Biologybook PDF

1
Svetlin G. Georgiev
Mathematics for Biologists
Mathematics for Biologists
By Svetlin G. Georgiev
This book first published 2022
Cambridge University Press
Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Copyright © 2022 by Svetlin G. Georgiev
All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.
ISBN (10): 1-5275-8997-8
ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-8997-1

Contents
The Set Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Definition. Describing Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Membership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Some Special Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Basic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 Functions and Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.6 The Principal of the Mathematical Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.7 Advanced Practical Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Rn and Cn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.1 Definition for a Complex Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.2 The Arithmetic of the Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.3 Complex Conjugate. Absolute Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.4 The Notation F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
2.5 Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
2.6 Fn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

3.1 Definition of a Vector Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.2 Elementary Properties of Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
3.3 Subspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3.4 Sum of Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.5 Direct Sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Finite-Dimensional Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

4.1 Linear Combinations and Span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.2 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
4.3 Infinite-Dimensional Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
4.4 Linear Independence and Linear Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
v
vi Contents
4.5 Finite-Dimensional Vector Subspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

4.6 Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
4.7 Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Linear Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

5.1 Definition and Examples of Linear Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
5.2 Algebraic Properties of L (V,W ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
5.3 Kernels and Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
5.4 Applications to Systems of Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
5.5 Matrices. Representing a Linear Map by a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
5.6 Addition and Scalar Multiplication of Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
5.7 Matrix Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Iso-Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

6.1 Algebra of Iso-Real Number Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
6.2 Sets of Iso-Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Iso-Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
7.1 Definitions of Iso-Functions of the First, Second, Third, Fourth
and Fifth Kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
7.2 Iso-Bijection, Iso-Injection and Iso-Surjection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
7.3 Operations with Iso-Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
7.4 Composition of Iso-Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
7.5 Bounded and Unbounded Iso-Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
7.6 Even and Odd Iso-Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
7.7 Periodic Iso-Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
7.8 Monotonic Iso-Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Preface to the Instructor
This book starts at the beginning of the subject, with no prerequisites other than
the usual demand for suitable mathematical maturity. Even if your students have
already seen some of the material in the first few chapters, they may be unaccus-
tomed to working exercises of the type presented here, most of which require an
understanding of proofs.
Here is a chapter-by-chapter summary of the highlights of the book:
• Chapter 1: In this chapter the set theory is introduced and the basic operations
with sets are developed.
• Chapter 2: In this chapter are defined complex numbers and their basic algebraic
properties are deduced.
• Chapter 3: Vector spaces are defined in this chapter, and their basic properties are
developed.
• Chapter 4: Linear independence, span, basis, and dimension are defined in this
chapter, which presents the basic theory of finite-dimensional vector spaces.
• Chapter 5: Linear maps are introduced in this chapter. The key result here is the
Fundamental Theorem of Linear Maps.
• Chapter 6: Iso-numbers and basic operations with iso-numbers are defined in this
chapter .
• Chapter 7: Iso-functions of the first, second, third, fourth and fifth kind are de-
fined and some of their properties are investigated.
This book usually develops mathematics simultaneously for real and complex
vector spaces by letting F denote either the real or the complex numbers. I prefer
avoiding arbitrary fields at this level because they introduce extra abstraction with-
out leading to any new mathematics. Also, students are more comfortable thinking
of polynomials as functions instead of the more formal objects needed for polyno-
mials with coefficients in finite fields.
A goal more important than teaching any particular theorem is to develop in
students the ability to understand and manipulate the objects of mathematics. Math-
ematics can be learned only by doing. Fortunately, mathematics has many good
homework exercises. When teaching this course, during each class I usually assign
vii
viii Contents
as homework several of the exercises, due the next class. Going over the homework
might take up a third or even half of a typical class.
Your suggestions, comments, and corrections are most welcome.
Best wishes for teaching a successful mathematics class!
Paris, September 2022 Svetlin G. Georgiev

Sorbonne University, Paris, France
Preface to the Students
As you begin, you may feel anxious about the number of theorems, definitions,
procedures, and equations. You may wonder if you can learn it all in time. Don’t
worry, your concerns are normal. This textbook was written with you in mind. If you
attend class, work hard, and read and study this book, you will build the knowledge
and skills you need to be successful.
When you get busy, it’s easy to skip reading and go right to the problems. Don’t
. . . the book has a large number of examples and clear explanations to help you
break down the mathematics into easy-to-understand steps. Reading will provide
you with a clearer understanding, beyond simple memorization. Read before class
(not after) so you can ask questions about anything you didn’t understand. You’ll be
amazed at how much more you’ll get out of class if you do this.
Paris, September 2022 Svetlin G. Georgiev

Sorbonne University, Paris, France
ix
Chapter 1
The Set Theory
1.1 Definition. Describing Sets
Definition 1.1. A set is a well defined collection of objects. The elements or mem-
bers of a set can be anything: numbers, people, letters of the alphabet, other sets,
and so on.
Sets are conventionally denoted with capital letters: A, B, C, . . ..

Definition 1.2. The empty set is the unique set having no elements. It is denoted by
0.
/ Any set different than the empty set is called nonempty.
Definition 1.3. Sets A and B are said to be equal if they have precisely the same
elements.
There are two ways for describing sets.

1. One way is by intensional definition using a rule or semantic description.
Example 1.1. A is the set whose members are the first five negative integers.
Example 1.2. B is the set of the colors of the French flag.
2. The second way is by extension, i.e., listing each member of the set. An exten-
sional definition is denoted by enclosing the list of numbers in curly brackets.
Example 1.3. C = {−1, −2, −3, −4, −5}.
Example 1.4. D = {blue, white, red}.
Every element of a set must be unique, no two members may be identical. All set op-
erations preserve this property. The order in which the elements of a set or multiset
are listed is irrelevant.
Example 1.5. We have
{3, 9} = {9, 3}.
1
2 1 The Set Theory
For sets with many elements, the enumeration of numbers can be abbreviated.
Example 1.6. For instance, the set of the first one hundred positive integers may be
specified extensionally as follows
{1, 2, . . . , 100},
where the ellipsis ”. . .” indicated that the list continues in the obvious way.
Ellipsis can also be used where sets have infinitely many members.
Example 1.7. The set of positive odd numbers can be written as follows
{1, 3, 5, 7, . . .}.
The notation with braces may also be used in an intensional specification of a set.
In this usage, the braces have meaning ”the set of all”.
Example 1.8. For instance,
E = {colors of the French flag}
is the set whose three elements are: blue, white and red. A more general form of this
is set-builder notation, through which, for instance the set F of the thirty smallest
integers that are two less than perfect square can be denote as follows
F = {n2 − 2 : n is an integer; and 0 ≤ n ≤ 29}.
In this notation, the colon ”:” means ”such that” and the description can be inter-
preted as ”F is the set of all numbers of the form n2 − 2, such that n is a whole
number in the range from 0 to 29 inclusive.” Sometimes, the vertical bar ”|” is used
instead of the colon.
Example 1.9. Let
2x − 1 x − 3
A= x∈R: < .
3 2
We will determine the set A. For this aim, we will solve the inequality
2x − 1 x − 1
< .
3 2
We have
2(2x − 1) < 3(x − 3),
whereupon
4x − 2 < 3x − 9
or
x < −7,
or
1.1 Definition. Describing Sets 3
x ∈ (−∞, −7).
Thus, A = (−∞, −7).
Example 1.10. Let
B = {x ∈ R : (2x − 3)(5x + 2) ≤ 12}.
We will determine the set B. For this aim, we will solve the equation
(2x − 3)(5x + 2) ≤ 12. (1.1)
We have
10x2 + 4x − 15x − 6 ≤ 12
or
10x2 − 11x − 18 ≤ 0.
The roots of the quadratic equation
10x2 − 11x − 18 = 0
are
√
11 ± 121 + 720
x1,2 =
20
√
11 ± 841
=
20
11 ± 29
= .
20
Thus,
11 + 29
x1 =
20
40
=
20
=2
and
11 − 29
x2 =
20
18
=−
20
4 1 The Set Theory
9
=− .
10

9
Consequently the set of all solutions of the inequality (1.1) is − , 2 . Therefore
10
9
B = − ,2 .
10
Example 1.11. Let
x+8
C= x∈R: <0 .
2x + 6
We will determine the set C. For this aim, we will solve the inequality
x+8
< 0.
2x + 6
We have
x+8
< 0,
2(x + 3)
whereupon x ∈ (−8, −3) and C = (−8, −3).
Example 1.12. Let
p
D = {x ∈ R : x2 − 3x − 10 < 8 − x}.
We will determine the set D. For this aim, we will solve the inequality
p
x2 − 3x − 10 < 8 − x. (1.2)
This inequality is equivalent to the system
x2 − 3x − 10 ≥ 0
8−x > 0
(8 − x)2 > x2 − 3x − 1,
whereupon
(x − 5)(x + 2) ≥ 0
8>x
64 − 16x + x2 > x2 − 3x − 10,
or
1.1 Definition. Describing Sets 5
[
x ∈ (−∞, −2] [5, ∞)
x ∈ (−∞, 8)
13x < 74,
or
[
x ∈ (−∞, −2] [5, ∞)
x ∈ (−∞, 8)

74
x ∈ −∞, .
13

74
Therefore the set of all solutions of the inequality (1.2) is the interval 5, and
13
74
D = 5, .
13
Exercise 1.1. Determine the set A, where
1.
A = {x ∈ R : 5x2 − 2(x + 3)(x − 1) > 4x + 9}.
2.
A = {x ∈ R : (2x − 3)2 + x(7x − 6) ≤ 2}.
3. √
A = {x ∈ R : 3x − 7 > 3}.
4. √
A = {x ∈ R : x + 2 > x}.
5. ( x−3 2 )
2 3
A= x∈R: > .
3 2
6. ( 2−x − 1 )
3 3 2
A= x∈R: > .
4 4
7.
A = {x ∈ R : log5 (3x − 2) ≥ log5 (4x + 1)}.
8. √
A = {x ∈ R : logx 5 ≥ logx 3 3}.
6 1 The Set Theory
9.
A = {x ∈ R : |2x − 1| ≥ x − 1}.
10.
A = {x ∈ R : x2 − x − 2 < 15x − 3}.
1.2 Membership
The key relation between sets is membership-when one set is an element of another.
If a is a member of the set B, this is denoted by a ∈ B. If c is not a member of the
set B, this is denoted by c 6∈ B.
Example 1.13. Consider the set
A = {−1, 0, 1, 2}.
Then −1 ∈ A, 0 ∈ A, 1 ∈ A, 2 ∈ A, 3 6∈ A, 10 6∈ A.
Exercise 1.2. Determine if 5 is a membership of the following sets.

1. A = {−10, 12, 16, 17}.
2. A = {0, 1, 5, 18, 101}.
3. A = {−9, −12, 123, 5, 17, 15, 11, 8}.
4. A = {2, 4, 7, 9, −12, −87}.
5. A = {5, 11, 19, 27, 78, 91, 231}.
Definition 1.4. If every member of a set A is also a member of a set B, then A is

said to be a subset of B, written A ⊆ B (also pronounced ”A is contained in B”).
Equivalently, we can write B ⊇ A, read as B is a superset of A, B includes A or B
contains A. The relationship between sets established by ⊆ is called inclusion or
containment. If A is a subset, but not equal to B, then A is called a proper subset of
B, written A ⊂ B or B ⊃ A, proper superset. In Fig. 1.1, it is shown that A is a
subset of B and B is a superset of A.
{1, 3} ⊂ {1, 2, 3, 4},
{1, 2, 3, 4} ⊆ {1, 2, 3, 4}.
The empty set is a subset of any set and any set is a subset of itself, i.e.,
0/ ⊆ A,
A ⊆ A.
1.2 Membership 7
Fig. 1.1 A is a subset of B and B is a superset of A.
By the above definitions, it follows that A = B if and only if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.

Definition 1.5. A partition of a set S is a set of nonempty subsets of S such that any
element x in S is in exactly one of these subsets.
Example 1.15. Let

S = {−1, 2, 3, 11, 15, 17}.
Then
{−1}, {2, 3}, {11, 17}, {15}
is a partition of S.
Example 1.16. Let

S = {−1, 2, 3, 4}.
Consider
{−1}, {−1, 2}, {2, 3}, {4}.
8 1 The Set Theory
This is not a partition of S because
−1 ∈ {−1, 2}, −1 ∈ {−1, 2}
and
2 ∈ {−1, 2}, 2 ∈ {2, 3}.
Exercise 1.3. Let
S = {0, 1, 2, 11}.
Determine which of the following sets are partitions of the set S.
1. {{0}, {1}, {2}, {4}}.
2. {{0, 1}, {2, 11}}.
3. {{0, 1, 2}, {0, 2}, {2, 11}}.
4. {{0, 1, 2}, {1, 11}}.
5. {{0, 1, 2}, {11}}.
Definition 1.6. The power set of a set S is the set of all subsets of S, including S
itself and the empty set 0.
/ It is denoted by P(S).
Example 1.17. Let
S = {−1, 0, 1, 2}.
Then
P(S) = {0,
/ {−1, −0, 1, 2}, {−1}, {0}, {1}, {2},
{−1, 0}, {−1, 1}, {−1, 2}, {0, 1}, {0, 2},
{1, 2}, {−1, 0, 1}, {−1, 0, 2}, {−1, 1, 2}, {0, 1, 2}}.
Exercise 1.4. Find P(S), where

1. S = {0, 1, 2}.
2. S = {−3, 4, 7, 8}.
3. S = {−2, 0, 1}.
4. S = {1, 2}.
5. S = {−7, 1, 0, 8}.
The power set of a finite set with n elements has 2n elements. This is one of the
reasons for the terminology power set. Every partition of a set S is a subset of the
power set of the set S.
Definition 1.7. The cardinality |S| of a set S is the number of members of S.
Example 1.18. Let
S = {1, 2, 3, 7, 11, 15}.
Then |S| = 6.
1.3 Some Special Sets 9
Example 1.19. |0|

/ = 0.
Exercise 1.5. Find |S|, where

1. S = {−1}.
2. S = {1, 31, 25}.
3. S = {−3, −2, −1, 0, 5}.
4. S = {23, 24, 25, 67, 890}.
5. S = {1, 3, 5, 7, 11, 15, 18, 19}.
Some sets have infinite cardinality. For instance, the cardinality of the set of all
natural numbers is infinite. Some infinite cardinalities are greater than others. For
instance, the set of the real numbers has greater cardinality than the set of natural
numbers.
1.3 Some Special Sets
There are some sets which hold great mathematical importance. Another one is the
unit set {x} which contains exactly one element, namely x. Many of these sets are
represented using blackboard bold. Special sets of numbers include:
1. N, denoting the set of natural numbers,
N = {1, 2, 3, . . .}.
2. Z, denoting the set of all integers,
Z = {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . .}.
3. Q, denoting the set of all rational numbers, that is, the set of all proper and im-
proper fractions, na o
Q= : a, b ∈ Z, b 6= 0 .
b
4. R, denoting the set of all real numbers. This set includes all rational numbers,
together with all irrational numbers (that is, numbers which cannot be rewritten
as fractions, as well as transcendental numbers such as π, e and numbers that
cannot be defined).
5. C, denoting the set of all complex numbers, that is
C = {a + bi : a, b ∈ R}.
Positive and negative sets are defined by a subscript − or +, for example Q+ repre-
sents the set of all positive rational numbers.
Each of the above sets of numbers has infinite number of elements, and each can
be considered to be a proper subset of the sets listed below it.
10 1 The Set Theory
1.4 Basic Operations

[
Definition 1.8. The union of the sets A and B, denoted by A B, is the set of all
[
things which are members either A or B. In Fig. 1.2, it is shown the union A B of
the sets A and B in red colour.
[
Fig. 1.2 The union A B of the sets A and B is shown in red colour.
Example 1.20. Let
A = {1, 2},
B = {green, blue}.
Then [
A B = {1, 2, green, blue}.
Example 1.21. Let
A = {1, 2},
B = {1, 3, 4}.
1.4 Basic Operations 11
Then [
A B = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
Example 1.22. Let
A = {1, 0},
B = {−1, 2}.
Then [
A B = {−1, 0, 1, 2}.
[
Exercise 1.6. Find A B, where
1. A = {−1, 3, 0}, B = {1}.
2. A = {−3, 4, 5}, B = {red, green}.
3. A = {−2, 1, 5}, B = {red, green, 0}.
4. A = {−2, 3, 5}, B = {?, !}.
5. A = {green, white, 0}, B = {7, 5}.
Example 1.23. Let A be as in Example 1.9 and C be as in Example 1.11. Then

[ [
A C = (−∞, −7) (−8, −3)
= (−∞, −3).
[
1.

2−x x+2 x−5
A= x∈R: + > ,
x+1 x−1 2

x(x − 7) 11 x−4
B= x∈R: −1 < x− .
3 10 3
2.
2 + x 1 5x − 4x2 − 2

A= x∈R: + − >0 ,
2−x x x2 − 2x
(x + 3)2 x(2x − 3) (3x − 1)2

B= x∈R: − ≤ −1 .
5 2 5
3.

