Complex Numbers For High School

The Incredible Imagination – Investigating Complex
Numbers
Richard Dlin
July 21, 2012
Abstract
This document project was prepared as the culminating project for MATH 698, a reading
course in the Masters of Mathematics for Teachers program at The University of Waterloo.
The primary intended audience is Ontario grade 10 enriched math students, but some sec-
tions are more suitable for grade 11 enriched or even Advanced Functions or Calculus and
Vectors students. Portions of the article assume different prerequisite knowledge and skills,
consequently each section begins with a list of skills necessary to proceed. The material in
this document could be used all at once or spread throughout a grade 10 enriched program. It
could be given as an independent study unit, or as a series of group presentations where each
group is assigned a section to read and then present to the class. Alternatively it could be
teacher-led with reference to the material and exercises. As part of a continuing enrichment
program, parts of this article could be introduced in different grades (1-6 in grade 10 then 7,8
in grade 11/12). Note that because the main audience is grade 10 degrees are used throughout
as the unit of measure for angles of rotation.
1
Contents
1 A Deeper Look at Solving Equations 5
1.1 Prerequisite Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Zero: The Identity Element For Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 One: The Identity Element For Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Solving Simple Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 “Imaginary” Numbers: The Formal Definition of i 9
2.2 Do All Equations Have Solutions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 UnReal. We Need a New Number! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

√
2.4 Is i = −1? No! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3 Formally Defining Complex Numbers 13
3.2 Combining Real and Imaginary Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2.1 Equality of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4 Operations With Complex Numbers 17
4.2 Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.3 Negation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.4 Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.5 Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.6 Complex Conjugates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.7 Reciprocals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.8 Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2
4.9 Exponentiation and Powers of i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.10 Negative and Rational Powers of i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

1
4.10.1 Determining (a + bi) 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.10.2 Solving Quadratic Equations With Complex Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.11 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5 Graphing Complex Numbers 33
5.2 Argand Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.3 The Magnitude of a Complex Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.4 Graphing Complex Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6 Complex Numbers in Polar Form 39
6.2 Polar Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.3 Converting Between Rectangular and Polar Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
7 We Finish With a Song 45
8 “eπi10gue” 46
8.2 Taylor Series Expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
8.3 Applying Taylor Series Expansions to Complex Numbers in Polar Form . . . . . . . 47
8.4 An Amazing Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
9 Answers/Solutions to Exercises 49
9.1 Answers From Section 1.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
9.2 Answers For Section 2.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
9.3 Solutions For Section 3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3
4
1 A Deeper Look at Solving Equations
1.1 Prerequisite Skills
Before proceeding with this section, students should:
• Be able to use algebra to solve linear equations.

• Be able to isolate a given variable in a linear equation containing more than one variable.
• Know the meaning of “reciprocal”.
1.2 Zero: The Identity Element For Addition
In this article, we are going to be investigating something called Complex Numbers, which are
incredibly cool. But before we get to that, there are some equally cool things we need to revisit.
So before we begin with Complex Numbers, let’s talk about adding, subtracting, multiplying, and
dividing numbers, and solving about equations.
And while we’re at it, let’s talk about some simple yet critical-to-the-process numbers too! Starting
with zero.
Consider the equation

x + y = x.
After a short time working with algebra, we see by inspection that although we can determine
nothing about x, we know for certain that y = 0. This property of 0 – that it has no effect on
another number under addition – is unique. No other defined number can claim this. For this
reason, we call 0 the Identity Element for addition. Think of it this way: when 0 is applied to a
number using addition, that number does not change – which is to say, 0 preserves that number’s
identity.
Numbers that sum to 0 are known as additive inverses. For example 3 and −3 are additive inverses
since 3 + (−3) = 0. We can determine the additive inverse of a given number by negating it. That
is to say, given a number a, we define the negation of a (aka “negative a”) as −a, so that
a + (−a) = 0.
This actually comes in very handy when doing something we’ve been doing for a long time now –
solving equations. Consider the solution to this simple equation:
x+5 = 7 (1)
x + 5 + (−5) = 7 + (−5) (2)
x+0 = 2 (3)
x = 2 (4)
Try and see this in a more abstract light than before, because there is more going on than many
students realize. In line (2) we used the logic of equality as applied to line (1), arguing implicitly
that if line (1) is a true statement, and we perform the same operation on both sides of the equal
sign, then we generate an equivalent equation. But why choose addition of −5?
5
Because it is the additive inverse of 5! And this resulted in addition of 0, which is the identity
element for addition. This is why, in line (4), the x is isolated – because we changed an equation
that had addition of 5 to one that had addition of 0. The resulting 2 on the right side is interesting
as well, because although we controlled everything that occurred on the left side, we had no control
over the consequences our choices would have on the right. This is how we solved the equation.
As simple as it is, this example also highlights some language that should be used when solving
equations. In line (2) we did not, as some people suggest, “move the 5 to the other side”. Instead,
we applied the additive inverse of +5 to both sides in order to isolate the variable, x. As we already
know, this process of applying an additive inverse – of adding a negative – is something we call
subtraction, so that it is fair and correct to say “we subtracted 5 from both sides”.
This may seem like an annoying distinction to students just starting out in algebra, but it most
definitely is not. It is critical, as we will come to see.
Remember: In algebra, we never move anything to the other side. We apply inverse operations to
isolate the variable.
1.3 One: The Identity Element For Multiplication
Similar to what we did above, consider the equation
xy = x.
Here we see by inspection that although once more we can determine nothing about x, we know
that if x 6= 0 then we can be certain certain that y = 1. This property of 1 – that it has no effect on
another number under multiplication – is again unique. No other defined number can claim this,
which means that 1 is also an identity element, but this time under multiplication. Just like 0, we
can think of it this way: when 1 is applied to a number using multiplication, that number does not
change. Under multiplication, 1 preserves a number’s identity. It is important to note again here
that 0 is a special case, because 0y = 0 is actually true for any value of y.
1
Non-zero numbers that multiply to 1 are known as multiplicative inverses. For example 3 and
3
1
are multiplicative inverses since 3 × = 1. We can determine the multiplicative inverse of a given
3
number by taking its reciprocal (Note: 0 does not have a reciprocal). That is to say, given a number
1
a 6= 0, we define the reciprocal of a as , so that
a
1
a× = 1.
a
Just like zero, one also comes in very handy when solving equations. Consider the solution to this
simple equation:
6x = 18 (1)
1 1
× 6x = × 18 (2)
6 6
1×x = 3 (3)
x = 3 (4)
6
Let’s look at this in the same abstract light as we did with zero. In line (2) we chose multiplication
1 1
by to generate multiplication by 1, which had the effect of isolating the variable. The choice of
6 6
is not arbitrary, since it is the multiplicative inverse of 6. Once again we see that identity elements
are very handy indeed.
As we know, this process of multiplying by the multiplicative inverse of 6 is also called dividing
by 6. This is because division by some non-zero number a is actually defined as the process of
multiplying by the multiplicative inverse (aka the reciprocal) of a.
Notice once again that to solve the equation, we used an inverse operation, this time division, and
applied it to both sides.
1.4 Solving Simple Equations
The previous two sections showed equation solving in a new light. Now we’ll take an even deeper
look at what goes on when we solve simple linear equations.
Let’s begin by solving an equation, and then analyzing the solution to within an inch of its life.
Consider the following:
4x − 5 = 19 (5)
4x − 5 + 5 = 19 + 5 (6)
4x = 24 (7)
4x 24
= (8)
4 4
x = 6 (9)
We say that x = 6 is the solution to the equation 4x−5 = 19. But what are we really talking about?
Let’s first look at line (1), which is the given equation. Translated to English, this line asserts that
if we take some unknown number, multiply it by four and then subtract five from that product, the
result would be nineteen. The implicit question for the student is “what is this unknown number?”
We have shown that the number is 6. But this was all based on the assumption that the assertion
in line (1) was true. That is to say that what we really have done is to show that
if 4x − 5 = 19 then x = 6.
How did we do it?
Well, in line (2) we argued that if 4x − 5 and 19 are in fact equal, then surely adding 5 to both
expressions would result in a new pair of equal expressions. But why did we choose to add 5?
Because the expression 4x is a less complicated one than 4x − 5, and addition is the inverse
operation for subtraction. Thus adding 5 to an expression where 5 was subtracted has the effect of
eliminating the subtraction. Of course, in order to maintain the assumed truth of the equality, we
also added 5 to the 19.
This led to line (3), which is a new, simpler equation: 4x = 24. This one involves multiplication
on the left side, so we chose division, which is the inverse operation for multiplication. Once again,
7
in order to maintain the assumed truth of the equality statement, we divided the 24 by 4 as well,
which is line (4).
This left us with the simplest equation of all, namely x = 6. This sequence of steps showed us that
the equations 4x−5 = 19, 4x = 24, and x = 6 all have the same solution. Furthermore, the solution
to this new equation, x = 6, seems fairly obvious – namely that a value of 6 makes the statement
true – so that the solution for x in the original equation must also be 6.
Note that x = 6 is a statement that is true if we use a value of 6 to replace the variable x, but it
is false otherwise. This is subtle, but worth noting: x = 6 is not a guarantee that x and 6 are the
same thing. x is a variable and may assume any value from a given set of values (here we assume
that given set is the set of Real numbers). However assigning a value of 6 makes the statement
true.
Let’s consider another, slightly more difficult equation
x2 = 16
At first glance, the solution to this equation seems obvious. If we assign the value 4 to x, the
statement will be true, since 42 = 16. The flaw in this thinking is the use of the word “the” in
“the solution”. Because in fact if we assign the value −4 to x we also have a true statement, since
(−4)2 = 16.
In Ontario, this concept – that an equation can have more than one solution – is formally introduced
when we discuss quadratic equations in grade 10. Students often ask “so which one is correct?” but
in fact this question makes no sense. Both are correct. The solutions to x2 = 16 are x = 4 and
x = −4. This is simply and entirely due to the fact that both values make the original statement
true.
So do all equations have some value or values that can be substituted for the variable that would
make the statement true? In other words, can all equations be solved? Stay tuned ...
1.5 Exercises
Solve each equation for x. Answers on page 49.
1. x = 7 x+5
6. =4
3
2. 2x = 14
20 − x 3x + 5
3. 5x − 3 = 32 7. =
2 4
4. −3x + 25 = 4 8. x2 = 49
5. 7x − 11 = 4x + 10 9. x2 − 49 = 0
10. x2 + 49 = 0
8
2 “Imaginary” Numbers: The Formal Definition of i
• Have completed Section 1: “A Deeper Look at Solving Equations”.
• Be familiar with radicals.
• Be familiar with exponent laws, including (ab)c = ac bc .
• Have some familiarity with set notation as it is used to refer to sets of numbers.
2.2 Do All Equations Have Solutions?
We have discussed solving equations and in both examples we have assumed that a solution can
always be found. But now let’s consider a much more interesting equation: x2 = −1.
A quick analysis leads to the conclusion that there is no value for x that can make this statement true.
When considering Real numbers, there are really three categories of number: positive, negative, and
zero. What does that mean for this equation?
Well the left side has a value being squared. In the case of positive or negative, the result of this
squaring would have to be positive, since multiplying two positive values results in a positive value,
and multiplying two negative values also results in a positive value. So the solution, if it exists, can
be neither positive nor negative. This leaves only one possibility, which is zero. Sadly, multiplying
zero by itself results in zero, so that is not a solution either.
Conclusion: there is no solution.
This conclusion is false! The true conclusion from this analysis is that there is no solution to be
found in the set of Real numbers. If we want a solution then, we need to go looking in some other
set of numbers – or maybe even constructing another set of numbers! Some set that is not the set
of Reals. Can there be such a set? Is there? The answer to these questions is a most definite yes.
But students often balk at this. “How can there be numbers that are not real?” they ask. The
answer requires some abstract thought, and a deeper look at what we mean when we call something
a number.
Consider this symbol:

