(A) Personal Details

Role Name Affiliation

Principal Investigator Prof. Randhir Singh Sangwan M. D. University, Rohtak

Paper Coordinator Prof. Surendra Singh (Retd) North- Eastern Hill University,
Shillong
Content Prof. Surendra Singh(Retd) North Eastern Hill University,
writer/Author (CW) Shillong
Content Reviewer Prof. Surendra Singh(Retd) North Eastern Hill University,
(CR) Shillong

(B) Description of Module

Items Description of Module

Subject Name Geography

Paper Name Quantitative Techniques in Geography

Module Name Measures of Central Tendency and its Application in

Geographical Studies

Module ID
Pre- Requisites knowledge of Basic statistics and data compilation
Objectives (i) To provide background of central tendency and
its measurement, and
(ii) Application of central tendency techniques in
geographical studies
Key words Mean, median, mode, weighted mean, frequency
distribution, squared deviation, mid position, and mid
value

Measures of Central Tendency and its Application in

Geographical Studies
1. Introduction
Distribution of any geographical attribute called X i where i = 1,2,3, ... , n and n denotes
the number of observations, is initially characterized statistically by measuring its two
dimensions. First, the central tendency that is dependent on the analysis of concentration
of the values of observations in the distribution. In statistical sense, this statement is said

to be the concentration of n items in Xi variable. Secondly, the dispersion that shows the
width of distribution. It is equally important dimension in statistical analysis because,
some times, there is same value of central tendency of two variables but dispersion may
vary or same magnitude of dispersion but central trend may differ. For example, the two
sets of daily rainfall for the months of April and May 2004 in Cherrapunji have same
magnitude of average rainfall (a most familiar measure of central tendency) called mean,
while the ranges of distribution (a difference of maximum and minimum value of data –
series) are different as it vary from 0 to 492.2 mm in the month of April and from 0 to
327.6mm in the month of May (Table-1). It shows different degree of dispersion despite
the same value of their mean. So the nature of these two distributions is different from
each other showing differences in distributions (see Fig.-1). Thus, the study of central
value and dispersion are essential dimensions in understanding the distributional
characteristics of a series/variable.

Table-1: Daily Rainfall of the month of April and May 2004 at Cherrapunji
Days April 2004 May 2004
1 15.2 10.1
2 0 119.1
3 25.8 8.6
4 0 0
5 1.4 0
6 1.4 1.4
7 2.7 0
8 0 0
9 60.6 6.2
10 66.8 12.6
11 11.2 327.6
12 29.4 90
 13 89.2 172
14 135.1 175.8
15 98.3 66.8
16 492.2 36.3
17 39.5 0
18 76 0
19 87.3 18.6
20 0 0
21 0 16.4
22 70.3 4.4
23 9.2 104.6
24 20.2 2.8
25 0 0
26 0 10.2
27 0 19
28 1.5 0
29 0 73.4
30 1.6 59
Total 1334.9 1334.9
Mean 44.49 44.49
Source: Automatic weather Station installed by the Department of Geography, North Eastern Hill University,
Shillong under the project sponsored by Ministry of Science and Technology, New Delhi

A B

Fig.-1: Comparison of Daily Rainfall Pattern of April and May months of the Year 2004 in Cherrapunji

(Totals and Means of the rainfall of these months are same as 1334.9 mm and
44.50 mm respectively)
In this module, the details about the measures and application of central tendency are
given, while the dispersion of a data series would be described separately in another
module.

2. Measures of Central Tendency

Central tendency is a single central value that attempts to describe a set of data by
identifying the centrality (Central Value) within that set of data containing n
observations/items. Mean is well known measure of central tendency that is often called
‘arithmetic average’. But there are others also as the medium and the mode. When
distribution is more skewed, mean is not well represented value of the series. Types of
variables determine the use of different kinds of central tendencies. When nature of
distribution is different, its scaling is used as per requirement and, accordingly, used for
appropriate measures.

Table-2 Types of Variables and Used of Central Tendency

Type of variables Best measure of central tendency
Nominal Mode
ordinal medium
Interval/ratio (not skewed) mean
Interval/ratio (skewed) Medium

It is to note that skewness of distribution that would be described in the separate module,
determines the use of best measure of central tendency.