4x − 1
A= x∈R: >0 ,
x+3
12 1 The Set Theory
n p o
B = x ∈ R : x2 − 3x + 10 < 8 − x .
4.

3x + 5
A= x∈R: ≥0 ,
2x + 9
n p o
B = x ∈ R : 3 6 + x − x2 + 2 > 4x .
5.

6−x
A= x∈R: <0 ,
5x − 7
n √ √ o
B = x ∈ R : 2x + 1 + x + 1 < 1 .
[ [ [
By the definition, it follows that if x ∈ A, then x ∈ A B. Moreover, A B=B A
for any sets A and B.
Definition 1.9. More generally, by union of an arbitrary number (finite or infinite)
of sets Aα , indexed by some parameter α, we mean the set of all elements belonging
to at least one of the sets Aα . We write
[
Aα .
α
Below, we will prove some important properties of the union of sets.

Theorem 1.1. For any sets A, B and C, we have
[ [ [ [
A (B C) = (A B) C. (1.3)
[ [ [
Proof. Let x ∈ A (B C) be arbitrarily chosen and fixed. Then x ∈ A or x ∈ B C.
[ [ [ [
If x ∈ A, then x ∈ A B and hence, x ∈ (A B) C. If x ∈ B C, then x ∈ B or
[ [ [
x ∈ C. If x ∈ B, then x ∈ A B and from here, x ∈ (A B) C. If x ∈ C, then
[ [ [ [
x ∈ (A B) C. Since x ∈ A (B C) was arbitrarily chosen and we get that it is
[ [ [ [
an element of (A B) C, we conclude that any element of the set A (B C) is
[ [
an element of (A B) C. Therefore
[ [ [ [
A (B C) ⊆ (A B) C. (1.4)
[ [ [
Let now, y ∈ (A B) C be arbitrarily chosen and fixed. Then y ∈ A B or y ∈ C.
[ [ [
If y ∈ A B, then y ∈ A or y ∈ B. If y ∈ A, then y ∈ A (B C). If y ∈ B, then
[ [ [ [
y∈B C and from here, y ∈ A (B C). If y ∈ C, then y ∈ B C and hence,
[ [ [ [
y∈A (B C). Because y ∈ (A B) C was arbitrarily chosen and we obtain
[ [ [ [
that it is an element of A (B C), we conclude that any element of (A B) C
[ [
is an element of A (B C). Consequently
[ [ [ [
(A B) C⊆A (B C).
By the last relation and the relation (1.4), we obtain the equality (1.3). This com-
pletes the proof.
Theorem 1.2. For any sets A and B, we have
[
A⊆A B. (1.5)
[
Proof. Let x ∈ A be arbitrarily chosen and fixed. Then x ∈ A B. Since x ∈ A was
[
arbitrarily chosen and we find that it is an element of A B, we conclude that any
[
element of A is an element of A B. Thus, we get the inclusion (1.5). This completes
the proof.
Theorem 1.3. For any sets A and B, we have that
A⊆B (1.6)
if and only if [
A B = B. (1.7)
[
Proof. 1. Suppose that (1.6) holds. Take x ∈ A B arbitrarily. Then x ∈ A or x ∈ B.
[
If x ∈ A, using (1.6), we obtain x ∈ B. Since x ∈ A B was arbitrarily chosen and
[
we get that it is an element of B, we conclude that any element of A B is an
element of B. Thus, [
A B ⊆ B. (1.8)
[
Let now, y ∈ B be arbitrarily chosen. Then y ∈ A B. Since y ∈ B was arbitrarily
[
chosen and we obtain that it is an element of A B, we conclude that any element
[
of B is an element of A B. Thus,
[
B⊆A B.
By the last relation and the relation (1.8), we obtain (1.7).

2. Assume
[ that (1.7) holds. Let z ∈ A be arbitrarily chosen and fixed. Then z ∈
A B. Hence and (1.7), we find z ∈ B. Because z ∈ A was arbitrarily chosen and
we get that it is an element of B, we conclude that any element of A is an element
of B. So, (1.6) holds. This completes the proof.
Exercise 1.8. For any set A, prove that
[
A A = A.
14 1 The Set Theory
\
Definition 1.10. The intersection of the sets A and B, denoted by A B, is the set
\
of all things that are members of both A and B. If A B = 0, / then we say that A and
B are disjoint. More generally, by the intersection of an arbitrary number(finite or
infinite) of sets Aα , we mean the set of all elements belonging to every one of the
sets Aα . We write \
Aα .
α
Let F be a family of sets such that A B = 0/ for any pair of sets A, B in F .Then
\
the sets in F are said to be pairwise disjoint.
\
In Fig. 1.3, it is shown the intersection A B of the sets A and B in red colour.
\
Fig. 1.3 The intersection A B of the sets A and B is shown in red colour.
\
Example 1.24. {−1, 1} {red, green} = 0.
/
\
Example 1.25. {−1, 0, 1, 2} {1, blue, white, 2} = {1, 2}.
\
Example 1.26. {1, 2} {1, 2} = {1, 2}.
\
1. A = {−1,
1, 0, 7},B = {3, 4}.
1
2. A = −2, , 1, 3 , B = {1, 7, 8, 9}.
2
3. A = {−4, −3, −2, −1, 0}, B = {−2, −1, 0}.
4. A = {2, 3, 5, 7, 9}, B = {red, 3, 7}.
5. A = {red, 0, 1, 2, 3}, B = {red, blue}.
Example 1.27. Let A be as in Example 1.9, B be as in Example 1.10 and C be as in

Example 1.11. Then

\ \ 9
A B = (−∞, −7) − ,2
10
= 0.
/
Moreover,
\ \
A C = (−∞, −7) (−8, −3)
= (−8, −7).
\
1.
3 x 3(x + 3)2 − x(9 + 2x2 )

A= x∈R: + > ,
x 3 3x2 + 9x
B = {x ∈ R : (|x| − 5)(|x| − 7) ≤ 0} .
2.

9 40 − 3|x|
A= x ∈ R : 2|x| −
≥ ,
2 8
n 2
o
B = x ∈ R : 36x −3x > 2−5 · 32 .
3.
x2 − |x| − 12

A= x∈R: ≥ 2x ,
x−3
B = x ∈ R : 42x − 2 · 4x < 0 .

4.
2
x −1
A= x∈R:
<1 ,
x+2
16 1 The Set Theory
B = x ∈ R : 3 · 32x + 11 · 3x − 4 > 0 .

5.
2
x − 5x + 4
A= x∈R:
≤1 ,
x2 − 4

5x − 2
B= x ∈ R : log3 >0 .
x+1
By the definition for intersection of sets, it follows that

\
A 0/ = 0/
and \ \
A B=B A,
and \
A A = A.
Theorem 1.4. For any three sets A, B, C, we have
\ \ \ \
A (B C) = (A B) C. (1.9)
\ \
Proof. Let x ∈ A (B C) be arbitrarily chosen and fixed. Then x ∈ A and x ∈
\ \
B C. Since x ∈ B C, we find x ∈ B and x ∈ C. Because x ∈ A and x ∈ B, we
\ \ \
get x ∈ A B. Hence, using that x ∈ C, we arrive at the relation x ∈ (A B) C.
\ \
Since x ∈ A (B C) was arbitrarily chosen and we get that it is an element of
\ \
(A B) C, we obtain the following inclusion
\ \ \ \
A (B C) ⊆ (A B) C. (1.10)
\ \ \
Let now, y ∈ (A B) C be arbitrarily chosen and fixed. Then y ∈ A B and y ∈ C.
\ \
Since y ∈ A B, we find y ∈ A and y ∈ B. From y ∈ B and y ∈ C, we obtain y ∈ B C.
\ \
Hence, using that y ∈ A, we arrive at the relation y ∈ A (B C). Because y ∈
\ \ \ \
(A B) C was arbitrarily chosen and we find that it is an element of A (B C),
we get the following inclusion
\ \ \ \
(A B) C⊆A (B C).
By the last inclusion and (1.10), we find (1.9). This completes the proof.
Theorem 1.5. For any two sets A and B, we have

\
A B ⊆ A. (1.11)
\
Proof. Let x ∈ A B be arbitrarily chosen and fixed. Then x ∈ A and x ∈ B. Since
x ∈ A ∩ B was arbitrarily chosen and for it we get that it is an element of A, we obtain
the inclusion (1.11). This completes the proof.
A⊆B (1.12)
if and only if \
A B = A. (1.13)
Proof. 1. Suppose that (1.12) holds. By Theorem 1.5, we have (1.11). Let x ∈ A be
chosen. Using (1.12), we find that x ∈ B. From x ∈ A and x ∈ B, we
arbitrarily\
get x ∈ A B. Because x ∈ A was arbitrarily chosen and we obtain that it is an
\
element of A B, we arrive at the inclusion
\
A⊆A B.
By the last relation and (1.11), we obtain (1.13). \

2. Suppose that (1.13) holds. Take y ∈ A arbitrarily. By (1.13), we find y ∈ A B.
From here, we obtain y ∈ B. Because y ∈ A was arbitrarily chosen and we get that
it is an element of B, we obtain the inclusion (1.12). This completes the proof.
Theorem 1.7. For any three sets A, B and C, we have
[ \ \ [ \
(A B) C = (A C) (B C). (1.14)
[ \ [
Proof. Let x ∈ (A B) C be arbitrarily chosen and fixed. Then x ∈ A B and
[
x ∈ C. From x ∈ A B, it follows that x ∈ A or x ∈ B. We consider the following
cases.
\
1. Let x ∈ A. Since x ∈ C, we find x ∈ A C and then
\ [ \
x ∈ (A C) (B C).
\
2. Let x ∈ B. Because x ∈ C, we conclude that x ∈ B C. Hence,
\ [ \
x ∈ (A C) (B C).
[ \
Because x ∈ (A B) C was arbitrarily chosen and we get that it is an element of
\ [ \
(A C) (B C), we obtain the inclusion
[ \ \ [ \
(A B) C ⊆ (A C) (B C). (1.15)
\ [ \ \ \
Let now, y ∈ (A C) (B C) be arbitrarily chosen. Then y ∈ A C or y ∈ B C.
We consider the following two cases.
18 1 The Set Theory
\ [
1. Let y ∈ A C. Then y ∈ A and y ∈ C. By y ∈ A, it follows that y ∈ A B. Hence,
using that y ∈ C, we find [ \
y ∈ (A B) C.
\ [
2. Let y ∈ B C. Then y ∈ B and y ∈ C. From y ∈ B, it follows that y ∈ A B. From
here and from y ∈ C, we arrive at
[ \
y ∈ (A B) C.
\ [ \
Since y ∈ (A C) (B C) was arbitrarily chosen and for it we get that it is an
[ \
element of (A B) C, we obtain
\ [ \ [ \
(A C) (B C) ⊆ (A B) C.
By the last inclusion and the inclusion (1.15), we get (1.14). This completes the
proof.
Theorem 1.8. Let [

A B=A (1.16)
and \
A B = A. (1.17)
Then A = B.
\
Proof. Let x ∈ A be arbitrarily chosen. By the equality (1.17), we obtain x ∈ A B.
Hence, x ∈ B. Since x ∈ A was arbitrarily chosen and we obtain that it is an element
of B, we arrive at the inclusion
A ⊆ B. (1.18)
[
Let now, y ∈ B be arbitrarily chosen. Then y ∈ A B. By (1.16), we find that y ∈ A.
Because y ∈ B was arbitrarily chosen and we find that it is an element of A, we get
B ⊆ A.
By the last relation and the relation (1.18), we obtain A = B. This completes the
proof.
Theorem 1.9. We have

!
[ \ [ \
Xα Y= (Xα Y ). (1.19)
α∈A α∈A
!
[ \ [
Proof. Let x ∈ Xα Y be arbitrarily chosen. Then x ∈ Xα and x ∈ Y .
[ α∈A α∈A
Since x ∈ Xα , we have that there is an α1 ∈ A for which x ∈ Xα1 . Hence,
α∈A
\ [ \
using that x ∈ Y , we find that x ∈ Xα1 Y and then x ∈ (Xα Y ). Because
! α∈A
[ \
x∈ Xα Y was arbitrarily chosen and we get that it is an element of the
[α∈A \
set (Xα Y ), we arrive at the inclusion
α∈A
!
[ \ [ \
Xα Y⊆ (Xα Y ). (1.20)
α∈A α∈A
[ \
Let now, y ∈ (Xα Y ) be arbitrarily chosen. Then there is an α2 ∈ A so that y ∈
\ α∈A [
Xα1 Y . From here, y ∈ Xα2 and y ∈ Y . By y ∈ Xα2 , we find y ∈ Xα . Hence, using
! α∈A
[ \ [ [
that y ∈ Y , we find y ∈ Xα Y . Because y ∈ (Xα Y ) was arbitrarily
α∈A α∈A
!
[ \
chosen and we obtain that it is an element of Xα Y , we get the relation
α∈A
!
[ \ [ \
(Xα Y) ⊆ Xα Y.
α∈A α∈A
By the last relation and (1.20), we get (1.19). This completes the proof.
Exercise 1.11. Prove that

!
\ [ \ [
Xα Y= (Xα Y ).
α∈A α∈A

!  
[ \ [ [ \
Xα  Yβ  = Xα Yβ . (1.21)
α∈A β ∈B α∈A,β ∈B
!  
[ \ [ [
Proof. Let x ∈ Xα  Yβ  be arbitrarily chosen. Then x ∈ Xα and
α∈A β ∈B α∈A
[ [
x∈ Yβ . From x ∈ Xα , it follows that there is an α1 ∈ A so that x ∈ Xα1 .
β α∈A
[
From x ∈ Yβ , it follows that there is a β1 ∈ B such that x ∈ Yβ1 . Since x ∈ Xα1
β ∈B
\ [ \
and x ∈ Yβ1 , we obtain x ∈ Xα1 Yβ1 and then x ∈ Xα Yβ . Since
α∈A,β ∈B
20 1 The Set Theory
!  
[ \ [
x∈ Xα  Yβ  was arbitrarily chosen and we obtain that it is an el-
α∈A β ∈B
[ \
ement of Xα Yβ , we arrive at the inclusion
α∈A,β ∈B
!  
[ \ [ [ \
Xα  Yβ  ⊆ Xα Yβ . (1.22)
[ \
Let now, y ∈ Xα Yβ be arbitrarily chosen. Then there are α2 ∈ A and
α∈A,β ∈B
\ [
β2 ∈ B such that y ∈ Xα2 Yβ2 . From here, y ∈ Xα2 and y ∈ Yβ2 and then y ∈ Xα
 α∈A 
!
[ [ \ [
and y ∈ Yβ . From the last two inclusions, we find y ∈ Xα  Yβ .
β ∈B α∈A β ∈B
[ \
Since y ∈ Xα Yβ was arbitrarily chosen and we get that it is an element
α∈A,β ∈B
!  
[ \ [
of the set Xα  Yβ , we obtain the inclusion
α∈A β ∈B
!  
[ \ [ \ [
Xα Yβ ⊆ Xα  Yβ  .
α∈A,β ∈B α∈A β ∈B
By the last relation and (1.22), we obtain the relation (1.21). This completes the
proof.

!  
\ [ \ \ [
Xα  Yβ  = Xα Yβ .
Definition 1.11. Difference between two sets A and B (in that order), we mean the
set of all elements of A which do not belong to B. We write A\B. Note that it is not
assumed that B ⊂ A. In Fig. 1.4, it is shown the difference A\B of the sets A and B
in red colour.
Example 1.28. Let
A = {−1, 2, 3, 7, 9, 15},
Fig. 1.4 The difference A\B of the sets A and B is shown in red colour.
B = {−20, −18, −15, 0, 2, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14}.
Then
A\B = {−1, 3, 9, 15}
and
B\A = {−20, −18, −15, 0, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14}.
Remark 1.1. By the last example, it follows that in the general case we have
A\B 6= B\A.
Example 1.29. Let
A = {blue, red, white},
B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}.
Then
A\B = {blue, red, white}
and
B\A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}.

22 1 The Set Theory
Exercise 1.13. Find A\B and B\A, where

1.

1
A= −3, 4, 5, 6, 11, ,
2
B = {−3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10}.
2.
A = {−1, 2, 3},
B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}.
3.

1 1 1 1 1 1
A= , , , , , ,
2 3 4 5 6 7

1 1 1 1 1 1
B= − ,− ,− ,− ,− ,− .
2 3 4 5 6 7
4.
A = {−1, 0, 1, 2},
B = {0, 1, 2}.
5.
A = {0, red, green, 15, 20},
B = {0}.
Example 1.30. Let A be as in Example 1.9, C be as in Example 1.11. Then
A\C = (−∞, −7)\(−8, −3)
= (−∞, −8]
and
C\A = (−8, −3)\(−∞, −7)
= [−7, −3).
Exercise 1.14. Find A\B, where

1.
A = x ∈ R : 2x2 − 9x + 9 ≥ |x − 2| ,

( 3x−5 )
1−2x 1 x+2
B= x ∈ R : 10 x+2 < .
10
2.
A = {x ∈ R : |2x + 3| > |x| − 4x − 1} ,

n 2
o
B = x ∈ R : 5x −6x+8 < 1 .
3.
A = x ∈ R : |x2 + 5x| < 6,

|x + 1| < 2 ,
n √ √
4
o
B = x ∈ R : 3 x+3 > 27 .
4.
A = {x ∈ R : |x| ≥ 1, |x − 1| < 3} ,
√ 729x

3x−1
B= x∈R:9 > √ .
9 12x−4
5.