3
Is it the number three? If we were to poll a class of thirty students, it is extremely likely that unless
they thought it was a trick question they would all answer yes. However it is not so simple. The
actual answer is no. It is a symbol that we have all agreed would represent the number three, so
that when we see it, or write it, it is tied to the notion of three in our minds. But what is three?
Can you define this number?
In fact this is a very difficult exercise. It is not difficult to think of three, or to show people examples
of three by showing them collections which contain three objects (e.g., three pencils, three cows,
9
three coins in a fountain ...), but if you wanted to teach someone what three is, the last thing you
would do is to show them the symbol 3. In and of itself, the symbol does nothing to illustrate the
meaning of three. If you want to properly define three, you might try something like “a counting
concept used to represent the total number of elements in a set which could be subdivided into
non-empty sets, each containing fewer elements than the original, exactly one of which could be
subdivided again in the same manner, none of which could be subdivided in the same manner
again”. However this is cumbersome and a clever eye will realize that this definition depended very
much on the definitions of “one” and “zero”, and with these numbers already defined, the definition
for three could be made more concise.
This analysis of three is meant to illustrate just how complicated a concept “number” is, and how
we take it for granted only because counting numbers like three are easy to explain using examples.
So when we want to teach a child what three is, we show them examples of sets of three objects,
and contrast those with examples of sets of two, four, five, etc. The number three, in essence, is a
concept we use to solve the problem of measuring a quantity of objects that is more than two and
less than four.
In a child’s imagination, the number three becomes something much more than the symbol “3”.
We understand three because we can imagine three.
2.3 UnReal. We Need a New Number!
So let’s come back to x2 = −1. We have learned about (and believe we understand) the set of Real
numbers. Mathematicians denote this set using the double-bar symbol R, and if we want to say
that x has to be a Real number, we write x ∈ R.
We have shown above that the equation x2 = −1 has no solution if x ∈ R. However that is very
much not the same thing as saying there is no solution. We can define a number that solves this
equation – there is absolutely no reason not to do this, as long as we acknowledge that it is not a
Real number. In fact this is precisely the definition of the number i.
Specifically, we define i so that

i2 = −1.
i is an example of an Imaginary number. In general, an Imaginary number is defined as any number

that produces a non-positive result when squared. Thanks to the definition of i, Imaginary numbers
are always real multiples of i (also known as scaled versions of i). Formally, we define the set of
Imaginary numbers as I, and say that
I = {bi|b ∈ R, i2 = −1}
This bit of notation translates to English as “I is the set of numbers of the form bi, where b can be
any Real number, and i is number we have defined so that i2 = −1”. Note that by this definition
0 is the only number which is both Real and Imaginary. Given the mysterious qualities of 0, there
are many people who think this is quite fitting.
In truth the term Imaginary is unfortunate, because it relegates i to the same realm as dragons,
unicorns, and monsters under the bed, and this is unfair! The name simply comes from the fact that
i can not be found in the Real number set. So in this context the words “Real” and “Imaginary” are
used to distinguish two types of numbers only, in much the same way that “positive” and “negative”
10
distinguish between two types of numbers. Nobody thinks that −1 has a bad attitude because we
call it negative. Similarly i is not fictional even though we call it Imaginary.
The truth is that i is no more imaginary than 3, since both are concepts that we can think about
(i.e., imagine), but in fact come to life only in the sense that they can be used to solve a problem
(counting, measuring, solving equations, etc).
So this definition of i is great news! Now, for example, we not only can solve equations like x2 = −1
but also equations like x2 = −16.
To understand why this is so, consider what happens when we square ±4i:
(±4i)2 = (±4)2 (i2 )

= (16)(−1)
= −16
So ±4i are solutions to the equation.
Of course implicit in the above example is the fact that although ±4 are Real numbers, and i is
Imaginary, we can still multiply them together, and use exponent rules as we understand them on
these products. This is true, and is not trivial, but for the purposes of this discussion we won’t go
too deeply into it.
√
2.4 Is i = −1? No!
√
Based on the definition i2 = −1, many people believe √ that i = −1. Unfortunately, although i
behaves in almost every way how we would want −1 to behave, it is actually √ not the case. The
reason for this is that it creates a contradiction if we allow i to be equal to −1.
√
Consider the following argument, which is predicated on the assumption that i = −1, and obeys
the laws of radicals/exponents as we know them:
√
i = −1
√ √
i×i = −1 × −1
√
i×i = −1 × −1
√
i×i = 1
2
i = 1
Which is clearly false since it is a direct contradiction of the definition of i.
So what we do is say that the square root operation is not defined for negative Real numbers, and
use i for situations where we would want to take the square root of a negative number, but we
can’t. For example, the solution to
x2 = −7
is √
x = ±i 7
11
which we conclude without explicitly taking the square root. Think of it this way instead:
x2 = −7
x2 = (−1)(7)
√ 2
2 2
x = i ± 7
√ 2
x2 = i × ± 7
√
∴ x = ±i 7
Note that at no point in the solution do we actually apply the square root operator to −7.
While this is a very important point mathemat-

√
ically, it is extremely common to see i and −1
used interchangeably (especially on corny math t-
shirts), and as we mentioned above, i does√behave
almost exactly the way we would want −1 to
behave if it were defined, so that the distinction
is often overlooked.
√
The truth though, is that −1 is not defined, even though i2 = −1.
2.5 Exercises
Solve each equation for x ∈ I. Answers on page 49.
1. x2 = −1
2. x2 = −81
3. x2 = −10
4. x2 + 4 = 0
5. −x2 − 9 = 0
x2 + 5
6. = −11
4
7. x2 − 6x + 13 = 0
12
3 Formally Defining Complex Numbers
• Have completed Section 2: ““Imaginary” Numbers: The Formal Definition of i”.
• Be able to solve quadratic equations by factoring, by completing the square, or by using

quadratic formula.
• Be
√ able√to simplify√radicals where the argument has a perfect square factor, like
20 = 4 × 5 = 2 5.
• Be familiar with the technique of formally checking solutions to equations.
• Have some familiarity with set notation as it is used to refer to sets of numbers.
Familiarity with the proof of the quadratic formula would be an asset.
3.2 Combining Real and Imaginary Numbers
The next question that we need to address is “can we add Imaginary numbers to Real numbers?”
The answer, as almost always, is “Why not?”
We just need a good definition, and sometimes, a good reason. In this case we have both, and it
all starts with an equation.
Let’s have a look at the quadratic equation
3x2 − 7x + 5 = 0
Some deliberation shows us the trinomial on the left does not factor, so we resort to our trusty
friend, the quadratic formula.
Here a = 3, b = −7, and c = 5, so quadratic formula delivers

√
7 ± −11
x=
6
Now in a world with only Real numbers, this is a troublesome result thanks to the negative argument
under the square root sign (we call this a negative discriminant) and leads us to conclude that there
are no solutions. In fact, this is not true. There are solutions.
√ √
7 11 7 11
Let’s propose + i and − i as solutions – we’ll discuss why in a moment. To prove (or
6 6 6 6
disprove) that they satisfy the equation, we can substitute these values into the left side and see if
the resulting expression evaluates to zero. To do this, we’ll have to make some assumptions about
multiplying expressions involving both Real and Imaginary parts, but we’ll do so in a familiar way
using the same techniques we use to do multiplication involving binomials.
13
√
7 11
Let’s check + i first:
6 6
L.S. = x2 + 4x + 5
√ !2 √ !
7 11 7 11
= 3 + i −7 + i +5
6 6 6 6
√ ! √ ! √ !
7 11 7 11 7 11
= 3 + i + i −7 + i +5
6 6 6 6 6 6
√ ! √
49 7 11 11 2 49 7 11
= 3 + i+ i − − i + 5 (using binomial expansion)
36 18 36 6 6
√ √
49 7 11 11 2 49 7 11
= + i+ i − − i+5
12 √6 12 6 √6
49 7 11 11 49 7 11
= + i− − − i + 5 (because i2 = −1)
12 6 12 6 6
49 11 49
= − − +5
12 12 6
49 11 98 60
= − − +
12 12 12 12
= 0
= R.S.
√
7 11
Now let’s check − i:
6 6
L.S. = x2 + 4x + 5
√ !2 √ !
7 11 7 11
= 3 − i −7 − i +5
6 6 6 6
√ ! √ ! √ !
7 11 7 11 7 11
= 3 − i − i −7 − i +5
6 6 6 6 6 6
√ ! √
49 7 11 11 2 49 7 11
= 3 − i+ i − + i + 5 (using binomial expansion)
36 18 36 6 6
√ √
49 7 11 11 2 49 7 11
= − i+ i − + i+5
12 √6 12 6 √6
49 7 11 11 49 7 11
= − i− − + i + 5 (because i2 = −1)
12 6 12 6 6
49 11 49
= − − +5
12 12 6
49 11 98 60
= − − +
12 12 12 12
= 0
= R.S.
So the two proposed solutions are correct, due completely to the fact that they both satisfy the
equation thanks to the definition of i.
14
Now let’s look at how we arrived at these two solutions. It’s actually not a difficult thing to do.
Consider the expression we got from our application of the quadratic formula:
√
7 ± −11
x=
6
This result – and in fact the quadratic formula itself – comes from completing the square to solve
the original equation. So even though quadratic formula was developed so that we would not have
to do this, let’s take a moment to have a look how it affects this example:
3x2 − 7x + 5 = 0 (1)

