Kalinga State University

College of Engineering and Information Technology

Bulanao Campus, Tabuk City, Kalinga Province

Research Daily Life 2

Quantitative Research Lecture notes

(Activity and requirements are found at the end of this lecture notres)

Teacher:

ZORAYDA C. GAVINO
 Research in Daily Life 2: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD

Quantitative Research : is a systematic scientific investigation of data and their relationships.

- designs are structurally scientific methods, utilizing deductive reasoning in
forms of hypotheses
- the outcomes measured in a quantitative research design are factual and
based on data-driven information from specific measurement
instrument(s) rather than from perceptions.

Overview of Quantitative Research

In a quantitative research design, the researcher poses several hypotheses to analyze the
cause and effects of specific variables in order to predict and explain certain phenomenon (Crewell,
2009).Designs are structurally scientific methods, utilizing deductive reasoning in forms of
hypotheses (Price & Oswald, 2009).

 The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical

models, theories and hypotheses pertaining to natural phenomenon.
 Measuring is the key in quantitative research because it shows the relationship
between data and observation.

Characteristics of Research

1. Empirical - Research based on direct experience or observation by the researcher.

2. Logical - Research is based on valid procedure and principles.
3. Cyclical - Research is a cyclical process because it starts with a problem and ends with problem.
4. Analytical – Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering data, whether historical,
descriptive, experimental and case study.
5. Critical – Research exhibits careful and precise judgment.
6. Methodical – Research is conducted in a methodical manner without bias using systematic
method and procedures.
7. Replicability – The research design and procedures are replicated or repeated to enable the
researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative Research:

Strengths:
 Testing and validating already constructed theories about how and why phenomena occur.
 Testing hypotheses that are constructed before the data are collected
 Can generalize research findings when the data are based on random samples of sufficient
size
 Can generalize a research finding when it has been replicated on many different populations
and subpopulations
 Useful for obtaining data that allow quantitative predictions to be made
 The researcher may construct a situation that eliminates the confounding influence of many
Of many variables, allowing one to more credibly established cause-effect relationships
 Data collection using some quantitative methods is relatively quick
 Provides precise, quantitative, numerical data
 Data analysis is relatively less time consuming (using of statistical software).
  The research results are relatively independent of the researcher (e.g. statistical
significance)
 It may have higher credibility with many influential people (e.g. administrators, politicians,
people who fund programs).
 It is useful for studying large population of people

Weaknesses:
 The researchers categories that are used might not reflect local constituencies’
understandings
 The researcher’s theories that are might not reflect local constituencies’ understandings
 The researcher might miss out on phenomenon occurring because of the focus on theory or
hypothesis testing rather than on theory or hypothesis generation ( called the confirmation
bias)
 Knowledge produced might be too abstract and general for direct application to specific
local situations, contexts, and individuals

Types of Research

1. Basic Research – This is also called “fundamental research” or “pure research.” Seeks to discover
basic truths or principles. Example: Boyle’s Law, Charles’ Law, Archimedes’ Principle, Hooke’s Law,
Newton’s Law.

2. Applied Research – This type of research involves seeking new applications of scientific
knowledge to the solution of a problem, such as a development of a new system or procedure, new
device, or new method in order to solve the problem.

3. Developmental Research - This is a decision-oriented research involving the application of the

steps of the scientific method in response to an immediate need to improve existing practices.

Classification of Research:

1. Library Research – this is done in the library where answers to specific questions or problems of
the study are available.
2. Field Research – Research is conducted in a natural setting.
3. Laboratory Research – The research is conducted in artificial or controlled condition by isolating
the study in a thoroughly specified area.

Importance of Quantitative Research across the Fields

(different samples of research in different areas of interests)

The Art Disciplines

- consist of different fields of fine arts and liberal arts including painting, music, film, classic literature
and music among the most popular ones on which research is conducted.
- Researcher can use empirical approach to conduct surveys of public opinion; conversely he can use
the non-empirical approach to perform analysis on application and theory of literature, music etc.

The Science Discipline

- this include medicine, mechanics, physics, and cellular Biology are just a few science on which
researchers use the empirical modes to perform first hand research both in the field as well as in the
laboratory. Applications of these areas of sciences are endless and apt for students who prefer to
spend time in labs.
The Discipline of Philosophy

- It does not have much application in the practical field, yet a person can create a theoretical
dissertation based on analytical thinking, metaphysical interpretation and several hours of readings.
Students. Who prefer to stay hours on end in a library is suitable for research in this field.

The Discipline of History

- Opportunities for a dissertation in this subject are spread far and wide. Student can create a
dissertation through the theoretical approach of compiling data from archives, public courthouses
and from societies of history. For practical approach, student can participate in archeological
expeditions or interview participants of past battles. Possibilities for this area in dissertation writing
are endless.

The Discipline of Humanities

- the study of this area might start with researching in the library, but its practical applications are
not limited to it. A student has the opportunity to go out in the field and observe the different
cultures and societies, interview people and compile case studies from real life experience.

Two Types of Research which can be done to develop a research:

Practical Research – approach consists of the empirical study of the topic under research and chiefly
consists of hands on approach. Involves first hand research in the form of questionnaires, surveys,
interviews, observations and group discussion

Theoretical Research – A non-empirical approach to research, this usually involves perusal of mostly
published works like researching through archives of public libraries, court rooms and published
academic journals.