2x
A= x ∈ R : |x| ≥ ,
|x − 3|
B = x ∈ R : 62x+3 ≤ 2x+7 · 33+1 .

Theorem 1.11. We have [ [

A B=A (B\A). (1.23)
[
Proof. Let x ∈ A B be arbitrarily chosen. Then x ∈ A or x ∈ B. We consider the
following two cases.
[
1. Let x ∈ A. Then x ∈ A (B\A).
[
2. Let x ∈ B. If x ∈ A, then x ∈ A (B\A). If x 6∈ A, then x ∈ B\A. Hence, x ∈
[
A (B\A).
24 1 The Set Theory
[
Because x ∈ A B was arbitrarily chosen and we get that it is an element of
[
A (B\A), we get the inclusion
[ [
A B⊆A (B\A). (1.24)
[
Let now, y ∈ A (B\A) be arbitrarily chosen. Then y ∈ A or y ∈ B\A. We consider
the following two cases.
[
1. Let y ∈ A. Then y ∈ A B.
[
2. Let y ∈ B\A. Then y ∈ B and y 6∈ A. From y ∈ B, we get y ∈ A B.
[
Since y ∈ A (B\A) was arbitrarily chosen and we obtain that it is an element of
[
A B, we arrive at the inclusion
[ [
A (B\A) ⊆ A B.
By the last relation and the relation (1.24), we get (1.23). This completes the proof.

\ \ \ \
(A\B) C = (A C)\B = (A C)\(B C). (1.25)
\
Proof. Let x ∈ (A\B) C. Then x ∈ A\B and x ∈ C. From x ∈ A\B, we get x ∈ A
\
and x 6∈ B. Since x ∈ A and x ∈ C, we have x ∈ A C. Hence, using that x 6∈ B, we
\ \
find x ∈ (A C)\B. Because x ∈ (A\B) C was arbitrarily chosen and we get that
\
it is an element of (A C)\B, we obtain the inclusion
\ \
(A\B) C ⊆ (A C)\B. (1.26)
\ \
Let now, y ∈ (A C)\B be arbitrarily chosen. Then y ∈ A C and y 6∈ B. Since
\
y∈A C, we have y ∈ A and y ∈ C. From y ∈ A and y 6∈ B, we find y ∈ A\B. Hence,
\ \
using that y ∈ C, we obtain y ∈ (A\B) C. Because y ∈ (A C)\B was arbitrarily
\
chosen and we find that it is an element of (A\B) C, we arrive at the inclusion
\ \
(A C)\B ⊆ (A\B) C.
By the last inclusion and the inclusion (1.26), we get

\ \
(A\B) C = (A C)\B. (1.27)
\ \ \
Take z ∈ (A C)\B arbitrarily. Then z ∈ A C and z 6∈ B. From z ∈ A C, we
\ \
find z ∈ A and z ∈ C. Since z ∈ C and z 6∈ B, we get z 6∈ B C. Because z ∈ A C
\ \ \ \
and z 6∈ B C, we find z ∈ (A C)\(B C). Since z ∈ (A C)\B was arbitrarily
\ \
chosen and we obtain that it is an element of (A C)\(B C), we find the inclusion
\ \ \
(A C)\B ⊆ (A C)\(B C). (1.28)
\ \ \ \
Let t ∈ (A C)\(B C) be arbitrarily chosen. Then t ∈ A C and t 6∈ B C. From
\ \
t∈A C, we find t ∈ A and t ∈ C. Since t 6∈ B C and t ∈ C, we get t 6∈ B. By
\ \ \ \
t∈A C and t 6∈ B, we obtain t ∈ (A C)\B. Because t ∈ (A C)\(B C) was
\
arbitrarily chosen and we get that it is an element of (A C)\B, we have the fol-
lowing inclusion \ \ \
(A C)\(B C) ⊆ (A C)\B.
By the last inclusion and (1.28), we get
\ \ \
(A C)\B = (A C)\(B C).
By the last equality and (1.27), we obtain (1.25). This completes the proof.
\ \ \
A (B\C) = (A B)\(A C). (1.29)
Proof. Using that the intersection of two sets is commutative and using (1.25), we
find
\ \
A (B\C) = (B\C) A
\ \
= (B A)\(C A)
\ \
= (A B)\(A C).
This completes the proof.

\
Exercise 1.15. Prove that A\B = A if and only if A B = 0.
/
!
\ [
M\ Mα = (M\Mα ). (1.30)
α∈A α∈A
!
\ \
Proof. Let x ∈ M\ Mα be arbitrarily chosen. Then x ∈ M and x 6∈ Mα .
\ α∈A α∈A
Since x 6∈ Mα , we have that there is an α1 ∈ A so that x 6∈ Mα1 . From x ∈ M and
α∈A !
[ \
x 6∈ Mα1 , we find x ∈ M\Mα1 and then x ∈ (M\Mα ). Because x ∈ M\ Mα
α∈A α∈A
26 1 The Set Theory
[
was arbitrarily chosen and we get that it is an element of (M\Mα ), we find the
α∈A
relation !
\ [
M\ Mα ⊆ (M\Mα ). (1.31)
α∈A α∈A
[
Let now, y ∈ (M\Mα ) be arbitrarily chosen. Then there is an α2 ∈ A so that
α \
y ∈ M\Mα2 . Then y ∈ M and y 6∈ Mα2 . Because y 6∈ Mα2 , we find y 6∈ Mα . Hence,
! α∈A
\ [
using that y ∈ M, we obtain y ∈ M\ Mα . Because y ∈ (M\Mα ) was arbi-
α∈A α∈A !
\
trarily chosen and we obtain that it is an element of M\ Mα , we arrive at the
α∈A
inclusion !
[ \
(M\Mα ) ⊆ M\ Mα .
α∈A α∈A
By the last inclusion and (1.31), we get (1.30). This completes the proof.

!
[ \
M\ Mα = (M\Mα ). (1.32)
α∈A α∈A
!
[ [
Proof. Let x ∈ M\ Mα be arbitrarily chosen. Then x ∈ M and x 6∈ Mα .
[ α∈A α∈A
Since x 6∈ Mα , we conclude that x 6∈ Mα for any α ∈ A. Hence, x ∈ M\Mα for
α∈A !
\ [
any α ∈ A and then x ∈ (M\Mα ). Because x ∈ M\ Mα was arbitrarily
α∈A \ α∈A
chosen and we get that it is an element of (M\Mα ), we find the relation
α∈A
!
[ \
M\ Mα ⊆ (M\Mα ). (1.33)
α∈A α∈A
\
Let now, y ∈ (M\Mα ) be arbitrarily chosen. Then y ∈ M\Mα for any α ∈ A.
α∈A
Hence, y ∈ M and y 6∈ Mα for any α ∈ A. Because y 6∈ Mα for any α ∈ A, we con-
!
[ [
clude that y 6∈ Mα . Now, using that y ∈ M, we find that y ∈ M\ Mα .
\α∈A α∈A
Because y ∈ (M\Mα ) was arbitrarily chosen and we obtain that it is an element
α∈A
!
[
of M\ Mα , we get the relation
α∈A
!
\ [
(M\Mα ) ⊆ M\ Mα .
α∈A α∈A
By the last relation and (1.33), we obtain (1.32). This completes the proof.
! !
[ [ [
Mα \ Nα ⊂ (Mα \Nα ).
α∈A α∈A α∈A
Definition 1.12. If A ⊆ R, then the difference R\A is said to be the complement of

A. It is denoted by CA.
Example 1.31. Let A = (0, ∞). Then CA = (−∞, 0].
[
Example 1.32. Let A = (0, 1) (2, 3). Then
[ [
CA = (−∞, 0] [1, 2] [3, ∞).
Example 1.33. Let

A = {x ∈ R : 2x − 3 > 0}.
We will find CA. Since
3
2x − 3 > 0 ⇐⇒ x > ,
2
we find
3
A = {x ∈ R : x > }
2

3
= x∈R:x∈ ,∞
2

3
= ,∞ .
2
Hence,

3
CA = −∞,
2

3
= x ∈ R : x ∈ −∞,
2

3
= x∈R:x≤
2
28 1 The Set Theory
= {x ∈ R : 2x ≤ 3} .
Example 1.34. Let
A = {x ∈ R : x − 2 < 0, x + 1 > 0}.
We will find CA. We have
x − 2 < 0, x+1 > 0 ⇐⇒ x < 2, x > −1 ⇐⇒ x ∈ (−1, 2).
Then
A = {x ∈ R : x < 2, x > −1}
= {x ∈ R : x ∈ (−1, 2)}
= (−1, 2).
Hence,
[
CA = (−∞, −1] [2, ∞)
[
= {x ∈ R : x ∈ (−∞, −1]} {x ∈ R : x ∈ [2, ∞)}
[
= {x ∈ R : x ≤ −1} {x ∈ R : x ≥ 2}.
Example 1.35. Let
A = {x ∈ R : x + 1 > 0, x + 3 < 0}.
We have
x + 1 > 0, x+3 < 0 ⇐⇒ x > −1, x < −3.
Since the last pair of inequalities is impossible, we conclude that A = 0/ and CA = R.
Exercise 1.17. Find CA, where

1. A = (−2, ∞).
2. A = [3, ∞).
3. A = [0, 1]. [
4. A = (−∞, 0) (2, 3).
[
5. A = (−4, 0) [2, 3].
6.
A = {x ∈ R : 3x − 1 > 0, 4x + 2 < 0}.
7.
A = {x ∈ R : x + 7 < 0, x − 8 > 0}.
8.
A = {x ∈ R : 3x2 − 7 > 10, 4x + 1 > 12}.
9.
A = {x ∈ R : x2 − 4x + 2 > 3, −3x + 1 < 7}.
10.
A = {x ∈ R : 12x − 3 > 0}.
Definition 1.13. The symmetric difference of the sets A and B is defined as the union
of the two differences A\B and B\A. We write A4B. We have
[
A4B = (A\B) (B\A)
In Fig. 1.5, it is shown the symmetric difference A4B of the sets A and B.
Fig. 1.5 The symmetric difference A4B of the sets A and B is shown in red colour.
Example 1.36. Let
A = {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8},

30 1 The Set Theory
B = {−10, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
Then
A\B = {−3, −2, 6, 7, 8},
B\A = {−10}.
Consequently
[
A4B = (A\B) (B\A)
= {−10, −3, −2, 6, 7, 8}.
Example 1.37. Let

1 1 1 1 1
A= − , , , , ,
2 2 3 4 5
B = {0, 1, 2}.
We will find A4B. We have

1 1 1 1 1
A\B = − , , , , ,
2 2 3 4 5
B\A = {0, 1, 2}.
Hence,
[
A4B = (A\B) (B\A)

1 1 1 1 1
= − , , , , , 0, 1, 2 .
2 2 3 4 5
Exercise 1.18. Find A4B, where A and B are the sets in Exercise 1.13.
Example 1.38. Let A be as in Example 1.9 and C be as in Example 1.11. Then, using
the computations in Example 1.30, we find
[
A4C = (A\C) (C\A)
[
= (−∞, −8] [−7, −3).
Exercise 1.19. Find A4B, where

1.

|x + 3| + x
A= x∈R: >1 ,
x+2
B = {x ∈ R : | log3 (x − 8)| ≤ 1} .
2.

|x + 2| − x
A= x∈R: <2 ,
x
B = {x ∈ R : | log2 (x − 3)| ≥ 5} .
3.

|4 − x|
A= x∈R: <3 ,
x+6
B = {x ∈ R : log3 |4x − 18| < 1} .
4.

x−2
A= x∈R: ≥0 ,
|x − 2|

2x − 1
B = x ∈ R : log5 <0 .
x+1
5.

1 1
A= x∈R: < ,
|x| − 3 2

x−1
B= x ∈ R : log2 log2 > −1 .
2−x
A4B = B4A.
Proof. Since the union of two sets is commutative, we get

[
A4B = (A\B) (B\A)
[
= (B\A) (A\B)
= B4A.

32 1 The Set Theory
Exercise 1.20. For any set A, prove that
A40/ = A,
A4A = 0.
/

[ \
A4B = (A B)\(A B). (1.34)
Proof. Let x ∈ A4B be arbitrarily chosen. The x ∈ A\B or x ∈ B\A. We will consider
[ \
1. Let x ∈ A\B. Then x ∈ A and x 6∈ B. Hence, x ∈ A B and x 6∈ A B. Therefore
[ \
x ∈ (A B)\(A B).
[ \
2. Let x ∈ B\A. Then x ∈ B and x 6∈ A. From here, x ∈ A B and x 6∈ A B. Conse-
[ \
quently x ∈ (A B)\(A B).
[ \
Since x ∈ A4B was arbitrarily chosen and we get that it is an element of (A B)\(A B),
we obtain the inclusion [ \
A4B ⊆ (A B)\(A B). (1.35)
[ \ [ \ [
Let now, y ∈ (A B)\(A B). Then y ∈ A B and y 6∈ A B. From y ∈ A B, it
follows that y ∈ A or y ∈ B. We consider the following two cases.
\
1. Let y ∈ A. Since y 6∈ A B, we get that y 6∈ B. From y ∈ A and y 6∈ B, we obtain
y ∈ A\B. Hence,
[
y ∈ (A\B) (B\A)
= A4B.
\
2. Let y ∈ B. Because y 6∈ A B, we find that y 6∈ A. Since y ∈ B and y 6∈ A, we get
y ∈ B\A. From here,
[
y ∈ (B\A) (A\B)
= B4A
= A4B.
[ \
Since y ∈ (A B)\(A B) was arbitrarily chosen and we get that it is an element
of A4B, we arrive at the inclusion
[ \
(A B)\(A B) ⊆ A4B.
By the last inclusion and (1.35), we obtain (1.34). This completes the proof.
(A4B)4C = A4(B4C). (1.36)
Proof. Let x ∈ (A4B)4C. Then x ∈ (A4B)\C or x ∈ C\(A4B). We consider the

following two cases.
1. Let x ∈ (A4B)\C. Then x ∈ A4B and x 6∈ C. Since x ∈ A4B, we get x ∈ A\B or
x ∈ B\A. We have the following two cases.
a. Let x ∈ A\B. Then x ∈ A and x 6∈ B. Since x 6∈ B and x 6∈ C, we conclude that
x 6∈ B\C and x 6∈ C\B, whereupon x 6∈ B4C. Because x ∈ A and x 6∈ B4C, we
find x ∈ A\(B4C) and then
[
x ∈ (A\(B4C)) ((B4C)\A)
= A4(B4C).
b. Let x ∈ B\A. Then x ∈ B and x 6∈ A. Since x ∈ B and x 6∈ C, we obtain x ∈ B\C

and from here,
[
x ∈ (B\C) (C\B)
= B4C.
Since x ∈ B4C and x 6∈ A, we find x ∈ (B4C)\A and then

[
x ∈ (A\(B4C)) ((B4C)\A)
= A4(B4C).
2. Let x ∈ C\(A4B). Then x ∈ C and x 6∈ A4B. Since x 6∈ A4B, we find x 6∈ A\B

and x 6∈ B\A, whereupon x 6∈ A and x 6∈ B. From x ∈ C and x 6∈ B, we find x ∈ C\B
and then
[
x ∈ (B\C) (C\B)
= B4C.
Since x 6∈ A and x ∈ B4C, we find
x ∈ (B4C)\A.
From here,
34 1 The Set Theory
[
x ∈ (A\(B4C)) ((B4C)\A)
= A4(B4C).
Because x ∈ (A4B)4C was arbitrarily chosen and we find that it is an element of

A4(B4C), we obtain the inclusion
(A4B)4C ⊆ A4(B4C). (1.37)
Let now, y ∈ A4(B4C) be arbitrarily chosen. Then

[
y ∈ (A\(B4C)) ((B4C)\A).
Hence, y ∈ A\(B4C) or y ∈ (B4C)\C. We consider the following two cases.

1. Let y ∈ A\(B4C). Then y ∈ A and y 6∈ B4C. Since y 6∈ B4C, we have that y 6∈ B
and y 6∈ C. From y ∈ A and y 6∈ B, we find y ∈ A\B and
[
y ∈ (A\B) (B\A)
= A4B.
Since y 6∈ C and y ∈ A4B, we find y ∈ (A4B)\C. Then

[
y ∈ ((A4B)\C) (C\(A4B))
= (A4B)4C.
2. Let y ∈ (B4C)\A be arbitrarily chosen. Then y ∈ B4C and y 6∈ A. From y ∈ B4C,

we get y ∈ B\C or y ∈ C\B. We consider the following two cases.
a. Let y ∈ B\C. Then y ∈ B and y 6∈ C. Since y ∈ B and y 6∈ A, we get y ∈ B\A
and hence,
[
y ∈ (A\B) (B\A)
= A4B.
From here, using that y 6∈ C, we get y ∈ (A4B)\C and then

[
y ∈ ((A4B)\C) (C\(A4B))
= (A4B)4C.
b. Let y ∈ C\B. Then y ∈ C and y 6∈ B. Since y 6∈ A and y 6∈ B, we get y 6∈ A4B.