2 7
3 x − x +5 = 0 (2)
3

2 7 49 49
3 x − x+ − +5 = 0 (3)
3 36 36

2 7 49 49 60
3 x − x+ − + = 0 (4)
3 36 12 12
2
7 11
3 x− + = 0 (5)
6 12
2
7 11
3 x− = − (6)
6 12
2
7 11
x− = − (7)
6 36
r
7 11
x− = ± − (**) (8)
6 36
√
7 −11
x− = ± (9)
6 6√
7 −11
x = ± (10)
6 √ 6
7 ± −11
x = (11)
6
Consider what happened in line (8). and how it could have been avoided: We are taking the square
root of a negative value, which is not defined. We could have avoided this by introducing i after
line (7), as follows:
2
7 11
x− = − (7)
6 36
2
7 11 2
x− = i (8)
6 36
r
7 11
x− = ± i (9)
6 36
√
7 11
x− = ± i (10)
6 6√
7 11
x = ± i (11)
6 6
and these are the solutions we verified as correct. Note that this time, we did not actually apply
square root to a negative number.
15
Note that from now on, if the denominator is the same, we will express this kind of expression as a
single fraction. That is, √ √
7 11 7 ± i 11
± i= .
6 6 6
√ √
The i is placed in front of the radical for clarity, because although 11i = i 11, when the i is
placed after the radical it is not always visually clear whether or not the radical applies to the i,
especially when written by hand.
In general, when the discriminant from a quadratic equation is negative, we can resolve the issue
by using i. Although the calculations above were laborious, they demonstrated that ultimately this
is not complicated and once we’ve done this a couple of times, we can just do it without having to
check too laboriously. To see this in its much less complicated form, consider a new example.
Example: Using Complex Numbers to Solve a Quadratic Equation
Let’s solve 2x2 + 5x + 9 = 0, for x ∈ C.
Quadratic formula delivers √

−5 ± −47
x=
4
which is undefined, but we can fix it easily by saying
√
−5 ± i 47
x=
4
which is correct.
What we have justified here is that we can in fact add Real numbers and Imaginary numbers, and
that we often want to. This leads to the definition of another new number set – the set of Complex
numbers, which come from adding Real and Imaginary numbers. We use C to denote this set, with
the following definition:
C = {a + bi|a, b ∈ R, i2 = −1}
Notice that we did not include the restrictions a 6= 0 or b 6= 0, so that in fact all Real numbers are
also Complex (those with b = 0), as are all Imaginary numbers (those with a = 0).
3.2.1 Equality of Complex Numbers
It may seem obvious to some people, but at this point we need to formally talk about what it means
for two Complex numbers to be equal, since Complex numbers consist of two parts. In fact the
definition of equality for Complex numbers is exactly what we want it to be:
a + bi = A + Bi if and only if a = A and b = B
This says that for two Complex numbers to be equal, the Real parts must equal the Real parts and
the Imaginary parts must equal the Imaginary parts.
16
3.3 Exercises
Solve each equation for x ∈ C. Simplify your answer as much as possible. Solutions on page 49.
1. x2 + 7 = 0
2. x2 + 5x + 15 = 0
3. x2 + x − 5 = 0
4. x2 = 3x − 4
5. 2x2 − 3x + 7 = 0
6. 7x2 − 4x + 2 = 0
7. −2x2 − 5x − 10 = 0
4 Operations With Complex Numbers
• Have completed Section 3: “Formally Defining Complex Numbers”.

• Know how to collect like terms to simplify a polynomial.
• Know how to expand the product of two binomials.
Note that Section 4.10: “Negative and Rational Powers of i” is probably more suited to grade 11 or
12 math students than to grade 10, and does require experience with squaring both sides to solve
an equation with radicals, including checking for extraneous roots.
4.2 Addition
From now on we will always consider Complex numbers to be of the form a + bi, where a and b are
both Real numbers, and each may or may not be equal to zero. We call a the “Real part” of z,
which is sometimes expressed as Re(z) and we call b the “Imaginary part” of z, sometimes expressed
as Im(z). Some Complex numbers are strictly Real (i.e., Im(z) = 0), some are strictly Imaginary
(i.e., Re(z) = 0), and some are a combination of both. Although in the above sections we have
already implicitly performed operations with Complex numbers, we will define them formally here.
Let z1 = a1 + b1 i, and z2 = a2 + b2 i. We add z1 and z2 by adding the Real parts to the Real parts
and the Imaginary parts to the Imaginary parts, for the following result:
z1 + z2 = a1 + b1 i + a2 + b2 i
= a1 + a2 + b 1 i + b 2 i
= (a1 + a2 ) + (b1 + b2 )i
17
so that the Real part of the sum is
Re(z1 + z2 ) = (a1 + a2 )
and the Imaginary part is

Im(z1 + z2 ) = b1 + b2 .
This should feel very familiar, because it is exactly like collecting like terms.
Example: Adding Complex Numbers
(3 + 5i) + (7 − 2i) = 10 + 3i
4.3 Negation
We’d like to define subtraction now, but before we do we first need to define negation. This is
intuitive, and is defined as follows: If
z = a + bi
then
−z = −a − bi
This definition of negation completely leverages the existing definition for negating a Real number,
since both a and b are Real.
Example: Negating Complex Numbers
−(−5 + 2i) = 5 − 2i
4.4 Subtraction
Subtraction, then, is defined using a combination of negation followed by addition. That is, given
z1 = a1 + b1 i, and z2 = a2 + b2 i, we define the subtraction as
z1 − z2 = z1 + (−z2 )
This definition allows us to use all the properties of subtracting Real numbers that we already know.
Example: Subtracting Complex Numbers
(4 − 3i) − (5 + 7i) = −1 − 10i
18
4.5 Multiplication
We define multiplication by treating z1 = a1 + b1 i, and z2 = a2 + b2 i as binomials, and multiplying

them using the distributive property, then simplifying using the definition i2 = −1, as follows:
z1 z2 = (a1 + b1 i)(a2 + b2 i)
= a1 a2 + a1 b2 i + a2 b1 i + b1 b2 i2
= a1 a2 + a1 b 2 i + a2 b 1 i − b 1 b 2
= a1 a2 − b 1 b 2 + a1 b 2 i + a2 b 1 i
= (a1 a2 − b1 b2 ) + (a1 b2 + a2 b1 )i
Example: Multiplying Complex Numbers
(3 + 2i)(5 − i) = 15 − 3i + 10i − 2i2

= 15 − 3i + 10i + 2
= 17 + 13i
4.6 Complex Conjugates
For a Complex number

z = a + bi,
we define the conjugate of z as
z̄ = a − bi.
When speaking, the conjugate is generally referred to as “z-bar”. It is important to note that only
the sign of b is affected.
Example: Complex Conjugates
If z = −9 + 5i then z̄ = −9 − 5i.
Sometimes the bar is written over the whole expression, like so:
4 − 7i = 4 + 7i.
The importance of conjugates has to do with what happens when we multiply a Complex number
by its conjugate. The result is always a Real number! Check out this example:
19
Example: Multiplying Conjugates
(2 + 5i)(2 − 5i) = 4 − 10i + 10i − 25i2 (1)

= 4 + 25 (2)
= 29 (3)
Notice how going from line (1) to line (2) the Imaginary numbers summed to zero. This always
happens in the same way that the middle term in a difference of squares expansion always sums to
zero.
In general, given
z = a + bi,
then
z z̄ = (a + bi)(a − bi)
= a2 − abi + abi − b2 i2
= a2 + b 2
and since a, b ∈ R, we see that z z̄ ∈ R.
The product z z̄ is also referred to as |z|2 (read “magnitude of z, squared”), for reasons which we
will cover later on.
4.7 Reciprocals
1
With Real numbers, we define the reciprocal of a non-zero number c as c−1 = , and note that
c
c × c−1 = 1. We will do something very similar with Complex numbers.
Given
z = a + bi 6= 0,
the reciprocal of z is defined to be
1
z −1 = z̄.
z z̄
Note that since z z̄ is always a Real number the above definition actually says that the inverse of
z is a scaled version of its conjugate, z̄. This is kind of a weird-looking definition, but it’s not so
complicated.
1
We really want to be able to say that z −1 = , like we do with Real numbers. The problem is that
z
then we’d need to have a definition for division by a Complex number and we don’t have that –
we’re actually trying to get to it by first defining a reciprocal. So by putting z z̄ in the denominator
we avoid that, since z z̄ is always Real, and we know how to divide by those. Multiplying by z̄
compensates in an intuitive way for having introduced it in the demoninator.
20
Of course, we would be remiss if we did not prove that this definition does what we need it to do –
specifically that zz −1 = 1. Let’s show that now.
a + bi a − bi
zz −1 = × 2
1 a + b2
2 2
a +b
= 2
a + b2
= 1
which is the desired result, and is very good news indeed! Technically we also need to show that
z −1 z = 1, but that is left as an exercise.
4.8 Division
Now that we have defined reciprocals and conjugates, we are ready to define division. In our
dealings with Real numbers we have already fully defined division, but we as yet have no definition
for division with Imaginary numbers. What we will do is define it in the same way. Specifically,
give two Complex numbers z1 and z2 6= 0, we define
z1 ÷ z2 = z1 × z2−1 .
Again, note that as is the case with addition and subtraction, division is just a special case of
multiplication.
The following example demonstrates the technique.
Example: Dividing Complex Numbers
7 − 3i 1
= (7 − 3i) × × 5 + 4i
5 + 4i (5 + 4i) 5 + 4i
7 − 3i 5 − 4i
= × (this is a more convenient way to express the above)
5 + 4i 5 − 4i
35 − 28i − 15i + 12i2
=
52 + 42
23 − 43i
=
41
Now we have a perfectly defined Complex number, which resulted from the division of two Complex
numbers. Note that the first line is not necessary to show, and is included here to demonstrate
how the definition was applied. Simply put, when dividing Complex numbers, we multiply the
numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the denominator.
We can use this technique to perform the division in the general case. If z1 = a1 + b1 i and
21
z2 = a2 + b2 i 6= 0, then
z1 z1 z¯2
= ×
z2 z2 z¯2
z1 z¯2
=
|z2 |2
(a1 + b1 i)(a2 − b2 i)
=
a22 + b22
a1 a2 − a1 b 2 i + a2 b 1 i − b 1 b 2 i 2
=
a22 + b22
a1 a2 − a1 b 2 i + a2 b 1 i + b 1 b 2
=
a22 + b22
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + (a2 b1 − a1 b2 )i
=
a22 + b22
While this result is technically a formula for division with complex numbers, there is little value in
memorizing it. It is much better in practice to use the technique demonstrated in the example.
4.9 Exponentiation and Powers of i
Once multiplication is defined, exponents become straightforward, since exponentiation is simply

repeated multiplication. Algorithmically, we apply the same techniques to powers of a complex
number as we would to powers of binomials. Then we use the definition if i to simplify.
So for example, if we want to square the quantity 5 − 3i, it works like this:
Example: Squaring a Complex Number
(5 − 3i)2 = (5 − 3i)(5 − 3i)

