keep the definition brief and basic. You will elaborate on it more in the body of your paper.

Note: Refer also to your institutional format (some institutions have different formats).

Examples of Writing the Definition of Terms

1. Conceptual definition

Face to face. It is when the people involved are being close together and looking directly at each other
(https://bit.ly/2L2IuML).
Module. It is any in a series of standardized units used together, such as an educational unit that covers a single subject
or topic (https://bit.ly/380jv5X).

Online. It is controlled by or connected to another computer or network (https://bit.ly/3aUatJA).

2. Operational definition
Face to face. This refers to one of the modalities used in learning delivery in which the teacher and students
should be in the same place or setting, such as the classroom.

Module. Teaching modules are guides of the topics and lessons of a specific subject given to students under the
modular method. It is also an alternative distance learning delivery in which students are required to read and
answer the activities specified in the module.

Online. It refers to another form of distance learning wherein the teacher and students will have their lessons
using internet connectivity.

Lesson 3 Research Hypothesis

When you are finished identifying your statement of the problem or research questions/objectives, you may now start
formulating the hypothesis of your study. What is hypothesis?

A Hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. It is a specific and testable
prediction on what you expect to happen with the variables in your study. Usually, it proposes a possible relationship
between the independent variable (what the researcher changes) and the dependent variable (what the research
measures). It is also described as an “educated guess” of what possibly the result would be of your research, which
should be supported on existing theories and knowledge. Furthermore, the hypothesis states a tentative answer to your
research question that can be tested by further investigation in which you can support or refute it through scientific
research methods such as data collection and statistical analysis. It is the central concept of any investigation that
converts research questions into predictions and incorporates elements such as variables, population, and the
relationship between factors.

As a researcher, you must determine whether your hypothesis is accepted or not based on the findings and outcome of
your research study. Not all studies have a hypothesis while some studies have several hypotheses.

Types of Research Hypothesis

1. Simple Hypothesis
A simple hypothesis is a prediction of the relationship between two variables, the independent variable and the
dependent variable. It shows a connection between one independent variable and a single dependent variable
(https://bit.ly/37UCE9q). Ex: The higher the poverty rate in society (one independent variable), the higher the number
would be the out of school youth (one dependent variable).

2. Complex hypothesis
The complex hypothesis reflects the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable. It
expresses a connection between two or more independent variables and two or more dependent variables
(https://bit.ly/37UCE9q). Ex: Eating more vegetables and fresh fruits (independent variables) leads to boost immune
system and enhance blood circulation and digestion (dependent variables).

3. Empirical Hypothesis
An empirical hypothesis is also called as the “working hypothesis.” It is presumed to explain certain facts and
relationships of phenomena. It comes to life when a theory is being put to the test, using observation and experiment.
From the name itself “working,” it would mean that it can be changed or replace anytime as soon as it is no longer
supported or accepted base on the observation and experimentation being done. It is going through some trial and
error and perhaps changing around those independent variables (https://bit.ly/37UCE9q). Ex: Plants watered everyday
grow faster than plants watered once a week. (Here, trial and error are leading to a series of findings).

4. Logical hypothesis
Logical hypothesis expresses explanation with limited evidence that can be verified logically. It reflects a relationship of
the variables which are anchored based on logical phenomena. Sometimes, a logical hypothesis can be turned into an
empirical hypothesis in which you have to test your theories and postulates (https://bit.ly/37UCE9q). Ex: Tomato plants
bear fruit faster in Earth than in Moon. (Until we are can test the soil and plant growth in Moon's ground, the evidence
for this claim will be limited, and the hypothesis will only remain logical).

5. Statistical hypothesis
A statistical hypothesis is an analysis of a portion of a population. It can be verified statistically. The variables in a
statistical hypothesis can be transformed into quantifiable sub-variable to assess it statistically (https://bit.ly/37UCE9q).
Ex: If your research is about the psychosocial development of K-3 pupils of the private and public schools in the city, you
would want to examine every single K-3 pupil in the city. It is not practical. Therefore, you would conduct your research
using a statistical hypothesis or a sample of the K-3 pupil population.
 6. Null hypothesis
The null hypothesis is denoted with the symbol Ho It exists when you consider that there is no relationship between the
independent and dependent variables or that there is an insufficient amount of information to claim a scientific
hypothesis (McLeod, 2020). Ex: There is no significant change in my health, whether I exercise every day or not.