Differentiate Kinds of variables and their Uses

VARIABLES
- These are properties or characteristics of people or things that vary in quality or magnitude
from person to person or object to object (Miller & Nicholson, 1976).
 Demographic characteristics
 Personality traits
 Communication styles or competencies
 Constructs
- In order to be a variable, a variable must vary, it must take on different values, levels,
intensities, or states

Independent variable
 The variable that is manipulated either by the researcher or by nature or circumstance
 Independent variables are also called “stimulus” “input” or “predictor” variables
 Analogous to the “cause” in a cause-effect relationship
 “Operationalization" of the independent variable
 Operationalization: translating an abstract concept into a tangible, observable form in an
experiment.
  Operationalization can include:
- Variations in stimulus conditions (public schools versus home schooling)
- Variations in levels or degrees (mild vs. moderate vs. strong fear appeals)
- Variations based on standardized scales or diagnostic instruments (low vs. high self-
esteem scores)
- Variations in “intact” or “self- selected” groups (smokers vs. non-smokers)

Dependent Variable
 A variable that is observed or measured, and that is influenced or changed by the
independent variable
 Dependent variables are also known as “response” or “output” or “criterion” variables
 Analogous to the “effect” is a cause-effect relationship
 Confounding variable
 Also known as extraneous variables or intervening variables
 Alternate causal factors or contributory factors which unintentionally influence the
results of an experiment, but are not the subject of the study
 Mediating variable
 Also known as moderating, intervening , intermediary, or mediating variables
 A 2nd or 3rd variable that can increase or decrease the relationship between an
independent and a dependent variable.
 For example, whether listeners are persuaded more by the quality or quantity of
arguments is moderated by their degree of involvement in an issue.
 Interchangeability of independent and dependent variables.
 The same concept or construct could serve as the independent variable in one
investigation, and the dependent in another

Variables and Unit of Analysis

 According to Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias (2008), “the variable whose changes the
researcher wishes to explain is known as the dependent variable, while the variable the
researcher thinks induces or explains the change is the independent variable.

Three types of measures in quantitative research designs:

1. Nominal
Example of nominal measures:
01 = female
02 = male
2. Ordinal
Example of ordinal measures:
College Education
1 = College courses taken
2 = Associates Degree conferred
3 = Bachelor’s Degree conferred
4 = Master’s Degree conferred
5 = Doctoral Degree conferred
3. Interval
Example of Intervals
Test Scores:
A = 90 – 100%
B = 80 – 89%
 C = 75 – 79%
D = 70-74%
F = 69% and below

KEY POINTS: Importance and Purpose of Research

(simple reason why we conduct research)
 To solve problems
 To make a sound decision; is very vital to our everyday decision making
 To obtain academic degrees
 To unveil the truth
 To acquaint with the facts/happening
 To find out causal/underlying relationships

The Research Process:

Research Steps within the Scientific Method of Inquiry

Step
1. Identify the problem or question
2. Review the literature
3. Clarify the problem or question
4. Clearly define terms and concepts
5. Define the population
6. Develop the instrumentation plan
7. collect data
8. Analyze the data
Example
Childhood Obesity
Look for similar studies that have been conducted
The purpose of the study is to determine if walking
10,000 steps a day for three days a week improves a
person’s health.
This is done so that the readers understand exactly
what each term means
Children who are 10 to 12 years old
Data will be collected on the variables at the beginning
of the program and at the conclusion of the study
Collect the data on the specified variables at the first
and last session of the program
Compare data gathered from each participant. The first
measurements are compared to the second
measurements to see if there are difference. Report if
the results and the differences if there are any.

Ethics of Research:
 Ethical considerations are to the fore with the development of new technologies and the
new social systems.
 Society is inherently conservative and seeks to set the limits of research activity.

Ethical Issues:
 Justification for the research
 Access to participants/Privacy
 Informed consent
 Potential harm

The Scope of research ethics:

 Ethical considerations cover all aspect of research but they are fore-grounded when the
subject of the research are humans or animals
 Research involving human subjects in the Medical, social and Behavioral Sciences poses
complex ethical issues
  It requires careful thought and consideration on the part of both researchers and research
participants
 Prospective participants must be given adequate information on both the possible risks and
the potential benefits of their involvement to allow them to make informed decisions

Quantitative Research and its Importance in Daily Life

Quantitative Research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of social phenomenon via
statistical, mathematical or numerical data or computational techniques Given, 2008).
- is about asking people for their opinions in a structured way so that we can produce hard facts and
statistics for guidance.
- to get reliable statistical results, It is important to survey people in fairly large number and to make
sure they are a representative sample of our target market.

Quantitative Research Method

Experimental and Non experimental Research

- The basic building blocks of quantitative research are variables.
- Variables – (something that takes on different values or categories) are the opposite of constants
(something that cannot vary, such as a single value or category of a variable).

Example of quantitative Variable

Variable Type Key Characteristics example

Level of Measurement

Categorical Variable A variable that is made up The variable gender is made up

of different types or cate- of the categories of male and
gories of a phenomenon female.

Quantitative a variable that varies The variable annual income

Variable in degree or amount of a varies from zero income to a very
phenomenon high income level.

Role Taken by the Variable

Independent Variable a variable that is presumed Amount of studying affects test

(symbolized as IV) to cause changes to occur in grades (DV).
another variable, a causal
variable

Dependent Variable A variable that changes Amount of studying (IV) affects

(symbolized as DV) because of another variable, test grades (DV).
the effect or outcome variable.

Mediating Variable A variable that comes in Amount of studying (IV) leads to

(it is also called an between other variables, input and organization of
Intervening variable) helps to delineate the process knowledge in long-term memory
through which variables affect (mediating variables), which
one another affects test grades (DV).
Moderator Variable a variable that delineates
How a relationship of interest
Perhaps the relationship
between studying and test
grades changes according to the
different levels of use of a drug
such as Ritalin (moderator).

Two Major Types of Quantitative Research

Experimental Research
- the purpose is to study cause and effect relationships.
- its defining characteristics is active manipulation of an independent variable (i.e., it is only in
experimental research that “manipulation” is present). Also, random assignment (which creates
“equivalent” groups) is used in the strongest experimental research designs.

Example of an experiment:
Pretest Treatment Posttest
01 XE O2
01 XC O2
Where:
 E stands for the experimental group (e.g., new teaching approach)
 C stands for the control or comparison group (e.g., the old or standard teaching approach)

Because the best way to make the two groups similar in the above research design is to randomly
assign the participants to the experimental and control groups, let’s assume that assume that we
have a convenience sample of 50 people and that we randomly assign them to the two groups in our
experiment.