= 25 − 30i + 9i2
= 25 − 30i − 9
= 16 − 30i
22
What becomes more interesting is when exponents greater than 2 are used. This is a great time to
look at a cool property of i having to do with exponents.
First, we’ll apply the same rule for a zero exponent that we have for Real numbers, and say that
i0 = 1. Now consider the following progression, which assumes that the exponent rules we already
know apply to i:
i0 = 1
i1 = i
i2 = −1
i3 = i2 × i
= −i
i4 = i3 × i
= −i × i
= −i2
= −(−1)
= 1
i5 = i4 × i
= 1×i
= i
i6 = i5 × i
= i×i
= i2
= −1
So we see that there is a pattern here, where the powers of i repeat in cycles of 4, so that any
non-negative integer power of i can be expressed either as 1 (if the exponent gives remainder 0
when divided by 4), i (if the exponent gives remainder 1 when divided by 4), −1 (if the exponent
gives remainder 2 when divided by 4) or −i (if the exponent gives remainder 3 when divided by 4).
This can be summarized concisely as follows, where n can be any non-negative integer:
i4n = 1
i4n+1 = i
i4n+2 = −1
i4n+3 = −i
Mathematicians use the “mod” notation as a concise way to talk about remainders. So for example
25 mod 4 = 1
because
25 ÷ 4 = 6 remainder 1.
This notation comes in very handy when evaluating powers of i, since it is the remainder when the
exponent is divided by 4 that determines the result. Consider some examples:
23
Example: Simplifying Powers of i
Evaluate each power of i:
1. i15
15 mod 4 = 3, therefore i15 = i3 = −i.
2. i126 = −1
126 mod 4 = 2, therefore i126 = i2 = −1.
3. i2000 = 1
2000 mod 4 = 0, therefore i2000 = i0 = 1.
So now that we understand the cyclic nature of powers of i, we can evaluate higher integral powers
of complex numbers.
Example: Evaluating Powers of Complex Numbers
1. Evaluate (3 − 2i)3
There are two ways to approach this – we can “multiply and simplify”, or we can fully exand,
then simplify. We’ll show both methods.
“Multiply and simplify”:
(3 − 2i)3 = (3 − 2i)(3 − 2i)(3 − 2i)

= (3 − 2i)(9 − 12i + 4i2 )
= (3 − 2i)(9 − 12i − 4)
= (3 − 2i)(5 − 12i)
= 15 − 36i − 10i + 24i2
= 15 − 46i − 24
= −9 − 46i
Fully expand:
(3 − 2i)3 = (3 − 2i)(3 − 2i)(3 − 2i)

= (3 − 2i)(9 − 12i + 4i2 )
= 27 − 54i + 36i2 − 8i3
= 27 − 54i + 36 × (−1) − 8 × (−i)
= −9 − 46i
Note that “multiply and simplify” avoids the need to deal with powers of i beyond i2 .
24
2. Evaluate (4 + 3i)4
“Multiply and simplify”:
(4 + 3i)4 = (4 + 3i)2 (4 + 3i)2

= (16 + 24i + 9i2 )(16 + 24i + 9i2 )
= (16 + 24i − 9)(16 + 24i − 9)
= (7 + 24i)(7 + 24i)
= 49 + 168i + 168i + 576i2
= 49 + 336i − 576
= −527 + 336i
Fully expand:
(4 + 3i)4 = (4 + 3i)2 (4 + 3i)2

= (16 + 24i + 9i2 )(16 + 24i + 9i2 )
= 256 + 768i + 864i2 + 432i3 + 81i4
= 256 + 768i + 864 × (−1) + 432 × (−i) + 81 × 1
= −527 + 336i
4.10 Negative and Rational Powers of i
So far we have only considered non-negative integer exponents for i. There is no reason to restrict
ourselves this way. We can, in fact, evaluate any power of i – even if the exponent is Complex!
Let’s start with negative integers, since those are fairly straightforward.
We have already defined the reciprocal of a Complex number so that we could perform division. This
made use of the property of negative exponents with which we are already familiar. Specifically,
1
that b−c = c as long as b 6= 0. Although this property came to us for use with Real numbers, we
b
can still apply it to Imaginary numbers as well. Let’s start by evaluating i−1 , using our definition
for the reciprocal of a Complex number.
Note that i = 0 + i, so that ī = 0 − i = −i, and iī = 02 + 12 = 1. So,

1
i−1 = ī
iī
1
= × (0 − i)
1
= −i
This result is actually very encouraging, because it follows from the cyclic nature of powers of i
that we established above. The result is also incredibly useful, because now that we know that
i−1 = −i, we can convert any negative Integer power of i to an expression with a positive exponent,
as follows.
25
Let x > 0, where x ∈ Z.1 Then
x
i−x = i−1
= (−i)x (since i−1 = −i)
= (−1 × i)x
= (−1)x ix
and although we have so far only considered integer values for x, this result actually holds for any
real value of x (although when x is not an integer things do get more interesting). Very handy!
Let’s do a couple of examples.
Example: Evaluating Negative Powers of i
Evaluate each of the following.
1. i−3
i−3 = (−1)3 i3
= (−1)(−i)
= i
2. i−18
i−18 = (−1)18 i18

= (1)(−1) (since 18 mod 4 = 2)
= i
Now we’re ready for something really interesting – rational exponents! To understand how this is
1
done, we’ll start with a very useful example and see how to evaluate i 2 . To do this we will assume
that the answer is some Complex number a + bi, and then make use of the fact that if we are given
two Complex numbers z1 = a1 + b1 i and z2 = a2 + b2 i, then z1 = z2 if and only if a1 = a2 and
b1 = b2 .
1
Let i 2 = a + bi. Then
1 2
i2 = (a + bi)2
i = a2 + 2abi + b2 i2
0 + 1i = a2 − b2 + 2abi
This leads to the following two equations involving a and b:
a2 − b 2 = 0 (1)
2ab = 1 (2)
1
Z is the symbol we use for the set of Integers
26
Equation (1) can be rearranged to show that
b = ±a
So let’s try these one at a time. First, substitute b = a equation (2) to get
2a2 = 1
1
a = ±√
2
1
which would mean that b = ± √ as well, and this tells us that two possibilities are
2
1 1 1
i2 = √ ± √ i
2 2
Now substitute b = −a equation (2) to get

−2a2 = 1
i
a = ±√
2
i
which means that b = ∓ √
2
(Note that the upside-down looking symbol ∓ means that when a is positive, b is negative, and
when a is negative, b is positive).
1
This tells us that another two possibilities for i 2 are
1 i i
i2 = ±√ ∓ √ i
2 2
2
i i
= ±√ ∓ √
2 2
i 1
= ±√ ± √ (since i2 = −1 the “ ∓ ” becomes “ ± ”)
2 2
1 1
= ±√ ± √ i
2 2
which is the exact same result we already saw.
So it would seem that we have shown that

1 1 1
i =±
2 √ +√ i
2 2
Let’s test the results by squaring them. Note that squaring immediately eliminates the need for the
“±” symbol.
2
1 1 1 1 1 1
± √ +√ i = √ +√ i √ +√ i
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2
1 1 1 1
= √ +2 √ √ i+ √ i2
2 2 2 2

1 1 1
= +2 i−
2 2 2
= i
27
just as we expected, which makes it official. Thus we have that

1 1 1
i =± √ +√ i
2
2 2
and although this is not exactly like taking the square root of i (the square root operation only ever
delivers one answer), we can now solve equations of the form x2 = i, which can be valuable.
1
4.10.1 Determining (a + bi) 2
1
Now let’s get super-hardcore. Let’s see if we can apply the rational exponent to Complex numbers
2
in general!
*** Warning: This is not for the faint-hearted! ***

1
OK. Here goes. Let z = a + bi be any strictly Complex number, and let z 2 = x + yi, where
a, b, x, y ∈ R. Note that since z is strictly Complex, a 6= 0 and b 6= 0.
So
1
2
(a + bi) 2 = (x + yi)2
a + bi = x2 + 2xyi + y 2 i2
a + bi = x2 − y 2 + 2xyi
So
x2 − y 2 = a (1)
2xy = b (2)
Let’s square both sides of equation (2) so that the variables match up nicely:
4x2 y 2 = b2 (3)
Equation (1) tells us that y 2 = x2 − a, which we can substitute into equation (3):
4x2 (x2 − a) = b2 (4)
4x4 − 4ax2 − b2 = 0 (5)
This is a quadratic equation in x2 , so we’ll apply quadratic formula:
p
2 −(−4a) ± (−4a)2 − 4(4)(−b2 )
x = (6)
2(4)
√
4a ± 16a + 16b2
2
x2 = (7)
√8
4a ± 4 a2 + b2
x2 = (8)
√ 8
a ± a2 + b 2
x2 = (9)
2
a ± |z|
x2 = (10)
r2
a ± |z|
x = ± (11)
2
28
At this point we have alot of possibilities. But let’s look at equation (10) for a moment. Here there
were two possibilities for x2 ... or so it seemed. In fact one of them is not possible. Let’s have a
closer look at it:
a − |z|
x2 =
2
Now we have assumed that x ∈ R, so that we know x2 ≥ 0. We have also assumed that b 6= 0. But
this means that
√
|z| = a2 + b 2
√
> a2
= |a|
so that we can say for certain that |z| > a.

