Machine Tool Technology

Machine Tool Technology
Dr. Vipindas K.
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
IIITDM Kurnool
24/02/21 Dr. Vipindas K, IIITDM Kurnool 1
Grinding
Machine

Contents
• Introduction
• Selection of Grinding wheel and its conditioning
• Classification of grinding wheel
• Specification of grinding wheel
• Types of abrasives
• Grit size
• Wheel grade
• Wheel structure or concentration
• Bond type
• Wheel conditioning
• Classification of grinding machines

introduction
• Grinding is the most common form of abrasive machining
• It is a material cutting process which engages an abrasive tool whose cutting
elements are grains of abrasive material known as grit
• The grits are held together by a suitable bonding material to give shape of an
abrasive tool

introduction

Major advantages and applications of grinding
Advantages
• Dimensional accuracy
• Good surface finish
• Good form and locational accuracy
• Applicable to both hardened and unhardened material
Applications
• Surface finishing
• Slitting and parting
• Descaling, deburring
• Achieve high stock removal in single pass (abrasive milling)
• Finishing of flat as well as cylindrical surface
• Grinding of tools and cutters and resharpening of the same
Basic principles of grinding operation
• Conventionally grinding is characterized
as low material removal process capable
of providing both high accuracy and high
finish.
• To remove material from hardened
workpiece where cutting tool is not capable
• Now grinding is considered to be
abrasive machining capable of high
material removal rate with high
accuracy and surface finish.
• Can remove material from ductile
materials. High stock removal under
lubricant free environment

Characteristics of grinding OR
How grinding is different from conventional machining process
• In grinding process cutting velocity is very high. This results in

• High strain rates,
• High specific energy and
• High temperature gradient
• Varied and irregular geometry of the grits
• Random orientation of the grit, which results in unknown rake angles

Grinding wheel and workpiece interaction
• Grinding wheel and workpiece interaction can be
divided into the following:
• Grit-workpiece (forming chip)
• Chip-bond
• Chip-work piece
• Bond-work piece
• Chip-grit
• From the above interactions, only 1st interaction
produces the chip and the remaining 4
interactions are undesirable. These interactions
result in increased grinding force and power
requirements.
• Hence, primary objective is maximize 1st
interaction and minimize other interactions

• Shape of the grit determines the
geometry of the grit (i.e. geometry of
the cutting point)
• In grinding, grit shape is random.
Hence, grit rake angle may vary
between highly +ve to highly –ve
• Grits with +ve rake angle would
produce chip, which is the favorable
condition.
• Grit with –ve rake angle may result in
rubbing of the tool or ploughing

• Grits with +ve rake angle would produce chip, which is the favorable condition.
• Grit with –ve rake angle may result in rubbing of the tool or ploughing

Effect of grinding velocity and rake angle of grit on
grinding force
• Why high cutting speed required for grinding? – Reason 1
Fig. Variation of grinding force with grinding velocity and rake angle of grit
Variation of critical grit depth of cut with grinding
velocity
• Why high cutting speed required for grinding? – Reason 2
Fig. Variation of critical grit depth of cut with grinding velocity

Selection of Grinding wheel and its conditioning
• Grinding is a chip removal process like milling
• In grinding abrasive grits are acting as cutting point and similar to the cutting
teeth as in the case of milling
• Grit size and shape are of irregular shape
• Grit should have
• High hardness
• High temperature stability
• Retention of sharpness at high temperature
• Grits are held between bonding material / cementing agent
• This cementing agent and grits form a composite structure
• This composite structure will be given required shape as per the requirement
Classification of grinding wheel
• Grinding wheels are classified based on the abrasive material used
Grinding wheels
Conventional Super abrasive

Specification of grinding wheel
• Grinding wheels can be specified by geometrical feature of the wheel or by
compositional specification of the wheel
•
Specification of wheels
Geometrical Compositional

Geometrical specification
• This specification specifies the wheel diameter, width and depth of rim and bore
diameter
• Diameter of the wheel can vary between less than a mm to 400 mm
• Width can be less than 1 mm for slicing applications
Standard wheel configuration for conventional grinding wheels

Compositional specifications
• This specification takes care of following parameters
• The type of grit material
• The grit size
• The bond strength of the wheel (known as wheel hardness)
• The structure of the wheel denoting the porosity (i.e. amount of inter grit space)
• The type of bond material

• A conventional grinding wheel is specified as given below
51 A 60 K 5 V 05
This number is manufacturer identification number exact kind of abrasive used