2.1 Concept of the Balance Scale

We have three different ways of defining the centre of a distribution, called
measures of central tendency. Centre of the distribution may define in the sense of its
‘mid value’ called mean.
Secondly it is defined as ‘mid position’ where total number of observation items of a
distribution is divided into two halves based on the 50% observation on one side and
remaining on the others. It is {(n+1)/2}, the value falls at this position of distribution is
called median.
Lastly, the location of the most frequent value occurring in a distribution is called mode.
In frequency distribution, the class of the highest frequency is called model-class where
mode lies.
2.2 Measures of Mean
As described above, the mean is the mid value of the series having an observation that
shows balance point of the values of observations in a distribution. For example, the
mean daily rainfall from a given set of data of continuous rainfall (mm) of 21 days in the
month of April 2004 at Cherrapunji is calculated by finding mid value. It balances the
value scale as counted it by summing up all the values of rainfall if each individual day
(called observation, that are N=21) and divided it by number of observations. It is simply
formulated as.

X* = {X1+X2+X3 + ... + X n)/N}

= ( ∑ Xi/N), i = 1,2,3, ... , n … … (1)
where X* is mean, Xi is daily rainfall of total number of n observations. In above
example, rainfall total is 1098 mm with a number of 21 days. It means that mean daily
rainfall is 1098/21 = 52 mm. In fact, it is the way to find out the point of distribution at
which value of distribution balances.
We must know about the characteristics of mean value in distribution. It has two main
features. First, it is dependent on least sum of absolute deviation being balancing point
of distribution. It is statistically written as
∑(Xi – X*) = minimum … … …(2)
and secondly, it also least sum of squared deviation, that is
2
∑(Xi – X*) = minimum … … …(3)

These characteristics of the mean are exemplified in Table – 3 and are useful for its
application in statistical analysis.
Table-3: Mean and Absolute and Squared Deviations of Daily Rainfall at
Cherrapunji (April 2004)

Sl no Rainfall Mean Absolute Squared

(X) (X*) Deviation Deviation
(X-X*) (X-X*)2
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
1 15 52.29 -37.09 1375.6681
2 26 52.29 -26.49 701.7201
3 5 52.29 -47.29 2236.3441
4 1 52.29 -50.89 2589.7921
5 3 52.29 -49.59 2459.1681
6 61 52.29 8.31 69.0561
7 67 52.29 14.51 210.5401
8 11 52.29 -41.09 1688.3881
9 29 52.29 -22.89 523.9521
10 89 52.29 36.91 1362.3481
11 135 52.29 82.81 6857.4961
12 98 52.29 46.01 2116.9201
13 249 52.29 196.71 38694.8241
14 40 52.29 -12.79 163.5841
15 76 52.29 23.71 562.1641
16 87 52.29 35.01 1225.7001
17 70 52.29 18.01 324.3601
18 9 52.29 -43.09 1856.7481
19 20 52.29 -32.09 1029.7681
20 4 52.29 -48.29 2331.9241
21 2 52.29 -50.69 2569.4761
Sum 1097.80 924.2700 70949.9421
N.B.: Sum of X-X* is calculated considering absolute values of rainfall ignoring sign in the column

The sum of absolute deviation and the sum of squared deviation are 924.27 mm and
70949.94 mm respectively (columns 4 and 5 in Table -3). These are the smallest values
as calculated after deviating rain from its mean, i.e. 52.29 mm. If this series of rainfall
data is deviated from another value either lesser or higher than 52.29 mm, the values of
the sum of deviation will be always be higher than the earlier values. That is why, mean
is the central value of the series showing a value balance.
2.3 Extension of the Concept of Mean
In addition, if we add one observation in any series of n observations and calculate mean
of this series containing n+1 observation as
X*n+1 = (X1+X2+X3+ ... + Xn + Xn+1)/(n+1) . … …(4)
Its simplification becomes
X*n+1 = (n/n+1).X*n + (1/n+1).Xn+1 , … …(5)
where Xn+1 is value of newly added observation.
Similarly, if a large number of observations are added to a series, it will be difficult to
arrange the data in the series of individual observations. A frequency distribution as made
in which mid value of the class is weighted by the frequencies, f i. The sum of the
weighted product is divided by the size of data to get the mean.
X* = (f1m1, + f2m2 + f3m3 + ... + fcmc) / (f1+f2+f3 + ...+fc )
X* = ∑fimi /∑fi … … … (6)
Where c is number of classes in the frequency distribution, m c is mid value of the class
and fc is frequency of the class c.
Such concept of assigning weight, W i , either for each individual observation (W i X i ) or
for each class in frequency distribution (f imi) is called weighted mean which is calculated
by given formula (Eqn -6).
X* = (w1m1, + w2m2 + w3m3 + ... + wcmc)/(w1+w2+w3 + ...+wc )= ∑wimi/∑wi