a − |z|
But then that means that a − |z| < 0, and if x2 = this would imply that x2 < 0, which can’t
2
be true.
a − |z|
This means that x2 = is an extraneous root.
2
Phew. One less thing to worry about. Let’s carry on!
a + |z|
So we know that x2 = is the only possibility worth considering, and we will now use this to
2
determine y using equation (1):
a + |z|
− y2 = a (12)
2
a + |z|
y2 = −a (13)
2
a + |z| 2a
y2 = − (14)
2 2
a − 2a + |z|
y2 = (15)
r 2
−a + |z|
y = ± (16)
2
The final thing we need to determine here is whether we want the positive or negative answer for
y. The answer lies in equation (2), which says
2xy = b
This means that if b > 0 then x and y must have the same sign, whereas if b < 0 then x and y
must have opposite sign. Since x also came with a positive and a negative possibility (see equation
(11)), we can sort of “force” x to be positive (not really – hold on a moment to see what we really
mean) and then let y take the sign of b. Thus we can make the following conclusion:
r r !
√ |z| + a |z| − a
a + bi = ± + [sign(b)] × i
2 2
where sign(b) means the sign of b. Placing the ± in front accounts for both possibilities of x and
placing sign(b) before the Imaginary part ensures that we have put the right Real and Imaginary
parts together.
29
1
And that’s it! We have bravely determined the formula for (a + bi) 2 . Awesome.
It is worth noting (though not worth applying!) that if z is either Real or Imaginary the result
still holds, even though we assumed that z was strictly Complex in our analysis. This can be easily
shown by taking the above formula and setting either a = 0 if we want z ∈ I, or b = 0 if we want
z ∈ R. This verification is left for the reader as an exercise.
So that was pretty intense. But at least we got a formula out of it, and now we can consider
equations with Complex numbers as coefficients!
4.10.2 Solving Quadratic Equations With Complex Coefficients
When quadratic equations have strictly Real coefficients, the roots, if they are Complex, always
end up being Complex conjugates, because of the way quadratic formula works. However if the
coefficients are allowed to be Complex, things get more interesting. Let’s look at one example.
Example: Solve a Quadratic Equation With Complex Coefficients
Let’s solve x2 − (5 − i)x + (8 − i) = 0.
Even though the coefficients are Complex, we can still use the quadratic formula. Here we have
a = 1, b = −(5 − i) = −5 + i, c = (8 − i)
So quadratic formula says

√
b2 − 4ac
−b ±
x =
2a p
−(−5 + i) ± (−5 + i)2 − 4(1)(8 − i)
=
2(1)
√
5 − i ± 25 − 10i + i2 − 32 + 4i
=
√ 2
5 − i ± 25 − 10i − 1 − 32 + 4i
=
√ 2
5 − i ± −8 − 6i
=
2
√
We have to stop here and determine −8 − 6i. Fortunately, we have a formula!
p √
Note that | − 8 − 6i| = (−8)2 + (−6)2 = 100 = 10. Also note that −6 < 0.
30
Therefore,
r r !
√ | − 8 − 6i| − 8 | − 8 − 6i| + 8
−8 − 6i = ± −i
2 2
r r !
10 − 8 10 + 8
= ± −i
2 2
r r !
2 18
= ± −i
2 2
√ √
= ± 1−i 9
= ±(1 − 3i)
Now we can continue. Either

5 − i + (1 − 3i)
x =
2
6 − 4i
=
2
= 3 − 2i
or
5 − i − (1 − 3i)
x =
2
4 + 2i
=
2
= 2+i
and we’ve done it!
To be sure, let’s check the results.
Check 3 − 2i
L.S. = x2 − (5 − i)x + (8 − i)
= (3 − 2i)2 − (5 − i)(3 − 2i) + (8 − i)
= (9 − 12i + 4i2 ) − (15 − 10i − 3i + 2i2 ) + (8 − i)
= (9 − 12i − 4) − (15 − 13i − 2) + (8 − i)
= 0
= R.S
Check 2 + i
L.S. = x2 − (5 − i)x + (8 − i)
= (2 + i)2 − (5 − i)(2 + i) + (8 − i)
= (4 + 4i + i2 ) − (10 + 5i − 2i − i2 ) + (8 − i)
= (4 + 4i − 1) − (10 + 3i + 1) + (8 − i)
= 0
= R.S
So both solutions are correct. Great news.
31
4.11 Exercises
Solutions on page 51.
1. Show that if z = a + bi 6= 0 then z −1 z = 1.
2. Given z1 = 4 + 3i and z2 = 5 − i
(a) Determine z2−1

(b) Determine z1 z2−1
(c) Determine z1 ÷ z2
(d) Explain why your answers for (b) and (c) are the same.
3. Evaluate each of the following.
(a) (5 − 7i) + (6 + 5i)

(b) (3 + 4i) × (11 − 9i)
(c) (3 + 2i) − (7 − 4i)
(d) (7 − 2i) ÷ (3 + i)
4. Evaluate each of the following by expanding fully then using powers of i to simplify.
(a) (1 + 2i)3
(b) (2 − i)4
5. Solve each equation for x ∈ C. Simplify your answer as much as possible.
(a) x2 − (1 − 4i)x + (3 − 11i) = 0

(b) 2x2 − (8 + 12i)x − (10 − 15i) = 0
(c) x2 − (6 − 2i)x + (8 − 6i) = 0
32
5 Graphing Complex Numbers
• Have completed Section 4: “Operations With Complex Numbers”.
• Know how to graph ordered pairs in the Cartesian Plane.
• Know the formula for distance between two points in the Cartesian Plane.
• Know how to recognize and graph vertical and horizontal lines: x = a and y = b.
• Know the equation for a circle centered at the origin: x2 + y 2 = r2 .
5.2 Argand Diagrams
Because a Complex number z = a + bi is completely defined by the values of a and b, they can also
be expressed with the ordered pair (a, b). This means they can be graphed in a Cartesian Plane,
with one slight adjustment to the way we define the axes.
A Cartesian Plane is nothing more complicated than two number lines, set perpendicular to each
other, intersecting at the point representing zero on each. So in our usual idea of the Cartesian
Plane, the coordinates of the point (5, 4), both refer to Real numbers on two different Real number
lines – the x- and y-axis, respectively. To graph a Complex number in a Cartesian Plane, we will
still use a Real number line for the horizontal axis, but we’ll use an Imaginary number line for the
vertical axis. In practice this does not result in any visual differences between graphing the Real
ordered pair (5, 4) and graphing the Complex number 5 + 4i. When we graph Complex numbers
in the Cartesian Plane we call the Plane the “Complex Plane” or the “Argand Plane” (named for
mathematician Jean-Robert Argand[1]), and the diagram is known as an “Argand Diagram”.
The example below shows a selection of Complex numbers graphed in the Argand Plane.
33
Example: Graphing Numbers in the Argand Plane
Note that the points A and F are graphical representations of Complex conjugates. Visually they
are reflections of each other through the horizontal axis. This makes sense, since Complex conjugates
differ only in the sign of their Imaginary part.
5.3 The Magnitude of a Complex Number
Unlike strictly Real numbers or strictly Imaginary numbers, strictly Complex numbers can’t be
ordered in any obvious way. The easiest way to see this is to consider each number set graphically.
Because the Reals and Imaginaries can be graphed using only one dimension, which is to say on a
number line, it is easy to order them (it is also easy to argue the reverse here – that it is easy to
graph them in one dimension because they can be ordered – but they amount to the same thing).
Informally, we can say that one number, m, is to the left (or below, if the number line is oriented
vertically) of another, n, on the number line, if and only if2 then m < n.
The Real Number Line
The Imaginary Number Line

2
The phrase “if and only if” is not randomly chosen – think about what it means!
34
When it comes to strictly Complex numbers, that is numbers with non-zero Real and Imaginary
parts, we can no longer talk about “left” and “right” or “above” and “below” to impose order,
because both vertical and horizontal positioning are in play simultaneously. This feature of Complex
numbers is neither good nor bad – it is simply true. However in two dimensions we can always talk
about the distance of a point from the origin, which we refer to as magnitude or absolute value,
and magnitudes can be ordered because distance is always measured with positive Real numbers.
The magnitude of a Complex number is easy to define using Pythagorean Theorem in the exact
same way that we determine the distance between two points in the Cartesian Plane. Here our task
is made simpler because one of the points is the origin, so that in general, given z = a + bi, we
define the magnitude of z as √
|z| = a2 + b2
Example: Determining Magnitude of Complex Numbers
Determine the magnitude of each:
1. z1 = 2 + 5i
√
|z1 | = 22 + 52
√
= 4 + 25
√
= 29
2. z2 = 6 − i
p
|z2 | = 62 + (−1)2
√
= 36 + 1
√
= 37
It is very much worth noting that the concept of absolute value, which is introduced to students
fairly early on, is actually widely misunderstood. Many students think that taking the absolute
35
value of a number means “making it positive”. So they will say that | − 3| = 3 because they “made
−3 positive”.
While the conclusion is totally correct, the thinking is not. It is not possible to “make −3 positive”.
The number −3 will always be negative, regardless of what we may do or think. In truth, absolute
value (i.e., magnitude) is defined exactly as we have defined it in this section. It is the distance
from a point to the origin. So it is completely true to say that number −3 is 3 units away from the
origin, as is the number 3. Since distance is always measured with positive numbers, this definition
has the result that matches the erroneous “make it positive” definition.
Now recall what we discovered in the section on Complex conjugates! Specifically that given any
Complex number z = a + bi,
z z̄ = (a + bi)(a − bi)
= a2 − b2 i2
= a2 + b2
= |z|2
So that another way to determine |z| is by taking the square root of the product of z with its
conjugate.
5.4 Graphing Complex Equations
One of the cooler things that happens when we start using points to represent Complex numbers
is that we can immediately use graphs to represent equations involving Complex numbers. As an
example, suppose we are given the equation |z| = 3 for z ∈ C. What is this saying? There are two
ways to think about it. Graphically, and algebraically.
Graphically, this is saying that we want to consider Complex numbers with a magnitude of 3, which
means that they must be 3 units away from the origin in the Complex Plane. But this is really just
the definition of a circle centered at the origin, with radius 3!
Algebraically, we can do a convenient trick (one that lets us relate our findings more easily to a
Cartesian Plane) and let z = x + yi. This of course now means that z can be represented by the
ordered pair (x, y) which perfectly fits into what we already understand about graphing. Now let’s
do the algebra:
|z| = 3
p
x2 + y 2 = 3
x2 + y 2 = 9
and this is precisely the equation of a circle with radius 3, centered at the origin.
36
Although it is nice to be able to interpret equations graphically when we can, often it’s not as clear
as it is in the case of the circle we graphed above. Consider the following example.
Example: Graphing a Complex Equation
Draw the graph that represents the equation z + z̄ = 5.
It is not necessarily easy to visualize graphically what this means, so let’s look at the algebra. Let
z = x + yi. Then
z + z̄ = 5
(x + yi) + (x − yi) = 5
2x = 5
x = 5/2
So then this equation can be represented by a vertical line, as shown:
37
5.5 Exercises
Answers on page 54.
1. Show that for any Complex number z, |z| = |z̄|.
2. In each of the following, determine |z|
(a) z = 3 + 2i
(b) z = 12 − 5i
(c) z = 24i
(d) z = −11i
(e) z = −8 − 7i
3. Graph each of the following in the Complex Plane
(a) 5 − i
(b) 3 + 4i
(c) −7 − 2i
(d) 1 + 2i
(e) −9 − 3i
(f) 2 − i
4. Graph |z| = 5 in the Complex Plane. What is the Cartesian equivalent to this equation?
5. Graph each in the Complex Plane.
(a) z + z̄ = 2
(b) z − z̄ = 2
(c) Based on your results from (a) and (b), what can you say about graphs of equations of
the form z ± z̄ = k, where k ∈ R?
38
6 Complex Numbers in Polar Form
This section is well-suited for a grade 11 enriched class.
• Have completed Section 5: “Graphing Complex Numbers”.
• Be familiar with the concept of angles in standard position.