Because y ∈ C and y 6∈ A4B, we obtain y ∈ C\(A4B) and then
[
y ∈ ((A4B)\C) (C\(A4B))
= (A4B)4C.
Because y ∈ A4(B4C) was arbitrarily chosen and we get that it is an element of

(A4B)4C, we find the inclusion
A4(B4C) ⊆ (A4B)4C.
By the last relation and the relation (1.37), we find the relation (1.36). This com-
pletes the proof.
A4(A4B) = B.
Proof. Since A4A = 0/ and 04B

/ = B, using Theorem 1.18, we find
A4(A4B) = (A4A)4B
= 04B
/
= B.
(A4B)4(B4C) = A4C.
Proof. Applying Theorem 1.18 and Theorem 1.19, we find
(A4B)4(B4C) = A4(B4(B4C))
= A4C.

\ \ \
A (B4C) = (A B)4(A C).
Proof. Using (1.29), we find

36 1 The Set Theory
\ \ [ \
A (B4C) = A ((B C)\(B C))
\ [ \ \
= (A (B C))\(A (B C))
\ [ \ \ \
= ((A B) (A C))\((A B) C)
\ [ \ \ \ \
= ((A B) (A C))\((A B) (A C))
\ \
= (A B)4(A C).
Theorem 1.22. For any two sets A, B ⊆ R, we have
A4B = (CA)4(CB).
Proof. We have CA = R\A, CB = R\B. Then
(CA)4(CB) = (R\A)4(R\B)
[
= ((R\A)\(R\B)) ((R\B)\(R\A))
[
= (B\A) (A\B)
= A4B.
Theorem 1.23. For any two families {Aα : α ∈ I} and {Bα : α ∈ I} of sets, we have
! !
[ [ [
Aα 4 Bα ⊆ (Aα 4Bα ). (1.38)
α∈I α∈I α∈I
! !
[ [
Proof. Let x ∈ Aα 4 Bα be arbitrarily chosen. Then we have the fol-
α∈I α∈I
lowing two cases.
[ [ [
1. Let x ∈ Aα and x 6∈ Bα . From x ∈ Aα , it follows that there is an α1 ∈ I
α α∈I
[ α∈I
so that x ∈ Aα1 . By x 6∈ Bα , we get that x 6∈ Bα for any α ∈ I. In particular,
α∈I
x[6∈ Bα1 . Since x ∈ Aα1 and x 6∈ Bα1 , we find x ∈ Aα1 4Bα1 and from here, x ∈
(Aα 4Bα ).
α∈I
1.5 Functions and Mappings 37
[ [ [
2. Let x ∈ Bα and x 6∈ Aα . By x ∈ Bα , it follows that there is an α2 ∈ I
α α∈I [ α∈I
so that x ∈ Bα2 . From x 6∈ Aα , we conclude that x 6∈ Aα for any α ∈ I and
α∈I
x 6∈ Aα2 . Because x
then[ ∈ Bα2 and x 6∈ Aα2 , we get x ∈ Aα2 4Bα2 and hence,
x∈ (Aα 4Bα ).
α∈I
! !
[ [
Because x ∈ Aα 4 Bα was arbitrarily chosen and we find that it is an
[ α∈I α∈I
element of (Aα 4Bα ), we obtain the inclusion (1.38). This completes the proof.
α∈I
1.5 Functions and Mappings
Let M, N and P be given sets.

Definition 1.14. A rule associating a unique element b = f (a) ∈ N with each ele-
ment a ∈ M is said to be a function with domain the set M and range the set N. f
is usually called a mapping of M into N. We write f : M → N. If a ∈ M, then the
element b = f (a) is said to be the image of a under the mapping f . In this case, the
element a is said to be preimage of b. If A ⊆ M, we denote
f (A) = { f (a) : a ∈ A}
and f (A) is called the image of A under the mapping f . The set of all elements of M
whose images belong to a given set B ⊆ N is called preimage of B and it is denoted
by f −1 (B). In other words,
f −1 (B) = {a ∈ M : f (a) ∈ B}.
If f : M → N is a function and f (M) ⊂ N, then we say that f : M → N is into. If

f : M → N is a function and f (M) = N, then we say that f : M → N is onto.
Example 1.39. Let M = {−1, 0, 1} and N = {4, 5}. Let also,
f (−1) = 4,
f (−1) = 5,
f (0) = 4,
f (1) = 5.
38 1 The Set Theory
Since the element −1 ∈ M is associated with two different elements 4, 5 ∈ N under

f , we have that f is not a function.
Example 1.40. Let M = {1, 2, 3} and N = {−4, 5, 6}. Let also,
f (1) = −4,
f (2) = −4,
f (3) = 5.
Because any element of the set M is associated with a unique element of the set N
under f , we have that f : M → N is a function. We have
f (M) = {−4, 5} ⊂ N.
Thus, f : M → N is into, but not onto. Moreover,
f −1 (−4) = 1 or f −1 (−4) = 2,
f −1 (5) = 3.
Let
B = {−4, 5}.
Then B ⊂ N and f −1 (B) = M.
Example 1.41. Let M = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and N = {−3, 2, 1}. Let also,
f (1) = −3,
f (2) = −3,
f (3) = 2,
f (4) = 2,
f (5) = 1,
f (6) = 1.
Since any element of M is associated with a unique element of N under f , we have

that f : M → N is a function. Next,
f (M) = {−3, 2, 1} = N.
Therefore f : M → N is onto.
Example 1.42. Let M = {−1, 2}, N = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} and
f (x) = x2 − 1, x ∈ M.
Then
f (−1) = (−1)2 − 1
= 1−1
=0
and
f (2) = 22 − 1
= 4−1
= 3.
Thus, any element of M is associated with a unique element of N. Therefore f :

M → N is a function. Moreover,
f (M) = {0, 3} ⊂ N.
Consequently f : M → N is into.
Exercise 1.21. Find f (M), where

{−1, 0, 1,2}, f (x) = x4 , x ∈ M.
1. M =
1 3
2. M = , 1, , f (x) = x5 + 2x2 , x ∈ M.
2 2
x+1
3. M = {−3, 1, 2, 4}, f (x) = , x ∈ M.
x+2
4. M = {−4, 1, 10}, f (x) = x + 1, x ∈ M.
5. M = {−4, 4}, f (x) = x2 + 2, x ∈ M.
Definition 1.15. Let f : M → N and g : N → P be given functions. Then, the function

h : M → P, defined by
h(x) = g( f (x)), x ∈ M,
is said to be a composition of the functions f and g.
40 1 The Set Theory
Example 1.43. Let f : R → R be given by
f (x) = 2x − 1, x ∈ R.
We will find f ( f (x)), x ∈ R. We have
f ( f (x)) = 2 f (x) − 1
= 2(2x − 1) − 1
= 4x − 2 − 1
= 4x − 3, x ∈ R.
Example 1.44. Let f : R → R and g : R → R be given by
f (x) = x2 + 1,
g(x) = x3 , x ∈ R.
We will find
f (g(x)), g( f (x)), x ∈ R.
We have
f (g(x)) = (g(x))2 + 1
= (x3 )2 + 1
= x6 + 1, x ∈ R,
and
g( f (x)) = ( f (x))3
= (x2 + 1)3
= x6 + 3x4 + 3x2 + 1, x ∈ R.
Example 1.45. Let f : R → R and g : R → R be defined by

1
f (x) = ,
1 + x2
g(x) = 3x + 2, x ∈ R.
We will find
f (2x), f (g(x)), g( f (x)), g(3x), x ∈ R.
We have
1
f (2x) =
1 + (2x)2
1
= , x ∈ R,
1 + 4x2
and
1
f (g(x)) =
1 + (g(x))2
1
=
1 + (3x + 2)2
1
=
1 + 9x2 + 12x + 4
1
= , x ∈ R,
9x2 + 12x + 5
and
g( f (x)) = 3 f (x) + 2
3
= +2
1 + x2
3 + 2 + 2x2
=
1 + x2
5 + 2x2
= , x ∈ R,
1 + x2
and
g(3x) = 3(3x) + 2
= 9x + 2, x ∈ R.
Exercise 1.22. Let f : R → R and g : R → R be defined by
f (x) = 3x + 7,
42 1 The Set Theory
g(x) = x2 + x + 2, x ∈ R.
Find
1. f (3x), x ∈ R.
2. f (g(x)), x ∈ R.
3. g(2x), x ∈ R.
4. f (g(2x)), x ∈ R.
5. g( f (3x)), x ∈ R.
Definition 1.16. Suppose that f : M → N is onto. Then, f is said to be one-to-one if

each element b ∈ N has a unique preimage f −1 (b). In this case, f is said to establish
a one-to-one correspondence between M and N and the mapping f −1 associating
f −1 (b) with each b ∈ N is called the inverse of f . Sometimes, when f : M → N
is onto, we say that f is surjective. If f : M → N is into and f (x) 6= f (y) for any
x, y ∈ M, we say that f : M → N is injective. If f : M → N is one-to-one, we say that
f : M → N is bijective. Note that, if f : M → N is surjective and injective, then it is
bijective.
Example 1.46. Let M = {−1, 1} and f (x) = x3 , x ∈ M. Then
f (−1) = (−1)3
= −1,
f (1) = 13
= 1.
Thus, f (M) = {−1, 1} and f : M → f (M) is onto, surjective, injective, bijective and
one-to-one. We have
f −1 (−1) = −1,
f −1 (1) = 1.
Example 1.47. Let M = {−1, 1}, f (x) = x2 , x ∈ M. Then
f (−1) = (−1)2
= 1,
f (1) = 12
= 1.
Let N = {1}. Then f : M → N is surjective and onto, but it is not injective and
one-to-one.
Exercise 1.23. Check if f : M → N is one-to-one correspondence, where f (M) = N
and
1. M = {−7, −6, −5}, f (x) = x + 1, x ∈ M.
2. M = {−3, −2, −1, 0}, f (x) = 2x − 1, x ∈ M.
3. M = {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2}, f (x) = x2 + 2, x ∈ M.
4. M = {−4, 0, 1, 4, 5}, f (x) = 3x2 + 7, x ∈ M.
x+1
5. M = {−5, −4, −2, −1, 0}, f (x) = , x ∈ M.
x+7
Theorem 1.24. The preimage of the union of an arbitrary number (finite or infinite)
of sets Aα is the union of the preimages of the sets Aα , i.e.,
!
f −1 f −1 (Aα ).
[ [
Aα = (1.39)
α∈I α∈I
!
−1
[ [
Proof. Let x ∈ f Aα be arbitrarily chosen. Then f (x) ∈ Aα . Hence,
α∈I α∈I
there is an α1 ∈ I so that f (x) ∈ Aα1 and then x ∈!f −1 (Aα1 ). From here, we conclude
f −1 (Aα ). Because x ∈ f −1
[ [
that x ∈ Aα was arbitrarily chosen and we get
α∈I α∈I
f −1 (Aα ), we arrive at the inclusion
[
that it is an element of the set
α∈I
!
−1
f −1 (Aα ).
[ [
f Aα ⊆ (1.40)
α∈I α∈I
f −1 (Aα ) be arbitrarily chosen. Then there is an α2 ∈ I so that

[
Let now, y ∈
α∈I
y ∈ f −1 (Aα2 ). Hence, f (y) ∈ Aα2 and f (y) ∈
[
f (Aα ). By the last inclusion, it
! α∈I
follows that y ∈ f −1 f −1 (Aα ) was arbitrarily chosen

[ [
Aα . Because y ∈
α∈I α∈I
!
and we get that it is an element of f −1
[
Aα , we find the inclusion
α∈I
!
−1 −1
[ [
f (Aα ) ⊆ f Aα .
α∈I α∈I
44 1 The Set Theory
By the last relation and the relation (1.40), we obtain the relation (1.39). This com-
pletes the proof.
Theorem 1.25. The preimage of the intersection of an arbitrary number (finite or

infinite) of sets Aα is the intersection of the preimages of the sets Aα , i.e.,
!
f −1 f −1 (Aα ).
\ \
Aα = (1.41)
α∈I α∈I
!
−1
\ \
Proof. Let x ∈ f Aα be arbitrarily chosen. Then f (x) ∈ Aα . Hence,
α∈I α∈I\
f (x) ∈ Aα for any α ∈ I and x ∈ f −1 (Aα ) for any α ∈ I. Therefore x ∈ f −1 (Aα ).
! α∈I
Because x ∈ f −1
\
Aα was arbitrarily chosen and we get that it is an element
α∈I
f −1 (Aα ), we arrive at the inclusion
\
of
α∈I
!
−1
f −1 (Aα ).
\ \
f Aα ⊆ (1.42)
α∈I α∈I
f −1 (Aα ) be arbitrarily chosen. Then y ∈ f −1 (Aα ) for any α ∈ I.

\
Let now, y ∈
α \
Hence, f (y) ∈ Aα for any α ∈ I and then, f (y) ∈ Aα . By the last inclusion, it
! α∈I
follows that y ∈ f −1 f −1 (Aα ) was arbitrarily chosen

\ \
Aα . Because y ∈
α∈I α∈I
!
and we get that it is an element of f −1
\
Aα , we find the inclusion
α∈I
!
−1 −1
\ \
f (Aα ) ⊆ f Aα .
α∈I α∈I
By the last relation and the relation (1.42), we arrive at the relation (1.41). This
completes the proof.
Theorem 1.26. The image of the union of an arbitrary number(finite or infinite) of

sets Aα is the union of the images of the sets Aα , i.e.,
!
[ [
f Aα = f (Aα ). (1.43)
α∈I α∈I
!
[ [
Proof. Let x ∈ f Aα be arbitrarily chosen. Then there is an x1 ∈ Aα so
α∈I [ α∈I
that x = f (x1 ). Because x1 ∈ Aα , there is an α1 ∈ I such that x1 ∈ Aα1 . Therefore
α∈I !
[ [
x ∈ f (Aα1 ) and from here, x ∈ f (Aα ). Since x ∈ f Aα was arbitrarily
α∈I [ α∈I
chosen and we get that it is an element of f (Aα ), we obtain the relation
α∈I
!
[ [
f Aα ⊆ f (Aα ). (1.44)
α∈I α∈I
[
Let now, y ∈ f (Aα ) be arbitrarily chosen. Then there is an α2 ∈ I so that y ∈
α∈I
we find that there is an y1 ∈ Aα2 so that y = f (y1 ).
f (Aα2 ). By the last relation, [
Since y1 ∈ Aα2 , we get y1 ∈ Aα . Hence, using that y = f (y1 ), we conclude that
! α∈I
[ [
y∈ f Aα . Because y ∈ f (Aα ) was arbitrarily chosen and we get that it is
α∈I ! α∈I
[
an element of f Aα , we find the inclusion
α∈I
!
[ [
f (Aα ) ⊆ f Aα .
α∈I α∈I
By the last inclusion and the inclusion (1.44), we obtain (1.43). This completes the
proof.
Theorem 1.27. The preimage of the difference of two sets is the difference of the
preimages of the sets, i.e.,
f −1 (A\B) = f −1 (A)\ f −1 (B). (1.45)
Proof. Let x ∈ f −1 (A\B) be arbitrarily chosen. Then f (x) ∈ A\B. Hence, f (x) ∈ A
and f (x) 6∈ B. Therefore x ∈ f −1 (A) and x 6∈ f −1 (B). Thus, x ∈ f −1 (A)\ f −1 (B).
Because x ∈ f −1 (A\B) was arbitrarily chosen and we find that it is an element of
f −1 (A)\ f −1 (B), we obtain the inclusion
f −1 (A\B) ⊆ f −1 (A)\ f −1 (B). (1.46)
Let y ∈ f −1 (A)\ f −1 (B) be arbitrarily chosen. Then y ∈ f −1 (A) and y 6∈ f −1 (B).

Hence, f (y) ∈ A and f (y) 6∈ B. Therefore f (y) ∈ A\B and y ∈ f −1 (A\B). Because y ∈
f −1 (A)\ f −1 (B) was arbitrarily chosen and we get that it is an element of f −1 (A\B),
we find the relation
46 1 The Set Theory
f −1 (A)\ f −1 (B) ⊆ f −1 (A\B).

