Archaeology 2024

Exploring Rome’s Secret Catacombs
archaeology.org A publication of the Archaeological Institute of America January/February 2024
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JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2024 • VOLUME 77, NUMBER 1
CONTENTS
22 Cave, Ein Gedi, Israel
FEATURES
22 TOP 10 DISCOVERIES 42 MIDWAY’S LOST WARSHIPS

OF 2023 Archaeologists survey the sunken aircraft
ARCHAEOLOGY magazine reveals the year’s most carriers whose fate determined the outcome
exciting finds of WWII in the Pacific
BY THE EDITORS BY JARRETT A. LOBELL
32 IN THE TIME OF THE 48 THE POWER OF

COPPER KINGS PERGAMON
Some 3,500 years ago, prosperous From their monumental capital, the Attalid
merchants on Cyprus controlled the world’s Dynasty ruled a realm where both Greek and
most valuable commodity Anatolian culture flourished
BY JASON URBANUS BY ELIZABETH HEWITT
38 WHEN THE WATER

DRIED UP Cover: A stone chest buried by the Aztecs in 1454 was
unearthed beneath the Templo Mayor in Mexico City. It
How foragers in North America’s Great Basin contains 15 anthropomorphic figurines made of serpentine.
survived a 1,000-year megadrought PHOTO: MIRSA ISLAS, COURTESY PROYECTO TEMPLO MAYOR
BY MATT STIRN
archaeology.org 1
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12
17
10
15
16
DEPARTMENTS LETTER FROM ROME

4 EDITOR’S LETTER 57 SECRETS OF THE
CATACOMBS
6 FROM THE PRESIDENT A subterranean necropolis offers archaeologists a
rare glimpse of the city’s early Jewish community
8 LETTERS BY SARA TOTH STUB
A goddess’ cat companion, divine dolphin riders, and
Gothic name games
9 DIGS & DISCOVERIES

Writing rules for Egyptian homeowners, Ice Age
cannibals, Denmark’s queen of runes, dreaming of ARCHAEOLOGY.ORG
Mesopotamian deities, and a medieval portrait of a
prehistoric tool ■ MORE FROM THE ISSUE To see more images of some
of this year’s top 10 discoveries, go to archaeology.
org/2023top10. For more images from this issue’s Digs &
18 OFF THE GRID Discoveries, go to archaeology.org/jf24digs. To see more
Ambrosio Cave, Cuba images and videos of the sunken ships from the Battle of
Midway, go to archaeology.org/midway.
20 AROUND THE WORLD ■ ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS Get daily headlines from
8,000-year-old salty superfood, hidden Hittite around the world and sign up for our e-Update.
graffiti, an Egyptian queen’s favorite vintage,
defending the Great Wall, and the oldest surviving ■ FOLLOW US
Shakespearean stage
■ INTERACTIVE DIGS Track ongoing work at
interactivedigs.com.
68 ARTIFACT
Maya toy story
archaeology.org 3
EDITOR’S LETTER
Editor in Chief
Jarrett A. Lobell
COMPANIONS FOR LIFE Deputy Editor
Eric A. Powell
Executive Editor
Daniel Weiss
AND BEYOND Senior Editor
Benjamin Leonard
Associate Editor
Ilana Herzig
rchaeologists investigate the material evidence of past human lives—the objects,
A
Editorial Assistant
homes, and monuments that people from every stratum of society leave behind. In Malin Grunberg Banyasz
this year’s not-to-be-missed “Top 10 Discoveries of 2023,” you will read about the
Creative Director
lives of religious pilgrims, the first carpenters, resourceful rebels, royal retainers, and even a Richard Bleiweiss
notorious emperor. I don’t want to reveal all the entries and ruin the surprise—it was a year of Maps
spectacular discoveries—but among the extraordinary finds you will read Ken Feisel
about is a royal Chinese tomb complex from the last two centuries
b.c. filled not with golden jewelry, vibrant paintings, or carved jade Contributing Editors
Roger Atwood, Paul Bahn,

vessels, but with more than 400 animals sacrificed to be buried with
Bob Brier, Karen Coates,
a Western Han emperor. The carefully arranged graves include
Andrew Curry, Blake Edgar,
those of three rare animals: a tiger, a tapir, and the first giant panda
Brian Fagan, David Freidel,
burial ever unearthed. While the panda and tiger were native to Tom Gidwitz, Andrew Lawler,
China, and among the most revered animals in Chinese culture, Stephen H. Lekson,
the tapir would likely have been brought from Southeast Asia as a Jerald T. Milanich, Samir S. Patel,
gift to the emperor from one of his subject lands, a testament to the Heather Pringle, Kate Ravilious,
symbolism and significance of animals in the ancient world. Neil Asher Silberman, Julian Smith,
Indeed, across this issue, you will read several stories that explore humans’ relationship to Matt Stirn, Nikhil Swaminathan,
animals and the central place animals occupy in how people navigate their lives. There are Jason Urbanus, Claudia Valentino,
the trackers of the Ju/’hoansi group of the San people who worked with archaeologists to Zach Zorich
identify rock art in Namibia that depicts animal tracks, primarily those of giraffes, as well as
Publisher
big cats, rhinos, and rabbits, all species their ancient forebears would have had contact with Kevin Quinlan
during their lives. Images of camelids discovered on boulders strewn across a valley in north- Director of Circulation and Fulfillment
ern Peru chronicle the animals’ transformation from wild guanacos to domesticated llamas. Kevin Mullen
The deliberate burial of several dingoes alongside Aboriginal peoples in Australia speaks to Director of Integrated Sales
the intimate connection they had with a species that is usually feral and rarely appears as a Gerry Moss
domestic companion in the archaeological record. There is also evidence in the Great Basin Account Manager
Karina Casines
that the animals that sustained the inhabitants of the American West from about 3,000 to
Newsstand Consultant
1,800 years ago faced the same challenges that people did in adapting to the conditions of a T.J. Montilli
drought that lasted for more than a millennium. Ceramic whistles made by the Classic Maya NPS Media Group
more than 1,000 years ago depict both humans and animals, as well as supernatural human- Office Manager
animal hybrids that served to instruct children about society’s moral order. And don’t miss Malin Grunberg Banyasz
the silver pendant featuring a little mouse gnawing on a treat unearthed at a Roman frontier For production questions
contact materials@archaeology.org
camp in Bulgaria, a reminder that even the smallest animals were as important in the lives of
ancient peoples as they are to us today. Editorial Advisory Board
James P. Delgado, Ellen Herscher,

Ronald Hicks, Jean-Jacques Hublin,
Mark Lehner, Roderick J. McIntosh,
Susan Pollock, Kenneth B. Tankersley
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FROM THE PRESIDENT A
I of A
MONUMENTAL
ACHIEVEMENTS OFFICERS
President
Elizabeth S. Greene
he heart of an ancient Greek city was the agora, a public gathering place for commercial,
T
First Vice President
Brian I. Daniels
cultural, political, and religious activities. In Athens, the Agora formed a backdrop for the
Vice President for Cultural Heritage
city’s vibrant daily life, the practice of democracy by its citizens, and the monuments that Ömür Harmanşah
honored the achievements of its benefactors. From 1994 to 2024, John McK. Camp II directed Vice President for Outreach and Education
the American School of Classical Studies at Athens (ASCSA) excavations in the Athenian Agora. Laura Rich
Vice President for Research and Academic Affairs
In addition to working in this extraordinary space for nearly six decades in all, John has trained Kim Shelton
a small army of student volunteers, recruited researchers from around the globe to study finds Vice President for Societies
covering more than 5,000 years of human habitation, and published countless volumes for both Sabrina Higgins
scholars and public audiences. For the innumerable accomplishments of his long and illustri- Treasurer
David Adam
ous career, and the generations of students he has inspired, Executive Director
the Archaeological Institute of America (AIA) is proud to Rebecca W. King
award John its highest honor, the 2024 Gold Medal for GOVERNING BOARD
Distinguished Archaeological Achievement. Elie Abemayor
“As his successor, I know that John’s boots are massive Jeanne Bailey
ones to fill, but perhaps I can stand barefoot on his shoul- Emma Blake, ex officio
Joost Blom
ders,” says John Papadopoulos, professor of archaeology at Jane Botsford Johnson
the University of California, Los Angeles, the new direc- Thomas Carpenter
Jay Conger
tor of the Agora excavations. Over the course of John’s Lawrence Cripe
30-year tenure as excavation director, he spearheaded a project to digitize records from the Andrea De Giorgi
Joshua Gates
Agora that date back to the 1930s. An invaluable research tool, this digital library offers visi- Elizabeth M. Greene
tors to the ASCSA website behind-the-scenes peeks at field notebooks, plans, drawings, and Mark Hurst
Alexandra Jones
photographs. John is also praised for his enthusiastic tours of the Agora, including its virtual SeungJung Kim
representation in the video game Assassin’s Creed Odyssey. Andrea Kmetz-Sheehy
Ann Olga Koloski-Ostrow
The stories of the ancient Greek world evolve constantly, and John’s work has helped to Margaret Laird
expand their boundaries. His research extends beyond the center of Athens to its theaters, Gary Linn
Jarrett A. Lobell, ex officio
roads, forts, mines, border regions, rural environs, and neighbors. Engaging with a wide range Elizabeth Macaulay
of evidence—for water clocks, city walls, drought, and famine—he has written about how John Papadopoulos
Paula Paster Michtom
people and the institutions they established transformed the ancient Greek world. Beyond Kathleen Pavelko
antiquity, John’s work on early nineteenth-century representations of Greece by painters Kevin Quinlan, ex officio
Betsey Robinson
Edward Dodwell and Simone Pomardi reveals how travelers experienced the landscape and Robert Schon, ex officio
its monuments during the Ottoman era. Michael Laughy, a former student of John’s and now Daniel Schowalter
Thomas Sienkewicz
associate professor of classics at Washington and Lee University, says of John, “His actions Monica L. Smith
are a reminder to us all that archaeologists are stewards, not owners, of material culture.” Patrick Suehnholz
Barbara Sweet
The AIA celebrates John McK. Camp II, whose passion for knowledge—the world’s greatest Maria Vecchiotti
treasure—sets an example for archaeological inquiry. Michael Wiseman
John Yarmick
To learn more about the AIA’s Annual Meeting and the 2024 award winners, please visit archaeological.org. Past President
Laetitia La Follette
Trustees Emeriti
Brian Heidtke
Charles S. La Follette
Legal Counsel
Mitchell Eitel, Esq.
Sullivan & Cromwell, LLP
A I of A

Elizabeth S. Greene 44 Beacon Street • Boston, MA 02108
archaeological.org
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LETTERS
FROM OUR READERS

DIVINE FELINE largest city in Sweden is Göteborg (for- kind, then they wouldn’t have had a lot
Excellent article on Isis in the Roman tress of the Goths) and a large island in of surface area to use. And I’m also curi-
world (“Worshipping a Forbidden God- the Baltic is named Gotland (land of the ous as to what kind of ivory it’s carved
dess,” November/December 2023). There Goths). Obviously, some of the Goths from. Thanks for the great magazine!
was another divinity that was worshipped lived in Sweden at some time. There is Ezra Bennet
with Isis, the Egyptian cat goddess Bubastis no first or original in archaeology, only Carnation, WA
(also known as Bastet). The two were the first that we know of.
frequently worshipped together and men- Georg Christensen The editors reply: The figurine is carved
tioned together in inscriptions through- The Woodlands, TX from mammoth ivory.
out the empire. Black was Isis’ sacred
color—she was Queen of the Black Robe. Thank you very much for your Novem- DOLPHIN DELIGHTS
Furthermore, Isis could become incarnate ber/December 2023 issue; it’s very good. The figure of a boy riding a dolphin that
in Bubastis: An Egyptian inscription reads, I particularly enjoyed the article on the appears in “Sea God’s Sanctum” (November/
“Isis is the soul of Bubastis.” The belief Goths. And it made me think that I have December 2023) can be found on the coins of
that divinities could become incarnate in been reading most issues of Archaeology Tarentum in this period, and is usually identi-
animals was common in ancient Egypt. for many years, but don’t remember an fied as Taras, not Eros. Paestum was under the
Donald Engels article on the Slavs, including where they infuence of Tarentum, so the presence of a
Fayetteville, AR originated, when they started migrating symbol of that city is not surprising.
west, their artistic creativity, and how Philip Early
GOTHIC ADVENTURES their occupation sites can be recognized Seattle, WA
Your very interesting article (“Who archaeologically. Such an article, or articles,
Were the Goths?”) in the November/ would be exceptionally interesting. PIZZA TO GO
December 2023 issue discredits the idea Edward Spooner Recently, I was on my way to Pompeii and
that the Goths came from Sweden via an Toronto, Canada Naples, and I brought along the September/
event like D-Day. However, please con- October 2023 issue to read on the plane
sider that two major areas in southern RHINO IN DISGUISE ride. The “Pizza! Pizza?” article amazed me
Sweden are called Östergötland (eastern My mom and I are big fans of Archae- because the wall painting of food shown
land of the Goths) and Västergötland ology and we just read about the pos- really does look like the first pizza. While
(western land of the Goths). The second- sible horse statue carved from ivory in Pompeii, I learned that cafes and shops
(“A Horse Is a Horse?” November/ also had wall paintings of the food they
ARCHAEOLOGY welcomes mail from December 2023). I’m looking at the served there. It made my trip that much
readers. Please address your comments pictures right now and I think it might more exciting to look for paintings like the
to ARCHAEOLOGY, 36-36 33rd Street,
be a woolly rhino—the shoulder hump one in the article. Amazing! I was able to see
Long Island City, NY 11106, fax 718-472-
3051, or e-mail letters@archaeology.org. seems correct, the nose shape is close, some other food paintings and share all this
The editors reserve the right to edit and the forehead is large and fat. I do information with my group.
submitted material. Volume precludes wonder why it doesn’t have any horns, Claire Hoffman
our acknowledging individual letters. but if it was carved from ivory of some Huntsville, AL
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DIGS DISCOVERIES
MOHAWK MAIZE, ASSYRIAN DREAMS, ICE AGE CANNIBALS...AND MUCH MORE
WHEN IT RAINS, IT POURS

t didn’t rain frequently in ancient Egypt, but when it did, described in the legal code, they do suggest that ancient
I says Sapienza University of Rome archaeologist Aneta

Skalec, it could come down so violently that it led to legal
quarrels between neighbors. Skalec examined a papyrus
Egyptians were acquainted with the sort of issues that
could arise from heavy rainfall.
The best evidence for the type of gutter system that
known as the Demotic Legal Code of Hermopolis West, may have caused the legal imbroglio mentioned in the
which was recorded in the time of the pharaoh Ptolemy II Hermopolis West papyrus can be found in small models of
Philadelphus (reigned 285–246 b.c.), although its origins Egyptian houses that were deposited in tombs. Examples
are likely centuries earlier. The document contains the most of these models were discovered in the tomb of Meketre,
extensive known collection of Egyptian laws, many of them
concerning leasing of property and rules of inheritance.
“Among the various regulations, we find those concerning
neighborly disputes,” Skalec says. “I was surprised when I
came across the regulations relating to rain.”
One passage stipulates how to handle a complaint brought
forward by someone whose house is being splashed by rain-
water discharged from their neighbor’s roof. The document
instructs judges to assess the situation themselves by pouring
water through the neighbor’s gutters to determine whether
the plaintiff’s grievance is valid. If they determine that it
is, then the drainage system of the offending party
should be blocked off.
The text is puzzling, in part because there
are no known examples of rainwater drain-
age systems such as the one described in
the legal code. Very few excavated
ancient Egyptian houses retain
their upper stories or roofs—
they rarely survive because they
would have been constructed
from wood, branches, and leaves.
“Initially, I was unable to find
any archaeological evidence con-
firming the existence of similar
rainspouts in Egypt,” Skalec says.
“This motivated me to delve deeper
into the topic.”
Skalec noticed that some Egyp-
tian temples, such as the Temple
Wooden
of Edfu in southern Egypt and the house
Temple of Hathor at Dendera in the center model from
of the country, have waterspouts, often shaped like lion’s Meketre’s
heads, designed to channel rainwater from their roofs. tomb
While these elements are not quite analogous to the spouts
archaeology.org 9
DIGS DISCOVERIES
to the offending features described in

Lion-head
waterspout,
the code.
Dendera, After analyzing the miniature fac-
Egypt simile, Skalec determined that during
heavy rainfall, water rushing from these
spouts could have been discharged with
such force, and to such a distance, that it
would have splashed onto neighboring
properties, which were often separated
by just a three-foot-wide street. “There’s
no reason to assume that the code regu-
lates a purely theoretical event,” Skalec
says. “Such splashing was particularly
dangerous due to the fact that Egyptian
houses were made of mudbrick, which
was not durable and not very resis-
tant to water.” It seems that Egyptian
homeowners were right to fear for the
a Middle Kingdom (ca. 2030–1640 everyday life. Among them is a model structural integrity of their houses and
b.c.) royal administrator who was of a house, presumably Meketre’s. to plead their cases before the courts, lest
buried in Thebes around 1980 b.c. In The model’s colonnaded facade has a their homes be washed away due to their
his tomb, archaeologists discovered 24 flat roof with three clearly protruding neighbors’ negligence.
wooden models depicting scenes of U-shaped rainspouts that appear similar —Jason Urbanus
A COURTESAN’S PRIZED POSSESSION

n the southern outskirts of Jerusalem, intended to protect both the deceased from would-be
O researchers led by Israel Antiquities

Authority archaeologist Liat Oz excavated
a shaft tomb constructed in the late fourth or early
grave robbers and the grave diggers from her. Laid
next to the woman was a type of bronze folding
mirror called a box mirror with a handle and a
third century b.c., during the Hellenistic period, after hinged cover engraved with six concentric circles.
Alexander the Great had conquered the region. Inside Box mirrors were either part of a Greek wom-
the burial, which was situated along an ancient highway an’s dowry or given by men as gifts to hetaerae,
far from any settlement, they found the charred bones of a highly educated, influential women who served as
young woman who likely died in her 20s. Four bent iron social escorts, says archaeologist Guy Stiebel of Tel
nails placed around her partially cremated remains were Aviv University. “Hetaerae were courtesans, similar
to Japanese geishas, who were able to break the glass
Terracotta
statuette ceiling of male-dominated Greek society,” he says.
of a “Unlike married women, for example, they were
woman allowed to take part in drinking parties.” The mirror’s
with a presence in the grave indicates that the woman was
box
not a local. Neither could she have been a married
mirror
Greek woman, who would have been unlikely to
travel abroad with her husband. “For these reasons,”
Stiebel says, “we suggest that the deceased was a
hetaera who accompanied a Hellenistic official,
Bronze possibly even a general, traveling on a campaign
box mirror
through Judea.”
—Benjamin Leonard