7. Alternative hypothesis
An alternative hypothesis is denoted with the symbol (Ha). It is an alternate statement expressed to be tested in order
to generate the desired output when the empirical or working hypothesis is not accepted. In an attempt to disprove a
null hypothesis, you tend to seek an alternative hypothesis (McLeod, 2020). Ex: My health improves during the times
when I sleep 8 hours a day than sleeping for 4 hours only.

A Hypothesis can be classified as Directional and Non-directional Hypothesis

Directional Hypothesis The directional hypothesis relates the relationship between the variables and can also predict its
nature. It illustrates the direct association of the impact of the independent variable with the dependent variable,
whether it is positively or negatively affected. The direction of the statement should be clear and justified according to
the findings of the study. Since the hypothesis is gearing to one specific direction it is investigated through a one-tailed
test (McLeod, 2020). Ex: Students who are eating nutritious food have higher grades than students not having a proper
meal. (This shows that there is an effect between the grades and nutritious food and the direction of effect is clear that
the students got a higher grade).

Non-directional Hypothesis A non-directional hypothesis is used when there is no principle involved. It is a premise that
a relationship exists between two variables. However, the direction of the effect is not specifically determined. It is a
statement that reflects the association of the independent variable to the dependent variable without predicting the
exact nature of the direction of the relationship. This relationship is not specified as negative or positive. The
hypothesis, in this case, is investigated through a two-tailed test (McLeod, 2020). Ex: There is a significant difference in
the average grades between those students that have proper nutritious meal and those that do not have proper meals.
(This depicts that there is an effect between the average grades and nutritious food, but it does not reflect the direction
of the effect whether it is positively or negatively affected).

Guidelines in Formulating Hypothesis

These guidelines must be observed in formulating your hypothesis.

1. Before writing your specific hypothesis, spend more time researching about the topic you are interested in. Focus on
information and previous studies related to your topic.
2. Your independent variable and dependent variable must be included in your hypothesis.
3. The relationship of your variables must be reflected in your hypothesis. Will your independent variable affect your
dependent variable?
4. Your hypothesis should be simple and specific as possible. If your hypothesis is vague and complicated, it would be
difficult to find the answer to your question.
5. Your hypothesis should be concise and comprises clear and simple language. Make it short and simple for it to be
easily understood and avoid any misconceptions or misunderstandings.
6. Your hypothesis should be testable without violating ethical standards. It means that it could be investigated and
measured through a scientific method such as statistical analysis and data interpretation.
7. Your hypothesis must be falsifiable. It means that your hypothesis can be proven wrong through experiments or
empirical data. There are no absolute answers to research questions, but there is a possibility of validating the
hypotheses to be true beyond a reasonable doubt.

Lesson 4 Review of Related Literature

After you have selected your research topic, you have to spend more time for your review of related literature. As a
researcher, you are promoting knowledge. The knowledge created by other previous studies is essential because it can
be a baseline or reference for your research study as the related literature.

Review of related literature is a compilation of studies related to a specific area of research (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2020). It
evaluates, classifies and summarizes all the relevant previous studies conducted on a specified topic. It is also designed
to justify your research by exposing the gaps of the previous studies. It is vital that your literature review is centralized.
Thus, you should choose studies that are focused to your topic rather than collecting a broader scope of studies which
are already not relevant to your research.

Moreover, literature review is an essential component of research. It forms a "picture" for the reader, providing a
support and full comprehension of the developments in the field. This picture tells the reader that you have
acknowledged, considered and adapted previous related significant works in the field into your research.

Literature review plays a significant impact in the discussion of the results and findings. The discussion of results and
findings should focus on your research rather than those of the other previous researches. Hence, the literature review
should be used only in the discussion as support, evidence, and further explanation for your study. These are the three
(3) ways of using literature review in the discussion of your study: a) providing context as a foundation to develop your
ideas, b) comparing your findings from other previous related studies, and c) stating what contribution your study has
made in the field.

However, there are also three (3) common errors that are usually made when including literature reviews in the
discussion of the study. First, there are wide range of studies being included in which most of them are not anymore
relevant to your specific topic under investigation. Second, Related article mentioning the original article is cited rather
than citing the original article itself. Lastly, previous work has been cited by the researcher based only on the abstracts
and without even reading the entire research.