By the last inclusion and the inclusion (1.46), we obtain the relation (1.45). This
Theorem 1.28. The preimage of the symmetric difference of two sets is the symmet-
ric difference of the preimages of the sets, i.e.,
f −1 (A4B) = f −1 (A)4 f −1 (B).
Proof. Applying Theorem 1.24 and then Theorem 1.27, we find

f −1 (A4B) = f −1 (A\B) (B\A)
[
= f −1 (A\B) f −1 (B\A)
[
= f −1 (A)\ f −1 (B)
[ −1
f (B)\ f −1 (A)

= f −1 (A)4 f −1 (B).
Exercise 1.24. Let f : X → Y be a map and Aα ⊂ X for any α ∈ I. Prove that

!
\ \
f ⊂ f (Aα ).
α∈I α∈I
1.6 The Principal of the Mathematical Induction
Mathematical propositions are very often proved by using the following principal of
the mathematical induction.
Theorem 1.29. Given a number a ∈ N and a proposition P(n) formulated for any
n ∈ N, n ≥ a, suppose that
1. P(a) is true.
2. the validity of P(k) for all k ≤ n, k ≥ a, implies the validity of P(n + 1).
Then P(n) is true for any n ∈ N, n ≥ a.
Proof. Suppose that P(n) fails to be true for any n ∈ N. Let n1 be the smallest
element of the set N for which P(n1 ) fails. By the statement 1, it follows that n1 > a.
Thus, n1 − 1 ∈ N, n1 − 1 ≥ a. Therefore P(k) is valid for any k ≤ n1 − 1, k ≥ a, but it
is not valid for n1 . This contradicts with the statement 2. Consequently P(n) is true
for any n ∈ N, n ≥ a. This completes the proof.
1.6 The Principal of the Mathematical Induction 47
Now, we will illustrate the principal of the mathematical induction in several exam-
ples.
Example 1.48. We will prove that
1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2 , n ∈ N. (1.47)
1. For n = 1, we have
1 = 12 ,
i.e., the assertion is valid for n = 1.
2. Assume that (1.47) is valid for some n ∈ N.
3. We will prove that the assertion is valid for n + 1, i.e., we will prove that
1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) + (2n + 1) = (n + 1)2 .
Really, using (1.47), we get
1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) + (2n + 1) = n2 + 2n + 1
= (n + 1)2 .
Hence and the principal of the mathematical induction, we conclude that (1.47) is
valid for any n ∈ N.
Example 1.49. Suppose that sin α 6= 0. We will prove that
sin 2n+1 α

2 n+1

cos α cos(2α) cos 2 α · · · cos 2 α = , n ∈ N. (1.48)
2n+1 α
1. Let n = 1. Then, we have the following.
sin 22 α

sin(2 · 2α)
=
22 sin α 22 sin α
2 sin(2α) cos(2α)
=
22 sin α
sin(2α) cos(2α)
=
2 sin α
2 sin α cos α cos(2α)
=
2 sin α
= cos α cos(2α),

48 1 The Set Theory
3. We will prove the assertion for n + 1, i.e., we will prove that
sin 2n+2 α

2 n n+1

cos α cos(2α) cos 2 α · · · cos (2 α) cos 2 α = .
2n+2 α
Really, using (1.48), we find
sin 2n+1 α cos 2n+1 α

2 n n+1

cos α cos(2α) cos 2 α · · · cos (2 α) cos 2 α =
2n+1 α
sin 2n+2 α

= ,
2n+2 α
i. e, the assertion is valid for n + 1.

1 1 1 n
+ +···+ = , n ∈ N. (1.49)
1·2 2·3 n(n + 1) n + 1
1 1
= ,
1·2 1+1
1 1 1 1 n+1
+ +···+ + = .
1·2 2·3 n(n + 1) (n + 1)(n + 2) n + 2

1 1 1 1 n 1
+ +···+ + = +
1·2 2·3 n(n + 1) (n + 1)(n + 2) n + 1 (n + 1)(n + 2)
n(n + 2) + 1
=
(n + 1)(n + 2)
n2 + 2n + 1
=
(n + 1)(n + 2)
(n + 1)2
=
(n + 1)(n + 2)
n+1
= ,
n+2
i.e., the assertion is valid for n + 1.

1.
n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + (n − 1) + n = , n ∈ N.
2
2.
bn − an = (b − a)(bn−1 + bn−2 a + bn−3 a2 + · · · + ban−2 + an−1 ), n ∈ N.
3.
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2 = , n ∈ N.
6
4.
(a1 + a2 + · · · + an )2 = a21 + a22 + · · · + a2n
+2a1 (a2 + a3 + · · · + an )
+2a2 (a3 + a4 + · · · + an )
+···
+2an−2 (an−1 + an )
+2an−1 an , n ∈ N.
5.
n(n + 1)(n + 2)
1 · 2 + 2 · 3 + · · · + n · (n + 1) = , n ∈ N.
3
2n ≥ n + 1, n ∈ N. (1.50)
2 = 1 + 1,
2n+1 ≥ n + 2.
50 1 The Set Theory
2n+1 = 2 · 2n
≥ 2(n + 1)
= 2n + 2
> n + 2.
4n (2n)!
< , n ∈ N, n ≥ 2. (1.51)
n+1 (n!)2
Here n! = 1 · 2 · 3 · · · (n − 1) · n.
42 16
=
2+1 3
and
(2 · 2)! 4!
2
= 2
(2!) 2
4·3·2·1
=
4
= 6.
16
Since < 6, we get
3
42 (2 · 2)!
< ,
2+1 (2!)2
2. Assume that (1.51) is valid for some n ∈ N, n ≥ 2.
4n+1 (2(n + 1))!

< .
n+2 ((n + 1)!)2

4n+1 4 · 4n (n + 1)
=
n+2 (n + 1)(n + 2)
4(n + 1) 4n
= ·
n+2 n+1
4(n + 1) (2n)!
< ·
n + 2 (n!)2
2(2n + 2) (2n)!
= ·
n+2 (n!)2
2 (2n + 2)(2n + 1)(2n)!
= ·
(n + 2)(2n + 1) (n!)2
2(n + 1)2 (2n + 2)!

= ·
(n + 2)(2n + 1) (n + 1)2 (n!)2
2(n + 1)2 (2(n + 1))!

= · .
(n + 2)(2n + 1) (n!)2
Note that
2(n + 1)2
<1 ⇐⇒
(n + 2)(2n + 1)
2(n + 1)2 < (n + 2)(2n + 1) ⇐⇒
2(n2 + 2n + 1) < 2n2 + n + 4n + 2 ⇐⇒
2n2 + 4n + 2 < 2n2 + 5n + 2.
Therefore
4n+1 2(n + 1)2 (2(n + 1))!
< ·
n+2 (n + 2)(2n + 1) (n!)2
(2(n + 1))!
< .
(n!)2
valid for any n ∈ N, n ≥ 2.
2n > n2 , n ∈ N, n ≥ 5. (1.52)
52 1 The Set Theory
25 = 32
> 25
= 52 ,

2. Assume that (1.52) is valid for some n ∈ N, n ≥ 5.
2n+1 > (n + 1)2 .
2n+1 = 2 · 2n
> 2n2 .
Note that
2n2 > (n + 1)2 ⇐⇒
2n2 > n2 + 2n + 1 ⇐⇒
n2 − 2n − 1 > 0,
which is valid for any n ≥ 5 because the roots of the quadratic equation
x2 − 2x − 1 = 0
are
√
x1 = 1 − 2,
√
x2 = 1 + 2,
and the set of the solutions of the quadratic inequality
x2 − 2x − 1 > 0
√ [ √
is −∞, 1 − 2 1 + 2, ∞ . Therefore
2n+1 > 2n2

1.7 Advanced Practical Problems 53
> (n + 1)2 .
1.
3n ≥ 1 + 2n, n ∈ N.
2.
3n ≥ 2(n + 1)2 , n ∈ N, n ≥ 4.
3.
7n ≥ 1 + 6n, n ∈ N.
4.
5n ≥ 5n3 + 2, n ∈ N, n ≥ 4.
5.
1 1 1
1+ + +···+ n ≤ n, n ∈ N.
2 3 2 −1
1.7 Advanced Practical Problems
Problem 1.1. Determine the set A, where

1.
x x − 3 9(1 − x)
A= x∈R: − < 2 .
x+3 x x + 3x
2.
4x2 + 20x − 15

5 x−1
A= x∈R: − <− .
x 3 3x
3.
3 6 − |x|
A = x ∈ R : |x| − 1 ≤ .
10 2
4.
A = {x ∈ R : (|x| − 3)(|x| + 7) < 0}.
5. 2
x − 3x − 1
A = x ∈ R : 2 <3 .
x +x+1
6. 2
x − 3x + 2
A= x∈R: 2
≥1 .
x + 3x + 2
7. p
A = {x ∈ R : x2 − x − 12 > 7 + x}.
54 1 The Set Theory
8. √ √ √
A = {x ∈ R : x + 6 > x + 1 + 2x − 5}.
9. n o
2
A = x ∈ R : 362x−x < 216 .
10.
A = {x ∈ R : log4 x + log4 (x + 1) > log4 (2x)}.
Problem 1.2. Determine if 3, 8, −1 are memberships of the following sets.

1. A = {−1, 12, 25, 4, 16, 97}.
2. A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}.
3. A = {8, 18, 28, 38, 48, 58}.
4. A = {−7, −1, 0, 23, 54}.
5. A = {−1, 3, 8, 15, 24, 76}.
Problem 1.3. Let

1 1 3
S = − , 0, , , 4 .
2 2 2
Determine which of the following sets are partitions of S.

1 1 3
1. − , 0, , ,4 .
2 2 2
1 1 3
2. − ,0 , 0, , 0, , 4 .
2 2 2
1 1 3
3. − , {0} , , , {4} .
2 2 2
1 1 3
4. − , 0, , ,4 .
2 2 2
1 1 3
5. − ,0 , 0, , , 4 .
2 2 2
Problem 1.4. Find P(s), where

1. S = {−5, 7, 12}.
2. S = {13, 14, 17, 18}.
3. S = {21, 100, 110}.
4. S = {11, 23}.
5. S = {7, 10, 20, 38}.
Problem 1.5. Find |S|, where

1. S = {1, 3, 8}.
2. S = {−1, 1, 5, 6}.
3. S = {3, 12, 15, 20, 25, 36}.
4. S = {3, 4, 5, 7, 90}.
5. S = {−1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 91}.
[
Problem 1.6. Find A B, where
1. A = {−7, −6, −12, −1, 3, 0, 5, 7}, B = {1, 3, 4, 9, 10}.
2. A = {−1, 0, 7, 8, 9, 10}, B = {−3, −2, 1, red, green}.
3. A = {2, 5, 8, 12, 16}, B = {−3, −2, 1, blue, green, 0}.
4. A = {2, −1, −6}, B = {2, 3, +, −}.
3
5. A = {3, blue, red, 2, }, B = {7, , −4, −2}.
5
[
1.

6−x
A= x∈R: ≤0 ,
5x − 7
n √ √ o
B = x ∈ R : 2x + 1 − x + 8 > 3 .
2.

6x − 3
A= x∈R: ≥2 ,
x+4
n p p o
B = x ∈ R : 9 − x2 + 6x − x2 > 3 .
3.
n √ √ o
A = x ∈ R : x2 (5 − 2)x − 5 2 > 0 ,
n √ √ √ o
B = x ∈ R : x + 6 > x + 1 + 2x − 5 .
4.
2 − x x + 2 7x − x3

A= x∈R: + < 2 ,
x+1 x−1 x −1
( 2x2 −5 3 )
1 1 2
B = x∈R: < .
3 9
5.

x x−1 9−x
A = x∈R: − > 2 ,
x+3 x x + 3x
n 2 1
o
B = x ∈ R : 125x − 3 < 25 .
Problem 1.8. For any set A, prove that

56 1 The Set Theory
[
A 0/ = A.
\
1. A = {−3,
4, 6, 8, 9}, B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 11}.
7 11
2. A = −3, , , 10 , B = {10, 19}.
2 2
3. A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {0, 1, 2, white}.
4. A = {0, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15}, B = {green, 1, 9}.
5. A = {blue, −1, −2, −3}, B = {white, blue, 7, 8, 9}.
\
1.
|x2 − 4x| + 3

A = x∈R: 2 ≥1 ,
x + |x − 5|

5x − 2
B = x ∈ R : log 1 >0 .
2 x+1
2.

2x
A= x ∈ R : |x| ≥ ,
x−3
B = {x ∈ R : log2 x − log2 (x + 1) > 0} .
3.
A = {x ∈ R : |7 − 2x| < |3x − 7| + |x + 2|} ,
B = {x ∈ R : log3 x + log3 (2 − x) > 1} .
4.
A = {x ∈ R : |13 − 2x| ≥ |4x − 9|} ,
B = {x ∈ R : 1 + log3 (2x − 1) > log3 (5x)} .
5.
|x2 − 2x| + 4

A = x∈R: 2 ≥1 ,
x + |x + 2|
( x+1 )
1 x 3
B = x∈R: > 36 .
6
Problem 1.11. Find A\B and B\A, where

1.

3 5 7
A= −7, 0, 1, , , ,
2 2 2
B = {−6, −5, −4, −3, −2, −1, 0}.
2.
A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4},
B = {−3, −2, −1, 0}.
3.
A = {−15, −14, −13, −12, −11, −10} ,
B = {10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15} .
4.
A = {−1, 1},
B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
5.
A = {yellow, blue, red, white},
B = {green, blue}.
Problem 1.12. Find A\B, where

1.
A = x ∈ R : |x2 − x − 6| > 4 ,

B = x ∈ R : 2x+1 + 22−x > 9 .

2.

2x − 1
A= x∈R:
>2 ,
x−1
58 1 The Set Theory
B = {x ∈ R : log2 (3x − 2) − log2 (2x − 5) < log2 5} .
3.
x2 − 7|x| + 10

A= x∈R: < 0 ,
x2 − 6x + 9
B = {x ∈ R : log2 (x + 3) − log2 (2x − 1) > 3} .
4.
x2 − 5x + 6

A= x∈R: <0 ,
|x| + 7
B = {x ∈ R : log5 (2x − 1) + log5 (x + 4) > log5 18} .
5.

2x − 5
A= x∈R: > −1 ,
|x + 3|
B = x ∈ R : log4 (3x − 4 − x2 ) < 3 .

Problem 1.13. Prove that A\B = 0/ if and only if A ⊂ B.

[
Problem 1.14. Prove that A ⊂ B C if and only if A\B ⊂ C.
Problem 1.15. Prove that \

A\B = A\(A B).
Problem 1.16. Prove that

\ [
A = (A B) (A\B).

! !
\ \ \
(Mα \Nα ) ⊂ Mα \ Nα .
α∈A α∈A α∈A
Problem 1.18. Find CA, where

1. A = [4, ∞).
2. A = [3, 8).
3. A = (−∞, 1].[
4. A = (−5, 0) (2, 3).
[
5. A = (−∞, 0) [2, 3].
6.
A = {x ∈ R : x − 1 > 3, x + 2 < −5}.
7.
A = {x ∈ R : x − 3 > 0, 3x − 9 > 12}.
8.
A = {x ∈ R : x2 + 5x + 6 > 0, x2 − x − 2 > 0}.
9.
A = {x ∈ R : −4x + 2 > 3, −x2 + 1 < 7}.
10.
A = {x ∈ R : x − 4 > 0, 2x + 7 < 0}.
Problem 1.19. Find A4B, where A and B are the sets in Problem 1.11.
Problem 1.20. Find A4B, where
1.
A = x ∈ R : x2 − 7x + 12 < |x − 4| ,

n √ √ o
B = x ∈ R : 3 − x + x − 5 ≥ −10 .
2.

3
q p
A= x∈R: 1 + 2(x − 3)2 + 5 − 4x + x2 < ,
2

B = x ∈ R : log3−x x < 1 .
3.
n √ o
A = x ∈ R : x + 78 < x − 76 ,

4x − 5 1
B= x ∈ R : logx2 ≥ .
|x − 2| 2
4.
n p o
A = x ∈ R : (x + 2)(x − 5) < 8 − x ,
B = x ∈ R : logx2 (x2 − 4x + 3) > 1 .

5.
( r )
x+5
A = x∈R: >2 ,
2x − 1
√

4 − 3x
B = x∈R: √ < 3 .
40 − 3x
60 1 The Set Theory
Problem 1.21. For any two sets A and B, prove that A4B = 0/ if and only if A = B.
Problem 1.22. Find f (M), where

3
{−3, −2, −1, 0},
1. M = f (x) = x + x + 1, x ∈ M.
1 7
2. M = −1, 0, , 1, , f (x) = x + 3, x ∈ M.
2 6
1 x+5
3. M = −4, −1, , 1 , f (x) = , x ∈ M.
2 x−2
1 1 1 1
4. M = , , , , 1 , f (x) = x4 , x ∈ M.
5 4 3 2 p
5. M = {0, 1, 2}, f (x) = x2 + x + 1, x ∈ M.
Problem 1.23. Let f : R → R and g : R → R be defined by
f (x) = x2 − x + 1,
g(x) = x2 + 1, x ∈ R.
Find
1. f (2x), x ∈ R.
2. f (g(x)), x ∈ R.
3. g(4x), x ∈ R.
4. f (g(4x)), x ∈ R.
5. g( f (2x)), x ∈ R.
Problem 1.24. Check if f : M → N is one-to-one correspondence, where f (M) = N

and
3x + 1
1. M = {−8, −6, −2, 0, 2}, f (x) = , x ∈ M.
3x − 7
2. M = {−1, 0, 1, 2}, f (x) = x4 + x2 , x ∈ M.
3. M = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3}, f (x) = x6 + 2x2 , x ∈ M.
x2 + 1
4. M = {−3, 3}, f (x) = 4 , x ∈ M.
x +2
x4 − 1
5. M = {−4, −2, 2, 4}, f (x) = 2 , x ∈ M.
x +1
Problem 1.25. Let f : X → Y be a map and M, N ⊂ X. Prove that
f (M\N) ⊂ f (M)\ f (N).
Problem 1.26. Let f : X → Y be a map and M ⊂ X, N ⊂ Y . Prove that

f −1 (N) 6= 0.
\ \
1. f (M) N 6= 0/ if and only if M /
2. M ⊂ f −1 ( f(M)).
3. f f −1 (N) ⊂ N.