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DIGS DISCOVERIES
MAIZE MAINTENANCE
new study of maize kernels is upending assumptions
A about Native American agriculture. It was thought

that Iroquoian people living in the northeastern United
States needed to move their villages every 20 to 40 years because
Maize kernels
their fields became less fertile over time. The Iroquois did not
have domesticated animals that could pull plows and thus
lacked livestock manure to use as fertilizer. To the minds of
non-Indigenous scholars, this meant that their fields must have
been less productive than those of modern farms.
Archaeologists John Hart and Susan Winchell-Sweeney of the
New York State Museum analyzed nitrogen isotopes in maize
kernels from three pre-European-contact villages in central New
York State belong- Hart, Iroquois farmers may have been able to maintain high
ing to the Mohawk, soil nitrogen levels because they grew corn, beans, and squash
an Iroquoian people. together and let the plant remains decay back into the soil after
They found that the the vegetables had been harvested. While plowing releases
maize had been grown nitrogen into the air and causes it to oxidize, Iroquoian farming
in soils that were as methods disturbed the soil to a lesser degree, rendering fertilizers
fertile as those that unnecessary. “Native American farmers understood their crops
had been plowed and and understood the need for maintaining soil quality,” Hart says,
fertilized using live- knowledge they used to support villages of 1,000 to 2,000 people.
Iroquois women husking corn
stock. According to —Zach Zorich
DENMARK’S FOUNDING MOTHER

ing Harald Bluetooth, who reigned from his royal seat Imer of the National Museum of Denmark analyzed the carving
K in Jelling during the tenth century a.d., is a towering

historical figure, credited with having established the state of
Denmark. New research finds that his mother, Queen Thyra, about
techniques used on the stones, the shape of their runes, and the
language they contained. The researchers found that the Jelling
runestone raised by Harald and the Laeborg runestone were
whom little is known, was also seen as an extremely important carved by the same person, whom the Laeborg stone names as
personage in her time. Thyra’s name appears on two runestones Ravnunge-Tue. Thus, they concluded that both stones refer
at Jelling—one dedicated to her to the same Thyra, Harald’s
by her husband and Harald’s Runestone, Jelling, Denmark Runestone, mother. The Baekke runestone,
Laeborg,
father, Gorm, and another raised Denmark
while carved by a different
by Harald to commemorate his hand, mentions Ravnunge-
parents. This is unusual, given Tue along with Thyra, leading
that very few women are named researchers to conclude that it,
on runestones in Denmark. too, refers to Harald’s mother.
Two other runestones, found “Thyra is commemorated on
in the nearby village of Laeborg more runestones than any other
and the town of Baekke, also person, including her famous
include the name Thyra, though son, Harald Bluetooth,” says
it was unclear whether they, too, Imer. “Runestones signified
referred to Harald’s mother. power, so Thyra must have been
To try to clarify the issue, a a very powerful person.”
team led by runologist Lisbeth —Daniel Weiss

Animal track and human footprint petroglyphs, Namibia
TRACKING ANCIENT ANIMALS

hree Indigenous tracking
T experts from the Ju/’hoansi

group of the San people
have worked with archaeologists
in western Namibia to analyze
recently discovered rock art
dating to the first millennium
b.c. The images were carved
by hunter-gatherers and depict Animal
animals in profile as well as petroglyphs, Namibia
hundreds of animal tracks and
human footprints. Archaeologist Andreas Pastoors of the University of Erlangen-
Nuremberg and the trackers studied some 500 of these rock engravings in the Doro!
Nawas Mountains. They found that many of the engravings of tracks depict giraffe
prints. Others represent a rich diversity of species, including big cats, rhinos, bushpigs,
and elephants, as well as less dangerous species such as rabbits and monkeys. “We
were surprised to find that the number of species whose tracks were depicted was
greater than the number of animals depicted in the profile view,” says Pastoors. “It’s
remarkable that the spectrum is so wide.” The trackers were even able to distinguish
between images of tracks belonging to animals of different age and sex, such as young
male bushpigs and older female leopards.
—Munyaradzi Makoni
archaeology.org 13
DIGS DISCOVERIES
Gough’s Cave, England
Butchered
radius
(four
views)
Skull cup
ICE AGE CANNIBALISM

eople who lived throughout Europe during the Ice Age says Bello. “They were doing it as part of a ritual.”
P may have practiced ritual cannibalism. Between 23,500

and 13,500 years ago, these hunters left traces of their
culture, known as Magdalenian, on the landscape, including
Questions lingered over whether cannibalism occurred
only at Gough’s Cave or fgured more widely in the culture.
“Was it just a one-off?” asks Bello. To better understand how
cave paintings, bone harpoons, sewing needles, and animal these people treated their dead, Bello and archaeogeneticist
fgurines sculpted from mammoth ivory. While examining William Marsh, also of the Natural History Museum, reviewed
bones from the Magdalenian site of Gough’s Cave in England, archaeological evidence from 59 Magdalenian sites where
Silvia Bello, a paleoanthropologist at London’s Natural History human remains have been uncovered. Their study revealed
Museum, discovered human skulls shaped into cups, parts of that sites with evidence of cannibalism outnumbered those
skeletons that had been butchered and chewed, and an arm where deliberate burials with unmodifed bones have been
bone engraved with a zigzag pattern. Given the decorative found. In addition, at a number of sites where cannibalism
flourishes on the human remains and the presence of bones appeared to have taken place, DNA analysis showed that
from more appetizing animals, she concluded the cave’s residents shared similar ancestry that differed from that of
inhabitants had held funerals involving cannibalism. “They contemporaries who buried instead of consuming their dead.
were not just eating each other because they were hungry,” —Bridget Alex

FROM HUNTED TO HERDED
n northern Peru’s Shonquilpampa Valley, pictographs on boulders are offering a
I glimpse of Andean peoples’ changing relationship to wild camelid species such as

guanaco, groups of which were domesticated sometime around 5,000 years ago
and became llamas. The earliest images on the boulders were painted using red ocher
around 8,000 years ago. They show humans armed with spears and bolas hunting
fleeing camelids. The artists
Boulders, Shonquilpampa Valley, Peru
depicted hunters and prey
to scale. “The art looks very
figurative and realistic,”
says archaeologist Victor
Ponte of the environmental
services firm Impact7G, who
surveyed the site. “They
depicted figures as they saw
them in real time.”
Panels on the boulders
that are thought to have been
produced later show white
and red camelids in organized
trains being herded by diminutive human figures. “This could represent the time when
domestication occurred,” says Ponte. He notes that the valley is filled with glacial lakes,
where Andean peoples believed camelids emerged under the mountain god’s protec-
tion to graze on the valley’s abundant pastures. “This Andean supernatural concept
persists over time,” says Ponte. “The art had to be located in these unique locations in
conjunction with these natural elements.”
—E”ic A. Powell
Camelid train pictograph, Shonquilpampa Valley, Peru
archaeology.org 15
DIGS DISCOVERIES
DIVINE DREAMING
ncient Mesopotamians believed that if they followed a proper set of instructions,
A they would have dreams that included contact with the gods. Assyriologist
Aino Hätinen of Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich has studied a set
of cuneiform tablets featuring guidelines for conjuring this sort of dream. The earliest of
the tablets dates to around 1100 to 800 b.c., and the instructions are referenced in tablets
dating to as late as the first century b.c. Often written by royal advisers, scholars, and
scribes considered experts in omen literature, the texts were discovered in the ancient cities
of Nineveh, Assur, Uruk, Sippar, and Babylon, in what is now Iraq. Hätinen has found
that the texts offer counsel that varies based on the 12 lunar months of the year. “Usually
it’s centered around a meal—the things you should eat, the clothes you should wear,” she
says. “It also includes instructions about mood, whether to have sex, or where to sleep.”
One text offers this advice: “A man should smear himself (with dirt), he should
anoint himself with oil. He should stay gloomily silent.…He should sleep in a pas-
sage.” Following this sort of guidance, the writers claim, will invoke auspicious
visions enabling people to commune with a range of gods—whether personal dei-
ties, malevolent divinities, or gods of the netherworld. People could even tailor their
behavior to gain an audience with the deities of their choice. “Instructions to sleep
on the roof allow you to communicate with the gods of the night,” says Hätinen.
“You don’t have to go to an altar in a sanctuary, you can have this direct contact just
by looking to the sky.”
Cuneiform tablet (three views) —Ilana H)rzig
LEGIONARY PERSONAL EFFECTS

team of archaeologists led Among the finds in auxiliary rooms of the camp’s bath complex
A
Silver
by Piotr Dyczek of the mouse were a small, intricately crafted silver pendant depicting a mouse and
pendant
University of Warsaw handles of bronze vessels dating to the late second or
unearthed ceramic vessels for early third century a.d. Researchers also uncovered
drinking wine and hundreds of a ceramic-tile food-storage container, one of
personal belongings at the Roman two “refrigerators” discovered so far in
frontier camp of Novae in northern the area of the baths where the facility’s
Bulgaria, where Roman legions were stationed attendants would have lived.
from the mid-first to early fifth century a.d. —B)njamin L)onard
Ceramic wine vessels Food-storage container,

Novae, Bulgaria

PORTRAIT OF AN ANCIENT AX Rock detail, fifteenth-
century painting
utting tools known as Acheulean hand axes, made archaeologists Alastair Key and
C by Homo erectus and other early human species from

about 1.76 million to 130,000 years ago, represent
humanity’s most enduring technology. They are particularly
James Clark to test out the idea.
Key and Clark compared the
shape, color, and surface details
plentiful at the Tanzanian site of Isimila, the subject of a lecture of the stone in the paint-
Dartmouth College art historian Steve Kangas attended in ing with those of Acheulean
2021. The shape of the tools seemed familiar to Kangas, and he hand axes found in northern
approached his colleague, France, where Fouquet lived
paleoanthropologist Jeremy and worked. They deter-
DeSilva, with a startling mined that the characteristics
observation. To Kangas, the of the stone depicted by Fouquet
Acheulean hand axes in the did indeed strongly resemble those of the Paleolithic artifacts.
lecture looked uncannily Key says that while they cannot definitively prove that Fou-
like a strangely shaped rock quet selected a prehistoric stone tool to include in his paint-
depicted in the fifteenth- ing, their conclusions make it seem highly likely that he did
century painting Étienne so. Based on late medieval sources, people of Fouquet’s time
Chevalier with Saint Stephen knew Acheulean hand axes as “thunderstones” and believed
by French artist Jean they were created by lightning strikes. The revelation that
Fouquet. DeSilva agreed, Étienne Chevalier with Saint they were, in fact, created by prehistoric people lay more than
and they collaborated with Stephen, fifteenth-century 300 years in the future.
painting
University of Cambridge —Eric A. Powell
OFF THE GRID BY ILANA HERZIG
AMBROSIO CAVE, CUBA

art. “Dating methods tell you how old the Rivero de la Calle and Mario Orlando
material is, not when a person did some- Pariente Pérez, and the paintings were
Havana Ambrosio Cave thing with it. Anything that’s been restored, restored by archaeologist and revolution-
CUBA retouched, or publicly accessible is nearly ary Antonio Núñez Jiménez in 1968. Since
impossible to date.” then, the identity of the artists who paint-
The first people to land on the shores ed the cave walls and the meaning of the
0 150 300 miles
of the Caribbean archipelago likely came cave’s imagery have been the subjects of
from places including the Yucatán Peninsula much scholarly speculation. Some archae-
Beneath tangles of tree roots and lush veg- between 5000 and 4000 B.C.
etation, Cueva de Ambrosio, or Ambrosio Cuba’s first settlers probably
Cave, harbors more than 70 red-and-black arrived between 4000 and
drawings of geometric shapes as well as 3000 B.C. It is unclear which
mythological and human figures scattered Indigenous populations were
throughout its five interconnected galler- living on the island when Chris-
ies. The cave is located on a verdant strip topher Columbus arrived in
toward the end of Hicacos Peninsula, on 1492, but scholars speculate
Cuba’s northern coast. It lies within Vara- that groups including the Gua-
hicacos Ecological Reserve, which ensures nahatabey, Ciboney, and Taíno
the protection of approximately one square coexisted there. Within a few
mile of tropical landscape of Matanzas decades, the dwindling Indig-
Province, two hours’ drive from Havana. enous population had been Drawings in Ambrosio Cave, Cuba
The reserve, which was established in 1974, all but wiped out through a
also contains Cueva de los Musulmanes, or combination of warfare with colonialists, ologists have suggested that Indigenous
Muslim Cave, a purported historic smug- forced labor, and disease introduced by the populations produced the more abstract
glers’ hideout. Spaniards. “Indigenous populations disap- shapes, while the more complex human
Illuminated by shafts of light filtering peared so fast that we’ll probably never and zoomorphic depictions may be later
through holes in the cave’s ceiling, the know how many tribal groups there were,” artworks created by people of African
pictographs share space with several spe- says archaeologist Suzanne Baker of the firm descent. Fernández Ortega believes some
cies of bats, insects, and plants. The more Archaeological/Historical Consultants. “Rock of the older renderings may represent the
than 200-foot-long limestone cave likely art is an important material expression of the Taíno creation myth of the sun and the
served as a ceremonial space at various oral history and cosmology that was lost.” moon. Other interpretations suggest that
times in the past, says archaeologist Racso the images could represent solar calen-
Fernández Ortega of the Cuban Institute of THE SITE dars, butterflies, or Indigenous peoples’
Anthropology. Scholars believe the cave’s Ambrosio Cave’s artworks were discov- initial interactions with the Spanish.
artworks, some of which may date to as ered in 1961 by archaeologists Manuel
long as 2,000 years ago, WHILE YOU’RE THERE
were drawn by Indigenous From Havana, take a bus or hire a driver
people before the arrival of to reach the resort town of Varadero and
Europeans in the fifteenth the pristine beaches at the heart of a
century, and later by peo- cluster of luxury hotels on the tip of the
ple of African descent who peninsula. There, you can ride the hop-on,
had escaped enslavement. hop-off bus and eat at one of the local
“Determining how old paint- restaurants. In the opposite direction,
ings are can be really diffi- toward the city of Matanzas, you will find
cult,” says chemist Ruth Ann Cueva de Saturno, or Saturn Cave, which
Armitage of Eastern Michigan boasts a subterranean swimming hole with
University, who specializes in crystal waters and dramatic stalagmites
Hicacos Peninsula, Cuba
radiocarbon dating of rock and stalactites.

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AROUND THE WORLD BY JASON URBANUS
FLORIDA: A construction crew in SCOTLAND: Although seaweed

downtown St. Augustine unearthed is considered a superfood, it’s
a well-preserved 19th-century ship rarely found on dinner tables
lying around 8 feet beneath the in much of the Western world.
current street level. The single-mast, This was not always the case.
flat-bottomed boat, which would Analysis of dental plaque from
have measured around 28 feet long, dozens of individuals found in
was probably used to fish or collect ancient sites across Europe,
shellfish from local waterways. It likely from northern Scotland to southern Spain, revealed that as far
sank or was abandoned along the back as 8,000 years ago, people regularly ate seaweed as well
shoreline before being gradually silted as freshwater aquatic plants. It was only in recent centuries
over and buried. Archaeologists also that the nutrient-rich vegetable was taken off the menu.
found a kerosene lamp, a pair of shoes, and coconut-shell cups.
MEXICO: Mexican authorities

announced the discovery
of an extensive 1,500-year-
old palace and residential
area in the Maya city of
Kabah on the Yucatán
Peninsula, a site famous
for its temple complexes
decorated with images of
the rain god Chaac. The
recently uncovered palace
is 85 feet long and has a
porticoed facade with 8
pilasters, or flat columns.
The building’s architectural
features suggest that Kabah
may have been founded
by immigrants from Maya
settlements in the Petén
region of present-day
Guatemala between A.D.
250 and 500.
ENGLAND: Shakespeare’s stage?
Perhaps. Renovations of St. George’s
SAINT HELENA: Between 1840 Guildhall in King’s Lynn revealed
and 1867, some 27,000 enslaved original 15th-century wooden
Africans were liberated from floorboards obscured beneath
ships in the Atlantic Ocean by the layers of more recent flooring. The
British Royal Navy and brought building opened in 1406 as a religious
to the island of Saint Helena, meeting house and was turned into a
where they eventually settled. performance venue shortly thereafter.
There are few records concerning this population, particularly It has the largest surviving medieval
about where they were originally abducted from. New DNA timber floor in England. Records show that Shakespeare’s
sequencing of 19th-century human remains unearthed on the acting troupe played the theater in the 1592–1593 season,
island indicates that many of these individuals were likely from making the stage the only one known to exist that may have
an area between northern Angola and Gabon in Central Africa. been trodden by the Bard himself during a live performance.