y x
• Be familiar with the extended definitions for Sine and Cosine: sin θ = and cos θ = .
r r
• Be able to determine an angle of rotation given a point on the terminal arm.
• Know the primary trig ratios for the special angles.
6.2 Polar Coordinate Systems
As soon as we start representing numbers graphically, we find ourselves with the opportunity to
say the same thing in different ways. Just as is the case with spoken language, this is a good thing,
and allows us to choose how we want to express something based on context. So for example we
already have the ability to express the Complex number z = 5 + 4i in two ways either using 5 + 4i
(which we are already very familiar with, and is known as rectangular form), or as the point (5, 4)
graphed in the Complex Plane. We can think of it in a third way too. But first, let’s consider the
following diagram:
First, note that it is the point A that completely defines z for us. Everything else in the diagram
is true information that relates to that point. For example, its Cartesian coordinates tell us that if
39
we were to start at the origin and move 5 units right, then 4 units up, we arrive at the point. If the
diagram above were a map, and we were trying to give someone directions to get from their house
(which let’s say is at the origin) to school (which we’ll say is at the point A), we might tell them to
go east for 5 blocks and then north for 4 blocks. This is what is known as a rectangular coordinate
system, because everything is based on 90◦ turns (just like a rectangle). Rectangular coordinates
are what the Cartesian Plane is based on. But in real life we don’t always think of things this way,
do we?
Consider a slight different example. Suppose the origin represented a city called Mathtown, and the
point A represented a city called Los Matheles. Suppose further that we wanted to fly a helicopter
from Mathtown to Los Matheles, and that the units on the map are in kilometers. We would never
tell the helicopter pilot to fly 5 kilometers east and then 4 kilometers north. That sort of mundane
route is generally reserved for earthbound travel. A helicopter has the advantage of being able to
fly directly from one point to another, and so we would tell the pilot to fly the exact distance from
Mathtown to Los Matheles, and give him some sort of direction to point the helicopter. The angle
θ in the diagram would serve that purpose perfectly. So the question is, what is the distance and
what is the angle?
√
Fortunately we already know the distance, since that is simply |z| = 41 ≈ 6.4km.
The angle is not hard to determine either, if we use some basic trigonometry. That is to say,

−1 5
θ = cos √
41
◦
≈ 39
So we could tell our pilot to fly 6.4km in the direction 39◦ north of east, and he would successfully
navigate from Mathtown to Los Matheles. What’s more, if we all agree ahead of time that angles
should be measured counter-clockwise from the east, we would not even have to tell the pilot that
the 39◦ was “north of east”. That would be implied in the same way that when we give an ordered
pair (x, y) we understand without needing to be told that the x-coordinate is a horizontal position
and the y-coordinate is vertical, where positive values imply right or up, and negative values imply
left or down.
So this is exactly what we will do! Using 6.4 to represent the distance from the origin, and using
39◦ as the angle of rotation, measured counter-clockwise from the positive Real axis, we can now
represent the point A with the ordered pair (6.4, 39◦ ). We must acknowledge though that these
values are actually
approximations, so
that in truth the point A should be precisely represented by
√

5
the ordered pair 41, cos−1 √ .
41
When we use magnitude and rotation instead of horizontal and vertical displacement, we are using
what is called a Polar Coordinate System. In general, in a polar system, we call the magnitude
r (for radius), and the angle of rotation, measured counter-clockwise from the positive x-axis, is
called θ. Thus the polar ordered pair (r, θ) serves just as well to define a point as the rectangular
ordered pair (x, y) does.
40
Which form we choose depends on what we are talking about, just as what directions we would
give from Mathtown to Los Matheles would depend on whether we were driving or flying.
6.3 Converting Between Rectangular and Polar Form
So now let’s look at how we can express a Complex number given in rectangular form (i.e., x + yi)
and convert it to what is known as polar form – which is to say, a form that makes it apparent
what the values of r and θ would be in a polar coordinate system. This will make direct use of the
definitions for the Sine and Cosine ratios.
Recall that in general, if (x, y) is a point on the terminal arm of an angle θ in standard position,
then
y
sin θ =
r
and
x
cos θ =
r
This means that x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ.
So if we have a Complex number given in rectangular form as
z = x + yi
then simple substitution shows us that z can be expressed in terms of r and θ as follows:
z = r cos θ + (r sin θ)i
For convenience and clarity, we rearrange this like so:
z = r(cos θ + i sin θ)
41
This is known as the polar form of z. Note that i is placed in front of sin θ to avoid possible
confusion and/or the need to use parentheses around sin θ.
So we can see that if a number is given in polar form, converting to rectangular form is as simple
as using x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ.
Now let’s consider how to convert in the other direction. Suppose we are given that z = −3 − 4i.
What do we know about r and θ?
Well, r = |z|, so we can determine that fairly easily:

p
r = (−3)2 + (−4)2
√
= 25
= 5
Furthermore, we know that (−3, −4) is a point in the third quadrant, and we can use inverse trig
ratios to determine θ:

◦ −1 3
θ = 180 + cos
5
◦
≈ 233.1
Note that since we used a decimal approximation for θ, we will use the approximately equal to sign
to conclude that in polar form:
z ≈ 5(cos 233.1◦ + i sin 233.1◦ )
Example: Converting Between Rectangular and Polar Form
For each given Complex number, convert z to the indicated form.
1. z = 2 + 5i from rectangular to polar, in approximate form.

Solution
First determine r.
r = |z|
√
= 22 + 52
√
= 29
Next, determine θ. (2, 5) is in quadrant 1, so

−1 2
θ = cos √
29
≈ 68.2◦
√
Therefore in polar form, z = 29(cos 68.2◦ + i sin 68.2◦ ).
4 4
2. z = √ − √ i from rectangular to polar, in exact form.
2 2
Solution
42
First determine r.
r = |z|
s 2 2
4 4
= √ + −√
2 2
r
16 16
= +
2 2
√
= 16
= 4

4 4
Next, determine θ. √ , − √ is in quadrant 2, so
2 2

◦ −1 4
θ = 180 − cos √ ÷4
2

◦ −1 1
θ = 180 − cos √
2
◦ ◦
= 180 − 45
= 135◦
Therefore in polar form, z = 4(cos 45◦ + i sin 45◦ ).
3. z = 3(cos 60◦ + i sin 60◦ ) from polar to rectangular, in exact form.
Solution
Here we see that r = 3 and θ = 60◦ , so in rectangular form we have
x = 3 cos 60◦
3
=
2
and
y = 3 sin 60◦
√
3 3
=
2
√
3 3 3
Therefore in rectangular form, z = + i.
2 2
4. z = 5(cos 312◦ + i sin 312◦ ) from polar to rectangular, in approximate form.
Solution
Here we see that r = 5 and θ = 312◦ , so in rectangular form we have
x = 5 cos 312◦
≈ 3.3
and
y = 5 sin 312◦
≈ −3.7
Therefore in rectangular form, z ≈ 3.3 − 3.7i.
43
6.4 Exercises
Answers on page 56.
1. Determine the rectangular ordered pair that corresponds to the polar ordered pair (5, 120◦ ),
then graph in the Complex Plane.
2. In each case convert to the indicated form
(a) z = 5 − 3i from rectangular to polar, in approximate form

(b) z = 3 + 7i from rectangular to polar, in approximate form
(c) z = −2 − 6i from rectangular to polar, in approximate form
(d) z = −7 + i from rectangular to polar, in approximate form
√
1 3
(e) z = + i from rectangular to polar, in exact form
2 2
(f) z = 17(cos 135◦ + i sin 135◦ ) from polar to rectangular, in exact form
1
(g) z = (cos 330◦ + i sin 330◦ ) from polar to rectangular, in exact form
2
1
(h) z = (cos 112◦ + i sin 112◦ ) from polar to rectangular, in exact form
2
44
7 We Finish With a Song
Since the dawn of time mathematicians have fancied themselves as songwriters. On the heels of
such hits as “Leaving On a Flat Plane” by Rene Descartes, and “Take It To the Limit” by Sir Isaac
Newton, we bring you “Utilitarian i”, sung to the tune of American π – apologies to Don McLean.
Utilitarian i
A long, long time ago, I can still remember how