1.
1 1 1 1 n
+ + +···+ = , n ∈ N.
1·3 3·5 5·7 (2n − 1)(2n + 1) 2n + 1
2.
1 · 1! + 2 · 2! + 3 · 3! + · · · + n · n! = (n + 1)! − 1, n ∈ N.
3.
n(n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3)
1 · 2 · 3 + 2 · 3 · 4 + · · · + n(n + 1)(n + 2) = , n ∈ N.
4
4.
1 1 1 n
+ +···+ = , n ∈ N.
1·5 5·9 (4n − 3)(4n + 1) 4n + 1
5.
n(n2 − 1)(3n + 2)
1 · 22 + 2 · 32 + · · · + (n − 1)n2 = , n ∈ N.
12
6.
n(n + 1)
12 − 22 + 32 − 42 + · · · + (−1)n−1 n2 = (−1)n−1 , n ∈ N.
2
7.
12 22 n2 n(n + 1)
+ +···+ = , n ∈ N.
1·3 3·5 (2n − 1)(2n + 1) 2(2n + 1)
8.
(n − 1)n n(n + 1) n(n + 1)(n + 2)
1 + 3 + 6 + 10 + · · · + + = , n ∈ N.
2 2 6
9.
n(2n2 + 9n + 1)
2 + 7 + 14 + · · · + (n2 + 2n − 1) = , n ∈ N.
6
10.
1 1 1 1 4
+ + +···+ = , n ∈ N.
4·5 5·6 6·7 (n + 3)(n + 4) n(n + 4)
11.
7 7 7 7 1
+ + +···+ + = 1, n ∈ N.
1 · 8 8 · 15 15 · 22 (7n − 6)(7n + 1) 7n + 1
12.
1 1 1 n+2
1− 1− ··· 1− = , n ∈ N.
4 9 (n + 1)2 2n + 2
13.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1− + − +···+ − = + +···+ , n ∈ N.
2 3 4 2n − 1 2n n + 1 n + 2 2n
62 1 The Set Theory
14.
3 7 15 2n − 1
1+ + + + · · · + n−1 = 21−n + 2(n − 1), n ∈ N.
2 4 8 2
15. n
1 2 3 n+2
+ 2 + 3 +···+ n = 2− n , n ∈ N.
2 2 2 2 2
16.

1 1 1 1 1 1
+ +···+ = − , n ∈ N.
1·2·3 2·3·4 n(n + 1)(n + 2) 2 2 (n + 1)(n + 2)
17.
1 2 3 1 n(n + 1)
+ + +· · ·+ = , n ∈ N.
1·3·5 3·5·7 5·7·9 (2n − 1)(2n + 1)(2n + 3) 2(2n + 1)(2n + 3)
18.
1 2
15 + 25 + · · · + n5 = n (n + 1)2 (2n2 + 2n − 1), n ∈ N.
12
19.
1
16 + 26 + · · · + n6 = n(n + 1)(2n + 1)(3n4 + 6n3 − 3n + 1), n ∈ N.
42
20.
1 1 1 3 2n + 1
+ +···+ 2 = − , n ∈ N, n ≥ 2.
22 − 1 32 − 1 n − 1 4 2n(n + 1)
1.
4n ≥ 1 + 3n, n ∈ N.
2.
2n > 2n + 1, n ∈ N, n ≥ 3.
3.
2n > n2 , n ∈ N, n ≥ 5.
4.
1 1 1 1 √
√ + √ + √ + · · · + √ > n, n ∈ N, n ≥ 2.
1 2 3 n
5.
1 1 1 13
+ +···+ > , n ∈ N, n ≥ 2.
n+1 n+2 n + n 24
6.
| sin(nα)| ≤ n| sin α|, n ∈ N, α ∈ R.
7.
3n ≤ 2n−1 (1 + 2n ), n ∈ N.
8.
1 1 1
+ + · · · + < 3, n ∈ N.
1! 2! n!
9.
5n ≥ 1 + 4n, n ∈ N.
10.
1 1 1 n
1+ + +···+ n > , n ∈ N.
2 3 2 −1 2
Chapter 2
Rn and Cn
2.1 Definition for a Complex Number
Complex numbers were invented so that we can take square roots of negative num-
bers. The idea is to assume we have a square root of −1, denoted √ i, that obeys
the usual rules of arithmetic. The symbol i was first used to denote −1 by Swiss
mathematician Leonardo Euler in 1777.
Definition 2.1. A complex number is an ordered pair (a, b), where a, b ∈ R. We will
write this as a + bi. The set of all complex numbers is denoted by C, i.e.,
C = {a + bi : a, b ∈ R}.
If a ∈ R, we identify a + 0i with the real number a. Thus, we can think of R as a

subset of C. We also usually write 0 + bi as just bi, and we usually write 0 + 1i as
just i. The equality
a + bi = c + di
in the set of the complex numbers means that a = c and b = d. Note that the symbols
<, ≤, > and ≥ for comparisons in the set of the complex numbers C are not used.
In the set of the complex numbers C we will use only the symbols = and 6=. For
a, b ∈ R, with a − bi we will denote the complex number a + (−b)i. For a ∈ R, with
a + i we will denote the complex number a + 1i. When we write z ∈ C we mean that
there are a, b ∈ R so that z = a + bi.
2.2 The Arithmetic of the Complex Numbers
Definition 2.2. Addition and multiplication on C are defined by
(a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i
65
66 2 Rn and Cn
and
(a + bi)(c + di) = (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i,
respectively, where a, b, c, d ∈ R.
By the above definition, using that i = 0 + 1i, it follows
i2 = i · i
= (0 + 1i)(0 + 1i)
= (0 · 0 − 1 · 1) + (0 · 1 + 1 · 0)i
= −1 + 0i
= −1.
(4 + 5i) + (3 + 7i) = (4 + 3) + (5 + 7)i
= 7 + 12i
and
(4 + 5i)(3 + 7i) = (4 · 3 − 5 · 7) + (4 · 7 + 5 · 3)i
= (12 − 35) + (28 + 15)i
= −23 + 43i.
(2 + 3i) + (4 + 5i) = (2 + 4) + (3 + 5)i
= 6 + 8i
and
(2 + 3i)(4 + 5i) = (2 · 4 − 3 · 5) + (2 · 5 + 3 · 4)i
= (8 − 15) + (10 + 12)i

2.2 The Arithmetic of the Complex Numbers 67
= −7 + 22i.
(2 − 4i) + (3 + i) = (2 + (−4)i) + (3 + 1i)
= (2 + 3) + ((−4) + 1)i
= 5 + (−3)i
= 5 − 3i
and
(2 − 4i)(3 + i) = (2 + (−4)i)(3 + 1i)
= (2 · 3 − (−4) · 1) + (2 · 1 + (−4) · 3)i
= (6 + 4) + (2 − 12)i
= 10 + (−10)i
= 10 − 10i.
Exercise 2.1. Evaluate z1 + z2 and z1 z2 , where

1. z1 = 3 − i, z2 = 4 + i.
2. z1 = 2 + 3i, z2 = 4 − i.
3. z1 = 2 + 7i, z2 = 3 + 5i.
4. z1 = 1 + 2i, z2 = 1 − 2i.
5. z1 = 3 + 4i, z2 = 5 − 7i.
Now, we will list some of the properties of the defined operations addition and
multiplication of two complex numbers. Let z1 , z2 , z3 ∈ C,
z1 = a1 + b1 i, z2 = a2 + b2 i, z3 = a3 + b3 i,
where a1 , a2 , a3 , b1 , b2 , b3 ∈ R. Then, we have the following.

1. Commutativity
z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 ,
z1 z2 = z2 z1 .
68 2 Rn and Cn
Proof. We have
z1 + z2 = (a1 + b1 i) + (a2 + b2 i)
= (a1 + a2 ) + (b1 + b2 )i
= (a2 + a1 ) + (b2 + b1 )i
= z2 + z1
and
z1 z2 = (a1 + b1 i)(a2 + b2 i)
= (a1 a2 − b1 b2 ) + (a1 b2 + b1 a2 )i
= (a2 a1 − b2 b1 ) + (b2 a1 + a2 b1 )i
= (a2 a1 − b2 b1 ) + (a2 b1 + b2 a1 )i
= (a2 + b2 i)(a1 + b1 i)
= z2 z1 .

2. Associativity
(z1 + z2 ) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3 ),
(z1 z2 )z3 = z1 (z2 z3 ).
Proof. We have
(z1 + z2 ) + z3 = ((a1 + b1 i) + (a2 + b2 i)) + (a3 + b3 i)
= ((a1 + a2 ) + (b1 + b2 )i) + (a3 + b3 i)
= ((a1 + a2 ) + a3 ) + ((b1 + b2 ) + b3 )i
= (a1 + (a2 + a3 )) + (b1 + (b2 + b3 ))i

= (a1 + b1 i) + ((a2 + a3 ) + (b2 + b3 )i)
= (a1 + b1 i) + ((a2 + b2 i) + (a3 + b3 i))
= z1 + (z2 + z3 )
and
(z1 z2 )z3 = ((a1 + b1 i)(a2 + b2 i))(a3 + b3 i)
= ((a1 a2 − b1 b2 ) + (a1 b2 + b1 a2 )i)(a3 + b3 i)
= ((a1 a2 − b1 b2 )a3 − (a1 b2 + b1 a2 )b3 )
+((a1 a2 − b1 b2 )b3 + (a1 b2 + b1 a2 )a3 )i
= (a1 a2 a3 − b1 b2 a3 − a1 b2 b3 − b1 a2 b3 )
+(a1 a2 b3 − b1 b2 b3 + a1 b2 a3 + b1 a2 a3 )i
= (a1 (a2 a3 − b2 b3 ) − b1 (b2 a3 + a2 b3 ))
+(a1 (a2 b3 + b2 a3 ) + b1 (a2 a3 − b2 b3 ))i
= (a1 + b1 i)((a2 a3 − b2 b3 ) + (b2 a3 + a2 b3 )i)
= (a1 + b1 i)((a2 + b2 i)(a3 + b3 i))
= z1 (z2 z3 ).

3. Identities
z1 + 0 = z1 ,
z1 1 = z1 .
Proof. We have
70 2 Rn and Cn
z1 + 0 = (a1 + b1 i) + (0 + 0i)
= (a1 + 0) + (b1 + 0)i
= a1 + b1 i
= z1
and
z1 1 = (a1 + b1 i)(1 + 0i)
= (a1 · 1 − b1 · 0) + (a1 · 0 + b1 · 1)i
= a1 + b1 i
= z1 .

4. Additive Inverse
There is a unique w ∈ C so that z1 + w = 0.
Proof. Let
w = w1 + w2 i, w1 , w2 ∈ R.
Then
0 = 0 + 0i
= z1 + w1
= (a1 + b1 i) + (w1 + w2 i)
= (a1 + w1 ) + (b1 + w2 )i,
whereupon we get the system
a1 + w1 = 0
b1 + w2 = 0.
Hence,
w1 = −a1
w2 = −b1 ,
i.e.,
w = −a1 + (−b1 )i
= −a1 − b1 i
and this is the unique solution of the equation z1 + w = 0. This completes the
proof.
5. Multiplicative Inverse
Suppose that z1 6= 0. There is a unique y ∈ C so that z1 y = 1.
Proof. Since z1 6= 0, then a1 6= 0 or b1 6= 0. Without loss of generality, suppose
that a1 6= 0. Let
y = y1 + y2 i, y1 , y2 ∈ R.
Then
1 = 1 + 0i
= z1 y
= (a1 + b1 i)(y1 + y2 i)
= (a1 y1 − b1 y2 ) + (a1 y2 + b1 y1 )i.
Hence, we get the system
a1 y1 − b1 y2 = 1
a1 y2 + b1 y1 = 0,
whereupon
a1 y1 − b1 y2 = 1
a1 y2 = −b1 y1 ,
or
a1 y1 − b1 y2 = 1
72 2 Rn and Cn
b1
y2 = − y1 ,
a1
or
b21
a1 y1 + y1 = 1
a1
b1
y2 = − y1 ,
a1
or
a21 + b21
y1 = 1
a1
b1
y2 = − y1 ,
a1
or
a1
y1 =
a21 + b21
b1
y2 = − .
a21 + b21
Thus,
a1 b1
y= − i
a21 + b21 a21 + b21
and this is the unique solution of the equation z1 y = 1. This completes the proof.
6. Distributivity
z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3 .
Proof. We have
z1 (z2 + z3 ) = (a1 + b1 i)((a2 + b2 i) + (a3 + b3 i))
= (a1 + b1 i)((a2 + a3 ) + (b2 + b3 )i)
= (a1 (a2 + a3 ) − b1 (b2 + b3 ))
+(a1 (b2 + b3 ) + b1 (a2 + a3 ))i
= (a1 a2 + a1 a3 − b1 b2 − b1 b3 )
+(a1 b2 + a1 b3 + b1 a2 + b1 a3 )i
= (a1 a2 − b1 b2 ) + (a1 a3 − b1 b3 )
+(a1 b2 + b1 a2 )i + (a1 b3 + b1 a3 )i
= ((a1 a2 − b1 b2 ) + (a1 b2 + b1 a2 )i)
+((a1 a3 − b1 b3 ) + (a1 b3 + b1 a3 )i)
= (a1 + b1 i)(a2 + b2 i) + (a1 + b1 i)(a3 + b3 i)
= z1 z2 + z1 z3 .
Definition 2.3. Let z1 , z2 ∈ C. With −z2 we will denote the additive inverse of z2 .
Thus, −z2 is the unique complex number so that
z2 + (−z2 ) = 0.
Subtraction on C is defined by
z1 − z2 = z1 + (−z2 ).
1
Definition 2.4. Let z1 , z2 ∈ C and z2 6= 0. With or z−1
2 we denote the multiplica-
z2
1
tive inverse of z2 . Thus, or z−1
2 is the unique complex number so that
z2

1
z2 =1
z2
or
z2 z−1
2 = 1.
Division on C is defined by

z1 1 1
= z1 = z1
z2 z2 z2
or
z1
= z1 z−1 −1
2 = z2 z1 ,
z2
74 2 Rn and Cn
provided that z2 6= 0.
For a z ∈ C, z 6= 0, z = a + bi, a, b ∈ R, we have

1
= z−1
z
a b
= − i.
a2 + b2 a2 + b2
Example 2.4. We will represent the complex number
5−i
z=
(1 + i)(2 − 3i)
in the form a + bi, a, b ∈ R. Firstly, we will find
z1 = (1 + i)(2 − 3i).
We have
z1 = (1 · 2 − 1 · (−3)) + (1 · 2 + 1 · (−3))i
= (2 + 3) + (2 − 3)i
= 5 + (−1)i
= 5 − i.
Now, we will find z−1

1 . We compute
5 −1
z−1
1 = − i
52 + (−1)2 52 + (−1)2
5 1
= + i
25 + 1 25 + 1
5 1
= + i
26 26
5+i
= .
26
Then
z = (5 − i)z−1
1

5+i
= (5 − i)
26
1
= ((5 + i)(5 − i))
26
1
= ((5 · 5 − (−1) · 1) + (5 · 1 + (−1) · 5)i)
26
1
= ((25 + 1) + (5 − 5)i)
26
1
= · 26
26
= 1.