This letter denotes type of abrasive used. ‘A’ denotes that abrasive used is aluminium oxide. In case of silicon
carbide letter ‘C’ is used
This number represents the average grit size in inch mesh. For very large grit size this number will be as
small as 6. For fine grit this number will as high as 600
This letter denotes the hardness of the wheel, which means the amount of force required to pull
out a single bonded abrasive grit by bond fracture. The letter symbol can range between ‘A’ and
‘Z’, ‘A’ denotes soft grade and ‘Z’ denote hard grade
This number represents the structure or porosity of the wheel. This number can assume
any value between 1 and 20. ‘1’ indicates high porosity and 20 indicates low porosity
This letter represents the bond material used. Codes for bond materials used are V
(vitrified), B (resinoid), BF (resinoid reinforced), E (shellac), O (oxychloride), R
(rubber), RF (rubber reinforced), S (silicate)
This number is a wheel manufacturer’s identifier
• A super abrasive wheel is specified as given below

Selection of grinding wheel
Selection of grinding wheel depends on
• Physical and chemical characteristics of the work material
• There must be a chemical and physical compatibility between the workpiece material and
the grit material
• Grinding conditions
• Whether grinding is done at dry condition or with the application of grinding fluid
• Type of grinding (stock removal grinding or form finish grinding)
• Whether slicing
• Whether wide surface grinding
• Whether form finished grinding
• Whether ball grinding

Types of abrasives
Conventional abrasives
• Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3)
• Silicon Carbide (SiC)

Types of abrasives
Conventional abrasives
• Another classification Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3)

Types of abrasives
Silicon Carbide (SiC)
• Harder but less tough than Al2O3
• Not recommended for machining steel because of high reactivity of Si with Iron.
• However for Cast Iron (CI) SiC can be used as CI is saturated with Carbon and no migration
between Si and Fe . Also CI produces fragmented chips.

Types of abrasives
Superabrasives
• Diamond
• Cubic Boron Nitride (cBN)

Types of abrasives

Types of abrasives
Coated diamond grit
• Coating provided to enhance the
performance of the grit
• Grinding of cemented carbide
recommends dry grinding in order to
avoid non uniform cooling
• Cu coating is provided to remove the
heat (mainly for dry grinding of
cemented carbide tools)
• Ni coating is provided to give strong
mechanical bond between the grit and
the bond material
• To avoid premature dislodgment of the
grit from the bond.
Types of abrasives
Coated diamond grit
• Other coating material for diamond grit
are Cr, Ti, W and Mo
• These are carbide forming elements.
Hence these materials give coating with
good adherence
• This coating is generally used on
monocrystalline diamond grit which
generally used for heavy/demanding
cutting conditions
• Tougher bonding between grit and
bonding material is required. Tougher
bond can be obtained with metal bond
• Uncoated diamond grit can not form a
strong bonding with the metal bond
• Cr coating has got very good compatibility
with the metal bond
Types of abrasives
Superabrasives
Cubic Boron Nitride (cBN):
• cBN is man made material
• Hardness just below Diamond
• cBN grit can be used for grinding of steel and super alloys
• Diamond grit cannot use to grind ferrous materials, why?
• Because there will be migration of carbon to the steel.
• Hence, cBN is preferred for grinding, high carbon steel, HSS, die steel, tool steel
and super alloys (Inconel, Nimonics, etc.)

Types of abrasives
Superabrasives
Cubic Boron Nitride (cBN): Hardness just below Diamond

Types of abrasives
Superabrasives
Cubic Boron Nitride (cBN):

Types of abrasives
Coated cBN grit
• Coating provided to enhance the
performance of the grit
• Grinding of cemented carbide recommends
dry grinding in order to avoid non uniform
cooling
• Cu coating is provided to remove the heat
(mainly for dry grinding of cemented
carbide tools)
• Ni coating is provided to give strong
mechanical bond between the grit and the
bond material
• To avoid premature dislodgment of the grit
from the bond.
Grit size
Large grit
• High grinding capacity
• Rough work surface
Fine grit
• Low grinding capacity
• Smooth work surface

Wheel grade
• Grade of wheel implies the force required to break the bond between grit and
cementing material, i.e strength of the bond

Wheel grade
• Soft grade wheel is used for grinding difficult to cut materials
• When material is difficult to grind grit wear rate will be high. For proper grinding action to
take place worn grits need to be removed from the wheel. For quick removal of the grit,
holding capacity should not be high
• Thickness of the bond bridge determines the bond strength
• Hard grade wheel is used for grinding easy cut materials
• When machining easy to grind material wear rate will be less and hence grit life will be
high.
• In this case it is better to hold the grit for longer period of time. Hence strong bond which
can hold grit stronger is recommended for easy to cut materials