Quadratics used to make me cry.
With factoring I’d solve a ton,
Use the formula, to get it done,
But I couldn’t solve x2 + 1 .
The real numbers made me shiver,
For no solution they’d deliver,
Both positive and negative ...
A correct root would not give.
And zero wasn’t worth a try
It does not change with multiply
So I begin to question why,
And then, I thought of i.
Oooh... My, my utilitarian i

When we square ya that don’t scare ya you are cooler than pi
And negative one comes out of the other side.
Singing now I’m just like sixteen and nine
now I’m just like sixteen and nine
Were you caught unawares

That x2 + 1 is a difference of squares
The complex numbers make it so
And negative one really has a hoot
Because it finally has a square root3
And x2 + 1 can really be zero
Now we know that the discriminant
’Bout the roots give us a giant hint
We know if theyre complex
And how many x-intercepts
i is the end of my quadratic woes
Now parabolas are not my foes
it was right there in front of my nose
The imaginary i
I started singin’...
My, my utilitarian i
When we square ya that don’t scare ya you are cooler than pi
And negative one comes out of the other side.
Singing now I’m just like sixteen and nine
now I’m just like sixteen and nine
3
Poetic license! It’s not really true, as we now know.
45
8 “eπi10gue”
In truth, this section is more suited to a first-year university calculus student. However it would
be criminal not to include it. There are no exercises provided for this section, as it is mainly for
interest’s sake.
• Have a firm understanding of trigonometry.
• Have a firm understanding of radians.
• Have a firm understanding powers of i.
• Be familiar with factorials and factorial notation: n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2)...(3)(2)(1).
• Be familiar with the function f (x) = ex .
8.2 Taylor Series Expansions
Students often wonder “How does my calculator know how to evaluate trig ratios and powers of e?”
3π 3
The answer is that the calculator is able to convert expressions like cos and e 4 to polynomials
7
(albeit infinitely long ones) using what is known as Taylor Series expansions.
Each of sin x, cos x and ex have their own Taylor Series expansion, which we will state here with-
out proof (the proofs require advanced knowledge of calculus so we’ll have to wait for that until
university).
Taylor Series Expansions for sin x, cos x and ex :

x3 x5 x7
sin x = x − + − + ···
3! 5! 7!
x2 x4 x6
cos x = 1 − + − + ···
2! 4! 6!
x2 x3 x4
ex = 1 + x + + + + ···
2! 3! 4!
Note that these are infinite series. They continue on forever. Generally speaking, computers and
calculators will use enough terms from these series to reach the required precision. For example
a calculator might use the Sine series to determine sin 6.3 correct to 10 decimal places. Note also
that the trig series’ require that x be expressed in radians, not in degrees.
46
8.3 Applying Taylor Series Expansions to Complex Numbers in Polar
Form
Recall from Section 6: “Complex Numbers in Polar Form”, that a Complex number expressed in
polar form looks like this:
z = r(cos θ + i sin θ)
Now let’s take that and apply the Taylor Series expansions for Sine and Cosine:
z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) (1)
2 4 6 3 5 7

θ θ θ θ θ θ
= r 1− + − + ··· + i θ − + − + ··· (2)
2! 4! 6! 3! 5! 7!
θ2 θ3 θ4 θ5 θ6 θ7

= r 1 + θi − − i+ + i− − i + ··· (3)
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
Now notice the pattern of positives and negatives, along with the alternating terms that contain i,
because here is where it gets interesting. The terms with i all have odd exponents, and we know
from Section 4.9: “Exponentiation and Powers of i” that odd powers of i can always be simplified
either to i, when the exponent is of the form 4n + 1, or −i when the exponent is of the form 4n + 3.
We are going to use this now to change the way our expression for z looks, by focusing our attention
on the terms containing i.
θ 2 θ 3 i3 θ 4 θ 5 i5 θ 6 θ 7 i7

z = r 1 + θi − + + + − + + ··· (4)
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
What happened here is that we are able to take the terms that have an i as well as a negative sign
in front and express them with a positive sign using the cyclic nature of powers of i. The terms
containing i that already had a positive were fortunately in positions where the exponent allowed
us to express i in the form i4n+1 while at the same time using the same exponent that is applied to
θ. But it gets better!
Now we’ll turn our attention to those terms that do not contain i. Because in truth, they do.
Even powers of i always evaluate to either 1, when the exponent is of the form 4n, or −1 when
the exponent is of the form 4n + 2. Now we’ll use this and focus our attention on the terms that
seemingly do not contain a factor of i:
θ2 i2 θ3 i3 θ4 i4 θ5 i5 θ6 i6 θ7 i7

z = r 1 + θi + + + + + + + ··· (5)
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
Once again fortune appears to have smiled on us, because we have been able to match the exponent
applied to i with the one applied to θ in each term, and now the series contains no subtraction!
Let’s bring it home, by expressing θn in as (iθ)n and recognizing the Taylor Series expansion of ex
for a startling result:
(iθ)2 (iθ)3 (iθ)4 (iθ)5 (iθ)6 (iθ)7

z = r 1 + θi + + + + + + + ··· (6)
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
= reiθ (7)
This is quite interesting, because we now have a way to evaluate powers with Complex exponents,
and a new way of expressing Complex numbers in polar form.
Specifically,
z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) = reiθ
47
8.4 An Amazing Identity
As if this revelation weren’t enough, we are led to an amazing identity almost immediately. For if
reiθ = r(cos θ + i sin θ), then
eiπ = cos π + i sin π

= −1 + i × 0
iπ
⇒e +1 = 0
(Now have a closer look at the somewhat cryptic title for this section ...)
This is an extremely famous identity, because it relates e, i, π, 1 and 0 in one perfect equation, and
these constants are considered by many to be the foundation of modern mathematics.
48
9 Answers/Solutions to Exercises
9.1 Answers From Section 1.5
1. x = 7 2. x = 7 3. x = 7 4. x = 7 5. x = 7 6. x = 7 7. x = 7 8. x = ±7 9.
x = ±7 10. No Real solution.
9.2 Answers For Section 2.5

√
1. x = ±i 2. x = ±9i 3. x = ±i 10 4. x = ±2i 5. x = ±3i 6. x = ±7i 7. x = 3 ± 2i
9.3 Solutions For Section 3.3
1. x2 + 7 = 0
x2 = −7
√
x = ±i 7
2. x2 + 5x + 15 = 0
Using quadratic formula, a = 1, b = 5, c = 15. So
p
5 ± 52 − 4(1)(15)
x =
2(1)
√
5 ± −35
=
2
which has negative discriminant, so
√
5 ± i 35
x =
2
3. x2 + x − 5 = 0
Using quadratic formula, a = 1, b = 1, c = −5. So
p
1 ± 12 − 4(1)(−5)
x =
2(1)
√
1 ± 21
=
2
4. x2 = 3x − 4
Rearrange:
x2 − 3x + 4 = 0
Using quadratic formula, a = 1, b = −3, c = 4. So
p
3 ± (−3)2 − 4(1)(4)
x =
2(1)
√
3 ± −7
=
2
49
√
3±i 7
x =
2
5. 2x2 − 3x + 7 = 0
p
3 ± (−3)2 − 4(2)(7)
x =
2(2)
√
3 ± −47
=
4
√
3 ± i 47
x =
4
6. 7x2 − 4x + 2 = 0
p
4 ± (−4)2 − 4(7)(2)
x =
2(7)
√
4 ± −40
=
14
√
4 ± i 40
x =
14 √
4 ± 2i 10
=
14
√
2 ± i 10
=
7
7. −2x2 − 5x − 10 = 0
Using quadratic formula, a = −2, b = −5, c = −10. So
p
5 ± (−5)2 − 4(−2)(−10)
x =
2(−2)
√
5 ± −55
=
−4
√
5 ± i 55
x =
−4 √
−5 ± i 55
=
4
50
1. Show that if z = a + bi 6= 0 then z −1 z = 1.

a − bi a + bi
z −1 z = 2 2
×
a +b 1
a2 + b 2
= 2
a + b2
= 1
as required.
2. Given z1 = 4 + 3i and z2 = 5 − i
(a) Determine z2−1
5−i
z2−1 =
|5 − i|2
5+i
= 2
5 + (−1)2
5+i
=
26
(b) Determine z1 z2−1

4 + 3i 5 + i
z1 z2−1 = ×
1 26
20 + 4i + 15i + 3i2
=
26
20 + 4i + 15i − 3
=
26
17 + 19i
=
26
(c) Determine z1 ÷ z2
4 + 3i
z1 ÷ z2 =
5−i
4 + 3i 5 + i
= ×
5−i 5+i
20 + 4i + 15i + 3i2
=
52 − i2
20 + 4i + 15i − 3
=
5+1
17 + 19i
=
26
(d) Explain why your answers for (b) and (c) are the same.
They are the same because the division z1 z2−1 is defined as the multiplication z2−1 .
3. Evaluate each of the following.
(a) (5 − 7i) + (6 + 5i) = 11 − 2i
51
(b) (3 + 4i) × (11 − 9i) = 69 + 17i
(c) (3 + 2i) − (7 − 4i) = −4 + 6i
19−13i
(d) (7 − 2i) ÷ (3 + i) = 10
4. Evaluate each of the following by expanding fully then using powers of i to simplify.
(a) (1 + 2i)3
(1 + 2i)3 = (1 + 2i)(1 + 2i)(1 + 2i)

= (1 + 2i)(1 + 4i + 4i2 )
= 1 + 4i + 4i2 + 2i + 8i2 + 8i3
= 1 + 6i + 12i2 + 8i3
= 1 + 6i + 12(−1) + 8(−i)
= −11 − 2i
(b) (2 − i)4
(2 − i)4 = (2 − i)(2 − i)(2 − i)(2 − i)

= (2 − i)(2 − i)(4 − 4i + i2 )
= (2 − i)(8 − 8i + 2i2 − 4i + 4i2 − i3 )
= (2 − i)(8 − 12i + 6i2 − i3 )
= 16 − 24i + 12i2 − 2i3 − 8i + 12i2 − 6i3 + i4
= 16 − 32i + 24i2 − 8i3 + i4
= 16 − 32i + 24(−1) − 8(−i) + 1
= −7 − 24i
5. Solve each equation for x ∈ C. Simplify your answer as much as possible.
(a) x2 − (1 − 4i)x + (3 − 11i) = 0