TURKEY: Researchers EGYPT: Early Egypt’s most
deciphered a pair of powerful woman was buried with
Anatolian hieroglyphs that a wine cellar to match her status.
were recently identified Queen Meret-Neith, who reigned
within the Yerkapı Tunnel around 2950 B.C., may have been
at the site of Hattusha. The the first female pharaoh—she is, at
230-foot passageway was least, the only woman to have her
built around 3,500 years own monumental tomb in Egypt’s
ago and contains 249 enigmatic symbols on its walls. Only first royal cemetery at Abydos. The
some of them have been partially translated. One section queen was surrounded by plentiful
records that a man named Arisadu was responsible for the objects including hundreds of
tunnel’s construction. Another seems to include the words wine jars. Many of the vessels
“road” and “Tuthaliya Mountain,” suggesting that the tunnel still contain stoppers, preserving
may have served as a thoroughfare connecting the Hittite their contents, which could provide new information about
capital to this sacred peak. winemaking and trade in ancient Egypt.
CHINA: Guards protecting

the Great Wall of China
500 years ago during the
Ming Dynasty had a secret
weapon to toss at would-be
assailants—hand grenades.
While excavating the first
storeroom ever found
along the wall, near the
popular Badaling section,
archaeologists discovered
a cache of 59 spherical
projectiles. They were made
of stone and had been
drilled with holes that could
be filled with gunpowder
and sealed, creating an
explosive effect when
hurled at an enemy.
SUDAN: Full-spectrum
photography revealed
a rare medieval tattoo
on a man who lived at
the monastic site of AUSTRALIA: Dingoes are considered a menace
Ghazali in Nubia around by many today, but 2,000 years ago people had a
1,300 years ago. The much different relationship with them. Although
right foot of the 35-to- the canines are generally feral, Aboriginal peoples
50-year-old individual was marked with a occasionally adopted them. Excavations at
Chi-Rho, a Christian symbol composed of the Curracurrang Rock Shelter in New South Wales
Greek letters chi and rho. This symbol was suggest the two species even formed close bonds.
frequently used as an abbreviation for Jesus Dingo burials found at the site alongside those of First Peoples indicate that the
Christ, as chi and rho are the first two letters dogs were treated with great care, often receiving the same funerary rites and
of the Greek word Christos. burial customs as their human companions.
archaeology.org 21
TOP 10 DISCOVERIES
ARCHAEOLOGY magazine reveals the year’s most exciting finds
SACRED SPRING
San Casciano dei Bagni, Italy
t the beginning of the first century a.d., Among the rarest finds are 14 large bronze statues, some of
A lightning struck a sanctuary at a site
known as Bagno Grande, or Large Bath. For
which bear dedications to gods including Apollo, Asclepius,
Hygeia, Isis, and Fortuna Primigenia, who are all associated
centuries, the thermal pool there had been with health and healing. As important as the individual artifacts,
sacred to both Etruscans and Romans. When explains Tabolli, is the sealed context in which they were
lightning hit, the sanctuary’s priests were found. “The exceptional discovery here is the fact that we can
compelled, according to both Etruscan and Roman beliefs, to unlock the site’s sacred context and landscape by analyzing all
bury under a layer of terracotta tiles hundreds of votive offerings elements from the mud to the bronze,” he says. “We know
that had been brought by pilgrims over the years. This ancient that the Romans and Etruscans interacted continuously
ritual, known as fulgur conditum, or “buried thunderbolt,” was from the beginning of the first millennium b.c. and that this
intended to seal the objects in and mark the spot as especially included moments of conflict and of peace. At the sanctuary,
sacred. Archaeologist Jacopo Tabolli of the University for For- we see that there are safe spaces in which identities of different
eigners of Siena describes the discovery of these offerings, which communities and cultures merged.” This continued to be
include bronze statues of men, women, children, divinities, and true even after part of the pool was buried. From the first to
individual body parts, as a complete surprise. “We knew from fifth century a.d., the site was considered sacred by pagan
archival sources that in the 1600s and 1700s there was a thermal worshippers—who left even more offerings, mostly bronze
spa close to Bagno Grande,” he says, “but we had no idea it was coins, trees, branches, and fruits—and later by Christians.
an ancient sanctuary.” —Jarrett A. Lobell
Sanctuary, San Casciano dei Bagni, Italy

OF 2023
Bronze votive
statue of a
woman
Bronze head with

Etruscan inscription
Bronze statue of
a baby with an
Etruscan inscription
on right leg
archaeology.org 23
Oldest wooden structure, Kalambo River, Zambia Intentionally cut notch
EARLIEST CARPENTERS
Kalambo River, Zambia
R arely has a single find changed scholars’

views of the capabilities of people of the
past as radically as the discovery
have invested labor in building a semipermanent structure. “We
haven’t seen archaic humans manipulating their environment on
such a large scale before,” says Barham. “It
of the world’s earliest known suggests an attachment
wooden architecture, which dates to a single point on the
to nearly half a million years ago. landscape.”
The pair of interlocking logs joined by an inten- At the same site, the
tionally cut notch was unearthed beneath a bank team unearthed stone
of Zambia’s Kalambo River by a team led by Uni- axes as well as four
versity of Liverpool archaeologist Larry Barham. wooden tools dating
Researchers believe the logs may have formed to between 390,000
part of a walkway or the foundation of a platform and 324,000 years
built over wetlands. Prior to this discovery, the ago. These included
oldest known surviving wooden structures were a digging stick, a
built by people living in northern England around wedge-shaped
11,000 years ago. object, a notched
The 476,000-year- branch, and a flat-
old log structure tened log. Marks
predates the appear- on the log, notes
ance of the first mod- Barham, resemble
ern humans by some nothing so much
150,000 years and was as tool nicks on a
likely the handiwork work bench, invit-
of the archaic human ing speculation as
species Homo heidel- to what other struc-
bergensis. Paleoanthro- tures an imaginative
pologists believe H. hei- H. heidelbergensis
delbergensis was highly woodworker might
mobile. Thus, it is surpris- have fashioned.
ing that the hominins would Wedge- —ERIC A. POWELL
shaped Digging Flattened
object stick
24 log ARCHAEOLOGY • January/February 2024
CAVE OF SWORDS
Ein Gedi, Israel
n a cave near the ancient settlement of was also commonly used by Roman soldiers stationed in the
I Ein Gedi on the banks of the Dead Sea,
archaeologists from the Israel Antiquities
ancient province of Judea beginning in the first century a.d.
Three of the weapons were still sheathed in their original
Authority have discovered an assemblage wooden scabbards.
of four extremely well-preserved iron Why the swords were hidden in the cave is unknown,
swords. For the investigators, just getting although a coin found near the entrance may provide some
to the cave was a challenge, as it is located around 500 feet clues. The bronze coin includes an inscription reading “For the
up a remote cliff face. Accessing the swords required reach- freedom of Jerusalem” and likely dates to a.d. 134 or 135. This
ing deep into a narrow crevice in the cave’s upper section. coincides with the Bar Kokhba Revolt, in which Jews rebelled
The three longer blades, which measure between 17 and 25 against Roman rule. Researchers believe that local rebels may
inches, are spatha swords, which replaced the shorter gladius have taken the swords from Roman soldiers and stashed them
as the primary weapon used by Roman mounted and infantry away in a secret hiding spot to be used in the conflict.
troops. The shortest weapon is a ring-pommel sword, which —Jas.n Urbanus
Sword in wooden scabbard
Cave and swords,

Ein Gedi, Israel
archaeology.org 25
A PAINTED PRAYER MAGICAL MESOAMERICAN RELICS
Old Dongola, Sudan Mexico City, Mexico
he Templo Mayor, including the mas-
W hile investigating a house dating to the
sixteenth century in Old Dongola, once
the capital of the medieval Nubian Kingdom
T sive pyramids at the heart of the Aztec,
or Mexica, capital of Tenochtitlan, is like a
of Makuria (ca. A.D. 400–1400), a team from Russian doll, says archaeologist Leonardo
the Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeol- López Luján of Mexico’s National Institute
ogy at the University of Warsaw discovered of Anthropology and History. “When you
a puzzling network of rooms beneath the floor. On the walls of dig within a Mesoamerican pyramid, you find another that
one of these rooms—a narrow, vaulted space measuring just is older and smaller,” he says. In the ninth of 13 total lay-
three feet wide and nine feet long—archaeologists found sev- ers, López Luján and his team have uncovered a small chest
eral unorthodox paintings
that they believe date to
the thirteenth century. One
of these paintings portrays
the Virgin Mary. The other
depicts a scene in which the
archangel Michael holds a
Nubian king in his arms and
presents him to Jesus, who
sits on a cloud and extends
a hand for the king to kiss.
Painting of Virgin Mary, Stone chest,
“This is completely uncom-
Old Dongola, Sudan Templo Mayor, Mexico
mon for Byzantine Christian
art, which generally does not show a lot of interaction or contact
between mortals and immortals,” says team leader Artur Obłuski.
Researchers suspect this tableau is connected to a fateful
moment in Makurian history. An Old Nubian inscription HUNTER-GATHERER FORTRESSES
accompanying the scene includes several references to a king Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug, Russia
named David as well as a plea to God for protection of the city.
Obłuski says it’s likely that the painting portrays the Nubian
King David who, for unknown reasons, launched an attack on
the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt in the late thirteenth century.
R esearchers have learned that the earli-
est known fortresses in the world were
built by Neolithic hunter-gatherers around
Although the campaign met with some initial success, in 1276 the 6000 B.C. in the taiga of western Siberia.
Mamluks struck back forcefully and were advancing on Dongola. Archaeologists have long been aware that
“I see this wall painting and inscription as a prayer, as a call to Indigenous people in the region lived in for-
God when the Mamluk army is approaching,” says Obłuski. “At tified settlements defended by palisades, banks, and ditches,
this moment, the king prays to God to protect the city he loves, but believed such sites dated to no earlier than the early Iron
the city of Dongola.” The plea fell short, as the Mamluks sacked Age, around 1000 B.C. They were puzzled, then, when radio-
Dongola and eventually captured and executed King David. carbon dates obtained in the 1980s at one such site suggested
—DANIEL WEISS a fortification there had been constructed millennia before, in
the Neolithic period. The researchers wondered, were hunter-
Painting of King David, Old Dongola, Sudan

made of volcanic stone that, like based in an area that is now in
Stone chest and artifacts, Templo Mayor, Mexico
the Templo Mayor complex itself, the southwestern Mexican state
contains many layers of meaning. of Guerrero. In their most sacred
Inside the chest, they found 15 space, the Aztecs made the objects
perfectly preserved anthropomor- their own by embellishing them
phic figurines made of serpentine, with paint and placing them in
along with Aztec symbols of water the chest as offerings to their rain
and fertility such as marine sand, a god Tlaloc. “Tenochtitlan was the
pair of rattlesnake-shaped scepters, center of the Mesoamerican world,”
hundreds of greenstone beads, and says López Luján. Objects were
seashells, snails, and coral. The brought from all of the provinces
layer of the temple in which the of the empire, and even beyond
chest was found dates to the year its borders. “The Mezcala figurines
1 Rabbit, or 1454, when, under were considered by the Aztecs
Moctezuma I (reigned 1440–1469), magical relics from the past,” he
the temple underwent one of its says. “Many of these offerings are
most impressive expansions. But cosmograms, or representations
the figurines were already 1,000 in miniature of the universe as
years old at the time and had been brought to Tenochtitlan conceived by the Aztecs. The chest and its contents symbolized
from around 200 miles away. a mythic realm known as Tlalocan which was re-created by
These types of figurines were typically produced from Templo Mayor, where the rain god kept water and sustenance.”
around 500 b.c. to a.d. 680 by the Mezcala people, who were —Ilana Herzig
gatherers of the era sophisticated enough to build such elaborate dramatically due to newly mild climatic conditions. “The
defense works? “They doubted the accuracy of the dating,” says environment of western Siberia now seems to us rather harsh
archaeologist Ekaterina Dubovtseva of the Institute of History and unfriendly,” she says, “but for hunter-gatherers and
and Archaeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences. A team fishers it was a real paradise.” A population boom could have
led by Dubovtseva and Free University of Berlin archaeologist led to tensions that caused Neolithic people to enclose and
Henny Piezonka has conducted new radiocarbon dating of 20 fortify their winter villages. Dubovtseva says that medieval
fortified taiga settlements and confirmed that the earliest defen- and early modern written accounts and oral history indicate
sive sites were indeed built by Neolithic hunter-gatherers some that the Indigenous people of western Siberia lived in
8,000 years ago, making them the earliest scientifically dated fortresses because they could be attacked by their neighbors
examples of such fortresses in the world. at any moment. “Perhaps,” she says, “these early Neolithic
Dubovtseva notes that during the Neolithic period, settlements reflect the origins of such behavior.”
the number of people living in the taiga zone increased —ERIC A. POWELL
Neolithic fortified Burned structure, Neolithic

settlement, Siberia fortified settlement, Siberia
archaeology.org 27
Machu Picchu, Peru
Ceramic plate with

INCA WORKERS’ HOMELANDS head-shaped handle
Machu Picchu, Peru
estled on a mountain Santa Cruz, reveals that Machu Picchu’s caretakers
N ridge in the Urubam-
ba Valley, Machu Picchu
hailed from almost every part of the vast Inca
Empire, which at its height stretched along
was built as a palace South America’s west coast from what is now
that was part of a larger northern Ecuador to northern Argentina
royal estate belonging and parts of Chile. The researchers were par-
to the Inca emperor Pachacuti (reigned ca. ticularly surprised to learn that one-third of the
1420–1472). A team of retainers—skilled work- individuals came from two diferent regions of
ers including craftspeople and religious specialists— faraway Amazonia. “This suggests that at least part
maintained the estate year-round while the emperor of the Amazon was more fully integrated into the Inca
and his entourage resided in the capital of Cuzco, 45 Empire in ways that scholars hadn’t appreciated before,” Burger
miles away. Until now, who these people were and says. “Amazonian people weren’t just on the other side of a
where they came from has been a mystery. In 1912, frontier that had distant trade relations with the Inca.”
explorer Hiram Bingham excavated the burials With the exception of one mother-daughter pair,
of more than 100 of these retainers outside the the retainers were not related, indicating that they
palace walls. Some were interred with pot- were relocated to Machu Picchu individually
tery decorated in both provincial Inca and rather than as families or community groups.
non-Inca styles, including depictions of “Most of the males came from the highlands,”
people in Amazonian dress and in garments Fehren-Schmitz says, “while a significant
resembling those of the Inca. portion of the females seem to have had
A new genetic study of 34 of the ancestries associated with the lowlands
retainers, led by Yale University archae- and coastal regions.” While living at
ologists Richard Burger and Lucy Salazar, Machu Picchu, these people had children
archaeologist Jason Nesbitt of Tulane and formed new family bonds, creating an
University, and biological anthropologist Lars ethnically diverse community.
Fehren-Schmitz of the University of California, —Be)jami) Leo)ard
Ceramic bottle
WORLD’S OLDEST BOOK
El Hibeh, Egypt
A 10-by-6-inch piece of papyrus is,

researchers now believe, part of the
world’s first book. And, like many of the vol-
tackets, flexible material
used to join two things
together, similar to a
umes that fill offices, libraries, and homes, it modern ring binder.” The
has had many lives. The papyrus fragment, presence of holes for the
which was unearthed along with hundreds of tackets to pass through,
other pieces of papyrus at the site of El Hibeh in 1902, began a handful of which still
as a bound document dating to 260 B.C. that recorded taxation have remnants of thread,
Hole for tacket in papyrus fragment
rates for beer and oil scrawled in Greek letters using black ink. and the symmetrical ink
The sheet was then removed from its binding and sent as a letter transfer across the precise fold at the center, confirmed that
before being transformed once again when its other side was the bifolio had once been bound within an ancient manuscript.
painted with images, including one depicting a “An accountant must have detached the bifolio from the book,
son of the falcon-headed god Horus, and folded and sealed the letter, and then passed it on to a creditor
reused as wrapping for a mummy during or a debtor,” says Zammit Lupi. The discovery pushes the origins
the Ptolemaic period (304–30 B.C.). of bookbinding back by centuries. “The oldest book
Using microscopic and multispectral previously known was from the first or second
imaging, a team led by conservator century A.D., so this predates anything by up to 400
Theresa Zammit Lupi of the University years,” Zammit Lupi says. “The book could be
of Graz learned how the book was indicative of how transactions happened, of how
made. “You have a plain sheet of people lived, wrote, and passed information to
papyrus, folded in two, written on, and each other. Most importantly, we learned that
turned into a booklet,” says Zammit Lupi. the structure of the book, as opposed to a
“The different bifolios, or single sheets scroll, existed well before we thought.”
folded in the center, were attached via —ILANA HERZIG
Part of papyrus
fragment,
mummy
wrapping
side
Papyrus
fragment, tax
record side
archaeology.org 29
Giant panda burial, Xi’an, China Giant panda
Tiger Tiger burial, Xi’an, China
Tapir burial, Xi’an, China Tapir
IMPERIAL MENAGERIE
Xi’an, China
ear a royal tomb complex dating to the of the animal sacrifice is unprecedented in Chinese history,”
N Western Han Dynasty (206 b.c.–a.8. 9),
archaeologists discovered the remains of
says archaeologist Hu Songmei of the Shaanxi Academy of
Archaeology. The animals were buried with their heads fac-
more than 400 sacrificed animals—including the royal tombs, which included those of Emperor Wen
ing the first complete skeletons of a giant (reigned 180–157 b.c.) and his mother, Consort Bo, who died
panda and a tapir to have ever been found in in 155 b.c. The species represented in the sacrifice, some of
a tomb in China. In all, the excavation has unearthed remains which may have been sent as tribute from Southeast Asia, were
of 41 different rare species, such as a yak, tiger, tortoise, green status symbols and were intended to accompany the emperor
peacock, red-crowned crane, and snub-nosed monkey, some and his mother to the afterlife.
of which were buried with their own grave goods. “The scale —Ling Xin

THE FIDDLER’S THEATER
Rome, Italy Gold-covered stucco
R oman emperors were

known for many things,
among them displaying their
Nero undertook across the city, which included
construction of the Domus Aurea, or Golden
House, which served as his monstrous private
superior military and diplomatic pleasure palace. Like the Domus Aurea, Nero’s
skills, penning enduring philosophi- theater was decorated with marble columns in
cal treatises, and raising great buildings. white and a variety of colors as well as gold-covered
The emperor Nero (reigned A.D. 54–68) was famous for, among stucco, many examples of which were unearthed. “This discovery
other less entertaining quirks, his singing. According to several has the double value of confirming the existence of a brick theater
ancient Roman authors, one of Nero’s favorite venues in which in the Gardens of Agrippina,” says archaeologist Marzia Di Mento,
to stretch his vocal cords was a private theater he built in the who works with the Archaeological Superintendency of Rome,
Gardens of Agrippina, a luxurious villa that belonged to his “and of finding its precise location.”
mother in the Roman neighborhood near the Vatican now called —JARRETT A. LOBELL
Vaticano. Nero’s theater is known from literary sources—the
Roman historian Tacitus may have been referring to this build- Floor and walls of cavea, Rome, Italy
ing when he wrote about the emperor singing of the fall of Troy
as he watched Rome burn in July of A.D. 64. The structure was
largely dismantled for materials in antiquity and its precise loca-
tion was unknown until archaeologists unearthed its remnants
in a Renaissance garden.
The impressive ruins include the theater’s cavea, a 138-foot-
wide semicircular seating area, and a rectangular space with
entrances and stairways. Another building may have been used
to store sets and costumes. Both structures were built of bricks
dating to the period of the Julio-Claudian emperors (27 B.C.–A.D.
68), in particular Caligula (reigned A.D. 37–41) and Nero. The the-
ater was just one part of the self-aggrandizing building campaign
Nero’s theater, Rome, Italy
archaeology.org 31
An assortment of objects found at Hala
Sultan Tekke on Cyprus attests to the
wealth of some of the city’s inhabitants and
its trading connections with other Eastern
Mediterranean civilizations. Clockwise from
top: Cypriot jewelry made of Egyptian
gold; a Cypriot bovine and a Cypriot bird-
headed female figurine; an Egyptian gold
lotus-shaped pendant and an Egyptian
scarab; a black-and-white Cypriot ceramic
tankard; imported and local jewelry and
beads from Cyprus, Egypt, and India; and
an Anatolian redware spindle bottle.