Computing mean by coding method

In frequency distribution table where class-interval of each and every class is same,
instead of mid point value, mi, one can assume a value known as assumed mean, Xa, and
deviations of assumed mean from mid point value of each class (m i–Xa) are used to
simplify the procedure of calculation. Thus, mean of a frequency is conceptualized as:
‘True mean of a series, X*, is ‘the product of assumed mean, X a, plus the sum of the
products of deviation, d, and frequency f of each class that is finally the divided by
number of observation n’. It is formulated as
X* = Xa + (1/n ∑fidi ), where di = (m i–Xa) … …(8)
Mean of the same series of data is calculated by applying simple arithmetic mean and
weighted mean techniques. There is slight difference in mean values of the same data if
these two methods are applied. It is exemplified in Table – 4

Example:
Compute the mean of daily rainfall data of Cherrapunji by above given three methods
(simple, mid point value and coding methods). Following Table is the conversion of
ungrouped data of rainfall of Cherrapunji in to frequency distribution.

Table-4: Rainfall data of 170 days of the Rainy Season 2004 at Cherrapunj
Rainfall Frequency Class fm Assumed Deviation fidi
Class (mm) (fi) Mid- point (Col 2X col 3) Mean (di=m-Xa) (col 2x col 6)
(m) (Xa)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
0-100 130 50 6500 -300 -39000
101-200 17 150 2550 -200 -3400
201-300 9 250 2250 -100 -900
301-400 7 350 2450 350 0 0
401-500 4 450 1800 100 400
501-600 1 550 550 200 200
601-700 1 650 650 300 300
701-800 1 750 750 400 400
∑f=N=170 - ∑fm =17500 ∑fidi= -42000

X*= (∑X/N ) = 14,719.84/170 = 86.584 mm (ungrouped data using individual

observation )
X*= (∑fm/∑f ) = 17500/ 170 =102.94 mm (frequency distribution with mid point
method)
X* = Xa + (1/n∑fidi)= 350+(1/170(-42000) =350-247.06 = 102.94 mm (frequency
distribution with short cut Coding method)

It is to note that if ungrouped data of individual observation is used for calculation of

mean, the mean value is 86.584 mm, while in the above given frequency distribution, the
mean is 102.94 mm after calculating mid point and short cut methods. Such differences in
mean values of grouped and ungrouped data are seen because of conversion of data
into classes where mid value of each class is considered as mean while it is not the real
mean of the observations falling under a class.

Moving Average:
In a long series of data in which there is large fluctuation in distribution, in order to avoid
temporary variation in data and to improve fit of data to a line called ‘smoothing’,
moving average is used. It moves as the value of next observation is added and earlier
observation is removed in the process as (n-1+1=n). Simple moving average will change,
while the number of observation n will remain same in the calculation of moving
average. However, the values of Xi in calculation will move forward as{(X i-1 + Xi +

Xi+1)/n}. Moving average is sometimes called running or rolling average. In computation

of weighted moving average (WMA), weight of an observation is put on its value. It may
be written as
WMA= {(wiXi-1 + wiXi + wiXi+1)/n}.

There are two examples to show the moving trends of, first, a time series of peak flow
data of Kaljani river, a tributary of Brahmaputra of a19 years (n=19) and, secondly, the
trend of total pulse production of India for the last 55 years and its fluctuation. The
following discussion forwards how moving average is used to reduce the fluctuation of
time series data.