Using quadratic formula, a = 1, b = −(1 − 4i) = −1 + 4i, c = 3 − 11i. So
p
1 − 4i ± (−1 + 4i)2 − 4(1)(3 − 11i)
x =
2(1)
√
1 − 4i ± 1 − 8i + 16i2 − 12 + 44i
=
√ 2
1 − 4i ± 1 − 8i − 16 − 12 + 44i
=
√ 2
1 − 4i ± −27 + 36i
=
2
√
Now determine −27 + 36i, using the formula.
p √
Note that | − 27 + 36i| = (−27)2 + 362 = 2025 = 45.
Also note that 36 > 0.
52
Therefore,
r r !
√ | − 27 − 36i| − 27 | − 27 − 36i| + 27
−27 − 36i = ± +i
2 2
r r !
45 − 27 45 + 27
= ± +i
2 2
r r !
18 72
= ± +i
2 2
√ √
= ± 9 + i 36
= ±(3 + 6i)

1 − 4i + (3 + 6i)
x =
2
4 + 2i
=
2
= 2+i
or
1 − 4i − (3 + 6i)
x =
2
−2 − 10i
=
2
= −1 − 5i
(b) 2x2 − (8 + 12i)x − (10 − 15i) = 0

Using quadratic formula, a = 2, b = −(8 + 12i) = −8 − 12i, c = −(10 − 15i) = −10 + 15i.
So
p
8 + 12i ± (−8 − 12i)2 − 4(2)(−10 + 15i)
x =
2(2)
√
8 + 12i ± 64 + 192i + 144i2 + 80 − 120i
=
√ 4
8 + 12i ± 64 + 192i − 144 + 80 − 120i
=
√ 4
8 + 12i ± 0 + 72i
=
4
√
Now determine 0 + 72i, using the formula.
Note that |0 + 72i| = 72.
Also note that 72 > 0.
53
Therefore,
r r !
√ |0 + 72i| − 0 |0 + 72i| + 0
0 + 72i = ± +i
2 2
r r !
72 72
= ± +i
2 2
√ √
= ± 36 + i 36
= ±(6 + 6i)
8 + 12i + (6 + 6i)
x =
4
14 + 18i
=
4
7 + 9i
=
2
or
8 + 12i − (6 + 6i)
x =
4
2 + 6i
=
4
1 + 3i
=
2
(c) x2 − (6 − 2i)x + (8 − 6i) = 0
Using quadratic formula, a = 1, b = −(6 − 2i) = −6 + 2i, c = 8 − 6i. So
p
6 − 2i ± (−6 + 2i)2 − 4(1)(8 − 6i)
x =
2(1)
√
6 − 2i ± 36 − 24i + 4i2 − 32 + 24i
=
√ 2
6 − 2i ± 36 − 24i − 4 − 32 + 24i
=
√ 2
6 − 2i ± 0
=
2
= 3−i
1. Show that for any Complex number z, |z| = |z̄|.

Let z = a + bi. Then
|z̄| = |a − bi|
p
= a2 + (−b)2
√
= a2 + b 2
= |z|
as required.
54
2. In each of the following, determine |z|
√ √
(a) |z| = 13 (b) |z| = 13 (c) |z| = 24 (d) |z| = 11 (e) |z| = 113
3. Graph each of the following in the Complex Plane
4. Graph |z| = 5 in the Complex Plane. What is the Cartesian equivalent to this equation?
This is a circle centred at (0, 0) with radius 5.
The Cartesian Equivalent is x2 + y 2 = 25.
5. Graph each in the Complex Plane.
(a) z + z̄ = 2
55
If we let z = x + yi then z̄ = x − yi, so
z + z̄ = 2
⇒ x + yi + x − yi = 2
2x = 2
x = 1
This is a vertical line, as shown:
(b) z − z̄ = 2 If we let z = x + yi then z̄ = x − yi, so
z − z̄ = 2
⇒ x + yi − x + yi = 2
2yi = 2
yi = 1
Since y ∈ R there are no solutions to this. Thus there is no graph.

(c) Based on your results from (a) and (b), what can you say about graphs of equations of
the form z ± z̄ = k, where k ∈ R?
k
z + z̄ = k will be a vertical line equivalent to x = , while z − z̄ = k is not possible.
2
1. Determine the rectangular ordered pair that corresponds to the polar ordered pair (5, 120◦ ),
then graph in the Complex Plane.
56
x = r cos θ
= 5 cos 120◦
5
= −
2
y = r sin θ
= 5√sin 120◦
5 3
=
2
2. In each case convert to the indicated form
(a) z = 5 − 3i from rectangular to polar, in approximate form
r = |z|
p
= 52 + (−3)2
√
= 25 + 9
√
= 34
≈ 5.8
(5, −3) is in the fourth quadrant, so

◦ −1 5
θ = 360 − cos √
34
≈ 329◦
Therefore in polar form z ≈ 5.8(cos 329◦ + i sin 329◦ ).

(b) z = 3 + 7i from rectangular to polar, in approximate form
r = |z|
√
= 32 + 72
√
= 9 + 49
√
= 58
≈ 7.6
(3, 7) is in the first quadrant, so

−1 3
θ = cos √
58
≈ 66.8◦
Therefore in polar form z ≈ 7.6(cos 66.8◦ + i sin 66.8◦ ).
57
(c) z = −2 − 6i from rectangular to polar, in approximate form
r = |z|
p
= (−2)2 + (−6)2
√
= 4 + 36
√
= 40
≈ 6.3
(−2, −6) is in the third quadrant, so

◦ −1 2
θ = 180 + cos √
40
≈ 251.6◦

(d) z = −7 + i from rectangular to polar, in approximate form
r = |z|
p
= (−7)2 + 12
√
= 49 + 1
√
= 50
≈ 7.1
(−7, 1) is in the second quadrant, so

◦ −1 7
θ = 180 − cos √
50
≈ 171.7◦

√
1 3
(e) z = + i from rectangular to polar, in exact form
2 2
r = |z|
√ !2
v
u 2
u 1 3
= t +
2 2
r
1 3
= +
4 4
√
= 1
= 1
√ !
1 3
, is in the first quadrant, so
2 2

−1 1
θ = cos ÷1
2
= 60◦
Therefore in polar form z = cos 60◦ + i sin 60◦ .
58
(f) z = 17(cos 135◦ + i sin 135◦ ) from polar to rectangular, in exact form
r = 17 and θ = 135◦ , so
cos 135◦
x = 17
1
= 17 − √
2
17
= −√
2
y = 17 sin 135◦

1
= 17 √
2
17
= √
2
17 17
Therefore, in rectangular form z = − √ + √ i.
2 2
1
(g) z = (cos 330◦ + i sin 330◦ ) from polar to rectangular, in exact form
2
1
r = and θ = 330◦ , so
2
1
x = cos 330◦
2
√ !
1 3
=
2 2
√
3
=
4
1
y = sin 330◦
2

1 1
= −
2 2
1
= −
4
√
3 1
Therefore, in rectangular form z = − i.
4 4
1
(h) z = (cos 112◦ + i sin 112◦ ) from polar to rectangular, in exact form
2
1
r = and θ = 112◦ . 112◦ is not a special angle, so the only way to state trig ratios in
2
exact form is to not evaluate them. Thus
1
x = cos 112◦
2
1
y = sin 112◦
2

1 ◦ 1 ◦
Therefore, in rectangular form z = cos 112 − i sin 112 .
2 2
59
References
[1] J. J. Del Grande G. F.D. Duff J. C. Egsgard Coleman, A. J. and B. J. Kirby. Algebra. Gage,
Toronto, second edition edition, 1979.
[2] Wikipedia. Square root — wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2012. [Online; accessed 5-July-2012].
[3] Wikipedia. Taylor series — wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2012. [Online; accessed 5-July-
2012].
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Complex Numbers For High School

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Complex Numbers For High School

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The Incredible Imagination – Investigating Complex

July 21, 2012

1 A Deeper Look at Solving Equations 5

1.1 Prerequisite Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.2 Zero: The Identity Element For Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.3 One: The Identity Element For Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.4 Solving Simple Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2 “Imaginary” Numbers: The Formal Definition of i 9

2.1 Prerequisite Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.2 Do All Equations Have Solutions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.3 UnReal. We Need a New Number! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3 Formally Defining Complex Numbers 13

3.1 Prerequisite Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

3.2 Combining Real and Imaginary Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

3.2.1 Equality of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

4 Operations With Complex Numbers 17

4.1 Prerequisite Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4.6 Complex Conjugates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

4.10 Negative and Rational Powers of i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

4.10.2 Solving Quadratic Equations With Complex Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . 30

5 Graphing Complex Numbers 33

5.1 Prerequisite Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

5.2 Argand Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

5.3 The Magnitude of a Complex Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

5.4 Graphing Complex Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

6 Complex Numbers in Polar Form 39

6.1 Prerequisite Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

6.2 Polar Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

6.3 Converting Between Rectangular and Polar Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

7 We Finish With a Song 45

8.1 Prerequisite Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

8.2 Taylor Series Expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

8.3 Applying Taylor Series Expansions to Complex Numbers in Polar Form . . . . . . . 47

8.4 An Amazing Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

9.1 Answers From Section 1.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

9.2 Answers For Section 2.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

9.3 Solutions For Section 3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

9.5 Answers From Section 5.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

9.6 Answers From Section 6.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

1.1 Prerequisite Skills

Before proceeding with this section, students should:

• Be able to use algebra to solve linear equations.

1.2 Zero: The Identity Element For Addition

Consider the equation

1.3 One: The Identity Element For Multiplication

Similar to what we did above, consider the equation

1.4 Solving Simple Equations

How did we do it?

Let’s consider another, slightly more difficult equation

Solve each equation for x. Answers on page 49.

2.1 Prerequisite Skills

Before proceeding with this section, students should:

• Have completed Section 1: “A Deeper Look at Solving Equations”.

• Be familiar with radicals.

• Be familiar with exponent laws, including (ab)c = ac bc .

2.2 Do All Equations Have Solutions?

Conclusion: there is no solution.

Consider this symbol:

2.3 UnReal. We Need a New Number!

Specifically, we define i so that

i is an example of an Imaginary number. In general, an Imaginary number is defined as any number

(±4i)2 = (±4)2 (i2 )

So ±4i are solutions to the equation.

* Warning: This is not for the faint-hearted! *