IN THE TIME OF THE
COPPER KINGS Some 3,500 years ago, prosperous
merchants on Cyprus controlled the
world’s most valuable commodity
By J U
M
ore th7n 40 ye7rs 7go, a Turkish teeth, faience and glass beads, and gold and silver jewelry, as
sponge diver named Mehmet Çakir well as weapons and musical instruments. There are artifacts
caused a stir among Anatolian archaeolo- belonging to seven different cultures, including Egyptian,
gists when he showed them sketches of Nubian, Assyrian, and Mycenaean. “The Late Bronze Age is
objects that he had seen lying 150 feet the first international period of the Mediterranean Sea,” says
deep on the seafloor off the coast of Kas, University of Gothenburg archaeologist Peter Fischer.
in southeastern Turkey. He described them as “metal biscuits The overwhelming majority of the Uluburun wreck’s
with ears,” but experts immediately recognized them as a type cargo, however, consisted of one particularly desirable com-
of metal bar known as an oxhide ingot that was commonly modity: copper. The ship was transporting an astounding 10
traded during the Bronze Age, 3,500 years ago. tons of the invaluable metal, which is one-third the amount of
Authorities immediately began to search for the site, and copper it took to create the Statue of Liberty. Since the nine-
soon came across the artifacts that Çakir had spotted not far teenth century, archaeologists have categorized time periods
offshore of Uluburun, or the Grand Cape. In addition to the in human history by the most advanced material used for tool-
ingots, there were so many other ancient objects scattered making and hence speak of the Stone Age, the Bronze Age,
about that archaeologists and divers would spend a decade and the Iron Age. Without copper, which can be alloyed with
returning to the site. It would take them more than 22,000 tin to produce bronze, there would have been no Bronze Age.
separate dives to retrieve all the artifacts from what is one of Bronze was a revelation—it is extremely durable and holds an
the world’s oldest and most edge better than other materials
spectacular shipwrecks. available at the time. Begin-
In many ways, the Ulubu- ning in the third millennium
run wreck represents a micro- b.c., and especially during the
cosm of the Late Bronze Age second millennium b.c., copper
(ca. 1650–1150 b.c.) world was king and could make those
from which it came. This was who possessed it extremely
a time when mariners and mer- wealthy and powerful. There
chants crisscrossed the sea on was enough copper and tin
journeys spanning hundreds, on board the Uluburun ship
even thousands, of miles. In all, to produce 11 tons of bronze,
about 18,000 objects have been which experts estimate could
found at the Uluburun wreck, have been turned into 33,000
and together they weigh more A copper oxhide ingot excavated at the Bronze Age site of Enkomi swords. Copper, then, could
than 17 tons. Among them are on Cyprus resembles ingots found at the Bronze Age Uluburun also create armies.
elephant tusks, hippopotamus shipwreck, which sank off the southeastern coast of Turkey. Mediterranean traders had
archaeology.org 33
D
romolaxia-Vizatzia lies near the shore of Larnaca
Salt Lake. It is better known as Hala Sultan Tekke,
CYP R US Hattusha which is the name of a mosque and Muslim complex
Hala Sultan Tekke
A N AT O L I A
located a few hundred yards to the east that is considered
Mycenae
one of the most sacred sites in Islam. During the Bronze
Pylos
Uluburun Age, Larnaca Salt Lake—which is today blocked off from
wreck
Ugarit
the Mediterranean—had open access to the sea and provided
CRETE
CYPRUS optimal harbor conditions. The ancient site was first discovered
Hala Sultan in the nineteenth century, but it is only in recent years that
Mediterranean Sea Tekke archaeologists have begun to understand what a crucial and
L E VA N T
vibrant trading center it once was.
For the past 14 years, Fischer has been the director of the
EGYPT New Swedish Cyprus Expedition, also called the Söderberg
0 250 500 miles
Expedition, which, in conjunction with the Cyprus Depart-
ment of Antiquities, has carried out extensive geophysical
access to multiple sources of copper, but researchers have surveys and excavations of the site. Although the settlement
analyzed the Uluburun wreck’s copper and found that it all has only been partially excavated, fieldwork indicates that it
came from Cyprus, an island with vast quantities of the raw was founded at least as early as 1630 b.c. and grew significantly
material. Although there would have been a Bronze Age between 1500 and 1300 b.c. It eventually spread over at least
without Cypriot copper, it is hard to imagine that it would 60 acres, although based on surface finds that have been col-
have transpired in the same way. “Without any doubt,” Fischer lected over an even broader area, Fischer believes it might
says, “Cyprus was the main producer of copper during the Late have been much larger. “We’re sure the site is 60 acres in size,
Bronze Age. There is no other area that has such rich copper but we haven’t surveyed the entire surroundings,” he says. “It
mines.” Cyprus was also strategically located at the crossroads may be up to 120 acres; we don’t know.” That would make
of the Bronze Age Mediterranean’s greatest cultures, lying 45 Hala Sultan Tekke one of the most extensive Bronze Age sites
miles south of Anatolia, 40 miles west of the Levant, 250 miles in the Eastern Mediterranean—and most likely the biggest on
north of Egypt, and 340 miles east of Crete. As traders sailed Cyprus. “Compared to sites in the Levant, in the Mycenaean
from east to west and north to
south, they would inevitably
have passed by Cyprus, making
it a popular stop for merchants
and an ideal emporium.
Recent Swedish excavations
at the site of Dromolaxia-
Vizatzia on Cyprus’ south coast
have provided new insight into
a city that specialized in the
copper trade during the Late
Bronze Age and grew into one
of the largest and most prosper-
ous trading hubs in the Eastern
Mediterranean. This work has
provided evidence of the sur-
prisingly diverse nature of the
community thriving there and
established how those Cypriots
who controlled the produc-
tion and distribution of copper,
such as the shipment found
off Uluburun, could become
exceptionally rich. “Copper was
maybe the most sought-after
product of this period,” says
Fischer, “and the people of
Dromolaxia-Vizatzia produced
copper.” An aerial photograph of Hala Sultan Tekke shows excavations of two of the city’s industrial quarters.

cultural sphere, or in Minoan Crete, it’s very
large,” Fischer says.
Excavations at the site have revealed a
network of buildings and streets likely organized
using an orthogonal street plan. While some
of the structures were residential, much of the
urban space adjacent to the ancient harbor was
dedicated to industrial activities, which were the
catalyst for the city’s growth and prosperity. One
such industry was the production of purple-dyed
textiles. For thousands of years, from the Bronze
Age through the end of the Roman Empire,
purple dye was one of the rarest commodities in
the world. It was the color of kings, emperors,
and the upper classes. The process of extracting
the dye from the mucus gland of the murex sea
snail was extraordinarily time consuming, and
some experts have estimated that it took as many
as 10,000 murex snails to produce a single gram
of dye. (See “The Price of Purple,” November/
December 2020.) At Hala Sultan Tekke,
archaeologists have unearthed workshops
containing heaps of crushed murex shells, as well
as vats used to dye textiles, including one that
still has tinges of purple. Loom weights, spindle
whorls, and other evidence indicate that textiles
were manufactured on-site. “First you need to
produce the purple dye, then the fibers for the
textiles, then the textiles themselves, and then
you need to dye them,” says Fischer. “It’s quite
a long process and very expensive.”
Hala Sultan Tekke’s other major industry
and its raison d’être was producing and refining
copper. One of the world’s greatest sources of
copper was the Troodos Mountains, only 25
miles to the west of Hala Sultan Tekke. The
evidence for copper production in the city is A vat (top) in which textiles were dyed purple was found in one of Hala Sultan
ubiquitous––there are remnants of furnaces, Tekke’s industrial areas. Murex snail shells (above) found in Hala Sultan Tekke’s
molds, crucibles, and tuyeres, a kind of metal workshops. The snails were the source of a purple dye that was one of the
ancient world’s most luxurious commodities.
tube or nozzle through which air is blown into
a furnace. Fischer’s team has collected more than a ton of parts copper to one part tin, it produces bronze. This much
copper slag and ore, as well as discarded bronze objects that harder and more durable metal enabled people to fashion nearly
were being prepared for recycling. The city’s inhabitants, indestructible bronze tools such as axes, chisels, and swords that
then, had access to both copper mines and a protected harbor were instrumental in agriculture, shipbuilding, and warfare.
from which to trade their coveted resource. The only ques- The search for particular metals has often led to exploration
tion was, could they keep up with the demand from the ships and, throughout history, civilizations have launched daring
that landed on their shores? expeditions to obtain gold, silver, or other precious materials.
The Bronze Age was the first great age of sailing, partially due
I
t is difficult to pinpoint exactly when people began to to improved boatbuilding technology—thanks to the advent of
exploit copper, but raw copper has been bent and shaped bronze tools. Exploration was also fueled by the desire to obtain
into decorative ornaments or arrowheads for at least 8,500 the copper needed to make more bronze. These circumstances
years. Copper smelting technology, a process in which raw ore made the island of Cyprus one of the most vital places in the
is liquified so that it can be purified and poured into molds, Mediterranean during the Late Bronze Age and beyond. For
dates to around 4500 b.c. This was followed, around 1,000 more than 2,000 years, until the fall of the Roman Empire,
years later, by the development of the technology to create Cyprus was the most important producer of copper in the
bronze. When copper is alloyed with tin, at a ratio of nine Mediterranean. Cyprus was so synonymous with the metal
archaeology.org 35
of circular anomalies. Follow-up investigation revealed
that many of these features are graves. The location of this
necropolis, which appears to be outside the city walls, was
unexpected. “The deceased were typically buried inside
the settlement, usually in courtyards or beneath the floors
of houses,” says Fischer. “But in Hala Sultan Tekke, we
have a separated cemetery, which is something unique and
extraordinary in Late Bronze Age Cyprus.” Even more
extraordinary are the objects these tombs contained.
The burials were the final resting places of Hala Sultan
Tekke’s elite, who were interred in well-built and elabo-
rately furnished chamber tombs that were used by families
for generations. They contained thousands of grave goods,
many of them intact, that attest to the wealth that the city’s
rulers amassed during the height of the Bronze Age trade in
the fourteenth and thirteenth centuries b.c. These burials are
among the richest ever discovered in the Eastern Mediterra-
Some of the more than one ton of copper slag and ore nean. And much like the cargo of the Uluburun wreck, they
uncovered in Hala Sultan Tekke thus far hints at the scale of
include a broad spectrum of foreign goods. “What’s most
the city’s copper industry.
impressive to me is the multicultural nature of the objects,”
that the English word “copper” is derived from the Latin Fischer says. “It’s fascinating.”
word cuprum and the phrase aes cyprium, meaning As ships sailed to Cyprus seeking copper, they
“metal of Cyprus.” brought with them exotic luxury objects from their
The earliest written reference to Cypriot cop- homelands and others they picked up along the way.
per is found on an eighteenth-century b.c. cunei- Archaeologists have unearthed hundreds of imported
form tablet from the city-state of Mari in mod- ceramic vessels from the Mycenaean and Minoan
ern Syria that mentions a copper mountain in worlds, as well as pottery from Anatolia, the Levant,
Alashiya, the Akkadian name for Cyprus. Proof Sardinia, and Egypt. There are semipre-
of Cyprus’ near-total dominance of large-scale cious gems and stones, including lapis
copper trading during the Late Bronze Age can lazuli from Afghanistan, carnelian from
be found in the Amarna Letters, a collection of India, and amber from the Baltic. Other
fourteenth-century b.c. correspondence between objects include cylinder seals from
the Egyptian pharaohs Amenhotep III (reigned Mesopotamia, silver pendants from Ana-
ca. 1390–1352 b.c.) and Akhenaten (reigned ca. tolia, turquoise from the Sinai Peninsula,
1349–1336 b.c.) and foreign powers such as the and elephant and hippopotamus ivory objects
Hittites and Babylonians. There are eight letters from Egypt. Perhaps most impressive is an assortment
between Egypt and an unknown king of Cyprus, of Egyptian gold jewelry.
five of which mention shipments of copper from the
H
island to Egypt. Each shipment would have totaled igh-quality artifacts such as those found
thousands of pounds, similar to the cargo of the Ulu- at Hala Sultan Tekke tend to garner the lion’s
burun ship. Kings and leaders from around the Mediter- share of attention, but one of the Swedish
ranean sent their ships to Cyprus, many of which would expedition’s main goals is to look beyond these flashy
have arrived at Hala Sultan Tekke. items to learn more about the inhabitants of this particular
Cypriot trading center. “My primary aim for the last
H
ala Sultan Tekke had an ideal harbor, ready years of this project is to look at not only what these
access to copper ore, and, excavations have people produced, but at the people themselves,” Fischer
shown, artisans capable of producing large says. “Are they local? Are they immigrants?” It turns out
quantities of refined copper. Until recently, however, they are a mixture of both. Over the past few years, the
not much was known about the people who controlled team has conducted DNA testing and strontium isotope
this industry. Rather than being ruled by a single analysis of some individuals buried in Hala Sultan Tekke’s
monarch, Fischer believes that the city was likely run by graves to investigate their genetic backgrounds as well as
a cadre of powerful families who managed the economy where they grew up. The majority of those studied
and reaped the benefits of the lucrative copper trade.
Over the past few years, evidence of these commercial A statuette discovered at Enkomi represents a deity
titans and their riches has been found on the outskirts of known as the Copper Ingot God standing on a base
the city where geophysical survey detected hundreds shaped like an oxhide ingot.

belong to a genetic group that includes Anatolians, A Minoan krater (left), dating to around 1400 B.C.
Levantines, and Cypriots, as was expected. and imported from Crete, and a Mycenaean
krater (below), dating to around 1300 B.C. and
However, there were also individuals who imported from mainland Greece, were both
hailed from the Mycenaean world and even a found in Hala Sultan Tekke. They are further
woman, likely the wife of a copper magnate, evidence of the wealth and interregional
who was originally from Italy. connections of the city’s residents.
There is other evidence that some for-
eigners migrated to Hala Sultan Tekke. communities and crippling established
Excavations within the city have uncov- political and economic systems. The
ered examples of Sardinian black-bur- question of whether the Sea Peoples actu-
nished pottery along with Sardinian-style ally existed remains controversial, although
tools, which Fischer believes were brought to there is some archaeological evidence that
the island by immigrants. He does not imagine they did. For example, the Egyptian pharaoh
such objects, which are fairly low value, would Ramesses III (reigned ca. 1184–1153 b.c.) is
have been imported over such a great distance, said to have fought against and defeated the Sea
particularly since Hala Sultan Tekke’s inhabitants had Peoples in two battles, one on land and the other at
access to much higher quality products. “Why would sea, which are commemorated on a relief in his temple
the Cypriots import these pedestrian earthenware vessels at Medinet Habu.
when they had beautiful local Cypriot wares, as Most scholars agree that the reasons for
well as Mycenaean and Minoan pottery?” the Bronze Age collapse are nuanced and
he asks. “I believe that there were Sardin- complex, the result of several devastating
ians living in Cyprus.” Hala Sultan Tekke’s events, including a series of calamitous
immigrant population may also explain earthquakes, that occurred around the
why the cemetery was located outside the same time. There were movements of
city walls, which is a more common prac- people and invasions around the Eastern
tice elsewhere in the Mediterranean. “Hala Mediterranean that disrupted trade and the
Sultan Tekke is a harbor site, and harbor status quo, but they may have been more
sites have connections with other cultures,” a symptom than the cause of the collapse.
Fischer says. “Of course their population is a “The Sea Peoples are a phenomenon,” says
more mixed population. There were connec- Fischer. “There were people involved, but at
tions and people moved. We believe we travel the same time, in the twelfth century b.c., we
a lot today, but these people did, too.” have indisputable sources talking about epidemics,
pestilence, famine, and a worsening climate.”
T
he prosperity that Hala Sultan Tekke As for Hala Sultan Tekke, the city was clearly rav-
enjoyed, as well as the success of many other aged, likely by outsiders. “I’m quite convinced the site
major settlements and cultures of the Late was attacked,” Fischer says. “It could have been from
Bronze Age, came to a crashing halt in the twelfth an angry neighbor, but I tend to blame invading for-
century b.c. when city-states and kingdoms across the eigners.” These incursions, along with the silting up of the
Eastern Mediterranean suddenly declined sharply. Among harbor, which may have happened around the same time, were
these were Mycenae and Pylos in Greece, Hattusha in insurmountable obstacles to its continued success. Hala Sultan
Anatolia, and Ugarit in the northern Levant. Eventually, the Tekke was no longer able to maintain its role as a major trading
powerful Hittite Empire disintegrated, while even mighty port, ending a nearly 500-year period of prosperity. According
Egypt lost territory and suffered economic setbacks. Perhaps to Fischer, some of the city’s population may have followed the
most significantly, the prosperous cross-cultural trade that had mysterious group of marauders southeast, toward Egypt, and
come to epitomize the Late Bronze Age all but ceased to exist. then settled in the southern Levant. With the dismantling of
Hala Sultan Tekke was destroyed twice during this period: trade routes and the loss of copper trading ports such as Hala
first around 1200 b.c., and again around 1175 b.c. The city’s Sultan Tekke, the Bronze Age drew to a close. Ships like the
inhabitants initially tried to rebuild, but after the second sack, one that wrecked off Uluburun disappeared for centuries. After
they abandoned the site, never to return. the events of the twelfth century b.c., it became more difficult
There is little consensus among scholars as to what exactly to obtain copper, as well as tin, from distant lands. However,
brought about this catastrophic collapse. Since the nineteenth people would soon develop a new metallurgic technology that
century, many have blamed a mysterious group of marauders was even stronger and more formidable than bronze. This new
known as the Sea Peoples. Some historians and archaeologists technology would quickly spread around the world and would
have posited that this group, perhaps originating in Italy, South- soon usher in a new age, the age of iron. Q
ern Europe, or the Balkans, suddenly migrated into the Eastern
Mediterranean en masse and created havoc by ransacking coastal Jason Urbanus is a contributing editor at Archaeology.
archaeology.org 37
T
he Great Basin of North America is a lennia. The region has numerous rock shelters and caves that
200,000-square-mile depression that extends offered people comfortable homes. Large herds of bighorn
from the scorched soil of Death Valley in sheep lived among the basin’s rocky crags and alpine ridges,
southern California to the shores of Utah’s and plants such as piñon pine and biscuit-root, or desert pars-
Great Salt Lake. Its dry desert valleys are ley, provided people with staples they could rely on year after
divided by more than 560 long, parallel year. Tribes including the Washoe, Western Shoshone, Ute,
mountain ranges that reach heights of more than 14,500 feet. and Paiute established themselves in the region thousands of
The driest region on the continent, the Great Basin is unique years ago and continue to live in the Great Basin today. During
in North America because it is a closed watershed—any pre- periods of stability, their ancestors thrived. But it is an eternal
cipitation or snowmelt that accumulates there flows into lakes truth that nothing stays the same forever, and when the envi-
rather than into the ocean. ronment shifted and the water dried up, long-established ways
At first glance, the Great Basin might appear inhospitable, of life needed to change as well.
but a closer examination reveals a landscape rich with plants New research conducted by a multidisciplinary team led by
and animals that supported foraging communities for mil- archaeologist David Hurst Thomas of the American Museum
DRIED UP
A stone hunting blind in Nevada’s Toquima