Example-1: Draw a line of 3-years moving average in a given data series of peak
discharge of Kaljani River, a tributary of Brahamaputra

Table-3: 3-years Moving Average of Peak flow of Kaljani River Tributary of

Brahamaputra
3 -1
Years Peak flow (m s ) 3-yrs moving average
3 -1
(m s )
354.23 -

1986 327.2 372.5733

1987 436.29 387.9467
1988 400.35 441.22
 1989 487.02 483.4333
1990 562.93 466.72
1991 350.21 425.95
1992 364.71 1561.973
1993 3971 1553.433
1994 324.59 1620.407
1995 565.63 453.7033
1996 470.89 507.3767
1997 485.61 516.0933
1998 591.78 571.2333
1999 636.31 556.9333
2000 442.71 510.0833
2001 451.23 415.39
2002 352.23 551.09
2003 849.81 601.02
Source: Flood Frequency Analysis, A.K. Bora and Haque ,Department of Geography, Gauhati University,
Guwahati,
Data source: Irrigation Department, Government of Assam, Guwahati

Interpretation: As per given data of peak flow collected from the Irrigation Department,
Government of Assam, Guwahati, moving average of 3-years was calculated (Table- 3
and Fig-2). It is evident from the figure that moving average smoothens the fluctuation. It
is shown by the moving average curve that the years from 1990 to 1995 were the time of
large fluctuation in the peak flow of river Kaljani.
Fig.-2: 3-years Moving Average for annual data of peak flow

Example-2: Show the trend of the production of total pulses in India and its smooth
curve.
A trend of total pulse production and its smooth curve by computing 3-years average
were shown by the Fig.- 3 given below. In fact, moving average was calculated as per
given equation. It shows that smoothness in the pulse production fluctuation (black
dotted) persists with increasing and decreasing trends in the years of 1961-2, 1982-3 and
2003-4. It may be due to the impact of weather and fluctuation of pulse –prices in India.

Sources: Agricultural Statistics- At A Glance 2007, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Ministry of
Agriculture, Government of India, New Delhi

Fig.- 3: Trends of Total Pulse Production and its Fluctuation (3-years Moving
Average)
Combined Mean
If mean of a distribution, X1, X2, X3 , ... , Xn and mean of another distribution Y1, Y2,
Y3, ... , Yk are expressed as X*n and Y*m with their number of observations n and m
respectively, the combined mean of these two distribution (Z*m ) can be calculated as
Z*m = (nX*n + mY*m) / (n+m) … … (7)

3.0 Kinds of Mean

In the preceding discussion, mean is the expression of arithmetic progression of a data
series as
a + (a+b) + (a+2b) + … + (a+nb) ,
where a is the first term and b is common difference which is the differences of the value
of two observations of the series. If in the series, the common differences vary
significantly, the series are transformed into a different systems and then mean is
calculated. Series can be transformed into geometric system or into reciprocal system to
make distribution normalized. Such transformations are essential to understand
mathematically the progression of series to decide the kinds of mean used for accurate
results and proper analysis. Therefore, arithmetic mean is based on an additive principle
of mathematics.
3.1. Geometric Progression
2 3 n
a + ab + ab + ... + ab ,
where a is first terms and b is common ratio between any term and its preceding term.
Since this series is based on logarithmic transformation, the geometric mean is computed
by using log of each item of series as
log Gm = 1/n (logX1 + logX2 + logX3 + ... + logXn)
= 1/n (∑log Xn)
Gm = Antilog {(1/n (∑logXn)} , … … …(9)
where Gm is geometric mean.
It can be written as
 1/n
Gm = (X1, X2, X3 , ... , X n)
For frequency distribution,
Gm = Antilog {(1/n (∑fi log mi)},
where n=∑fi and mi is mid value of each class in the distribution.

Combined geometric mean of two series is also calculated

as log Gxy = N logXm + K logYm/(n+k)
Hence, Gxy = antilog [(N logXm + K logYm)/(n+k) ] . … …(10) It can be
extended to any number of geometric series.

3.2 Reciprocal Progression

A series is transformed on the principle of reciprocity to make it in the form such as:
a + {a/a+(ni-1)} + {a/a+ (ni-2)} + {a/a+ (ni-3)} + {a/a+ (ni-4)} + ...
where a is the first term and n is position of a term in the series. On the basis of
reciprocity principle, the harmonic mean is calculated. So harmonic mean, H m, is simply
the average of reciprocal of the numbers.
-1 -1 -1 -1
Thus, Hm = n / ∑Xi and Hm = n / ∑(Xi) ,
where Xi is individual observation.
In grouped continuous data,
-1
Hm = n / ∑(fi.(m) ) , … … (11) where m is mid point value of the
class interval.