Non-Experimental Research
- The defining characteristic of experimental research is manipulation of the IV. In non-experimental
research there is no manipulation of the independent variable. There is no random assignment of
participants to groups
 What this means is that if you ever see a relationship between two variables in non-
experimental research you cannot jump to a conclusion of cause and effect because
there will be too many other alternative explanations for the relationship.
-Example: Gender (IV) and class performance (DV)
- You would look for the relationship by comparing the male and female
average performance levels.

Research Problem and Topic

 Research problem is an educational issue or problem in the study.
 Research topic is a detailed and insightful analysis of a research problem. It should not be
more than 50 letters.
 Research topic reflects three components:
1. The independent variable
2. The dependent variable
3. The population under study
 The dependent variable is the problem variable while the independent variable is that
whose influence to the problem variable is to be established, which brings desirable changes
on the dependent variable.
  1 Introduction
 The main purpose is to provide the necessary background or context for the
research problem. How to frame the research problem is perhaps the biggest
problem in proposal writing.
 2 Background to the Problem
 Place the problem under the study in a historical, sociological traditional or cultural
perspective and see if the problem have any history, does it have any cultural,
sociological root in the tradition or culture of the population under study.
 3 Statement of the Problem
 The researcher analyzes the problem to which is trying to contribute a solution
through their research.
 The problem statement itself is just one sentence, it is always accompanied by
several paragraphs that elaborate on the problem and arguments why the problem
is important enough to study.
 4 Purpose of the study
 The purpose the study is for getting solution of a problem. It tells the major
objective of the study.
 5 Research Questions
 Research questions are those that the researcher would answer or address in the
study.
 Research questions should be clear, concise, and as simple as possible, focused and
empirically answerable.
 They should not be questions that require a yes or no answer. They should be
framed to provide the guide for the conduct.
 6 Statement of the Hypotheses
 It is a logical guess. It provides an explanation for a phenomenon under investigation
 7 significance of the Study
 What contributions do you think your study intend to make to the advancement of
knowledge
 What are the intrinsic and extrinsic benefits of the study?
 What is the potential usefulness of the findings of the study?
 8 Assumptions
 Assumptions are not testable but are statements about observations and
experiences related to the study that are assumed to be true
 They are statements that help to remove/reduce doubts on the validity of the study
and are accepted in faith, or taken to be true without proof or verification.
 Delimitation
 Set the delimitation or boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a
clear focus.
 Definition of Terms
 List and define conceptually unusual terms to avoid misinterpretations particularly
where they have different meanings.

OUTCOMES BASED OUTPUT:

- Create a research proposal with topic and format

Based from these guidelines: Writing A Research Proposal Title

- Should be short sharp, and describe what your research is about: it may also be working title that
you will revise as your project develops.
Abstract
- Write 200-250 word summary of the proposed research, including the key points: what, why, how
and when. Include a brief description of the aims of the study, the research population of subject
matter, the methods to be used and the time frame. Indicate also why this research is needed, and
its uses. (This will be the last thing you write)

Aims & Objectives

- This section answers the question why this research is being done. Outline the aims and objectives
of the research questions. Define any specialized terms you may use and indicate why the aims and
objectives are appropriate.

Timespan
- Prepare a brief breakdown of how long the study is expected to take, and its various stages .
Consider such items as:
Any further planning and approvals
Ethical approval
Literature search and review
Pretests or pilot trials
Collection of data
Analysis/synthesis of data
Writing up: including drafts and revisions
You may also wish to indicate further stages such as dissemination of information,
participation in policy formation etc.

Background
There are two aspects:
1. Who is undertaking this research and for whom (where applicable)? Why choose this topic?
Who is going to gain from this research?
2. Write a brief history of the research question, indicating other work in the field and a
summary of previous conclusions. Include a brief literature review indicating where you
gained your information and any personal references such as discussions with people,
conference papers, policy documents, memos, etc. This section sets your proposal within the
wider context.

Research Design
This section sets out the theoretical concepts that have been chosen from the literature review as
the basis for developing and carrying out the project. It answers the question, why is it being done in
this particular way? Indicate the general steps of the project and justify them using the literature to
argue for the appropriateness of the particular methods you have chosen. You may also wish to
briefly describe the ideal approach and why you have chosen to deviate from this.

Methodology
This is where you set out the details of the specific methodologies and techniques you will use.
Consider the following:
How is the study to be done?
What are your sources of data?
What data will be collected?
What kind of methods and instruments will be used for data collection?
Who is included (excluded) from your research population or sample and why?
How to intend to ensure reliability and validity?
In what contexts will your results be interpreted and understood?
The methodology section is not a repetition of the Design section. The latter gives a broad overview,
while the former deals with the practical specifics, of what, how, who, and where.

Significance
This is where you state the anticipated outcomes of the project in relation to theory, practice, social
policy, and personal learning.

Costing
Estimate the actual costs to you for doing the research, such as;

Bibliography
List all the books, journal articles, reports, Acts, and submissions that you have referred to in your
proposal, in alphabetical order.

Learning from others and Reviewing the Literature

A literature review
 Surveys scholarly articles, books and other sources (e.g. dissertations, conference
proceedings) relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory.
 Provide a short description and critical evaluation of work critical to the topic.
 Offers an overview of significant literature published on a topic. (Lyons,2005)

Literature Reviews are conducted for various reasons:

1. For a review paper
2. For the introduction (and discussion) of a research paper, master’s thesis or dissertation
3. To embark on a new area of research
4. For a research proposal

Conducting a literature review will help you:

 Determine if proposed research is actually needed.
- Even if similar research published, researchers might suggest a need for similar
studies or replication.
 Narrow down a problem
- It can be overwhelming getting into the literature of a field of study. A literature
review can help you understand where you need to focus your efforts.
 Generate hypotheses or questions for further studies.
 Background knowledge of the field of inquiry
- Facts, eminent scholars, parameters of the field, the most important ideas, theories,
Questions, and hypotheses
 Knowledge of the methodologies common to the field and a feeling for their usefulness and
appropriateness in various settings.