3+i
z=
(1 + i)(1 − 2i)
z1 = (1 + i)(1 − 2i).
We have
z1 = (1 · 1 − 1 · (−2)) + (1 · (−2) + 1 · 1)i
= (1 + 2) + (−2 + 1)i
= 3 + (−1)i
= 3 − i.
Now, we will get z−1

1 . We compute
3 −1
z−1
1 = − i
32 + (−1)2 32 + (−1)2
3 1
= + i
9+1 9+1
3 1
= + i
10 10
76 2 Rn and Cn
3+i
= .
10
Then
z = (3 + i)z−1
1

3+i
= (3 + i)
10
1
= ((3 + i)(3 + i))
10
1
= ((3 · 3 − 1 · 1) + (3 · 1 + 1 · 3)i)
10
1
= ((9 − 1) + (3 + 3)i)
10
1
= (8 + 6i)
10
8 6
= + i
10 10
4 3
= + i.
5 5
(1 + i)(2 + i) (1 − i)(2 − i)
z= −
2−i 2+i
z1 = (1 + i)(2 + i)
and
z2 = (1 − i)(2 − i).
We have
z1 = (1 · 2 − 1 · 1) + (1 · 2 + 1 · 1)i
= (2 − 1) + (2 + 1)i
= 1 + 3i
and
z2 = (1 · 2 − (−1) · (−1)) + (1 · (−1) + (−1) · 2)i
= (2 − 1) + (−1 − 2)i
= 1 + (−3)i
= 1 − 3i.
Then
z1 z2
z= −
2−i 2+i
1 + 3i 1 − 3i
= − .
2−i 2+i
Set
z3 = 2 − i,
z4 = 2 + i.
We will find z−1 −1

3 and z4 . We compute
2 −1
z−1
3 = − i
22 + (−1)2 22 + (−1)2
2 1
= + i
4+1 4+1
2 1
= + i
5 5
2+i
=
5
and
2 1
z−1
4 = − i
22 + 12 22 + 12
2 1
= − i
4+1 4+1
2 1
= − i
5 5
78 2 Rn and Cn
2−i
= .
5
Therefore
z = z1 z−1 −1
3 − z2 z4

2+i 2−i
= (1 + 3i) − (1 − 3i)
5 5
1 1
= ((1 + 3i)(2 + i)) − ((1 − 3i)(2 − i))
5 5
1
= ((1 · 2 − 3 · 1) + (3 · 2 + 1 · 1)i)
5
1
− ((1 · 2 − (−3) · (−1)) + (1 · (−1) + (−3) · 1)i)
5
1 1
= ((2 − 3) + (6 + 1)i) − ((2 − 3) + (−1 − 6)i)
5 5
1 1
= (−1 + 7i) − (−1 − 7i)
5 5
1 1
= (−1 + 7i) + (1 + 7i)
5 5
1
= ((−1 + 1) + (7 + 7)i)
5
1
= (0 + 14i)
5
14
= i.
5
Exercise 2.2. Represent in the form a + bi, a, b ∈ R, the following complex num-
bers.
1
1. .
i
1+i
2. .
1 + 2i
2 − 17i 2 + i
3. − .
3 3+i
4. (2 + 3i)(3 − 2i) + (2 − 3i)(3 + 2i).
3+i 3−i
5. + .
3−i 3+i
Definition 2.5. For z ∈ C and m ∈ N, we define zm to denote the product of z itself

m times, i.e.,
zm = z · z{z
· · · }z .
|
m times
Clearly, for z1 , z2 ∈ C and m, n ∈ N, we have
(zm n mn
1 ) = z1
and
(z1 z2 )m = zm m
1 z2 .
i3 = i · i · i
= i2 · i
= (−1) · i
= −i.
(2i)4 = 24 i4
= 16(i2 )2
= 16(−1)2
= 16.

1 1
5
= 4
i i ·i
1
=
(i2 )2 · i
1
=
(−1)2 · i
1
=
i
80 2 Rn and Cn
0 1
= − i
02 + 12 02 + 12
= −i.
Exercise 2.3. Find

1. i7 .
2. (2i)9 .
3. i8 .
4. i318 .
1
5. .
i217
Now, we will prove some important formulas. Suppose that z1 , z2 ∈ C. Then, we
have the following.
1. z21 − z22 = (z1 − z2 )(z1 + z2 ).
Proof. We have
(z1 − z2 )(z1 + z2 ) = z1 z1 − z1 z2 − z2 z1 + z2 z2
= z21 − z1 z2 − z1 z2 + z22
= z21 − 2z1 z2 + z22 .

2. (z1 ± z2 )2 = z21 ± 2z1 z2 + z22 .
Proof. We have
(z1 ± z2 )2 = (z1 ± z2 )(z1 ± z2 )
= z1 z1 ± z1 z2 ± z2 z1 + z2 z2
= z21 ± z1 z2 ± z1 z2 + z22
= z21 ± 2z1 z2 + z22 .

3. (z1 ± z2 )3 = z31 ± 3z21 z2 ∓ 3z1 z22 ± z32 .
Proof. Using the previous statement, we arrive at
(z1 ± z2 )3 = (z1 ± z2 )(z1 ± z2 )2
= (z1 ± z2 )(z21 ± 2z1 z2 + z22 )
= z1 z21 ± 2z1 z1 z2 + z1 z22 ± z2 z21 + 2z2 z1 z2 ± z2 z22
= z31 ± 2z21 z2 + z1 z22 ± z21 z2 + 2z1 z22 ± z32
= z31 ± 3z21 z2 + 3z1 z22 ± z32 .

4. z31 ± z32 = (z1 ± z2 )(z21 ∓ z1 z2 + z22 ).
Proof. We have
(z1 ± z2 )(z21 ∓ z1 z2 + z22 ) = z1 z21 ∓ z1 z1 z2 + z1 z22
±z2 z21 − z2 z1 z2 ± z2 z22
= z31 ∓ z21 z2 + z1 z22 ± z21 z2 − z1 z22 ± z32
= z31 ± z32 .
(1 − i)2 = 12 − 2 · 1 · i + i2
= 1 − 2i − 1
= −2i.
Example 2.11. Now, we will compute

2−i
z= + (i − 1)2 .
i+2
Set
2−i
z1 = ,
i+2
82 2 Rn and Cn
z2 = i + 2,
z3 = (i − 1)2 .
Consider z1 . We have
2−i
z1 =
z2
= (2 − i)z−1
2 .
We will find z−1

2 . We have
2 1
z−1
2 = − i
22 + 12 22 + 12
2 1
= − i.
5 5
Hence,
z1 = (2 − i)z−1
2

2 1
= (2 − i) − i
5 5

2 1 1 2
= 2 · − (−1) − + 2 − + (−1) · i
5 5 5 5

4 1 2 2
= − + − − i
5 5 5 5
3 4
= − i.
5 5
Next,
z3 = (i − 1)2
= i2 − 2i + 12
= −1 − 2i + 1
= −2i.
Consequently
z = z1 + z3
3 4
= − i − 2i
5 5

3 4
= − +2 i
5 5
3 14
= − i.
5 5
Example 2.12. We will compute
7−i
z = (2 − i)2 + (1 + i)4 − .
2+i
Set
z1 = (2 − i)2 ,
z2 = (1 + i)4 ,
7−i
z3 = ,
2+i
z4 = 2 + i.
Consider z1 . We have
z1 = (2 − i)2
= 22 − 2 · 2 · i + i2
= 4 − 4i − 1
= 3 − 4i.
Next,
z2 = (1 + i)4
= (1 + i)2 (1 + i)2
= (12 + 2 · 1 · i + i2 )(12 + 2 · 1 · i + i2 )
84 2 Rn and Cn
= (1 + 2i − 1)(1 + 2i − 1)
= (2i)(2i)
= 4i2
= −4.
Note that
7−i
z3 =
z4
= (7 − i)z−1
4 .
We will find z−1

4 . We have
2 1
z−1
4 = − i
22 + 12 22 + 12
2 1
= − i
4+1 4+1
2 1
= − i.
5 5
Then
z3 = (7 − i)z−1
4

2 1
= (7 − i) − i
5 5

2 1 1 2
= 7 · − (−1) − + 7· − + (−1) · i
5 5 5 5

14 1 7 2
= − + − − i
5 5 5 5
13 9
= − i.
5 5
Consequently
z = z1 + z2 − z3

13 9
= (3 − 4i) + (−4) − − i
5 5

13 9
= ((3 − 4) − 4i) + − + i
5 5

13 9
= (−1 − 4i) + − + i
5 5

13 9
= −1 − + −4 + i
5 5
18 11
=− − i.
5 5
Exercise 2.4. Compute
1.
(1 − i)4 + (1 + i)4 .
2.
(2 + i)3 − (2 − i)3
.
(2 + i)2 − (2 − i)2
3.
(1 + i)30 .
4. 3
1−i
.
1+i
5.
√ !20
1 − 3i
.
i−1
6.
1
√ .
( 3 − i)17
7. √
(1 + i)8 (1 − 3i)6 .
8.
1 7 1
i − 7 .
2i i
9.
3(i + 1)4 + 5(1 + i)3 + 3(1 + i)7 + 4(1 + i) − 2.
10. √
(1 − i)4 ( 3 + i)6 .
86 2 Rn and Cn
Example 2.13. We will solve the equation
z2 + z + 1 = 0.
We have
√
−1 ± 12 − 4 · 1
z1,2 =
2
√
−1 ± −3
=
2
√ √
−1 ± 3 −1
=
2
√
−1 ± 3i
= .
2
z2 + (3 + 2i)z − 7 + 17i = 0.
We have
p
−(3 + 2i) ± (3 + 2i)2 − 4(−7 + 17i)
z1,2 =
2
√
−3 − 2i ± 9 + 12i + 4i2 + 28 − 68i
=
2
√
−3 − 2i ± 37 − 56i − 4
=
2
√
−3 − 2i ± 33 − 56i
= .
2
Let √
33 − 56i = a + bi,
where a, b ∈ R. Then
33 − 56i = (a + bi)2
= a2 + 2abi + b2 i2
= a2 − b2 + 2abi.
a2 − b2 = 33
2ab = −56
or
a2 − b2 = 33
ab = −28,
or
a2 − b2 = 33
28
b=− .
a
By the last system, we arrive at the equation
28 2

2
a − − = 33
a
or
784
a2 − = 33,
a2
or
a4 − 33a2 − 784 = 0.
Set
t = a2 .
Then t ≥ 0 and we obtain the following quadratic equation
t 2 − 33t − 784 = 0.
Hence,
p
332 − 4 · (−784)
33 ±
t1,2 =
2
√
33 ± 1089 + 3136
=
2
√
33 ± 4225
=
2
88 2 Rn and Cn
33 ± 65
=
2
and
33 + 65
t1 =
2
98
=
2
= 49,
33 − 65
t2 =
2
32
=−
2
= −16.
Since t1 > 0, we have

a2 = 49,
whereupon
a = ±7.
Hence,
a=7
b = −4
or
a = −7
b = 4.
Therefore √
33 − 56i = 7 − 4i
or √
33 − 56i = −7 + 4i.
From here, for the solutions of the given equation, we find
−3 − 2i + 7 − 4i
z1 =
2
4 − 6i
=
2
= 2 − 3i
and
−3 − 2i − 7 + 4i
z2 =
2
−10 + 2i
=
2
= −5 + i.
z2 − 3z + 3 + i = 0.
We have
p
3± 9 − 4(3 + i)
z1,2 =
2
√
3 ± 9 − 12 − 4i
=
2
√
3 ± −3 − 4i
= .
2
Let √
−3 − 4i = a + bi,
where a, b ∈ R. Then
−3 − 4i = (a + bi)2
= a2 + 2abi + b2 i2
= a2 − b2 + 2abi.
a2 − b2 = −3
2ab = −4
90 2 Rn and Cn
or
a2 − b2 = −3
ab = −2,
or
a2 − b2 = −3
2
b=− .
a
By the last system we arrive at the equation
2 2

2
a − − = −3
a
or
4
a2 − = −3,
a2
or
a4 + 3a2 − 4 = 0.
Set
t = a2 .
Then t ≥ 0 and we obtain the following quadratic equation
t 2 + 3t − 4 = 0.
For its roots, we have

p
−3 ± 32 − 4 · (−4)
t1,2 =
2
√
−3 ± 9 + 16
=
2
√
−3 ± 25
=
2
−3 ± 5
=
2
and
−3 + 5
t1 =
2
2
=
2
= 1,
−3 − 5
t2 =
2
−8
=
2
= −4.
Since t1 > 0, we find

a2 = 1.
Therefore
a=1
b = −2
or
a = −1
b = 2.
From here, √
−3 − 4i = 1 − 2i
or √
−3 − 4i = −1 + 2i.
For the solutions of the given equation, we have
3 + 1 − 2i
z1 =
2
4 − 2i
=
2
= 2−i
and
92 2 Rn and Cn
3 − 1 + 2i
z2 =
2
2 + 2i
=
2
= 1 + i.
Exercise 2.5. Solve the following equations.

1.
z2 − 16 = 0.
2.
z2 + z + 5 = 0.
3.
z3 − 27 = 0.
4.
z2 + 3z + 4 = 0.
5.
(z + i)4 − (z − i)4 = 0.
Example 2.16. We will solve the system
z + 2w = 1 + i
3z + iw = 2 − 3i.
We have
z = −2w + 1 + i
3z + iw = 2 − 3i.
Hence, we get the following equation
3(−2w + 1 + i) + iw = 2 − 3i
or
−6w + 3 + 3i + iw = 2 − 3i,
or
(−6 + i)w = −1 − 6i,
whereupon
1 + 6i
w=−
−6 + i
= −(1 + 6i)(−6 + i)−1

6 1
= −(1 + 6i) − − i
12 + 62 12 + 62

6 1
= (1 + 6i) + i
37 37

6 1 1 6
= 1· −6· + 1· +6· i
37 37 37 37

1 36
= + i
37 37
=i
and
z = −2w + 1 + i
= −2i + 1 + i
= 1 − i.
Consequently
z = 1−i
w=i
is the solution of the considered system.
z+w = 5+i
2iz − w = 7 + 2i.
We have
z = −w + 5 + i
2iz − w = 7 + 2i.
94 2 Rn and Cn
Hence, we get the equation
2i(−w + 5 + i) − w = 7 + 2i
or
−2iw + 2i(5 + i) − w = 7 + 2i,
or
−(1 + 2i)w + (0 · 5 − 2 · 1) + (0 · 1 + 2 · 5)i = 7 + 2i,
or
−(1 + 2i)w − 2 + 10i = 7 + 2i,
or
−(1 + 2i)w = 9 − 8i,
whereupon
9 − 8i
w=−
1 + 2i
= −(9 − 8i)(1 + 2i)−1

1 2
= −(9 − 8i) − i |
12 + 22 12 + 22

1 2
= −(9 − 8i) − i
5 5
1
= − (9 − 8i)(1 − 2i)
5
1
= − ((9 · 1 − (−8) · (−2)) + (9 · (−2) + (−8) · 1)i)
5
1
= − ((9 − 16) + (−18 − 8)i)
5
1
= − (−7 − 26i)
5
7 26
= + i
5 5
and
z = −w + 5 + i
7 26
= − − i+5+i
5 5
18 21
= − i.
5 5
Consequently
18 21
z= − i
5 5
7 26
w= + i
5 5
(2 + i)z + w = 5
(1 + i)z − iw = 2 − i.
We have
w = 5 − (2 + i)z
(1 + i)z − iw = 2 − i.
Hence, we get the equation
(1 − i)z − i(5 − (2 + i)z) = 2 − i
or
(1 − i)z − 5i + i(2 + i)z = 2 − i,
or
(1 − i)z − 5i + ((0 · 2 − 1 · 1) + (1 · 2 + 0 · 1)i)z = 2 − i,
or
(1 − i)z − 5i + (−1 + 2i)z = 2 − i,
or
(1 − i − 1 + 2i)z = 2 + 4i,
or
iz = 2 + 4i,
whereupon
2 + 4i
z=
i
96 2 Rn and Cn
= (2 + 4i)i−1

0 1
= (2 + 4i) − i
02 + 12 02 + 12
= (2 + 4i)(−i)
= (2 · 0 − 4 · (−1)) + (2 · (−1) + 4 · 0)i
= 4 − 2i
and
w = 5 − (2 + i)z
= 5 − (2 + i)(4 − 2i)
= 5 − ((2 · 4 − 1 · (−2)) + (2 · (−2) + 1 · 4)i)
= 5 − 10
= −5.
Consequently
z = 4 − 2i
w = −5

Exercise 2.6. Solve the following systems.
1.
(3 + i)z + iw = 6 − i
4z − 3iw = −5 + i.
2.
(9 + i)z + (4 − i)w 5iz − 11
− = 13 − w
3 2
2.3 Complex Conjugate. Absolute Value 97
13z − (7 + i)w = −8 − i.
3.
z + 3 + i − 5iw (3 − i)z − 4w + 3
=
2 3
6 − i + 3z − w 12z − (1 + i)w
= .
3 4
4.
2iw − (1 + i)z = −5
w = 1 + i − 3iz.
5.
3iz − (1 + i)w = 13 − i
(3 + i)w − 2iz = −4i.
2.3 Complex Conjugate. Absolute Value
Definition 2.6. Suppose that z = a + bi, where a, b ∈ R. The real part of z, denoted
by ℜz, is defined by ℜz = a. The imaginary part of z, denoted by ℑz, is defined by
ℑz = b.
Thus, for any complex number z, we have
z = ℜz + (ℑz)i.
Example 2.19. Let z = 3 − 2i. Then
ℜz = 3,
ℑz = −2.
3 1
Example 2.20. Let z = + i. Then
5 4
3
ℜz = ,
5
1
ℑz = .
4
98 2 Rn and Cn
Example 2.21. We will find ℜz and ℑz, where
z = (1 − i)2 (2 + i).
Firstly, we will find z. We have
z = (1 − i)2 (2 + i)
= (12 − 2 · 1 · i + i2 )(2 + i)
= (1 − 2i − 1)(2 + i)
= (−2i)(2 + i)
= (0 · 2 − (−2) · 1) + (0 · 1 + (−2) · 2)i
= 2 − 4i.
Consequently
ℜz = 2,
ℑz = −4.
Exercise 2.7. Find ℜz and ℑz, where