3.3 Inequality in Mean

Arithmetic mean X* is always greater than geometric mean
Gm and geometric mean is greater than harmonic mean, Hm, so the rule for inequality
is X* > Gm > Hm
This rule is examplified here by calculating X*, G m and Hm of the same series of rainfall
data as used earlier in Table-4. If these given three examples of the kinds of mean are
calculated, it is obvious to say that there is inequality in different kinds of mean.
However, one must be careful in using the appropriate kind which should serve the
purpose of its uses.
Example: Compute Geometric and Harmonic mean of given data with full procedure of
calculation.
Table -5: Geometric and Harmonic mean of Given Frequency Distribution of
Rainfall Precipitated at Cherrapunji in the year 2004
Rainfall Frequency Class log mi fi log mi Reciprocal fi(mi)-1
Class (mm) (fi) Mid- point (Col 2X col 4) of col (3) col(2)x
(m) m col(6)
(m)-1
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
0-100 130 50 1.69897 220.8661 .02 2.6000
101-200 17 150 2.1761 36.9937 .00666 .11322
201-300 9 250 2.3979 21.5811 .004 .03600
301-400 7 350 2.5541 17.8787 .00286 .02002
401-500 4 450 2.6532 10.6128 .00222 .00888
501-600 1 550 2.7404 2.7404 .001818 .001818
601-700 1 650 2.812913 2.8129 .0015384 .0015384
701-800 1 750 2.87506 2.8751 .0013333 .0013333
∑f=N=170 - ∑ fi log mi ∑fi(mi)-1
=316.3608 =2.7827895
Gm = Antilog {(1/n (∑fi log mi)}
=Antilog {(.0058823x316.3608)}
=Antilog (1.86094)= 72.600
-1
Hm = n/∑(fi.(m) ) = 170/ 2.7827895= 61.089781

4.0 Other Measures of Central Tendency

4.1 Computation of Median

Like arithmetic mean computed as considering mid value of the series, the median is the
value lies at mid position in the distribution. It also indicates centrality of distribution but
it may differ from arithmetic mean.
In ungrouped data distribution, median is computed by arranging observations in its
descending or ascending order in order to find the mid position of a distribution that is
(n+1)/2 the observation, while its value is median considering a simple series of daily
rainfall data of Cherapunji the median is calculated by using the formula of finding mid
position. If the values of n observation of a distribution are arranged in ascending order
either by using filter of Excel – micro software or by doing it manually, the median is the
(n+1)/2th value provided n is an odd number. It is to be taken arithmetic mean of two
middle values, if n is an even number and (n+1)/2 position falls in between two
observations i and i+1.

For grouped data distribution when data are arranged in frequency distribution, the
median involves cumulative frequency distribution for determining the median class and
the correct mid position to find frequency ratio. This ratio is finally converted into values
multiplying it by the value of class interval (h) of the distribution. Thus, median in
frequency distribution is the value of lower limit of median class (L) plus the ratio value.
It is written as

X med = L+ [h {(n/2) – c}/f] , … … …(12) Where L is lower limit value of

median class, c is cumulative frequencies of the class preceding the median class where
median lies, f is frequency of median class, n is number of observations and h is class
interval. It is to note that values of classes in distribution are to be ascending or
descending order that happens almost in all frequency distributions with equi-interval
class.
Since median is determined on the basis of the value falling at mid position in the
th th th
distribution, many partitioned values as 4 part, 10 part or 100 part of the total number
of observations that fall within each partition are also calculated. These values are known
as
(a) Quartiles – if quarter parts are used as n/4, n/2, 3n/4th, position in distribution Q1
is first quarter, Q2 is the value at half of the observation (called median) and Q3 is three-
fourth sector of the distribution.
th
(b) Deciles – if total number of observations is partitioned on the basis of 1/10 with
a difference of 10 percent of total observations.
th
(c) Percentiles – if observation is partitioned 1/100 position making its least count
of 1% in the distribution.

The formula of calculation of these measurements will remain same except the changes
in its position value as given below:
st
I Quartile, Q1 = L + [h {(n/4 – c)}/f] … … …(13)
nd
2 Quartile, Q 2 = median as equation -12
 rd
3 Quartie, Q3 =L+ [h {(3n/4)-c}/ f]
Deciles, Dj =L+ [h { (j.n./10)-c}/f]
Percentiles Pr = L+ [h {(r.n./100)-c}/f]

Example:
Find out Q1, Q2 (that is median), Q3 , D6 and P87 for the daily rainfall data of
Cherrapunji containing 170 observations.