Outline of Review Process

 Formulate a problem – which topic or field is being examined and what are its component
issues?
 Search the literature for materials relevant to the subject being explored.
 Searching the literature involves reading and refining your problem.
  EVALUATE the DATA – determine which literature makes a significant contribution to the
understanding of the topic
 ANALYZE and INTERPRET – discuss the findings and conclusions of pertinent literature
 FORMAT and CREATE BIBLIOGRAPHY

How to Write a Literature Review

 Process of Review Development
Formulate a problem

Search

Refine topic

Analyze

Construct Review

Tips on Formulating a Problem

 Select a topic you are interested in
You want to be fascinated throughout the process and less likely to lose motivation.
 Choose a topic with a feasible focus.
Keep the focus clear and defined and it will be easier to complete than something huge like
“headaches”
 You may want to start out with a general idea, review the literature of the area, and then
refine your problem based on what you have found.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
 Introduction
Its about how are you going to arrange the materials in it. Here the researcher present
and critically analyze the empirical experiences of other researchers who had tried to contribute
solution to problems similar or related to his/her problem.

 Literature Review
The research framework is built on previous literature and strengthened with new and
emerging knowledge.

 Reviewing Literature
The most important skill for efficient review of literature is the ability to read fast,
comprehend and summarize material quickly and put it in a form that can easily be retrieved
and used in the future.

 Summary of Literature Reviewed and Justification of the Study

- Provide a comprehension summary of the reviewed materials. How you are going to
use them in your study. What is the place of the reviewed materials in your study.
- State the gaps, inconsistencies, inadequacies or deficiencies in existing literature
which are trying to fill or correct through study.
Cites related literature using standard style
 APA ( American Psychological Association) style for literature reviews

Citation in the Text

ONE WORK BY SINGLE AUTHOR:

Smith (1993) compared reaction times
In a recent study of reaction times it was found that (Smith, 1993)
In 1993, Smith compared reaction times

ONE WORK BY THREE OR MORE

Cite all authors the first time the reference occurs; in subsequent citations include only the
surname of the first author followed by “et al.” ( not underlined and with no period after
“et”) and the year.

Citations apart of the text, use and, when citing in parentheses use & symbol.
Williams, Jones, Smith, Bradner, and Torringon (1984) found (first citation)
Researchers (Williams, Jones, Smith, Bradner &Torringon, 1984) found (first citation)
Williams et al. (1983) found (subsequent citation)

CITING MULTIPLE ARTICLES AT ONE TIME

Separate two more citations with semicolon, and list in alphabetical order. Several studies
have shown that monozygotic twins (identical twins) tend to be more similar than dizygotic
twins (fraternal twins) on this dimension (Dunn & Plomin, 198; Plomin, DeFries, & Fulker,
1988)

INCLUDING A PAGE NUMBER WHEN YOU ARE GOING TO QUOTE

As Rose (199) staed how genetic effects are modulated (p. 27).
Temperament, defined as constitutionally based individual differences in reactivity and
selfregulation (Rothbart & ahadi, 1994, p. 55).

REFERENCING A STUDY READ IN ANOTHER SOURCE

You should attempt to obtain any study that you are referencing, as descriptions of studies
may be interpreted differently person to person. In the case that you are unable (or do not
need) to get the original source, then the citation should include both sources (one referring
was found).

Example: Consequently, experts can devote more working memory capacity to using
recalled information to reason and solve problems (Bjorklund & Douglas, 1997), as cited in
Berk, 2003). In the references you would only list Berk, 2003, not the original paper.

References at the end of the paper

Arrange entries in alphabetical order by last name of the first author.
General format: Author: last name, first initial (year). Title. Journal, issue, pages.
Use a hanging indent for 2nd line of reference (format>paragraph>Special select hanging).

When your reference list contains multiple works by the same author:
 Single author entries precede multiple author entries beginning with the same last
name.
  References with the same first author and different second or third authors are
arranged alphabetically by the last name of the second author, etc.
 References with the same authors in the same order are arranged by year of
publication, earliest first.

Examples of References

JOURNAL ARTICLE, ONE AUTHOR

Baumrind, D. (1967). Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool
behavior
Genetic Psychology Monographs, 7 (1), 43-88.

JOURNAL ARTICLE, MULTIPLE AUTHORS

Ahadi, S. A., Rothbart, M. K., & Ye, R. (1993). Children’s temperament in the US and
China: Similarities and differences. European Journal of Personality, 7(5), 359-377.

ENTIRE BOOK
Harris, J. R. (1998). The nurture Assumption: Why children turn out the way they do.
New York: The Free Press.

ARTICLE OR CHAPTER IN EDITED BOOK

LeVine, R.A. (1988). Human parental care: Universal goals, cultural strategies,
individual behavior. In R.A. LeVine & P. M. Miller & M. M. West (Eds.), Parental
behavior in diverse :societies (pp. 3-12). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

WEBSITE
Try to use the format above with the information available on the website. If you do
not have an author, use website name at the beginning.
Example:
Babycenter.com (2007). Back up childcare plans.
https://www.babycenter.com/refcap/baby/babychildcare/4938.html

Write a Synthesis of Related Literature

The related literature section is not a list of article summaries. It be a flowing, well-structured
narrative that begins with variables you established in your problem and ends with a question
begging to be answered.

Study each key word grouping. How do the various authors define and use the concept? Do they
speak for or against the concept? Can you group the authors by differing opinions concerning the
concept? Write out, in narrative form, a clear description of how these authors use this particular
concept.

Once each of the key word groupings have been analyzed and refined into a narrative, determine
what order the key word narratives should take in the Related Literature section.

Writing Coherent review of literature:

A literature review summarizes, interprets, and critically evaluates existing “literature” (or published
material) in order to establish current knowledge of a subject. The purpose for doing so relates to
establish the need for additional research, and/or define a topic of inquiry. The purpose of a
literature review is to establish current knowledge on an aspect that relates to legal and ethical
issues within the practices of professional nursing. The literature review is a “stand-alone” review.
What format should I use? A literature review is an aspect of formal academic writing so include:
introduction, body, and conclusion.