Purpose of a Literature Review

The review of related literature is anchored on the following purposes.
1. To discover the connection of your research to the existing body of knowledge and to the real-life situations.
2. To identify more theories or concepts as the foundation of your research study and to learn from them.
3. To determine the relationship of your research with previous research studies to prevent duplication and to
acknowledge other researchers.
4. To acquire knowledge on the accuracy and significance of your research questions.
5. To acquaint yourself with the technical terminologies relevant to your study.
6. To determine possible gaps, conflicts, and open questions left from other researches which might help you in
formulating and justifying your research ideas.
7. To clarify misconceptions on previous researches and help refocus, polish, and contribute to the development of
the body of knowledge.

Structure of Literature Review

This is how you are going to structure your review of related literature. The main goal for doing this is to make the
reader understand easily the different studies and how they are relevant to your study.

1. Introduction The introduction somehow presents the fundamental idea of the particular study of the literature
review.
2. Main Body The main body consists of the organized discussion of sources. This is where you summarize and
synthesize your literature review and reflect how they related to your study.
3. Conclusions/Recommendations Conclusion and recommendation emphasize what you have learned from
reviewing the literature and where your study leads to.

Types of Literature Review

These are the different types of literature review according to Nueman (2011). Following the type of literature
review depends on how you organize and present your review of related studies.

1. Context review From the name itself, context review is primarily focused on the content or contextual aspect of
research. Usually it is a type of review in which the researcher relates his or her study to a larger body of
knowledge. It presents the current research by merging it into a wider framework and determine its contribution
and impact to the specific field of study.
2. Historical review Historical review is a specialized type of literature review in which the researcher organizes the
related researches according to the period of time it was conducted. Historical literature review focuses on probing
research in a specified field throughout a chronological order, which usually starts from the oldest period of time
going to the most recent studies. The goal of this type of research is to gain knowledge on the advancement of
technology and to identify developments on certain areas, which progress through time. It can be integrated with a
theoretical or methodological review to illustrate how a concept, theory, or research method developed through
time.

3. Integrative review Integrative review is a common type of literature review in which the researcher introduces
and summarizes the recent knowledge of the study. It emphasizes the agreements and disagreements of knowledge
among various previous researches. It also considers reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature in
an integrated way in order to generate new structure and viewpoint on the topic. This is the most common form of
literature review in the social sciences. This review is usually merged with a context review.

4. Methodological review Methodological review is a specialized type of literature review in which the researcher
gathers, compares and contrasts other studies to the current research. It basically summarizes and evaluates the
strengths and gaps in methodological aspects of various studies and illustrates the effects of different
methodologies (research designs, samples, process) to different outcomes. This approach also emphasizes ethical
issues when necessary, which you should consider and be conscious of as you go through your current research.

5. Self-study review Self-study review is a literature review in which the researcher demonstrates his or her
understanding of a specific body of knowledge. It contains existing proof associated to a clearly stated research
questions and uses standardized methods to determine and evaluate relevant research. However, it can also
 produce problems of prejudice especially when it is used to summarize claims or statements linking his or her
findings to a system of knowledge. Typically, it is a practice in the educational program or course requirement.

6. Theoretical review Theoretical review is a literature review in which the researcher introduces several theories
or concepts that are focused on a specific topic. It is particular on the theories and concepts being highlighted
on other researches and compares them to the current study basing on its framework, hypothesis, consistency,
and justification. The theoretical literature review aids in establishing the theories already existed, the
relationships of theories among various studies, the degree of its investigation, and the development of new
hypotheses.

Type of Sources for a Literature Review

In doing a literature review, researchers must be acquainted with the three (3) basic types of sources which are
the general references, primary and secondary sources. General references are sources in which a researcher
refers to tract down other sources. Primary sources are publications in which a researcher accounts the findings
of his or her investigations. Most primary sources are found in journal articles.Secondary sources are
publications in which a researcher considers the work of others (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2020).

Where can you find the review of related literature? As a researcher, you can find information about the
research studies in numerous formats such as books, scholarly journal articles, dissertations, government
documents, policy reports, and periodicals. Most researchers are also presenting their findings during meetings,
congress, and conventions of professional societies and organizations. According to Nueman (2011), you can
find related literature in:

1. Books Books convey many forms of information. The needed information here is from the books containing a
collection of research materials and articles. You can find citation information on them such as the title, author,
date, and publisher in the catalog system.