Range would have been used by hunter-
gatherers to hunt bighorn sheep some
3,000 years ago. During a millennium-long
drought known as the Late Holocene Dry
Period that began around this time, people
in the region relocated from valleys to this
alpine environment.
H
of Natural History has identified a previously unknown mega- unter-gatherers first began visiting a 200-foot-
drought in the Great Basin that lasted from 3,100 to 1,800 years wide rock shelter in central Nevada’s Monitor Valley
ago. This era, known as the Late Holocene Dry Period, was the during the Middle Archaic period, some 6,000 years
most severe drought in North America in the last 6,000 years. It ago. Now known as Gatecliff Shelter, the site was discovered by
upended life for those who called the Great Basin their home. Thomas in the summer of 1970, shortly after he finished several
“By pairing ecology and archaeology, we discovered that there years of large-scale surveys across multiple nearby desert valleys.
was a huge drought that we had been blind to,” says Thomas. Gatecliff Shelter was smaller than other rock shelters his team
“People living in the Great Basin during this time were forced had excavated in the region, but Thomas was astonished at how
to rethink how they approached their landscape.” By using a much sediment had accumulated in the shelter over time. After
combination of precise environmental reconstructions and 10 years of work, Thomas and his team had dug 40 feet down,
specialized dating methods, the team has attained an in-depth the deepest excavation of a cave or rock shelter anywhere in
look at the ways the megadrought impacted the people of the North or South America. Preserved in the sediments were at least
Great Basin and how they adapted to a world that was chang- 56 distinct stratigraphic layers, each giving a picture of a discrete
ing drastically around them. period of human life in the Great Basin over six millennia.
0 250 500 miles
How foragers in North OREGON IDAH0
America’s Great Basin WYOMING
survived a 1,000-year
megadrought NEVADA
UTAH
COLORADO
Gatecliff Shelter
By M S Alta Toquima Village
CALIFORNIA
Great Basin
For much of its history, the rock shelter seems to have been
used as a jumping-off point for small groups of hunters. “Gatecliff
was a staging area for strategic bighorn sheep hunts up high in the
mountains,” says Thomas. Unlike at other campsites in the region,
where archaeologists have found evidence of a wide variety of
activities such as cooking and processing plants or hides, the ear-
liest objects left behind at Gatecliff Shelter seem to be associated
exclusively with hunting. The team found stone tools used for
butchery near hearths positioned next to the shelter’s stone walls,
as well as enormous numbers of bighorn sheep bones. Hunters
appear to have occupied the shelter on a consistent basis, but the
team noticed that they found few artifacts dating to between 3,000
and 2,000 years ago, suggesting that people may have been using
the shelter differently—or living elsewhere—during that time. To
explain this 1,000-year anomaly, Thomas had to look away from
deep in the ground and up into the clouds.
Throughout his decade of excavation at Gatecliff Shelter,
Thomas frequently found himself gazing up toward the nearby
lofty peaks of the Toquima Range. While he was always curi-
ous about how hunter-gatherers might have ventured into its
high alpine environment, Thomas didn’t fully comprehend the
mountain range’s importance until 1978, when a forest ranger
showed him images of a few prehistoric hunting blinds that
he had stumbled across far above the tree line. Thomas and
a team of students then ventured into the alpine reaches of
archaeology.org 39
the Toquima Range a few miles south of The 40-foot-deep excavation of Nevada’s
Gatecliff and were astonished to discover Gatecliff Shelter in the 1970s revealed that
the site was occupied infrequently during
not only several dozen hunting blinds the Late Holocene Dry Period.
similar to the ones in the photographs, but
an entire prehistoric village located on a cautions that it is important to think about
ridgetop at 11,000 feet. it as a continually changing process. While
The site, now known as Alta Toquima, the Late Holocene Dry Period was, on
consists of 31 pit houses where foraging average, much drier than earlier eras,
groups spent their summers. Unlike the there were occasional periods when rain
artifacts found at Gatecliff Shelter, which fell and replenished groundwater before
pointed toward small groups of hunters, disappearing again. The drought was also
the artifacts from Alta Toquima—such as geographically specific, greatly impacting
grinding stones and pottery—as well as the central and southern Great Basin, but
structures such as circular stone houses, not the region’s far north.
represent a wide range of activities, sug- As dry periods eventually began to out-
gesting that entire families lived together number wet periods, reliable water sources
on the mountaintop. Upon radiocarbon dating organic mate- began to vanish. “This was clearly a period in time when
rial from the houses, Thomas made an unexpected discovery. people and animals had to adjust to much drier conditions,”
It seemed that the periods of occupation at Alta Toquima were says Mensing. The dates of the drought seemed to coincide
inversely related to those at Gatecliff Shelter—when one site with the transitions that Thomas had seen between Gatecliff
had less activity, the other became busier. Thomas suspected Shelter and Alta Toquima and offered a likely explanation for
that the relationship between Alta Toquima and Gatecliff the periods of abandonment found in the archaeological record.
Shelter was an indicator of something consequential that had But the relationship between the two sites was still not entirely
happened in the Great Basin, but it would take him nearly clear, nor were Thomas and Mensing certain how people had
three decades to realize that the connection between the two responded to the drought elsewhere in the Great Basin. To
sites could help illuminate how people had adapted in the face fully understand the drought’s impact on people’s lives, they
of an unprecedented natural disaster. would need more radiocarbon dates.
I T
n the early 2000s, University of Nevada, Reno, paleoclimate ogether with Desert Research Institute
researcher Scott Mensing was analyzing ancient pollen archaeologist David Rhode, the team analyzed
samples to reconstruct past environmental conditions across hundreds of new radiocarbon dates from Gatecliff
the Great Basin when he began noticing a recurring pattern of Shelter and Alta Toquima, as well as from other excavations
aridity between 3,000 and 2,000 years ago. At first glance, this across the Great Basin. They also examined pollen from
suggested that a significant drought had affected the region, cores taken at several new locations, including three from the
but Mensing was suspicious of his data. He decided to test a Duck Valley Indian Reservation that the Shoshone-Paiute
larger number of pollen samples across a wide area. “To see granted the scientists permission to study. “Using a huge
something like a large drought, you need to make sure you are sample of archaeological and paleoecological dates, we were
taking enough samples and dates for it to appear,” says Mensing. finally able to see and understand temporary abandonments
After nearly a decade of testing and radiocarbon dating 64 and occupations in the record,” says Thomas. Radiocarbon
pollen samples, he eventually assembled a
convincing body of evidence for what he
would call the Late Holocene Dry Period.
Mensing found that approximately 3,000
years ago, the waters of the Pacific Ocean
became exceptionally warm. This kicked
off a sequence of La Niña climate events
that caused drought conditions in parts of
North America. Over the next millennium,
the climate in the valleys of the Great Basin
became increasingly dry, greatly impact-
ing plant life, animals, and people. When
envisioning a 1,000-year drought, Mensing
Pit houses in the prehistoric village
of Alta Toquima, located at 11,000 feet
in the Toquima Range, were
excavated in the 1980s.

dates typically have an error range of more than a century.
But the team employed a statistical technique called Bayesian
modeling, which uses an algorithm to minimize error and
refine radiocarbon dates to within the lifetime of an individual
person. By applying the Bayesian approach, the team was able
to narrow their radiocarbon dates to an astonishingly precise
level. “We can see changes in how people used a site within
a few generations,” says Thomas. “It’s totally changing our
perceptions.” With a much more precise chronology available,
the researchers found that when faced with a devastating
drought, people in the Great Basin did one of two thingsh
They either migrated or they adapted to the new conditions.
At the onset of the Late Holocene Dry Period, ancient for-
agers living in the north-central part of the Great Basin made
decisions about whether to leave their homeland. Because wet- A mountain lake in the Toquima Range, which is fed by melting
snow and ice in the summer, would have been an important
ter conditions existed only a few hundred miles to the north, it
resource for hunter-gatherers during the Late Holocene Dry Period.
appears that this was the best option for them. The researchers’
data showed an initial sudden decrease in the use of rock shelters beneath alpine boulder fields—actually grew during the drought
in the north-central Great Basin at this time, suggesting a total and also likely supplied an important resource.
abandonment. But Thomas says it was likely a much more fluid To live in the high mountains during the harshest summers
process. “As we got finer and finer controls on time, we began of the drought, people likely had to make significant changes to
to see it was more complex,” he says. While groups relocated their ways of life. “Prior to the Late Holocene Dry Period, people
to the north for perhaps five or six generations at a time, they lived in large base camps where hunters left families for days or
were still able to maintain a connection to their homeland and weeks at a time,” says Thomas. During the drought, they split
return when the conditions were more hospitable. The discov- into smaller groups and settled into more formal villages such
ery of prayerstones—small, incised stones used to commemorate as Alta Toquima, where each member of the community gath-
places of importance—that date to periods of abandonment at ered every night. With smaller groups and fewer people living
Great Basin sites suggests that even when family groups moved in the Great Basin, it likely became harder to pass information
away, some people occasionally visited in order to maintain their between groups or to create new families outside immediate
spiritual connections. (See “The Prayerstone Hypothesis,” July/ circles. To overcome these new challenges, people made more
August 2019.) Thomas notes that moving elsewhere in the Great intensive efforts to come together throughout the year. There is
Basin would have been difficult. A sudden influx of newcomers archaeological evidence of an increase in large group activities
into an area can create conflict with the people who already live during the drought, such as communal pronghorn capture and
there. While this risk seemed worthwhile to those who moved jackrabbit drives, as well as of temporary “supercamps” where
away, for others, it was a better choice to stay and change their people gathered during piñon nut harvests. “Everyone during
way of life by seeking refuge in the mountains. this time needed to tough it out together,” says Thomas.
The new radiocarbon dates from Gatecliff Shelter and Alta While learning more about the Late Holocene Dry Period,
Toquima confirmed Thomas’ original suspicion about what the researchers were constantly reminded of the power of
happened during the drought. “Once we ran the dates through resilience during times of great change. Even though people
the Bayesian model, the connection jumped out to us,” Thomas left sites such as Gatecliff Shelter and other valley camps, some-
says. “There were gaps in the occupation of both sites, and when times for hundreds of years at a time, they did come back. This
one was occupied, the other wasn’t.” The people who moved to suggests that, for centuries, communities maintained ties to
Alta Toquima when conditions became particularly dry returned places that many members may have never seen. “This kind of
to spend time at valley sites such as Gatecliff Shelter when favor- continuity across a megadisaster invites us to rethink how we
able conditions briefly resumed. But a question continued to look at abandonment,” says Thomas. Working in collabora-
puzzle Thomash In the face of drought, what had Alta Toquima tion with University of Arizona archaeologist Maria Nieves
offered that Gatecliff Shelter had not? The answer was a more Zedeño, Thomas turned to the concept of survivance, a term
tolerable microclimate and consistent access to water in the coined by Chippewa scholar Gerald Vizenor. “The idea of
form of ice. “Even in the middle of a horrendous drought on survival suggests that in a bad situation, people put their heads
the valley floor,” says Thomas, “the mountains were fairly lush, down and try to get through it on a day-by-day existence,”
well watered, and livable.” While the Toquima Range received says Thomas. “Survivance, on the other hand, is survival with
only slightly more rainfall than the valleys below, winter ice and an attitude. No matter how bad the situation gets, people per-
snow on the peaks melted slowly throughout the summer, feed- severe to maintain their culture and connection to important
ing mountain lakes and providing a predictable water source. places so that one day, they can return.” Q
United States Forest Service paleoecologist Constance Millar has
shown that rock glaciers—sheets of semipermanent ice preserved Matt Stirn is a contributing editor at Archaeology.
archaeology.org 41
MIDWAY’S LOST
WARSHIPS
Kaga Akagi
June 4, 1942 June 5, 1942
A A
t 1:25 p.m., the crew of the and the just-filled tanks of her Mitsubi- t five in the morning, Akagi
Imperial Japanese Navy aircraft shi A6M Zero fighter planes. The fires burned brightly against the
carrier Kaga removed the por- could not be extinguished, and three blue sky and dark water of the
trait of the Japanese emperor Hirohito hours later, the crew abandoned ship. Pacific Ocean. The flagship of Japan’s
from its place in one of the mess rooms. At 7:25 p.m., Kaga was scuttled by two carrier force, she had been built in
They knew their ship was doomed. 1,000-pound warheads fired into her 1.20 as a cruiser but was retrofitted
Several hours before, Kaga had suffered starboard side from the destroyer Hagi- as an aircraft carrier and had led the
direct hits from at least four 500- and kaze. The 816-foot-long ship began to attack on Pearl Harbor six months
1,000-pound bombs dropped by Doug- sink rapidly to the bottom of the Pacific earlier. During the Battle of Midway,
las SBD Dauntless dive-bombers flying Ocean. As she slipped away, her flight a dive-bomber just missed the ship
from USS Enterprise. Jisaku Okada, commander, Takahisa Amagai, watched but jammed her rudder, crippling
Kaga’s captain, had been killed instantly, from his place on Hagikaze, convinced the massive vessel. There may still
and the explosives had ignited the ves- that he should have been with his ship have been a passing chance to save
sel’s fuel tank, fuel lines, ammunition, and her 811 doomed sailors. Akagi, but her fate was sealed by a

Archaeologists survey the
sunken aircraft carriers whose
fate determined the outcome
of WWII in the Pacific
By J A. L
USS Yorktown
June 7, 1942
O
single 1,000-pound bomb dropped by n the afternoon of June 4, struck by two torpedoes fired from nearly
Lt. Cmdr. Richard “Dick” Best that Yorktown was hit in two separate a mile away by Japanese submarine I-168,
struck her upper hangar deck and 18 attacks launched from Hiryū. which had been stalking her throughout
fully fueled aircraft, igniting uncon- Following these attacks, her portside list the night. The torpedoes tore through her
trollable fires. To prevent Akagi’s was 26 degrees, and she was without power port side, igniting several fires. Hopes of
capture, Combined Fleet Adm. Iso- and dead in the water. Concerned that saving Yorktown were gone and Buckmaster
roku Yamamoto made the wrenching Yorktown would capsize, Captain Elliott left his ship for the final time. At 5:30 a.m.
decision to scuttle her, and four dif- Buckmaster gave the order to abandon on June 7, the enormous vessel turned
ferent destroyers fired torpedoes into ship at 3 p.m. Nevertheless, she was still completely on her side, revealing the
her damaged sides. She went down afloat two days later, and Buckmaster and torpedo damage. One hour and 31
bow first and soon joined Kaga on the some of his crew reboarded and attempted minutes later, her stern lowered, and the
seafloor. Her captain, Taijiro Aoki, to right the listing carrier by throwing crippled Yorktown began descending to
survived, while 267 members of her heavy objects overboard. While sailors were the seafloor. One hundred and forty-
crew did not. jettisoning aircraft and guns, Yorktown was one of her crewmen died with their ship.
archaeology.org 43
I
t took just four days for the war in the Pacific to
change course. Beginning with the Empire of Japan’s USA
Japan
surprise attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941,
the Imperial Japanese Navy went on a six-month win-
ning spree they believed would soon end in victory. Midway
They had reason to be confident. The Pearl Harbor
attack had caused the loss of almost all the U.S. fighter planes
on Oahu, as well as three cruisers, three destroyers, and two
battleships—eight other battleships were damaged—and cost Hawaii
2,403 American lives. At the start of 1942, the Japanese Navy

had more ships in better condition—it had 11 aircraft carriers,
while the U.S. Navy had six, two of which were across the Papahānaumokuākea
Marine National Monument 0 250 500 miles
world in the Atlantic. In early May, the carrier USS Lexington
was lost in the Battle of the Coral Sea; USS Yorktown was dam-
aged during the same battle and sent to Pearl Harbor for repairs. way, a tiny trio of islands halfway between San Francisco and
By January 1942, cryptanalysts from the U.S. Navy Combat Tokyo, where the U.S. Navy maintained a base. This time,
Intelligence Unit had broken the Japanese Navy’s main mili- U.S. forces would be ready. “Although we didn’t have the
tary code, JN-25b. On May 14, they intercepted a message entire Japanese operational plan, we had the date, the loca-
identifying an upcoming attack intended to draw the United tion, and the approximate number of carriers,” says retired
States into battle and destroy the remainder of the American Rear Adm. Samuel J. Cox, director of the Naval History and
fleet. The location of the attack was determined to be Mid- Heritage Command. “This enabled us to get our aircraft carri-
ers in place before the Japanese scouting subs could detect any
transit toward Midway. They wanted to draw us out and trap
us—they didn’t expect we would already be there. Without this
knowledge, the battle wouldn’t have happened the way it did.”
The Battle of Midway, which raged from June 4 to 7, was
one of the most decisive naval battles in history. Expecting no
naval resistance, the Japanese ordered four carriers to Midway.
But the U.S. Navy had positioned three carriers in the theater,
and by the end of the third day, Japan’s naval superiority
USS Yorktown (CV-5) burns (top) during the Battle of Midway, June 4, 1942. In a photo (above) taken by ROV Atalanta, Yorktown’s island, or
main command center and most prominent feature, shows heavy damage and warping from intense fire and exposure to superheated gases.