In the Introduction
Define or identify the general topic, issue, or area of concern, thus providing an appropriate context
for reviewing the literature. Point out overall trends in what has been published about the topic; or
conflicts in theory, methodology, evidence and conclusions; or gaps in research and scholarship; or a
single problem or new perspective of immediate interest. Establish the writer’s reason (point of
view) for reviewing the literature; explain the criteria to be used in analyzing and comparing
literature and the organization of the review (sequence); and, when necessary, state why certain
literature is or is not included (scope).

In the Body
Group research studies and other types of literature (reviews, theoretical articles, case studies, etc.)
according to common denominations such as qualitative versus quantitative approaches,
conclusions of authors, specific purpose or objective, chronology, etc. summarize individual studies
or articles with as much or as little details as each merits according to its comparative importance in
the literature, remembering that space (length) denotes significance.

Provide the reader with strong “umbrella” sentences at the beginning of paragraphs, “signposts”
throughout, and brief “so what” summary sentences at intermediate points in the review to aid in
understanding comparisons and analysis.

In the conclusion
Summarize major contributions of significant studies and articles to the body of knowledge under
review, maintaining the focus established in the introduction. Evaluate the current “state of the art”
for the body of knowledge reviewed, pointing out major methodological flaws or gaps in research,
inconsistencies in theory and findings, and areas of issues pertinent to future study. Conclude by
providing some insight into the relationship between the central topic of the literature review and a
larger area of study such as a discipline, a scientific endeavor, or a profession

Questions a literature review will try to answer

1. What do we know about the area of inquiry?
2. What are the relationships between key concepts, factors, variables?
3. What are the current theories?
4. What are the inconsistencies and other shortcoming?
5. What needs further testing because evidence is lacking, inconclusive, contradictory, limited?
6. What designs or methods are faulty?
7. Why study this question further?
8. What contribution will your work make?

Ethical standard in writing related literature

Fostering scientific advancement requires strict adherence to ethical guidelines for research and
scientific writing. The benefits of research can only be realized if results of investigations are
publishes in the literature for others to replicate and expand upon. Fostering scientific advancement
requires strict adherence to ethical guidelines for research and scientific writing of investigations are
publishes in the literature for others to replicate and expand upon. Fostering scientific advancement
requires strict adherence to ethical guidelines for research and scientific writing. Here, we discuss
two issues related to ethics in scientific writing: plagiarism and authorship. Violations of the ethical
principles associated with these issues are considered as scientific misconduct.
Theoretical framework and Conceptual Model Development
A theoretical framework specifies which key variables influence a phenomenon of interest and
therefore what variables to measure and the rationale for relationships between the variables. This
will inform what statistical relationships on which to focus the tests. Theory guides every aspect of
research, from formulation of research question through operationalization and discussion.
Research has two realms: the theory and observation. Theory is the scientific basis to explain an
observed phenomenon which the researcher applies to gain better understanding of the
phenomenon. On the other hand, observation is what occurs in the real world or measures.
Researchers conduct research on the basis of theory about what is observed.

A conceptual framework is an illustrated representation of an idea or body of knowledge based on

individual understanding of the relationships between the variables. The illustration shows the
variables and the hypothesized relationship between them.

Why Present theoretical Framework and conceptual Model in Research Project

It is to aid in explaining the underlying assumptions for relationships between the variables, choice
of model and to adequately specify the model parameters. They build upon existing knowledge and
relevant theory; forms basis for the hypotheses ands choice of research methods. Presenting these
allows for articulation basis for the hypotheses ands choice of research methods. Presenting these
allows for articulation of why and how questions beyond simply describing a phenomenon observed
to generalizing about various aspects of that phenomenon.

Researchers present these frameworks to identify the limits to the generalizations made. Their
presentation facilitates identification of variables likely to have most influence on the phenomenon
and how those variables might differ between the different populations.
.
Describing . Their presentation facilitates identification of variables likely to have most influence on
the phenomenon and how those variables might differ between the different populations.

Describing Theoretical Framework and Conceptual Model

Theoretical framework and conceptual framework model are related and complements
conceptualization of the research regarding the objectives, hypotheses and research questions, and
the independent and dependent variables. The theoretical basis is founded on known principles and
the variables from literature are used for developing theoretical framework and conceptual model.
Conceptual model is a mental illustration of how the variables are likely to relate to each other.

From literature and possibly consultation with experts, identify the theory that best explains the
relationships between the variable regarding the observed phenomenon and the relevant
assumptions. Theory is selected on the basis of how best it can explain the relationships among the
variables and should reflect a connection between the theoretical framework, conceptual
framework, operationalization and instrument.

UNDERSTANDING THE DATA

Quantitative Research Design

1. Exploratory - It is a good starting point sto get familiarized with some insights and ideas (e.g.
identify the dependent and independent variables)
2. Descriptive – the mapping out of circumstance, situation, or set of events (McNabb)
3. Casual – experimenting (statistically speaking) to assess cause and effect. For example whether or
not a P.A. program is achieving its objectives. Experiments in the social science take place “naturally”
(e.g. The Effectiveness of Homeland Security to respond to natural or anthropogenic hazards).
Measurement Fundamentals
 A key difference is that normal science deals with concepts that are well defined and to
great extent standardized measures (e.g. speed, distance, volume, weight, size etc.)
 On the contrary the social science often uses concepts that are ill defined and therefore the
standardization in terms of how it is measured varies or there is little agreement (e.g. social
class, development, poverty, etc.)
 Statistics cannot be used until we understand “the fundamental nature” of measurement
(McNabb) thus, our goal is that our measurement of the different concepts are valid or
match as much as possible the “real” world

What is a concept?
 A mental construct that represents phenomena in the real world. (Pollock 2005:7)
 The challenge is to transform concepts into concrete terms (preferable that can be
measured)

Units of Analysis
 Individuals
 People
 Places
 Groups
 Institutions
 Nations
 Programs

The relationship of the values that are assigned to the attributes for a variable

Variable Development

Attribute Low Medium High

Values 1 2 3

Relationship

The Levels of Measurement

 Nominal: These variables consist of categories that are non-ordered. For example, race or
ethnicity is one variable used to classify people.
 Ordinal: These variables are also categorical, but we can say that some categories are
higher than others. For example, income tax brackets, social class, levels of education etc.
 Interval: Variables of this type are called scalar or index variables in the sense they provide a
scale or index that allows us to measure between levels. We can not only measure which is
higher or lower, but how much so.
 Ratio: Similar to interval level variables in that it can measure the distance between two
points, but can do so in absolute terms. For example, one can say that someone is twice as
 rich as someone else based on the value of their assets since to have money is based on a
starting point of zero.