2. Scholarly Journals Scholarly journals may also be referred to as academic journals or peerreviewed journals.
They are filled with peer-reviewed information of research. Articles are written by a scholar in the field and the
researcher is always identified. List of the sources of the information like footnotes, endnotes, and bibliography
is always included. Typically, they contain an advanced terminologies since the researcher uses technical
language in their field of study. The researcher assumes that the reader has a background and basic
understanding in the field of research.

3. Dissertations Dissertation is a final requirement for the degree of doctor of philosophy (Ph.D.) in which the
student or researcher has to complete a work of original research. Some dissertations are eventually published
as books or articles which take into account their findings and contribution to the academic discipline. Since
dissertations are original researches, they can be a source of valuable information.

4. Government Documents Most of the government agencies around the world support research undertakings
and publish the findings of the study. Government documents are usually kept at the government and some
school libraries. These documents are rarely found in the catalog system. Assistance from the librarian is
needed for you to be able to locate these documents since it is considered as specialized publications.

5. Policy Reports and Presented Papers Policy reports are also a source of information in literature review.
Policy papers are not like the typical research papers. Usually they are discussed to non-academic readers. They
may initiate by identifying an issue or phenomenon that usually claim an answer and they are focused on being
persuasive. Moreover, policy papers are written proficiently and most of the readers do not want to read a book
due to limited time. Generally, they are supplemented by policy briefs which summarize the papers.

6. Periodicals Periodicals are findings of the study which can be seen in newspapers, in popular magazines, on
television or radio broadcasts, and in Internet news summaries. They are the chosen edited summaries done by
journalists for the general readers. They are deficient in numerous vital details that are require to critically
evaluate the study. Therefore, it is essential to supplement these information with other sources.

Steps in Writing Literature Review Transcribed from the video presentation: https://bit.ly/3b12Q4b

1. Find/Search for the Relevant Literature There are many ways on how to find relevant research studies. You
may use the following: a. Search engines to facilitate your information inquiry. Make sure that they are
reliable. b. University online library c. Snowballing d. Related dissertations
2. Log, Catalogue and Synthesize After searching and gathering the different relevant studies, you need to
arrange them in order for you to organize them easily. a. Log the reference information. You may use
reference management software. b. Catalogue all relevant articles. You may use excel so that it will be
organize and systematic. You can make your own template so that you will be efficient. c. Digest and
synthesize. Organize the different ideas from different sources. Arrange them according to the criteria that
 you made in your excel template. This would make the connections of the different studies easier to
identify.
3. Outlining and Writing Up In-depth planning and enough time should be given importance during this period
since you will need to concentrate and have focus in writing up your paper.
a. Draw up your outline. You need to make an outline first for the structuring of your literature review.
Thorough reading and understanding should be done for you to be able to plan and structure the ideas from
your different sources. You can use the different approaches like chronological, thematic, theoretical, etc.
b. Write it up. After formulating the outline, you can now begin writing your first draft. It is expected that
your first draft is still rough. Your second draft involves tightening up and improving the flow. There would
be several drafts needed for your paper to be polished.
c. Recap. When you are finish with your paper, have it read by others who are qualified (expert in the field)
for further improvements. Comprehend and incorporate their corrections and suggestions for the
betterment of your study. It is so much better if there will be more qualified people that can proof-read
your paper.

In-text Citation and Referencing Styles Source: https://bit.ly/3pyM8gb

Citation is a reference to a literature being used in your study. It is a way of giving acknowledgement to the
authors whom you have referred their intellectual works and creativity as a support or foundation of your
research. Typically, citations include author’s name, date, publisher information, journal information and/or
DOI (Digital Objective Identifier) if present (Literature Review: Citation Styles, nd).

From the name itself, an in-text citation is a reference made within the body of text in the paper. It leads
the reader to a source where a particular information has been taken of. An in-text citation should be
reflected when you refer, paraphrase, summarize, or quote from another author. A corresponding
reference list must be provided at the end of the study as references or bibliography.

A reference typically includes only the sources that you have mentioned or cited intext in your paper, while
a bibliography is generally a list of all the sources you use to generate your ideas about your research even if
you have not mentioned or cited them in your paper. There are different citing and referencing styles that
are being used depending on the specific requirements of different filed of disciplines. Please refer to your
Practical Research 1 (PR1).