Table-4: Rainfall data of 170 days of the rainy season 2004 at Cherrapunj
Rainfall Class (mm) Frequency (f) Cumulative frequency (cf)
(1) (2) (3)
0-100 130 130
101-200 17 147
201-300 9 156
301-400 7 163
401-500 4 167
501-600 1 168
601-700 1 169
701-800 1 170
∑f=N=170

As per equation-12, Q2= X med = L+[h{(n/2) – c}/f], where L is lower limit value
of median class, c is cumulative frequencies of the class preceding the median class
where median lies, f is frequency of median class, n is number of observations and h is
class interval.
In above given distribution rainfall, n/2= 170/2 = 85; it lies in the first class in
distribution, so median lies in this class. Since there is no pre median class, the c=0, f=
130, h= 100 and L= 0.
Q2= X med = 0+[100{(170/2) – 0}/130] = 100(85/ 130)= 65.38 mm Q1=
0+[100{(170/4) – 0}/130] = 100(42.5/ 130)= 32.692 mm Q3=0+[100{(170x3/4) –
0}/130] = 100(127.5/ 130)= 98.07 mm D6=0+[100{(170x6/10) – 0}/130] =
100(102/ 130)= 78.46mm P87=200+[100{(170x87/100) – 147}/9] =
200+[100((147.9-147.0)/ 9)]= 210 mm
( P87% position lies in the class ranging 200-300 mm of rainfall, so L= 200, c=147 and
f= 9).
 4.2 Computation of Mode

It is the most frequently occurring value in the distribution. In ungrouped distribution, if a

value occur frequently in a mode but in frequency distribution first the model class is
identified by the class having maximum frequency and then ratio of the differences of
frequencies of model and pre – model classes with the differences of frequency of model
and post model classes is calculated. It is formulated in the following manner.
X mod = L+ [h(fm – f1 )/( 2f m – f1 – f2)] , … … …(14) Where L is the lower limit value
of model class, fm is the maximum frequencies called frequency of model class, f 1 and f2
are frequencies of pre model and post model classes respectively and h is the class –
interval. Above equation can be simplified as
X mod = L+ [h(fm – f1 )/(fm – f1)+ (fm – f2)]
= L+ [h(d1)/(d1)+ (d2)]
Where d1 = (fm – f1) difference between the frequencies of model and pre-model classes,

and d2 =(fm – f2) difference between the frequencies of model and post-model classes.
Preparing histogram of frequencies distribution the mode is graphically calculated by
joining the maximum frequency for with pre and post model classes also.

5.0 Application of Central Tendency

In fact, application of different types of central tendency is based on their merits. There
are many uses of mean, median and mode for representation of concentration of
frequency in distribution. However, important uses of central tendency are given below:
1. As arithmetic mean is the representative of mid value of a distribution, the sum of
deviation of values from mean is equal to zero, i.e., ∑(X-X*) = 0. Secondly,
the sum of the squared deviation of distribution becomes the smallest value as
2
∑(X-X m) = minimum. Due to this property of arithmetic mean, it helps in
calculating dispersion, skewness and also used to compute last square property of
fitting regression line in distribution.
2. In simple time series data, if there is data missing of a particular year, arithmetic mean
helps in filling gap of this data. For example, a 10 year rainfall data with the
data missing of an year is given with the mean of the whole series, then
rainfall of missing year is calculated by finding total of 10 years and given 9
years rainfall data. Difference of such rainfall data must be rainfall of the
missing year.
3. As geometric mean is the average of ratios of changes of geographical attributes, it
means the data series may increase at compound rate over time. For example,
formulation of compound growth rate of population from base year P 0 to
current year P1 is similarly based on geometric progression. Thus, geometric
mean formula follows the compound growth rate as
n
P1 = P0 (1+r) … … …(15)
or
r = n √(p1 / P0) .
It is based on logarithmic system of progression as geometric mean follows.
However, details about growth rate would be discussed in another module.
4. Moving average is used to visualize the general trend of the fluctuating long data
series. As exemplified earlier in the discussion that smoother trend can be
seen by transfer of series on the basis of moving average that controls the
fluctuating trend. Progressive or rolling average is having its use in checking
the consistency of data recorded at a place or determining the years in which
fast fluctuation and changes in the nature of trend took place.

000^^^000