Sampling Procedure
Describe the sampling procedure that you used to select the sample from the population. Be explicit,
Do not just say “simple random sampling was done.”

The sample
Describe the resulting sample in details in details in terms of each level of the independent variables
implied in the study. Describe, if possible, the sample to-population ratio. Evaluate this ratio in terms
of the anticipated or desirable precision of your study.

Instrumentation
What instrument are you going to use to collect your data for the study. If the instrument to be
used is constructed by you, describe clearly, with accurate details, how the set of items designed to
illicit responses for each variable were constructed, or how you came by the set of items
 Instrument - a tool used to collect data
 Test – a formal, systematic procedure for gathering information
 Assessment – the general process of collecting, synthesizing, and interpreting information.
 Measurement – the process of quantifying or scoring a subject’s performance

What about Validity?

 Stability to which that items represent the larger domain
 Evidence based on the contrasting groups
 Whether groups that should be different are different
 Examine the difference between the groups
 Evidence based on response processes
 Examine the respondent explanations and response patterns
 Evidence based on internal structure
 Extent of the items measuring the same trait
 Evidence based on relationships to other variables
 Correlate the measures of other measures of the same trait and the measures of different
traits
 Validity implies proper interpretation
 Trust study – make generalizations from other studies
 NB INFERENCES ARE VALID NOT INSTRUMENTS

What about Reliability?

 Stability
Consistency of stable characteristics over time
Administer the same test to the same individuals over time
 Equivalence and stability
Comparability of two measure of the same trait given at the same time and administer
different forms to the same individuals at the same time (at about)
 Internal consistency
Split half, KR, Cronbach alpha, Comparability of halves of a measure to assess a single trait or
dimension, administer one test and correlate the items to each other
 Agreement
Consistency of ratings or observations
Two or more people rate or observe
Data Collection
 How the research data been collected and under what conditions?
 What special precautions, instructions did you take or give during the administration of the
instrument or review during the observation to minimize the data-collector effect on the
result of the data collection procedure?

Finding Answers Through Data Collection and Analyzing the Meaning of Data and Drawing
Conclusions

Ethical Consideration
 What type of Ethical considerations and how does each ethical issue likely to manifest during
the study.
 What are the consequences of each of these to the subject?
 What procedures have you put in place to address each of these issues and their probable
consequences. For example, what precautions and safeguards have you incorporated in the
study design to protect the rights of human subjects.

Data Preparation
Describe how you will score, in respect of each variable, the responses by the subjects to each item
of your data collection instrument.

Operational Definition of Research Variables

Give meaning of your variables by spelling out what you did and how you did it to measure or
manipulate it. This can be through experimentation or through measurement.

Procedure for Testing Hypotheses: or Answering Research Questions

Introduction
Data analysis is a means of determining and testing for the extent of convergence, commonality or
divergence among data collected during the study, and hence the relationship among variables in
these data.

General Description of Data

 Give a general descriptive analysis including the number of cases, mean and standard
deviation for each dependent variable given each of the independent variables in your study
 This is a descriptive summary of the data and should be presented in tabular and figural
forms.

Answering Research Questions

For those research questions that were not convertible to hypothesis answers, must sought through
descriptive analyses including determining the relationship among relevant variables. The results of
descriptive data analysis should be presented in appropriate tables and figures. Tables must be
numbered and given titles.

Summary of Findings
Summarize all the findings in a paragraph, and with it, prepare the reader’s mind for the ensuring
discussion of the findings that follows.

DISCUSSION, SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Discussion
 All discussions should be done in the light of the limitations to the study.
  Discussion is a means of ideas from the findings of study, the findings from the literature
reviewed, and from the theories that underlie the problem under consideration.

Implications
What are the implications of the findings of the study? What do the findings of the study suggest or
what do evidences from the study suggest. What are theoretical, practical and policy implications of
the findings of the study.

Conclusion
Conclusion serve two purposes: to summarize and bring together your thoughts.

Recommendations
Be very clear, specific and practical in your recommendations. Specifically, to whom are you
directing each recommendation?

Suggestions for Further Studies

What other related studies should be carried out in order to add to the contribution to the solution
to the problem.

In Quantitative Data Processing:

Quantitative data collected with questionnaires or other methods containing a structured
set of open and closed questions or observations are easier to process. Prior to processing the data,
variables which are being measured have to be listed.

Listing References

General Guidelines for Listing authors (print and online)

In APA style, all authors’ names are inverted (the last name comes first), and initials only are used
for all first and middle names.

NAME AND DATE CITED IN TEXT

Duncan (2008) has reported that …

BEGINNING OF ENTRY IN THE LIST OF REFERENCES

Duncan, B. (2008).

1. Single author

Egeland, J. (2008), A Billion Lives: An Eyewitness Report from the Frontlines of Humanity.
New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.

*Author’s name (family name + Initial of the first name of the author), year, title of
the book, place of publication, publisher)

2. Multiple Authors
List to seven authors by last names followed by initials. Use an ampersand (&) before the
name of the last author. If there are more than seven authors, list the first six followed by
three ellipsis dots and the last author’s name.

Musick., M. A., & Wilson, J. (2007). Volunteers: A social profile, Bloomington: Indiana
University Press.
 * Author’s name (family name + Initial of the first name of the author), year, title
of the book, c)

Diessner, R., Solom, R.C., Frost, N. K., Parsons,L., & Davidson, J. (2008). Engagement with
Beauty: Natural, Artistic, and Moral Beauty. The Journal of Psychology, 142, 303-329.
* Author’s name (family name + Initial of the first name of the author), year, title
of the topic, journal title, volume/page range)

Eight more Authors

Mullvaney, S. A., Mudasiru, E., Schlundt, D. G., BaA.ughman, C. L., Fleming, M.