had been obliterated. Most disastrous was the loss of all four
Japanese aircraft carriers—Kaga, Akagi, Sōryū, and Hiryū. The
Japanese Navy also lost a heavy cruiser, 248 carrier aircraft,
and 3,057 men. In contrast, the Americans lost Yorktown, one
destroyer, 150 planes, and 317 men.
I
n early September 2023, a team of at least 100 historians,
archaeologists, geologists, and other scientists from more
than a dozen organizations, led by Ocean Exploration
Kaga (top) as she appeared around 1938 after being retrofitted as an aircraft carrier. An image (above) taken by ROV Atalanta
from the starboard side of Kaga’s broken stern shows that a large portion of the deck and hull is missing.
Trust (OET) with support from the National Oceanic and captures images and samples on the ocean floor, encountered
Atmospheric Administration’s Ofce of Ocean Exploration technical problems, forcing the team to use only ROV Atalanta,
and Research, embarked on an ambitious project to document a platform that usually hovers above Little Hercules as a kind of
the Midway ships, which now lie up to 18,000 feet, or more shock absorber against ocean swells, to dive on the ships. “Ata-
than three miles, deep in the Pacific Ocean. Forty-nine lanta can’t maneuver on her own,” says archaeologist Michael
members of the team were on board Exploration Vessel Brennan of the archaeology firm SEARCH. “Every time we
(E/V) Nautilus, while others were scattered around the world, wanted to move the camera, we had to move Nautilus. It was
participating by live video feed. The ships lay within the vast like tying a marble to a string of angel hair pasta and trying to
Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument—nearly manipulate it at more than double Atalanta’s standard operat-
600,000 square miles stretching from the Hawaiian island of ing depth.” The 21,000 feet of cable attached to Atalanta had
Nihoa to beyond Midway—but the team knew where to focus never been completely unspooled and the last section was still
their search. Oceanographer Robert Ballard of the University encased in the manufacturer’s wrapping.
of Rhode Island had located Yorktown in 1998, but the vessel Midway’s sunken vessels are so massive that even when the
had not been explored since. In 2019, Kaga and Akagi had team had Atalanta’s cameras positioned properly, it took more
been located by a team piloting Research Vessel (R/V) Petrel. than an hour to establish which part of each ship they were
The challenges facing the OET team were immense. There looking at. “I see surveying a shipwreck like a puzzle in real
had been at least a half dozen previous missions to Midway, time,” says Brennan. “You follow the ships’ plans and watch
but all had been bedeviled by weather or technical issues. This the camera and keep trying to figure out where you are as you
time the weather cooperated, but technology did not. Early are moving around this vast vessel.”
on, the remotely operated vehicle (ROV) Little Hercules, which First, the researchers surveyed USS Yorktown. They were
archaeology.org 45
able to document her condition and to make out the faint
letters of her name painted on her stern and the number 5 on
her bow—evidence of the vessel’s designation as carrier, or
CV-5. Yorktown is in much better shape than the Japanese ships
largely because an American air fuel officer named Oscar W.
Myers who was aboard the ship had watched Lexington sink
in the Coral Sea as the result of aviation fuel–fed fires. Myers
suggested pumping Yorktown’s fuel lines full of inert carbon
dioxide. “When Yorktown gets attacked, the Japanese smack her
Akagi (top) pictured at sea in the summer of 1941. A photo (above) taken by ROV Atalanta shows the wooden chrysanthemum
crest on Akagi’s bow that identified her as an imperial Japanese warship.
really good a couple of times,” says historian Jon Parshall. “But ship. “You can see that some of the shields that protect people
because the fuel lines were full of CO2, she didn’t sufer the sort from the guns and keep the guns from falling overboard were cut
of fuel fires the Japanese ships did. Without this innovation, away,” says Paridon. “Some of the guns are gone, too—aircraft car-
we’d see a much more heavily damaged Yorktown than we do riers are already top-heavy and they were trying to get anything
today.” Myers’ insight also saved innumerable lives. heavy of the ship to get her back on an even keel.”
The team did notice that the funnel,
T
or smokestack, on the island, the ship’s he OET team then turned
command center, is in particularly bad their attention to the two
condition. “The funnel is warped in Japanese ships: Kaga, or
such a way that indicates it was exposed “increased joy,” and Akagi, or “red
to extreme heat and superheated gas,” castle.” Many Japanese records didn’t
says historian Seth Paridon of the Mis- survive the war and its aftermath, and
sissippi Armed Forces Museum. “We the recent survey has added new levels
have a photograph of Yorktown’s island of detail to scholars’ understanding
belching smoke, so it’s interesting to see of these ships and how the battle
how this difers from other parts of the
ship where the steel is less warped and Three painted white squares (top)
cover Akagi’s name on the ship’s
what that says about the fires on board.” stern. A drawing (left) shows how
The researchers also documented evi- the calligraphic letters spelling Akagi
dence of the crew’s eforts to right the might have looked.

unfolded. “We learned new things about the
configuration of the battlefield and the position of
the carriers in relation to each other,” says Parshall.
“We were also able to verify many things about
the ships that we hadn’t been able to before.”
Although Kaga was partially surveyed in
2019, the OET expedition fully documented
the disastrous results of aerial bombs and subse-
quent fires. When American dive-bombers hit,
Kaga’s aircraft were being refueled for takeoff
and crews were switching from aerial bombs
that could damage ships to torpedoes intended to
sink them—there was ammunition everywhere.
Around 80,000 pounds of explosives were deto-
nated by fires that raged on the hangar decks,
and around 10,000 gallons of burning aviation
fuel was vaporized and triggered a series of huge
explosions. “World War II ships were marvelous-
ly flammable,” says Parshall. “The initial bomb
hits are just the down payment on what’s coming Sailors balance on the listing deck of USS Yorktown on June 4, 1942, as they
prepare to abandon ship after she was hit by Japanese aerial torpedoes.
next. Kaga was destroyed by her own ordnance
and fuel. Whether she was hit by two, four, or
six bombs, it’s nothing compared to the dozens of bombs and the near miss. “Survivors describe being huddled together there
torpedoes and all that fuel sitting there in her own aircraft.” to avoid being burned to death,” Parshall says. The OET team
Historical records say that these explosions blew out Kaga’s also recorded the location on the ship’s island where accounts say
hangars and decks and that very little of the upper parts of the Adm. Chūichi Nagumo—who was on board Akagi because she
ship survived. “The survey confirmed for the first time that was the carrier force’s flagship—and his staff slid down ropes to
she was burned right down to the main armor deck just above escape as the flames approached. “It was remarkable to imagine
the waterline,” Parshall says. “That armor deck seems to have that we were looking at that very spot,” says Delgado.
actually stopped some of the fire, but it’s also the tomb of two
N
hundred or so of her engineers.” The team also took the first o archaeological team, no matter how successful,
images of the substantial damage from the torpedoes that struck discovers everything they may have set out to find.
Kaga’s starboard side and helped sink the burning ship. In this case, they found very few traces of aircraft
near the ships. Planes couldn’t have survived the intense heat
A
lthough her location has been known since 2019, and explosions aboard Kaga and Akagi, and Yorktown’s crew
no one had really seen Akagi in more than 80 years until jettisoned her few remaining aircraft before she sank. Also still
the OET expedition positioned Nautilus high above missing is Sōryū, which was hit by three bombs dropped by
the wreck and lowered Atalanta. Compared with Kaga, more aviators from Yorktown, burned furiously, and was abandoned
of Akagi remains attached to her hull and traces of her partly within 20 minutes. She was scuttled at about the same time as
collapsed bridge survive. While exploring the vessel, the team Kaga, and her demise meant the death of 711 men. Hiryū, too,
was astounded to see the carved wood chrysanthemum crest has yet to be located—she was also bombed, burned, and then
that identified her as an imperial Japanese vessel preserved on scuttled on June 5, the grave of 392 sailors.
the ship’s bow. The flower was once painted or covered in gold Archaeologist Akifumi Iwabuchi of Tokyo University of
leaf, and a yellowish tint remains. The team also discovered Marine Science and Technology believes that further expeditions
three squares painted white covering the calligraphic letters should be undertaken not only to find the missing ships, but also
of the ship’s name on her stern. “I have no idea why they did to recover human remains. “Remains of soldiers didn’t scatter far
this,” says Parshall. “The letters are only 18 inches high, so no and wide on the seabed—most of them look to still be inside the
one would have even been able to see them—it’s a mystery.” wrecks,” he says. “Many family members who lost their kin during
The researchers saw evidence of a precise moment known the Battle of Midway look forward to receiving soldiers’ remains
from survivor accounts that, says archaeologist James Delgado of to consign them to family graves.” As with all war dead, they may
SEARCH, is a powerful reminder of the Japanese crew’s heroism be lost, but they are never forgotten. “We learned many amazing
in continuing to fight to save their ship. “A near miss by an aerial things during this project,” says Cox. “But we don’t celebrate a
bomb had disabled Akagi,” he says. “During the dive, the team place where over 3,000 men died—we commemorate it.” Q
found that an access hatch to the steering gear compartment
had been opened.” Parshall believes this proves that a damage Jarrett A. Lobell is editor in chief of Archaeology. To see more
control party went to clear the rudder that had been jammed by images and videos of the ships, go to archaeology.org/midway.
archaeology.org 47
The Power
of Pergamon
From their monumental capital, the Attalid
Dynasty ruled a realm where both Greek and
Anatolian culture flourished
By E H

T
he gleaming acropolis of the ancient city
The ancient city of Pergamon in western
Turkey was the capital of the Attalid of Pergamon rises high atop a promontory
Dynasty, which ruled much of the region that looks out over Turkey’s Bakırçay Plain.
from 283 to 133 B.C. With Pergamon as their capital, the Greek
monarchs of the Attalid Dynasty (283–133
b.c.) came to rule much of western Anato-
lia. The Attalids sculpted this hilltop city into an urban gem,
sponsoring construction of a theater, a multistory stoa—or
porticoed public building—and a gymnasium, all built on ter-
races lining the steep slope. According to legend, parchment
was invented to be used in Pergamon’s library, which rivaled
the one in Alexandria in Egypt. Roman scholars studied manu-
scripts from the library, and Roman artists copied Pergamene
statues. Around the middle of the second century b.c., Attalid
sculptors carved a depiction of the Gigantomachy, a mythic
battle pitting order against chaos, on a frieze more than 100
yards long that encircled the city’s Great Altar of Zeus. Yet
within a generation of the altar’s construction, the kingdom
disappeared. “The Attalids are like a flash empire,” says historian
Noah Kaye of Michigan State University. “It’s fascinating for
the moment that it represents.”
A bust depicts the Pergamene ruler Attalus I (reigned 241–197

B.C.), who gave his name to the Attalid Dynasty.
archaeology.org 49
T
he rise of the Attalids began in the early
Sea of Marmara third century b.c., during the geopolitical tumult
following the death of Alexander the Great in 323
Pessinus b.c. Alexander’s former allies, including the Seleucids in
Pergamon Aizanoi
southern Anatolia and the Ptolemies in Egypt, vied to control
Aegean Sea
the remnants of the fallen emperor’s massive realm. From
TURKEY
Alexander’s homeland of Macedonia, the general Lysimachus
Athens Ephesus laid claim to much of Anatolia’s western coast. At the time,
GREECE
Sagalassos Pergamon was a hilltop fortress where the general
kept much of his extensive silver reserves.
Lysimachus appointed his
Kingdom of Pergamon 188 B.C.
lieutenant, Philetaerus—who
0 100 200 miles
had roots in Anatolia’s Black
Sea region in addition to
Known as the Medici of antiquity for their financial acu- Greece—to oversee the
men and generous patronage of the arts, the Attalids rose to treasury. Around 283
power in such a short amount of time and left such a lasting b.c., Philetaerus defected
cultural legacy that their reign has long intrigued scholars. The from Lysimachus’ ranks and
dynasty ruled both Greeks living in the western coastal areas joined the Seleucid Kingdom
of their realm and people living in inner Anatolia, such as the to the south. Over subsequent
Phrygians, with a light hand, maintaining a decentralized form decades, Pergamon grew steadily from a vassal into a power
of government that was distinct from other kingdoms of the of its own. The successors of Philetaerus cannily parlayed
era. Instead of establishing garrisons and imposing bureaucrats, their diplomatic relationships with both mighty Rome to the
they allowed local officials to rule in their name. The Attalids west and local Anatolian rulers to carve out their own state.
found innovative ways to exert their power, using new taxa- The triumph of Attalus I (reigned 241–197 b.c.), over the
tion methods and savvy financial investments to fund lavish Galatians—Celts who had migrated from western Europe—
artistic projects such as the Great Altar and to promote local marked a defining moment. It was a victory that elevated the
civic institutions throughout their realm. Attalids to the status of an international power.
Research conducted over the
past two decades is offering new
insights into the connections the
Attalids forged between coastal
Greek cities and the far cor-
ners of the Anatolian countryside.
Excavations are showing how
they shaped high-profile centers,
including the cities of Pergamon
and Ephesus, as well as more
obscure communities in the Ana-
tolian interior such as Sagalassos
and Aizanoi. Ongoing work con-
tinues to reveal how this quintes-
sentially Greek power relied on an
openness toward Anatolian cul-
ture. This often-overlooked aspect
of their identity has consequences
for how scholars understand the
Attalids’ brief reign, says Kaye, as it
had an enormous impact on those
who came after them, especially
the Romans, who inherited their
lands. “We have come to see the
central role that the Attalids played
as the mediator of Greek culture,”
says Kaye. “They shaped what was A tumulus constructed two miles from Pergamon is now known as Yıgma Tepe. It may have
Greek for the Romans.” been the burial site for a number of Attalid rulers.