Wheel structure or concentration
• Structure of a grinding wheel implies free space or voids available in the grinding
wheel
• Why free space required in grinding wheel?
• Chips produced in a grinding operation should be removed easily. Chips should
not get clogged in the wheel. Chip clogging may the damage the wheel
• Free space between the grit can accommodate the chips.
Types of wheel structure
• Open structure
• Medium structure
• Dense structure
Wheel structure or concentration
• Open structure:
• Space between grit is more
• Load per grit will be higher
• Used for high material removal rate
• Generally used for grinding long
chipping material
• Dense structure:
• Space between grits is less
• Load per grit is less in this case,
hence grit wear will be less
• Dense structure wheel gives longer
wheel life
• Strength of the grit should be
accordingly chosen depending
on whether wheel structure is
open, medium or dense.

Bond types
There are basically 3 types of bond material
• Vitrified bond
• Resin bond
• Metal bond
• Electroplated bond
• Brazed bond

Bond types
Vitrified bond
• Porous structure
• Reasonable chip accommodation space
• High material removal
• Poor resistance to impact
• Not suitable for very high speed operation

Bond types
Resin bond
• Capable to withstand shock load
• Vibration absorbing characteristics
• Capable of producing high finish
• Not suitable for use with alkaline grinding fluid
• Almost non-porous

Bond types
Metal bond
• Extremely high toughness
• Suitable for high form accuracy and large stock removal
• Not suitable for dry application
• Almost non-porous

Bond types
Electroplated bond
• Used for single layer wheel
• High grit concentration
• 30 – 40% crystal exposure possible
• Suitable for making small diameter
wheel, form wheel, slicing wheel
• Most suited for abrasive milling Electroplated wheel

Bond types
Brazed bond
• 60 – 80% crystal exposure possible
• Precise control of grit space
• Higher bond strength in comparison to
electroplated bond
• A possible substitute for electroplated
bond in many applications
Brazed wheel

Wheel conditioning
Wheel conditioning
Truing Dressing
• Regenerates the • Scoops up the bond to

required geometry on expose the grit
the grinding wheel providing more inter
• Ensures concentricity grit chip space
of new conventional • Conditions the grit tip
wheel with specific to restore its cutting
mounting system capability

Wheel conditioning
• After truing operation both grit and
bond will be at same level.
• These grit can not perform any cutting
action
• Dressing operation is required to
expose the grit by removing bond
material. This also provides chip
clearance

Truing tools
Four types of truing tools
• Steel cutters
• Vitrified abrasive stick and wheel
• Steel or carbide crush roll
• Diamond truing tool

Truing tools
Single point diamond truing tool
• This is like turning operation on
grinding wheel
• Both flat truing and form truing is
possible with single point diamond
tool
• Single point diamond truing tool is
made by setting a single crystal into
a cylindrical shank of specific
diameter and length by brazing or
casting around the diamond
Truing tools
Multi-stone diamond truing tools
• In this case truing tool consists of number of small but whole diamonds
• Some or all of which contact the abrasive wheel at the same time
• Diamonds are arranged in single layer or in multiple layers

Truing tools
Impregnated diamond truing tools

Truing tools
Diamond truing tools – Rotary powered tools

Truing tools
Diamond truing tools – From truing blocks

Dressing of grinding wheel
• Dressing is conditioning of wheel surface which ensures exposure of grit edges
from the bond
• Dressing also helps in sharpening the grit edges
• Helps in removing the residue left by material being ground
• Truing and dressing are commonly combined in one operation for conventional
abrasive wheel

Dressing methods of super abrasive wheels
• Commonly done with soft conventional abrasive vitrified stick
• Electrolytic in-process dressing (ELID)
• Electro-discharge dressing
• Touch dressing: Brings uniformity in grit tip exposure from the bond level and
improves the surface finish

Classification of grinding machines
Grinding machine can be classified into 4 major categories
1. Surface grinding machine
2. Cylindrical grinding machine
3. Internal grinding machine
4. Tool and cutter grinder

1. Surface grinding machine
a) Horizontal spindle and reciprocating table
b) Vertical spindle and reciprocating table
c) Horizontal spindle and rotary table
d) Vertical spindle and rotary table

a) Horizontal spindle and reciprocating table
• Operation is similar to slab milling carried out in
a horizontal milling machine