VanderWoude, A., . . . Rothman, R. (2008). Self-management in Type 2 diabetes: The
Adolescent Perspective. The Diabetes Educator, 34, 118-127.

3. Organization as author

American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental

Disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

If the publisher is not the same as the author, give the publisher’s name as you would for
any other source.

4. Unknown author begin in the entry with the work’s title.

New concise world atlas, (2007). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Order in the jungle.
(2008, March 1). The Economist, 38(871), 83-85.
*title, year, place of publication, publisher, title of article, year and date, journal
title, number issue, page range)

5. Two or more works by the same author

Use the author’s name for all entries. List the entries by year, the earliest first.

Barry, P. (2007, December 8). Putting tumors on pause. Science News, 172, 365.
Barry, P. (2008, august 2). Finding the golden genes. Science News, 174, 1321.

6. Two or more works by the same author in the same year

List the works alphabetically by title. In the parentheses, following the year add “a,” “b,” and
so on.

Elkind, D. (2008a, Spring). Can we play? Greater Good, 4(4), 14-17.

Elkind, D. (2008b, June 27). The price of hurrying children [Web log post].
Retrieved from http://blogs/pscchologytoday.com/blog/digital-children

Articles in periodicals (print)

Periodical include scholarly journals, magazines, and newspapers. For a journal or a
magazine, give only the volume number if the publication is paginated continuously through
each volume; give the volume and issue numbers if each issue of the volume begins on page
1. Italize the volume number and put the issue number, not italicized, in parentheses.

7. Article in a journal
 Zhang, L,-F. (2008). Teacher’s styles of thinking: an exploratory study. The Journal of
Psychology, 142, 37-55.
* author, year, article title, journal title, volume, page range.

8. Article in a magazine Cite as journal article, but give the year and the month for monthly
magazines; add the day for the weekly magazines.

Mckibben, B. (2007,October). Carbon’s new math. National Geographic, 212(4), 32-37.

9. Article in a newspaper

Swoboda, E. (2008, October 21). Deep in the forest, stalking the next pandemic. The New
York Times, p.D5.
*Give the year, month, and day for daily and weekly newspaper. Use “p.” or “pp.” before
page numbers.

10. Article with three to seven authors

Ungar, M. Brown, M., Liebenberg,L., Othman, R., Kwong, W.M., Armstrong, M., & Gilgun, J.
(2007). Unique pathways to resilience across cultures. Adolescence, 42, 287-310.

11. Article with 8 or more authors

List the first six authors followed by three ellipsis dots and the last author.

Krippner, G., Granovetter, M., Block, F., Biggart, N., Beamish , T., Hsing, Y., . . . O’Rain, S.
(2004). Polanyi Symposium: A conversation on embeddedness. Socio Economic Review, 2,
109-135.

12. Abstract of a journal article

Lahm, K. (2008). Inmate-on-inmate assault: A multilevel examination of prison violence.

[Abstract]. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35(1), 120-137.

13. Letter to the editor

Letters to the editor appear in journals, magazines, and newspapers. Follow the appropriate
model and insert the words. “Letter to the editor” in brackets after the title of the letter. If
the letter has no title, use the bracketed words as the title.

Park, T. (2008, August). Defining the line [Letter to the editor]. Scientific American, 299(2),
10.

14. Editorial or other unsigned article

The global justice movement [Editorial]. (2005). Multinational Monitor, 28(7/8), 7.

15. Newsletter Article

Setting the stage for remembering. (2006, September). Mind, Mood, and Memory, 2(9), 4-5.

16. Review
 Give the author and the title of review (if any) and, in brackets, the type of work, the title,
and the author for a book or the year for a motion picture. If the dreview has no author or
title, use the material in brackets as the title.

Applebaum, A. (2008, February 14). A movie that matters [Review of the motion picture
Katyn,2007].

17. Basic format for a Book

Mckenzie, F. (2008): Theory and Practice with adolescents: An applied approach. Chicago, IL:
Lyceum Books.

18. Book with an author and an editor

Aronson, J., & Aronson E. (Eds.). (2008). Readings about the social animal (10 th ed.). New
York, NY: worth.

*The abbreviation “Eds.” Is for multiple editors. If the book has one editor, use “Ed.”

19. Book with an author and an editor

Mcluhan, M. (2003). Understanding me: Lectures and interviews (S. Mcluhan & D. Staine,
Eds.). Toronto, Ontario, Canada: McCtelland & Stewart.

20. Edition other than the first

O’Brien, J.A. (Ed.). (2007). The Production of Reality: Essays and readings on social
interaction (4th ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.

21. Introduction, preface, foreward, or an anthology

Gore, A. (2000). Foreword. In B. Katz (Ed.), Reflections on regionalism (pp.ixx). Washington,
DC:Brookings Institution Press.

22. Dictionary or other references

Leong, F.T.L. (Ed.). (2008). Encyclopedia of counseling (Vols. 1-4). Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage.

Online Resources

When citing an online article, include publication information as for a print periodical and
add information about the online version.
Online articles and books sometimes include a DOJ (digital object identifier). APA uses the
DOI, when available, in place of URL in reference list entries.
Uses a retrieval data for an online source only if the content is likely to change. Most of the
examples in this section do not show a retrieval date because the content of the sources is stable; if
you are unsure about whether to use a retrieval date, include the data or consult your instructor.
If you must break a DOI or a URL at the end of a line, break it after a double slash or before
any other mark or punctuation; do not add a hyphen. Do not put a period at the end of the entry.

23. Article in an online journal

Whitmeyer, J. M. (2000). Power through appointment. Social Science Research. 29, 434-555.
Doe:10,1006/ssre.2000.080

* If there is no DOI, include the URL for the journal’s home page.
 Ashe, D.D., & McCutcheon, L.E., (2001). Shyness, loneliness, and attitude toward celebrities.
Current Research in Social Psychology. 6, 124-133. Retrieved from
http://www.uiowa.edu/-grpproc/crip/crisp.html.
24. Article in an online magazine
Treat as an article in a print magazine (see item 8), adding whatever publication information
is available. Give the URL for the magazine’s home page.