Grave goods from been lit by workers who built the mound. “We’re now quite
a burial near Yıgma sure that the tumulus is late third or early second century b.c.,”
Tepe include
the remains of a
says Pirson. “It could have been used by several Attalid rulers.”
spearhead (right), He notes that the mound would have been aligned with the
a sword (far right), steps leading to the Great Altar of Zeus. Scholars increasingly
and a Macedonian- view Yığma Tepe as part of a burial tradition native to Anatolia
style gold wreath adopted by the Attalids to bolster their bona fides with local
crown (below).
peoples. “It expressed their aspiration to be pan-Anatolian
kings,” says Kaye, “the new Priam of Troy,” referring to the
legendary Homeric ruler.
Finds from a grave in another mound outside Pergamon
point to the Attalids’ embrace of other cultures. In the early
twentieth century, archaeologists excavating this much smaller
tumulus near Yığma Tepe discovered the burial of a man wear-
ing a Macedonian-style gold wreath crown, along with what
excavators initially believed to be large and small swords. The
artifacts were recently rediscovered in the Pergamon excava-
tion storage facility. Close examination of the objects revealed
that the smaller blade is actually a spearhead. This combination
of weapons is in line with Celtic burial practice. “It might have
been somebody of Celtic origin who was part of the Attalid
The Attalid Dynasty’s dominion expanded greatly in 188 court or Attalid army,” says Pirson, “but it might also have
b.c. when Eumenes II (reigned 197–160 b.c.) joined forces been a Macedonian or a local Anatolian who found Celtic
with the Romans to defeat the Seleucids. Rome carved up the weaponry and the way the Celts used it interesting.” Celtic
former Seleucid territory among different Hellenistic rulers
and, in the Treaty of Apamea, handed the rulers of Pergamon a A section of a frieze depicting the Gigantomachy, a mythic
realm that stretched from Thrace, north of the Sea of Marmara, battle pitting order against chaos. The complete frieze once
encircled Pergamon’s Great Altar of Zeus.
to Anatolia’s southern Mediterranean coast.
Eumenes II expanded Pergamon’s fortified area from about
50 to 220 acres. Though archaeologists have recently
determined that much of this space remained undeveloped
during the Attalids’ rule, many of Pergamon’s grandest
monuments, such as the Great Altar of Zeus, were con-
structed around this time. It was also when the city’s street
plan took shape.
Some scholars, including Kaye, believe a massive
earthen burial mound measuring 100 feet tall and 500
feet in diameter about two miles away from the city may
have been as important to the Attalids as their monumen-
tal acropolis. Known as Yığma Tepe, the tumulus was
recently studied by a team of archaeologists led by Felix
Pirson of the German Archaeological Institute (DAI).
Seeking to better understand the relationship between the
city and its surrounding landscape, the DAI researchers
partnered with a Kiel University team that specializes in
geophysical surveys to conduct scans of the mound and
limited excavation at the margins of the site.
Using seismic scanning, the researchers identified a
feature inside the mound that Pirson believes might be a
collapsed grave chamber. The possible chamber appears
to be positioned partway up the mound, not on the level
of the surrounding ground, as is typical for tombs. During
excavations along a wall that encircles and stabilizes the
base of Yığma Tepe, the team retrieved ash from a camp-
fire that dates to the Hellenistic period, the three centuries
after the death of Alexander the Great. The fire may have
archaeology.org 51
Galatians were often the Attalids’ enemies, but some served A silver cistophorus (front and back), a
them as mercenaries. Pirson believes the grave is a sign of the type of coin used in western Anatolia
during Attalid rule, features
Attalids’ cultural openness. “In this early Hellenistic period in serpent imagery.
Pergamon, we have a kind of amalgam, a mixture of various
cultural traditions,” he says.
Another recent find shows how the Attalids adopted elements
T
of local Anatolian cultural practices. When their dynasty first he Attalids invested
emerged, shrines dedicated to the deity of the Anatolian mother heavily in their coastal
goddess Cybele, or Meter, were already an ancient presence on centers such as Ephesus
the Bakırçay Plain. The Attalids embraced the deity, who was (see page 53, “Shaping a Harbor
first worshipped by Phrygians in inner Anatolia. “The Attalids City”), but a number of archaeological
started a kind of dialogue with the local population by showing discoveries have revealed how they
interest in the cult of Meter without interfering in all these local transformed more distant parts of
shrines,” says Pirson. Cybele was even portrayed on the Great their territories, such as the lands in
Altar riding into battle astride a lion. southwestern Anatolia known as
In 2020, Pirson’s team was surveying sanctuaries dedicated to Pisidia. There, the inhabitants
Cybele in the Pergamon region when a shepherd pointed them of the site of Sagalassos had
to a cave a three-hour hike into a canyon several miles west of started to adopt features of
the city. They excavated the cave in 2021 and discovered a Hellenistic city, such as an
that people there began worshipping Cybele in agora, under the Seleucids in
the sixth century b.c. Terracotta figurines and the late third century b.c. But the
coins unearthed there also link the site to Hel- earliest known monumental stone
lenistic Pergamon. “The cave is so remote, you architecture at the site dates to shortly
don’t go there by chance and lose a coin,” says after the Attalids took over the region. In the early second
Pirson. “You have to want to go there.” The century b.c., the people of Sagalassos built a two- or three-
finds speak to Cybele’s enduring significance story stoa into a hill on the eastern edge of the marketplace
under the Attalids and the dynasty’s respect and another three-story structure, known as the terrace
for the beliefs of the Anatolian peoples over building, on its northern side. “For communities with hardly
whom they ruled. any tradition of monumental architecture, this would have
been a huge step,” says archaeologist Peter Talloen of the
Catholic University of Leuven, who directs excavations at the
site. Across Pisidia, the inhabitants of many other cities began
to build similar structures under Attalid rule. Some were built
with the dynasty’s direct support, while others may have been
constructed in emulation of their neighbors.
These growing Anatolian cities benefited from the Attalids’
approach to collecting tax revenue. “They found more efficient
ways to tax,” says Kaye, “rather than more coercive ones.” At the
local level, the Attalids employed earmarking—gathering taxes
that they spent on regional projects for the public good. They
stayed strategically low profile in some of their investments,
too, Kaye says. After taking control of cities, the Attalids often
built local gymnasiums, or supplied existing ones with olive oil,
cultivating the facilities as civic spaces. “The gymnasium is a
perfect place for them to donate money, to build monuments,
even to appear either in the form of a statue or in person without
sticking out, without causing offense,” says Kaye.
Another aspect of the Attalids’ financial strategy was the
creation of cistophori, coins issued at a value greater than their
weight in silver, which proved an efficient mechanism for
establishing a cohesive and consistent economy in Anatolia.
The system worked so well that the Romans kept it in place in
the region for centuries after the Attalids were gone. Cistophori
were notable, too, for their appearance. Instead of featuring
A figurine (top) depicting the Anatolian goddess Cybele was a portrait of the Attalid king, the coins bore symbols such as
found during the excavation of a cave (above) near Pergamon. coiled serpents or locally important motifs.

SHAPING A HARBOR CITY
The ruins of a theater in the port city

of Ephesus may date to the reign
of the Attalids. A building (below),
possibly a palace, was likely the
residence of the Pergamene
governor in Ephesus.
A
mong the most important cities the Attalid Dynasty possible reception halls. The building’s location overlooking
(283–133 b.c.) ruled over was Ephesus, a politically the port city was significant, says archaeologist Christoph Baier
and militarily strategic Aegean port. Scholars have of the Austrian Archaeological Institute, who led the recent
traditionally regarded the period under the Roman emperor excavation. The palace’s builders, perhaps emulating the hilltop
Augustus (reigned 27 b.c.–a.d. 14) as key to the city’s layout of the Attalid capital of Pergamon, constructed it on a
development, but new finds indicate that the Attalids had promontory above a theater. Archaeologists have unearthed
more of a hand in shaping the city than previously thought. evidence showing that the theater may also date to the Attalid
In recent years, archaeologists revisited a building complex era. “Both elements seem to belong to one major building
that had been excavated but not extensively studied. New work program that entirely changed the urban landscape in this
there suggests that the building dates to the second century b.c. area,” Baier says. He notes that the palace and theater would
and may have served as a Pergamene governor’s residence or have been visually arresting to anyone approaching the harbor
palace. An inner peristyle, or courtyard lined by colonnaded of Ephesus during the Hellenistic period—a reminder that they
walkways, had rows of rooms on three sides, including three were entering the realm of the Attalids.—E.H.
archaeology.org 53
The remains of a structure that was built during the reign of the Attalids stands near the agora, or marketplace, of the city of
Sagalassos in the region of Pisidia in southwestern Anatolia.
W
hile the Attalids were effective partners archaeological proof that Attalids had ruled Aizanoi. After
in supporting the ascendant cities of the Pergamenes’ arrival, people there began to adopt
Pisidia, they also found ways to extend Hellenistic ways of life. They used red ceramics,
their influence to even more remote areas. The a Pergamene style distinct from the grayware
kingdom invested in rural settlements that previously common at the site. The people of
served as natural crossroads, expanding them Aizanoi also started to expand their settle-
in ways that would attract people to worship ment, which had previously been restricted
and trade without forcing them to relocate to a tumulus encircled by ramparts. “Only
from the countryside. during the Hellenistic period does
The site of Aizanoi, about 200 miles east the city grow,” Ateş says. “They learn
of Pergamon, lay at one of these crossroads. urbanization from the west.”
In the third century b.c., Phrygians lived Even as Aizanoi came into the Attal-
there in sun-dried-brick houses and used ids’ orbit, the archaeological record
gray earthenware ceramics. Researchers demonstrates that local cultural traditions
believe the region was fairly isolated until persisted. A trove of clay figures found
the Attalids arrived and brought it under at a shrine three miles from the settle-
their rule. But evidence for their presence ment shows that throughout the Attalid
at Aizanoi had been elusive until a team period, locals continued to depict the
of excavators including archaeologist mother goddess Cybele using Anatolian
Güler Ateş of Manisa Celal Bayar Uni- artistic conventions, rather than Hel-
versity found a Hellenistic-style house
A second-century B.C. stela from the
with painted plaster walls that may have site of Pessinus, east of Pergamon, uses
served as a base for a Pergamene officer. Anatolian artistic conventions to depict
The discovery of the house was the first the goddess Cybele.

lenistic onest “They didn’t introduce any change into that Odyssey that decorated Sperlonga, the Roman emperors’
iconography,” says Ateşt summer residence on the western Italian coast, were fash-
The Attalids also transformed Pessinus, a once-obscure ioned in the style cultivated under the Attalids, which was
Phrygian cult site in inner Anatolia, whose shrine was well imitated by elite Romans throughout Italyt “When a person
known to later Greek and Roman authorst The historians paints their wall in Pompeii, and they want to make a beau-
Strabo and Livy both recount the story of Attalus I leading the tiful scene—what’s beautiful?” Kaye askst “They were things
Romans to Pessinus in 205 btct to collect a stone sacred to the that they’d seen in Pergamene art or in Pergamon itselft”
cult of Cybele, which scholars today believe was a meteoritet The power of the Attalids’ aesthetic endured long after
In a private home in the modern Turkish village of the fall of the Roman Empiret In 1506, a landowner in Rome
Ballıhisar, which today covers the site of ancient Pessinus, stumbled upon a buried marble statue depicting serpents
archaeologists discovered a marble slab bearing an inscribed attacking the Trojan priest Laocoön and his sonst Scholars
copy of a royal Attalid lettert Sent from Attalus II (reigned believe the sculpture is a Roman copy of a Hellenistic work,
159–138 btct) to a local military commander, the letter which appears to echo the Pergamene stylet Among those
added new context to a dossier of correspondence inscribed who witnessed its unearthing, according to lore, was the
on similar slabs that had been found at the site in the mid- sculptor Michelangelo, who would go on to create Renais-
nineteenth centuryt Scholars once interpreted these docu- sance masterpieces, some of which were inspired by sculp-
ments as showing the Attalids’ close cooperation with, and tures first commissioned by the Attalid kingst Q
deference to, Rome while they ruled this regiont The newly
discovered inscription, however, suggests that Pergamene Elizabeth Hewitt is a journalist based in the Netherlands.
leaders were deeply invested in developing Pessinus as their
own strongholdt In this context, historians have redated the An ancient Roman sculpture depicting the
Trojan priest Laocoön and his sons being
earliest letter in the correspondence to the late attacked by a serpent was unearthed in
third century btct, and now believe it is Rome in 1506. It is thought to be a copy of
evidence that the Attalids considered Pes- a Greek sculpture in the Pergamene style.
sinus an important addition to their king-
domt Though archaeologists have yet to find
traces of a Hellenistic monument at the site, the
letters indicate that the Attalids employed a similar
strategy to the one they used in Aizanoi to establish a
foothold in Pessinust “They take up a humble but
venerable indigenous shrine,” says Kaye,
“and they make it over such that it’s a
stronghold and a focus of veneration
across Anatoliat”
D
espite their success ruling
a kingdom that encompassed
both the Hellenistic and
Anatolian worlds, the Attalids’ demise
was as sudden as their ascentt In 133 btct,
Attalus III (reigned 138–133 btct) died just
five years after inheriting the kingdom,
bequeathing the territory to Romet Yet
while the Attalid Dynasty disappeared,
its influence persistedt Pergamon served as
Rome’s first capital in Anatolia, and many of
the inner Anatolian sites that the Attalids had
first developed, including Aizanoi, became
significant centers during the Roman periodt
In some cases, monumental urban structures
commissioned by the Attalids remained in
use for centuriest
The Attalids also left a substantial cul-
tural legacyt The art they sponsored was
emulated by the Romans for centuriest
Sculptures depicting scenes from the
archaeology.org 55
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A catacomb filled with niches for burying
the dead was discovered in 1919 beneath
Villa Torlonia, a lavish estate on the
outskirts of Rome. Unlike other catacombs
in the city, this one was used by Rome’s
Jewish population, as evidenced by
symbols such as menorahs in the frescoes
covering its walls and ceilings.
LETTER FROM ROME
SECRETS OF THE
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A subterranean necropolis offers archaeologists a rare
glimpse of the city’s early Jewish community
By S T S
iovanni Torlonia, an Italian acquired the land in 1796, the estate roof framing a terracotta bas-relief.
G noble who had followed

his family into the banking
business, began to renovate and
had become host to a combination of
stunning architectural constructions
and at times bizarre attempts to
In addition to a large ballroom lined
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the mansion was decorated with
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the Via Nomentana, an ancient road white mansion that stood at the top some acquired from archaeological
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Since Torlonia’s great-grandfather had neoclassical portico with a triangular the nineteenth century. Disappointed
archaeology.org 57
LETTER FROM ROME
branches—on the wall and ceiling Rome will yield more Jewish cata-
frescoes and grave markers. This was a combs and inscriptions, the material
clear sign that this catacomb was Jew- at present available is sufficient to per-
IT
A
Villa Torlonia
LY
Catacomb ish, unlike most of the others in the mit a partial reconstruction of certain
city. Villa Torlonia was the sixth, and aspects of the ancient community.”
so far the last, Jewish catacomb to be Leon’s statement remains true, say
TRASTEVERE
ROME found in Rome and is one of just two modern scholars of the site. A recent
accessible today. The other is Vigna restoration and survey project at Villa
Tiber River
Randanini, which was discovered in Torlonia, overseen by the Archaeolog-

Vigna Randanini 1859 and is located on the Appian ical Superintendency of Rome, resulted
Catacomb Way, a major ancient road that is in the discovery of additional burials,
home to several Christian catacombs inscriptions, and artifacts. “The cata-
0 1 2 3 miles as well. Three others also identified combs are virtually the only surviv-
during the nineteenth century were ing testimonies of a distinctly Jewish
that the estate itself had yielded
no ruins, Giovanni’s grandfather,
Alessandro, had commissioned a range
of facsimiles to dot the landscape,
including Egyptian obelisks, a basilica,
a dilapidated Temple of Saturn, and a
miniature Roman Forum with fallen
columns. Giovanni carried on the
tradition, installing an Etruscan-style
tomb in the mansion’s basement.
Many of these structures still stand on
the estate, which is now a public park.
While digging to build a new stable
as part of the 1919 renovations, work-
ers discovered a catacomb, with mazes
of passageways whose walls were
filled with niches for the dead. From
The neoclassical Casino Nobile is the centerpiece of Villa Torlonia. From 1925 to 1943,
the second through fifth century a.d.,
the grand mansion was home to the Fascist leader Benito Mussolini and his family.
catacombs were a common approach
to burial in Rome. Rapidly advanc- later reburied and lost. The first Jew- material culture in ancient Rome,” says
ing urban development in the early ish catacomb to be discovered, in the Jessica Dello Russo, an archaeologist at
twentieth century led to the discovery early seventeenth century, was located the Center for Israel Studies at Yeshiva
of many ancient catacombs, while in the Monteverde neighborhood. University. “We wouldn’t know about
others had been unearthed as early as Scholars studied it and recorded many these people without the evidence
the Middle Ages. These underground of its inscriptions, but it was buried from the Jewish catacombs.”
necropolises emerged as popular tar- by a landslide in the early twentieth
gets for grave robbers, explorers, and, century. oday, many of the buildings
eventually, archaeologists. To date,
more than 60 catacombs, amounting
to hundreds of miles of passages, have
Around 600 inscriptions from
Rome’s Jewish catacombs have been
documented in all, making up the
T in Villa Torlonia Park serve as
museums, theaters, and other
cultural centers. A long hall with large,
been identified beneath the city. largest collection of archaeological evi- arched windows originally designed
But the catacomb at Villa Torlonia dence from any early European Jewish to mimic an orangery is now home
stands out, and has since its discovery. diaspora community. Shortly after the to La Limonaia, an upscale restaurant
When archaeologists first entered the Villa Torlonia catacomb’s discovery, serving local cuisine. Across the
underground complex, they were the American classicist Harry Leon, grounds via a network of walking
struck by the numerous depictions of then a doctoral student at Harvard trails is the Serra Moresca, the Moorish
menorahs—candelabras with seven University, wrote: “Whether or not Greenhouse, built in an orientalist style

others from continu- inscriptions, and additional evidence of
ing their explora- the complex’s date. When the Torlonia
tion after just a few property became a city park, control
years. Then, in 1925, over its catacomb passed from the Vat-
Torlonia offered the ican, which had overseen all of Rome’s
Fascist leader Benito catacombs, to the Italian government.
Mussolini, who had Beginning in 2018, the team from
recently forced Italy’s the Archaeological Superintendency
king out of power, of Rome thoroughly surveyed the
use of the property as catacomb, repaired leaks that were
his official residence. damaging frescoes, shored up the pas-
Mussolini moved sageways, and collaborated with a
into the Casino Nob- religious conservation project. Under
ile with his family, rabbinic guidance and out of respect
A dilapidated Temple of Saturn is one of a number of
where they would for the significance the site holds for
structures built at Villa Torlonia during the nineteenth
century that were intended to mimic ancient ruins. stay for the next 18 the religious and cultural identity of
years, and made the the Jewish people, conservators used
with colorful stained-glass windows. estate off-limits to archaeologists. Tor- a clay mixture similar to the original
The entrance to the catacomb is lonia himself relocated to the Casina to seal off more than 3,000 graves that
located near the western edge of the delle Civette, the House of the Owls, had been broken open over the years.
estate, between two former stables perhaps the property’s oddest structure. They also collected scattered skel-
that are now part of the library of the It had originally been built as a Swiss etal remains found in the catacomb’s
National Academy of Sciences. A chalet, but Torlonia made multiple passageways and buried them in a
fenced-off staircase shaded by trees additions in a hodgepodge of styles, common grave. Although research-
leads underground. The steps narrow many incorporating owl motifs. Dur- ers aren’t able to study the bones of
as they approach the dark corridors, ing Mussolini’s time at the luxurious the dead, the Villa Torlonia catacomb
which are around three feet wide. estate, he played tennis, practiced horse continues to offer valuable historical
The catacomb’s passageways are jumping, honed his fencing skills, and insight into the people who made up
lined with nearly 4,000 shelves carved hosted lavish events such as a breakfast Rome’s early Jewish community.
into the walls to hold the dead. Many following the wedding of his daughter
of the names of the deceased are still Edda. In 1938, Mussolini announced ews first came to Rome in the
visible, generally painted on or carved
into stucco used to seal the graves,
along with blessings to rest in peace
restrictive measures against Jews,
including banning them from teach-
ing in public schools, marrying non-
J second century b.c., some as
slaves captured in wars, and some
as immigrants. This makes Rome one
and other inscriptions. In a few places, Jews, serving in the armed services, of the two earliest destinations of the
the catacomb’s narrow passageways and working in particular sectors, such Jewish diaspora in Europe; Jews arrived
open into atriums where colorful as journalism. Mussolini’s government in Greece around the same time, or
frescoes decorate the vaulted ceilings was well aware that a Jewish catacomb possibly about a century earlier. “Rome
and many of the arched recesses. In dating back 1,800 years sat below his was seen as a place that was stable,
addition to menorahs, these frescoes palatial residence and heavily guarded where you could build a community,”
feature Jewish motifs such as a holy ark its entrances, fearing it could provide a says historian Samuele Rocca of Ariel
to house Torah scrolls; shofars, ram’s- route into the estate. University. Jews attended public
horn trumpets blown on religious hol- Allied troops occupied the property assemblies and took part in Roman
idays; and lulavs, palm branches waved for several years after the end of World politics, according to the first-century
during the festival of Sukkot, which War II, and archaeologists didn’t b.c. writer Cicero, though he took a
celebrates the harvest season. There are return to the catacomb until the 1970s. negative view of their participation.
also geometric designs and illustrations Over the following two decades, First under Julius Caesar and then
of peacocks, roosters, flowers, and fruit various teams carried out surveys and under the emperor Augustus (reigned
trees, possibly meant to depict paradise. work to stabilize the site, noting new 27 b.c.–a.d. 14), who greatly
Studying the site has not been easy. findings, such as several shafts that had expanded the empire, Rome’s Jewish
Fear of collapse prevented Leon and been designed to let in fresh air, more communities were considered legal
archaeology.org 59
LETTER FROM ROME
community. Leonard Rutgers of Utrecht University