(b) Vertical spindle and reciprocating table
• Operation is similar to face milling carried
out on a vertical milling machine
• Wheel axis is vertical
• Shape of the wheel is cup shaped
• Better rigidity compared to horizontal spindle
• Used when high material removal rate is
necessary
• Generally wheel diameter covers the entire
width of the job
• Hence, transverse feed is not provided

(c) Horizontal spindle and rotary table
• Operation is similar to facing on a lathe
• Not generally used due to limitations in
accommodating the workpieces
• Advantage this machine is, it is possible to
cut tapered surface, concave and convex
surfaces

(d) Vertical spindle and rotary table
• Suitable for small workpieces in large
quantities

2. Cylindrical grinding machine
• There are 3 types
a) Plain centre type cylindrical grinder
b) Universal cylindrical surface grinder
c) Centerless cylindrical surface grinder

(a) Plain centre type cylindrical grinder
• Operation is similar to turning operation in
centre lathe
• In this machine 4 motion are required
• Rotation of grinding wheel
• Work table rotation
• Reciprocation of the work table
• Infeed to provide depth of cut
• This machine can be used in two modes
• Traverse grinding (table needs reciprocation)
• Plunge grinding (reciprocation of the table not
necessary)
(b) Universal cylindrical surface grinder
• More versatile
• This machine provides large swivel of
head stock, wheel head slide, and
wheel head mount on the wheel
head slide
• Allows grinding of any taper
• Equipped with an additional head for
internal grinding

(c) Centreless cylindrical surface grinder
• Centreless means does not require any
centre support either from head stock or
tailstock end
• Used for grinding outside diameter of long
bar type workpiece.
• Here workpiece is not held between
centres, but by a work support table
• Workpiece is rotated by means of regulating
wheel and ground by the grinding wheel.
• Regulating wheel revolves at very low
surface speed than the grinding wheel
controls the rotation and longitudinal
motion of the workpiece
• Regulating wheel usually kept at an angle
with the axis of the grinding wheel and the
workpiece is fed longitudinal.

3. Internal grinding machine
There are 3 types
a) Chucking type internal grinder
b) Planetary internal grinder
c) Centerless internal grinder

(a) Chucking type internal grinder
• Workpiece is mounted in a chuck
• There are two modes of grinding
• Traverse grinding – In this case grinding
wheel will reciprocates over the entire
length of the workpiece
• Plunge grinding – In this case
reciprocation of the wheel is not
required

(b) Planetary internal grinder
• This type of grinding machine is
preferred when workpiece is of
irregular in shape and can not be
rotated
• In this machine workpiece will not
rotate
• Grinding wheel rotates about its axis
as well as orbits about the axis of the
hole in the workpiece

(c) Centreless internal grinder
• No centre support is required to hold
the workpiece
• Useful where grinding of internal
surfaces of long cylindrical components,
bush, etc.
• Workpiece is supported by regulating
wheel, supporting wheel and pressure
wheel
• Rotation of the grinding wheel is high
compared to the rotation of the
workpiece
• Rotation of the workpiece is provided by
the regulating wheel
• A reciprocation motion is given to the
grinding wheel for the grinding action
4. Tool and cutter grinder
Purpose of tool and cutter grinding machine
• To sharpen the worn out tool
• To produce a new tool with proper tool geometry
There are two types of tool and cutter grinding machines
a) Pedestal or Bench type grinder
b) Universal tool and cutter grinder

(a) Pedestal or Bench type grinder
• Is a bench type tool and cutter grinder
• Generally used for simple single point
turning tool (tools used in lathe, shaper,
etc.)
• No fixture or vice to hold the tool
• Accuracy of the tool purely depends on
the skill of the operator

(b) Universal tool and cutter
grinder
Grinding wheel
• Tools and cutters with complex
geometry like milling cutter,
drill, reamers, etc. are
manufactured by using
Universal tool and cutter Tool holding 3D vice
grinding machine

Machine Tool Technology - Grinding

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• In grinding process cutting velocity is very high. This results in

• High specific energy and

• High temperature gradient

• Varied and irregular geometry of the grits

• Random orientation of the grit, which results in unknown rake angles

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Fig. Variation of critical grit depth of cut with grinding velocity

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Conventional Super abrasive

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Standard wheel configuration for conventional grinding wheels

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This number is manufacturer identification number exact kind of abrasive used

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• High grinding capacity

• Rough work surface

• Low grinding capacity

• Smooth work surface

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• Regenerates the • Scoops up the bond to

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