Rupley, S. (2010, February 2). The myth of the benign monopoly. Salon Retrieved from
http://www.salon.com/

25. Article in an online newspaper

Treat an article in a print newspaper (see item 9), adding the URL for the newspaper’s home
page.

Watson, P. (2008, October 19). Biofuel boom endangers orangutan habitat. Los Angeles
Times. Retrieved from http://www.latimes.comm/

26. Article published only online

If an article a journal, magazine, or newspaper appears only online, give whatever
publication information is available in the source and add the description “Supplemental
material” in brackets following the article title.

Samuel, T. (2009, March 27). Mind the wage gap [Supplement material]. The American
Prospect. Retrieved from http://www.prospect.org/

27. Article from a database

Start with the publication information for the source (see item 7-16). If the data entry
includes a DOI for the article, use the DOI number at the end.

Eskritt, M. , & Mcleod K. (2008). Children note taking as mnemonic tool. Journal of
Experimental Child Psychology, 101, 42-74, doi: 10,1016/jecp.2008,007

If there is no DOI, include the URL for the home page of the Journal.

Howard, K. R. (2007). Childhood overweight: Parental perceptions and readiness for change.
The Journal of School Nursing ,23,73-79. Retrieved from http://jsn. Sagepub.com/

28. Abstract for an online article

Brockerhoff, E. G., Jactel, H., Parrotra, J.A., Quine, C.P., & Sayer, J. (2008). Plantation forests
and biodiversity: Oxymoron or opportunity? [Abstract]. Biodiversity and Conversation, 17,
925-91. Doi:10.1007/s1031-008-9380-X

29. Online Book

Adams, B. (2007). The theory of social revolutions. Retrieved from http://www.

Gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=44092 (Original work published 1913)

30. Chapter in an online book

Clinton, S. J. (2004). What can be done to prevent childhood Obesity? In Understanding
childhood Obesity (pp 81-98). Retrieved from http://www.questia.com
31. Online reference work
Swain, C.M. (2005). Sociology of affirmative action. In N.J. Smelser &P.B. Baltes (Eds.),
International encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences. Retrieved from
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/referenceworks/978008043078

Use a retrieval date only if the content of the work is likely to change.

32. Document from a Web site List as many of the following elements as are available: author’s
Name, publication date (or “n.d.” if there is no date), title (in italics), and URL. Give your
retrieval date only if the content of the source is likely to change.

Source with date

Cain, A., & Burris, M. (1999, April). Investigation of the use of mobile phones while driving.
Retrieved from http://www.cut.usf.edu/pdf/mobile_phone.PDF

Source with no date

Archer, D. (n.d.). Exploring nonverbal communication. Retrieved from

http:/nonverbal.ucsc.edu

Source with author

If a source has no author, begin with the title and follow it with the date in parentheses.

What causes Alzheimer’s disease? (2008). Retrieved from

http://www.memorystudy.org/alzheimers_causes.htm

33. Section in a Web document

National Institute on Media and the Family. (2009). Mobile networking. In Guide to social
networking:Risks Retrieved from http://www media
family.org/network_pdf/MediaWise_Guide_to_Social_Networking_Risks_09.pdf

34. Document from a university Web site or government agency Name the organization or
agency in your retrieval statement.
Format of finished Research (be guided with the content and format)

Republic of the Philippines

Kalinga State University
Bulanao, Tabuk City, Kalinga Province

Program Title/Project Title: Root Crops By-Products for the Millenium

Researchers:

Date Submitted:

Abstract:

The study was conducted to develop the blending of Taro (Colocasia Esculenta) and
sweet potato (Ipomoea Batatas) into polvoron. It aimed to find out formulation of blended
taro and sweet potato into polvoron and determine the acceptability using sensory
assessment. Three treatments were presented with different amount of taro and sweet potato
flour and keeping the amount of other ingredients constant. The panelists evaluated the
palatability, texture, flavor, moldability, and overall acceptability of the product.

The result as to palatability preference, treatment 1 (control) got the highest frequency
of 12 evaluated “very much palatable” and moldability preference with the highest frequency
of 16 evaluated “moderately molded.” Treatment 3 obtained the highest frequency of
preference of 14 evaluated “moderately smooth texture” and 15 who “like very much” the
flavor which is the highest frequency of preference. As to over-all acceptability, treatment 1
(control) and 3 both obtained the highest frequency of 14 described as “moderately like” the
mixtures of polvoron. However, Treatment 1 (control) got a better frequency as to over-all
acceptability.

The chi square (x2) revealed there are no significant differences among the treatments
as to palatability, flavor, and over-all acceptability with the computed F-value 8.22, 14.3, and
8.332 respectively lower than the critical value of 15.5 at 0.05 level of significance. As to
texture and moldability, there are significant differences among the treatments with the
computed F critical value of 24.4 and 21.6 respectively higher than the F critical value of
15.5 at 0.05 level of significance.

Keywords: Taro, Sweet Potato, by-products, food processing

I Introduction:

A. Background of the Study

B. Conceptual Framework
-Paradigm of the Study
C. Statement of the Problem
D. Objective of the Study
E. Scope and Delimitation of the Study

II Review of Literature

III Definition of Terms: (significant terms that you wanted to elaborate in the study define
how it is used in the study)
IV Methodology

A. Locale of the Study

B. Research Design
C. Respondents/Informants/research participants in the study
D. Instrumentation
E. Data Gathering
F. Data Analysis

V Results and Discussion:

VI Summary of Findings:

VII Conclusion:

VIII Recommendation

IX Literature Cited:

X Appendices

Requirements:

1. Completed Research (deadline is not later than May 20, 2020)

2. Activity to be done: Discuss vividly and intensely the parts of a Research

3. Answer the Final examination (Examination will be timed 1 hour and thirty minutes,
please take your exam not later than May 15, 20202, study the lecture notes before
taking the exam)