Many of the suggests the catacombs were used at
enslaved captives least 100 years earlier, beginning in
brought back the first century a.d. “This opens up
from Jerusalem the possibility that the whole idea of
were sold in the catacombs originated with the Jewish
countryside and community,” he says. The standard
never made it funerary practice among pre-Christian
to Rome. Ulti- Romans was cremation, which was
mately, some of incompatible with Jewish tradition.
these enslaved Underground burials had a precedent
Jews were able in Jewish history and likely offered an
to win their appealing alternative to Rome’s Jews.
freedom, and a “It’s possible that they brought the tra-
A fresco in the Villa Torlonia catacomb includes Jewish motifs few went on to dition with them when they came to
such as menorahs, a holy ark to house Torah scrolls, and an become Jew- Rome,” Rutgers says. He notes that the
etrog, a citrus fruit waved during the harvest festival of Sukkot. ish community shape of some tombs in the Jewish cat-
leaders. In a.d. acombs, especially in Vigna Randanini,
entities, with jurisdiction over matters 212, the emperor Caracalla (reigned with openings for the bodies extend-
such as marriage, divorce, and civil a.d. 198–217) declared that any free ing into rather than along the walls,
disputes between Jews. A number of male living in Roman territory could could have been modeled on similar
synagogues were built, including one become a citizen. kohkim tombs common among Jews
dating to the first century a.d. in Ostia, By the late second century a.d., the in the Eastern Mediterranean, includ-
which was then Rome’s main port. At catacomb at Villa Torlonia had come ing Jerusalem. But not all scholars are
this point, Rome’s Jewish community into use. The cross vaults and arches convinced that Jews pioneered the use
may have numbered 40,000 to 50,000, found in it are also seen at other sites of catacombs in Rome. According to
around 5 percent of the city’s total from that time in Rome, says archaeol- Dello Russo, the evidence strongly
population. ogist Yuval Baruch of the Israel Antiq- suggests that Christians, Jews, and oth-
Official Roman propaganda at uities Authority, who recently carried ers all began using catacombs only in
times targeted Jews. This was espe- out a photogrammetric study of the the second or third century a.d. She
cially the case during the First Jewish- complex. However, radiocarbon dat- also points out that other non-Jewish
Roman War (a.d. 66–73), in which ing of charcoal fragments embedded groups carried out underground buri-
Jewish forces in the ancient province in lime used to seal some of the graves als elsewhere in Italy long before
of Judea rose up in revolt against the that was carried out by archaeologist Rome’s catacombs came into existence.
Romans, who had enacted punitive
tax policies and, the Jews believed, he Villa
stolen money from the Temple, the
center of Jewish religious practice in
Jerusalem. During the war, in a.d. 70,
T Torlonia
necropolis
started out as
the Romans destroyed the Temple. two separate
Their commander, Titus, would later underground burial
become emperor (reigned a.d. 79–81). complexes that
As was common to mark military vic- were eventually
tories, the Romans built a triumphal joined. The
arch celebrating Titus’ exploits that deeper complex,
depicts Roman soldiers marching off which reaches
with the Temple’s seven-branched around 30 feet
menorah and other sacred objects. The underground, may
arch still stands in the Roman Forum. The Serra Moresca, or Moorish Greenhouse, with its brightly
have originally
Nonetheless, Rocca says, life remained colored tiles and stained-glass windows, was also built on the been dug as part
stable for Rome’s growing Jewish grounds of Villa Torlonia during the nineteenth century. of Rome’s water

system, a pattern seen in other
catacombs in the city. This section of
the catacomb includes an open area at
the foot of the entry stairs, probably
meant to receive the funeral bier along
with mourners, says Marzia Di Mento,
an archaeologist working with the
Archaeological Superintendency of
Rome who was involved in the recent
survey. This funerary arrangement is
described in the Mishnah, the earliest
written collection of Jewish laws and
traditions, compiled in the late second
century a.d. Beyond this open area
are several passageways lined with
simple burial niches. During the recent
survey, archaeologists found a wall
carving along one of the corridors
depicting part of the catacomb’s
Benito Mussolini’s daughter Edda and
layout. Archaeologists say this could her husband, Fascist propagandist and
be a plan meant for builders to follow. Italian foreign minister Galeazzo Ciano,
“This carving can be read as evidence were photographed at Villa Torlonia.
of how the niches in this area were
constructed,” Di Mento says. seems that Rome’s Jews were inte-
The upper part of the catacomb, grated into the city, working in pro-
which extends to about 16 feet deep, fessions ranging from butchery to
includes larger burial spaces framed by medicine, and worshipping in at least
recessed arches decorated with elabo- 11 different synagogues throughout
rate frescoes. Di Mento says the two the city. Membership in these congre-
distinct areas likely represent older and gations is believed to have been based
newer sections, with the deeper one on where worshippers lived and where
built first. Baruch, on the other hand, they came from. About 75 percent of
believes the sections could have been the inscriptions in the Villa Torlonia
used or built by people from different catacomb are written in Greek, the
communities or social classes. With its language spoken in the eastern parts of
more ornate and commodious design, the empire, including cities in Egypt,
the upper section may have been used Greece, and Judea, where many of
for burial of wealthier members of the Rome’s Jewish communities had their
community. This section also contains roots. The rest of the inscriptions are
most of the catacomb’s illustrations. mainly in Latin, and many of the
The recent survey revealed around 50 Greek inscriptions include Latin names
additional burials under the floors of written in Greek letters. “This shows
the catacomb’s corridors, throughout a movement toward Latin, which
both parts of the complex. “This means was the more dominant language in
the catacomb was likely used over a Rome,” Rutgers says. “But the use of
long period of time,” Di Mento says. both of these languages shows a high
“Once all the wall space was used, they level of cultural integration.” Only
began using the floor space as well.” one inscription in Hebrew has been
Based on the hundreds of inscrip- found. It was partly deciphered during
tions found at Villa Torlonia and the the recent work and it, too, appears to
other Jewish catacombs in Rome, it contain a Latin name—Clodio—fol-
archaeology.org 61
LETTER FROM ROME
Temple in a.d. of numerous nomadic invasions and

70. “It was at outbreaks of disease. The standing of
Villa Torlonia Jews in Rome had also diminished
that the meno- significantly by then. Following the
rah, which was empire’s embrace of Christianity
later commonly under the emperor Constantine
used in Jewish (reigned a.d. 306–337) in a.d. 312,
art and in syna- and the declaration of Christianity
gogues, began as the empire’s official religion by
to emerge as a the emperor Theodosius I (reigned
major Jewish a.d. 379–395) in a.d. 380, marriages
symbol, and also between Jews and Christians were
to take on escha- banned, Jews were forbidden
tological mean- from owning Christian slaves, and
ings,” Baruch Christians who converted to Judaism
An atrium with stacked niches for the dead in the upper section
of the catacomb features a recessed arch decorated with
says. He explains could have their property confiscated.
elaborate wall paintings of geometric designs and peacocks. that the menorah “We cannot really know what
was originally happened to the Jews,” Rocca says.
lowed by the words “shalom, shalom.” a symbol associated with the priests “Most probably left.”
Di Mento says it is likely part of a of the Temple in Jerusalem. After the Centuries after Rome’s catacombs
eulogy meaning something akin to Temple’s destruction, the menorah had ceased to be used, interest in
“rest in peace.” came to be connected to the belief that them began to grow, mainly among
Rome’s six known Jewish cata- the Temple would be rebuilt, usher- Christians. Pilgrims visited the
combs were located in various parts ing in the coming of the messiah and underground burial sites and left
of the city’s outskirts, suggesting that resurrection of the dead. “This was behind signatures and other graffiti
the Jewish community was not con- a community that developed under on walls. The existence of Jewish
centrated in one place. “In general, we the shadow of the Arch of Titus,” catacombs was virtually unknown,
know that people were buried near says Baruch. “They were constantly although there were occasional hints.
where they lived,” Rutgers says, adding reminded of the Temple’s destruction, In 1160, Spanish Jewish traveler
that Roman law forbade burials within and the menorah was a symbol of that. Benjamin of Tudela reported seeing
the city; thus they were often located At the same time, there was hope for caverns containing Jewish burials on
along main roads leading out of town. the rebuilding of the Temple, and the a hillside above the Jewish ghetto,
“We also see that the inscriptions place menorah was also a symbol of that.” known as Trastevere, on the western
a lot of emphasis on the person’s role
in the Jewish community. This is their he use of
prime identifier and what is important
to them.” Inscriptions tend to include
the name of the deceased’s synagogue
T catacombs,
at Villa
Torlonia and
as well as the position they held in it, elsewhere,
such as rabbi, community board mem- appears to have
ber, or benefactor. However, many come to an end
graves lack inscriptions, pointing to at the beginning
large numbers of Jews who were poor. of the fifth
Throughout the Villa Torlonia century a.d. This
catacomb, menorahs are depicted both coincided with
in decorative frescoes and alongside the decline of
simple tomb inscriptions. The preva- Rome, when the
lence of images of menorahs is unique city’s population
for the time. Even in Jerusalem, just a shrank A relief on the Arch of Titus in the Roman Forum depicts Roman
few depictions of menorahs are known significantly soldiers carrying the menorah from the Temple in Jerusalem
from before the destruction of the in the wake after destroying the sacred structure in A.D. 70.

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LETTER FROM ROME
the possible Throughout most of this period, the

presence of a Jews of Rome were confined to the
Jewish cemetery. Trastevere ghetto, where they lived in
In 1602, poor and unsanitary conditions. “They
Antonio Bosio, were intellectually and economically
the author cut off from the rest of Roman life, and
of the first would not have been aware of these
extensive book findings,” Rocca says. The Jews were
about Rome’s only freed from the ghetto in 1870
catacombs, with the unification of Italy following
Roma Sotterranea, the fall of the Papal States, territories
discovered a that had been ruled by the Pope for
Jewish catacomb more than a millennium. All the
in a vineyard in while, hidden beneath Villa Torlonia
Burial niches line a narrow passageway in the catacomb. The
niches were originally sealed with stucco, and many that had
the Monteverde and its array of fake antiquities was
been broken open over the years were recently resealed. neighborhood. It an authentic burial ground of some of
was near where these people’s early Roman forebears,
bank of the Tiber River. A thirteenth- Tudela had mentioned seeing a burial waiting to reveal its secrets. Q
century document connected to the place. During the nineteenth century,
ownership of the land that would four more Jewish catacombs were Sara Toth Stub is a writer based in
become Villa Torlonia also mentions uncovered, including Vigna Randanini. Jerusalem.
archaeology.org 63
Archaeological Institute
of America
EXCAVATE EDUCATE
R I
ecently, the American Journal of Archaeology nternational Archaeology Day (IAD) was celebrated
(AJA)—the scholarly journal of the Archaeological Saturday, October 21, with hundreds of events
Institute of America (AIA)—expanded its worldwide. These included opportunities to participate
statement of geographic and temporal scope to better reflect in hands-on archaeology fairs, learn about the work of local
the range of research areas of its audience. Pick up the July archaeologists, and attend lectures on a wide range of topics.
2023 issue, for example, for a report on previously unknown Fourteen AIA Local Societies received IAD grants to put
cave art ranging from the Achaemenid (550–330 b.c.) to on events throughout the month of October that showcased
Parthian (247 the many institutional partnerships they have built in
Aškawt-i Daya Cave, Iran
b.c.–a.d. 224) their communities. The AIA’s IAD event was a fascinating
periods in AIA Archaeology Hour lecture by bioarchaeologist Anne
Aškawt-i Daya Austin on the practice of tattooing in ancient Egypt. More
Cave, located than 800 people tuned in live to watch, but if you missed
in the Zagros the lecture, you can find the recording on our YouTube
Mountains channel, ArchaeologyTV. And for those waiting for an
of Iran. ArchaeoDoodles contest update from the last issue, this year’s
Archaeologist winning images were a drawing of a citadel submitted by Gina
Sajjad Alibaigi Schlobohm in the
and his adult category and
colleagues an illustration of
describe the cardinal directions
numerous by Julia (age 17)
inscriptions in the youth
and human category. Visit the
and animal AIA’s Glossary of
figures painted Archaeological
on the walls Terms
of the nearly (archaeological.
inaccessible org/glossary) to
cave and see even more
conclude that ArchaeoDoodles.
it was used for ritual activities for many centuries, eventually
becoming a place for worship of the god Mithra. Or you
can turn to the January 2024 issue and read about work at
the site of Vindolanda, located next to Hadrian’s Wall in
England. Archaeologists Elizabeth M. Greene and Andrew
Birley explore the dynamic mix of local and global social
forces that shaped the material culture and architecture of a
second-century a.d. settlement at the Roman fort. Although
fieldwork slowed over the past few years due to the pandemic,
we are coming out of that lull, and we look forward to
returning to more frequent publication of peer-reviewed
reports about the latest fieldwork. Visit the AIA website and
subscribe to the AJA if you’d like to read along.
Join
The AIA is a community of people passionate about archaeology, just like you!
Join our archaeological community and become an AIA Society Member at archaeological.org/join.

FROM THE FIELD
ADVOCATE
H
ow do builders ensure that they don’t run a pipeline phase process that starts with the identification of resources,
through the remains of a Paleoindian encampment moves on to testing and evaluation if merited, and leads to
that holds the key to early migration patterns, or excavation and data collection when necessary. This January,
pave over an ancient cemetery, or build a skyscraper atop a AIA Archaeology Hour resumes with anthropologist Jeff
historic shipwreck? According to the American Cultural Altschul’s talk “Cultural Resource Management: What
Resources Association, “cultural resource management is a Most Archaeologists Do for a Living.” Join us live on
process which strives to ensure that two very important values January 24 at 8 p.m. ET to learn more about the fascinating
can coexist in our society: progress, and the protection of industry that employs thousands of archaeologists whose
important cultural heritage.” Archaeologists in government work reconciles the past with the present and future. You
and the private sector operate through regulated legal will also be able to view the recording afterward on the
frameworks. In the United States, this involves a three- AIA’s YouTube channel, ArchaeologyTV.
Support
The AIA’s commitment to excavation, education, and advocacy is made possible by generous donors like you.
Support our mission by making a gift online at archaeological.org/donate.
archaeology.org 65
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Trust, NOAA; 45—Courtesy Mike Wenger; Courtesy
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Excavation, Eşref Erbil; 1944.100.37502 American
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Schulze-Pfefferkorn; © OeAW-OeAI/N. Gail;
Our archaeological research 54—The Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project,
KU Leuven; fsyln/Alamy Stock Photo; 55—Adam
team is ready for you in Blue Like us on facebook and follow us on twitter Eastland/Alamy Stock Photo; 57—Photographer:
for daily updates on the latest discoveries Jacopo Brogioni, Private collection: Yuval and Ori
Creek, Belize–June/July, 2024 facebook.com/archaeologymag Baruch, All rights reserved; 58—Franco Tognarini/
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[Our lecturer] was so good at making sense of what
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can explain it so well.” - Deborah, California Sicily
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ARTIFACT BY JARRETT A. LOBELL
WHAT IS IT
hen you were a child, you probably had toys such as plastic or porcelain
W
Whistles
dolls and plush, furry animals that may have included mythical beings MATERIAL
Ceramic
such as unicorns. You may have created skits in which they interacted CULTURE
Maya
with each other and with the people who were watching. Each toy and
DATE
how you played with it communicated something about you, your family, and the society you Ca. A.D. 600–950
DIMENSIONS
grew up in. This is not a new phenomenon. Excavations have revealed some of the toys that 3.5 inches tall
children in the second half of the Classic Maya period (a.d. 250–950) played with. “Children FOUND
are so underrepresented in the archaeological record even though they make up a very large
Ceibal
component in a household,” says archaeologist Daniela Triadan of the University of Arizona.
“Artifacts like these are one way to look at them.” G U AT E M A L A
These four ceramic whistles—some of the 253 Late or Terminal Classic figurines and
fragments unearthed at the powerful city of Ceibal—were discovered in three different children’s
burials. They depict (clockwise from top) a seated man wearing an elaborate headdress, a
seated man often referred to as the Fat-God or Fat-Face, an elaborately clad noblewoman,
and an anthropomorphic bat. According to Triadan, these are examples of a cast of characters
represented by similar artifacts found across the Maya world that endured relatively unchanged
for centuries. “They’re not realistic people, but rather idealized adults—never figurines of
children—as well as animals and supernaturals,” she says. “They remind me of German puppet
shows which go back to medieval times and have stock characters like the
jester, witch, crocodile, and policeman, which are performed for children
but also have moral overtones.” Wake Forest University archaeologist
Jessica MacLellan says such objects both taught and reflected Maya social
norms about gender, body image, and status.
“These objects influenced the relationships
between children and adults and shaped ideals
that children looked up to as they grew,”
she says. “The Classic Maya made ceramic
figurine whistles, and the figurine whistles
made the Classic Maya.”

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The people, the sites, the
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Sardinia Cultural Heritage Project
At Columbia University’s Italian Academy; includes conferences, exhibitions, and a
corresponding book published by Columbia University Press. The Academy also
facilitated the loan of a 3000-year-old statue from Mont’e Prama to New York’s
Metropolitan Museum of Art.
italianacademy.columbia.edu
A digital exhibition on A digital exhibition on

the gems and temples the colossal statues
of Tharros of Mont’e Prama
Images: Nicola Castangia; Valentino Selis
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
THE ITALIAN ACADEMY
FOR ADVANCED STUDIES IN AMERICA
mont’e prama

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Exploring Rome’s Secret Catacombs

archaeology.org A publication of the Archaeological Institute of America January/February 2024

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