1.
1
z = (2 − i) + i − (3 + i)(1 − i).
2
2.
1 − 2i 1 + i
z= − .
4 2+i
3.
3−i
z= + (2i − 1)3 .
4+i
4.
z = (1 + 2i)(1 − i) + (1 − i)(1 + i).
5.
1 + i 4 − 5i
z= + .
1 − i 4 + 5i
Definition 2.7. The complex conjugate of a complex number z ∈ C, denoted by z,
is defined by
z = ℜz − (ℑz)i.
Definition 2.8. The absolute value of a complex number z ∈ C, denoted by |z|, is

defined by q
|z| = (ℜz)2 + (ℑz)2 .
Example 2.22. Let

z = 2 + 3i.
Then
ℜz = 2,
ℑz = 3,
z = 2 − 3i,
q
|z| = (ℜz)2 + (ℑz)2
p
= 22 + 32
√
= 4+9
√
= 13.
Example 2.23. We will find ℜz, ℑz, z and |z|, where
1+i
z= (i − 2).
4−i
Firstly, we will find z. We have
1+i
z= (i − 2)
4−i
= (1 + i)(4 − i)−1 (i − 2)

4 1
= (1 + i) 2 + i (i − 2)
1 + 42 42 + 12

4 1
= (1 + i) + i (i − 2)
17 17
100 2 Rn and Cn
1
= (1 + i)(4 + i)(i − 2)
17
1
= (1 + i) ((4 · (−2) − 1 · 1) + (4 · 1 + (−2) · 1)i)
17
1
= (1 + i)(−9 + 2i)
17
1
= ((1 · (−9) − 1 · 2) + (1 · 2 + 1 · (−9)))
17
1
= ((−9 − 2) + (2 − 9)i)
17
1
= (−11 − 7i)
17
11 7
=− − i.
17 17
Then
11
ℜz = − ,
17
7
ℑz = − ,
17
11 7
z=− + i,
17 17
q
|z| = (ℜz)2 + (ℑz)2
s 2
7 2

11
= − + −
17 17
r
121 49
= +
289 289
r
170
=
289
√
170
= √
289
√
170
= .
17
Example 2.24. We will find ℜz, ℑz, z and |z|, where
z = (1 − i)3 + (2 + i)3 .
We have
z = 1 3 − 3 · 1 2 · i + 3 · 1 · i2 − i3
+23 + 3 · 22 · i + 3 · 2 · i2 + i3
= 1 − 3i − 3 − i2 · i + 8 + 12i − 6 + i2 · i
= 9i + i − i
= 9i.
Hence,
ℜz = 0,
ℑz = 9,
z = −9i,
q
|z| = (ℜz)2 + (ℑz)2
p
= 02 + 92
√
= 81
= 9.
Exercise 2.8. Find z and |z|, where

1.
z = 3(1 + i)2 − 2(1 + i)3 − 4(1 − i)2 .
2.
z = (1 − i)2 (1 + i)3 .
3.
(2 − i)2 + 3 2 + 5i
z= − .
1 + 4i 7+i
102 2 Rn and Cn
4.
1+i 1−i
z= +i .
(3 − 2i)2 7+i
5.
3−i 2+i
z= − .
(2 + i)(4 − i) (1 − 2i)(3 + 4i)
Now, we will list some of the properties of the complex numbers. Suppose that
z1 , z2 ∈ C, z2 6= 0. Then we have the following.
1. z1 + z1 = 2ℜz1 .
Proof. Indeed, we have
z1 = ℜz1 + (ℑz1 )i,
(2.1)
z1 = ℜz1 − (ℑz1 )i.
We add the last two equations and we find
z1 + z1 = ℜz1 + (ℑz1 )i + ℜz1 − (ℑz1 )i
= 2ℜz1 .

2. z1 − z1 = 2(ℑz1 )i.
Proof. Really, after we subtract from the first equation of (2.1) its second equa-
tion, we find
z1 − z1 = ℜz1 + (ℑz1 )i − (ℜz1 − (ℑz1 )i)
= ℜz1 + (ℑz1 )i − ℜz1 + (ℑz1 )i
= 2(ℑz1 )i.

3. z1 z1 = z1 z1 = |z1 |2 .
Proof. We multiply both equations of (2.1) and using that
|z1 |2 = (ℜz1 )2 + (ℑz1 )2 ,
we obtain
z1 z1 = (ℜz1 + (ℑz1 )i) (ℜz1 − (ℑz1 )i)

= (ℜz1 )2 − (ℑz1 )2 i2
= (ℜz1 )2 + (ℑz1 )2
= |z1 |2 .

4. z1 = z1 .
Proof. We have
z1 = ℜz1 − (ℑz1 )i
= ℜz1 + (−(ℑz1 )) i.
Then
z1 = ℜz1 − (−(ℑz1 )) i
= ℜz1 + (− (−(ℑz1 ))) i
= ℜz1 + (ℑz1 )i
= z1 .

5. z1 ± z2 = z1 ± z2 .
Proof. We have
z1 = ℜz1 + (ℑz1 )i,
z1 = ℜz1 − (ℑz1 )i,
z2 = ℜz2 + (ℑz2 )i,
z2 = ℜz2 − (ℑz2 )i.
Hence,
z1 ± z2 = (ℜz1 ± ℜz2 ) + (ℑz1 ± ℑz2 )i
and
104 2 Rn and Cn
z1 ± z2 = (ℜz1 ± ℜz2 ) + (−ℑz1 ∓ ℑz2 )i
= (ℜz1 ± ℜz2 ) − (ℑz1 ± ℑz2 )i,
and
z1 ± z2 = (ℜz1 ± ℜz2 ) − (ℑz1 ± ℑz2 )i
= z1 ± z2 .

6. z1 z2 = z1 · z2 .
Proof. We have
z1 = ℜz1 + (ℑz1 )i,
z1 = ℜz1 − (ℑz1 )i,
z2 = ℜz2 + (ℑz2 )i,
z2 = ℜz2 − (ℑz2 )i.
Then
z1 z2 = (ℜz1 + (ℑz1 )i)(ℜz2 + (ℑz2 )i)
= ((ℜz1 )(ℜz2 ) − (ℑz1 )(ℑz2 ))
+((ℜz1 )(ℑz2 ) + (ℜz2 )(ℑz1 ))i
and
z1 z2 = ((ℜz1 )(ℜz2 ) − (ℑz1 )(ℑz2 ))
−((ℜz1 )(ℑz2 ) + (ℜz2 )(ℑz1 ))i,
and
z1 · z2 = (ℜz1 − (ℑz1 )i)(ℜz2 − (ℑz2 )i)
= ((ℜz1 )(ℜz2 ) − (−(ℑz1 ))(−(ℑz2 )))

+((ℜz1 )(−(ℑz2 )) + (−(ℑz1 ))(ℜz2 ))i
= (ℜz1 )(ℜz2 ) − (ℑz1 )(ℑz2 )
+(−(ℜz1 )(ℑz2 ) − (ℑz1 )(ℜz2 ))i
= ((ℜz1 )(ℜz2 ) − (ℑz1 )(ℑz2 ))
−((ℜz1 )(ℑz2 ) + (ℑz1 )(ℜz2 ))i
= z1 z2 .

z1 z1
7. = .
z2 z2
Proof. We have
z1 = ℜz1 + (ℑz1 )i,
z1 = ℜz1 − (ℑz1 )i,
z2 = ℜz2 + (ℑz2 )i,
z2 = ℜz2 − (ℑz2 )i.
Then
ℜz2 ℑz2
z−1
2 = 2
− i,
(ℜz2 ) + (ℑz 2 )2 (ℜz2 ) + (ℑz2 )2
2
ℜz2 (−ℑz2 )
z2 −1 = − i
(ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2 (ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2
ℜz2 ℑz2
= + i.
(ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2 (ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2
Hence,
z1
= z1 · z2 −1
z2
106 2 Rn and Cn

ℜz2 ℑz2
= (ℜz1 − (ℑz1 )i) + i
(ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2 (ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2

ℜz2 ℑz2
= (ℜz1 ) − (−(ℑz 1 ))
(ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2 (ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2

ℑz2 ℜz2
+ (ℜz1 ) + (−(ℑz1 )) i
(ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2 (ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2

(ℜz1 )(ℜz2 ) (ℑz1 )(ℑz2 )
= +
(ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2 (ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2

(ℜz1 )(ℑz2 ) (ℑz1 )(ℜz2 )
+ − i.
(ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2 (ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2
Next,
z1
= z1 z−1
2
z2

ℜz2 ℑz2
= (ℜz1 + (ℑz1 )i) − i
(ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2 (ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2

ℜz2 ℑz2
= (ℜz1 ) − (ℑz1 ) −
(ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2 (ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2

ℑz2 ℜz2
+ (ℜz1 ) − + (ℑz 1 ) i
(ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2 (ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2

(ℜz1 )(ℜz2 ) (ℑz1 )(ℑz2 )
= +
(ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2 (ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2

(ℜz1 )(ℑz2 ) (ℑz1 )(ℜz2 )
+ − + i.
(ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2 (ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2
Therefore

z1
= z1 z−1
2
z2

(ℜz1 )(ℜz2 ) (ℑz1 )(ℑz2 )
= +
(ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2 (ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2

(ℜz1 )(ℑz2 ) (ℑz1 )(ℜz2 )
− − + i
(ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2 (ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2

(ℜz1 )(ℜz2 ) (ℑz1 )(ℑz2 )
= +
(ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2 (ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2

(ℜz1 )(ℑz2 ) (ℑz1 )(ℜz2 )
+ 2 2
− i
(ℜz2 ) + (ℑz2 ) (ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2
z1
= .
z2
8. |z1 | = |z1 |.
Proof. We have
z1 = ℜz1 + (ℑz1 )i,
z1 = ℜz1 − (ℑz1 )i.
Hence,
|z1 |2 = (ℜz1 )2 + (ℑz1 )2
and
|z1 |2 = (ℜz1 )2 + (−ℑz1 )2
= (ℜz1 )2 + (ℑz1 )2
= |z1 |2 .

9. |ℜz1 | ≤ |z1 |.
Proof. We have
q
|ℜz1 | = (ℜz1 )2
q
≤ (ℜz1 )2 + (ℑz1 )2
= |z1 |.

10. |ℑz1 | ≤ |z1 |.
Proof. We have
q
|ℑz1 | = (ℑz1 )2
108 2 Rn and Cn
q
≤ (ℜz1 )2 + (ℑz1 )2
= |z1 |.

11. |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |.
Proof. We have
z1 = ℜz1 + (ℑz1 )i,
|z1 |2 = (ℜz1 )2 + (ℑz1 )2 ,
z2 = ℜz2 + (ℑz2 )i,
|z2 |2 = (ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2 ,
z1 z2 = ((ℜz1 )(ℜz2 ) − (ℑz1 )(ℑz2 ))
+((ℜz1 )(ℑz2 ) + (ℜz2 )(ℑz1 ))i.
Then
|z1 z2 |2 = ((ℜz1 )(ℜz2 ) − (ℑz1 )(ℑz2 ))2
+((ℜz1 )(ℑz2 ) + (ℜz2 )(ℑz1 ))2
= (ℜz1 )2 (ℜz2 )2 − 2(ℜz1 )(ℜz2 )(ℑz1 )(ℑz2 ) + (ℑz1 )2 (ℑz2 )2
+(ℜz1 )2 (ℑz2 )2 + 2(ℜz1 )(ℜz2 )(ℑz1 )(ℑz2 ) + (ℜz2 )2 (ℑz1 )2
= (ℜz1 )2 (ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz1 )2 (ℑz2 )2 + (ℜz1 )2 (ℑz2 )2 + (ℜz2 )2 (ℑz1 )2
= (ℜz1 )2 ((ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2 ) + (ℑz1 )2 ((ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2 )
= (ℜz1 )2 |z2 |2 + (ℑz1 )2 |z2 |2
= ((ℜz1 )2 + (ℑz1 )2 )|z2 |2

= |z1 |2 |z2 |2 .

1 1
12. = .
z2 |z2 |
Proof. By the computations in the statement 7, we have
1
= z−1
2
z2
ℜz2 ℑz2
= − i
(ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2 (ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2
and
|z2 |2 = (ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2 .
Then
2
1
= z−1 2

z2 2
(ℜz2 )2 (ℑz2 )2
= +
((ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2 )2 ((ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2 )2
(ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2
=
((ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2 )2
1
=
(ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz 2)
2
1
= .
|z2 |2

z1 |z1 |
13. = .
z2 |z2 |
Proof. We have

z1 −1
= z1 z
z2 2
= |z1 | z−1

2
1
= |z1 |
|z2 |
110 2 Rn and Cn
|z1 |
= .
|z2 |

Before to deduct the next property of the complex numbers, we will prove the
following Minkowski inequality.
Lemma 2.1 (The Minkowski Inequality). For any a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 ∈ R, we have
the following Minkowski inequality
q q q
(a1 + a2 )2 + (b1 + b2 )2 ≤ a21 + b21 + a22 + b22 .
Proof. Note that

(b1 a2 − b2 a2 )2 ≥ 0,
whereupon
b21 a22 + b22 a21 − 2b1 b2 a1 a2 ≥ 0,
or
b21 a22 + b22 a21 ≥ 2b1 b2 a1 a2 .
Hence,
a21 a22 + b21 b22 + 2b1 b2 a1 a2 ≤ a21 a22 + b21 b22 + b21 a22 + b22 a21 ,
or
(a1 a2 + b1 b2 )2 ≤ a21 (a22 + b22 ) + b21 (a22 + b22 ),
or
(a1 a2 + b1 b2 )2 ≤ (a21 + b21 )(a22 + b22 ).
By the last inequality, we get the following inequality
q
a1 a2 + b1 b2 ≤ (a21 + b21 )(a22 + b22 ),
from where q
2a1 a2 + 2b1 b2 ≤ 2 (a21 + b21 )(a22 + b22 ),
and
q
a21 + a22 + b21 + b22 + 2a1 a2 + 2b1 b2 ≤ a21 + a22 + b21 + b22 + 2 (a21 + b21 )(a22 + b22 ),
or
q q
(a21 +2a1 a2 +a22 )+(b21 +2b1 b2 +b22 ) ≤ (a21 +b21 )+2 a21 + b21 a22 + b22 +(a22 +b22 ),
or q 2
q
2 2
(a1 + a2 ) + (b1 + b2 ) ≤ a21 + b21 + 2 2
a2 + b2 .
By the last inequality, we arrive the inequality

q q q
(a1 + a2 )2 + (b1 + b2 )2 ≤ a21 + b21 + a22 + b22 .
14. |z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |.

Proof. We have
z1 = ℜz1 + (ℑz1 )i,

q
|z1 | = (ℜz1 )2 + (ℑz1 )2 ,
z2 = ℜz2 + (ℑz2 )i,

q
|z2 | = (ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2 ,
z1 + z2 = (ℜz1 + ℜz2 ) + (ℑz1 + ℑz2 )i,

q
|z1 + z2 | = (ℜz1 + ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz1 + ℑz2 )2 .
Now, we apply the Minkowski inequality for
a1 = ℜz1 ,
a2 = ℜz2 ,
b1 = ℑz1 ,
b2 = ℑz2 ,
and we get
q
|z1 + z2 | = (ℜz1 + Re z2 )2 + (ℑz1 + ℑz2 )2
q q
≤ (ℜz1 )2 + (ℑz1 )2 + (ℜz2 )2 + (ℑz2 )2
= |z1 | + |z2 |.

112 2 Rn and Cn
Example 2.25. Let z1 , z2 ∈ C and |z1 | = |z2 | = c, where c ∈ R. We will prove that
|z1 + z2 |2 + |z1 − z2 |2 = 4c2 .
We will use that |z|2 = zz. Then, we have the following.
|z1 + z2 |2 + |z1 − z2 |2 = (z1 + z2 )(z1 + z2 ) + (z1 − z2 )(z1 − z2 )
= (z1 + z2 )(z1 + z2 ) + (z1 − z2 )(z1 − z2 )
= z1 z1 + z1 z2 + z2 z1 + z2 z2 + z1 z1 − z1 z2 − z2 z1 + z2 z2
= |z1 |2 + |z2 |2 + |z1 |2 + |z2 |2
= 2(|z1 |2 + |z2 |2 )
= 2(c2 + c2 )
= 4c2 .
Remark 2.1. By the computations in the last example, we conclude that for any two
complex numbers z1 , z2 ∈ C, we have
|z1 + z2 |2 + |z1 − z2 |2 = 2(|z1 |2 + |z2 |2 ).
Example 2.26. Let z1 , z2 , z3 ∈ C. We will prove that
z1 ℑ(z2 z3 ) + z2 ℑ(z1 z3 ) + z3 ℑ(z1 z2 ) = 0.
Let
z1 = a1 + b1 i,
z2 = a2 + b2 i,
z3 = a3 + b3 i,
a1 , a2 , a3 , b1 , b2 , b3 ∈ R. Then
z2 = a2 − b2 i,
z2 z3 = (a2 − b2 i)(a3 + b3 i)
= (a2 a3 + b2 b3 ) + (a2 b3 − b2 a3 )i,
ℑ(z2 z3 ) = a2 b3 − b2 a3 .
Hence,
z1 ℑ(z2 z3 ) = (a2 b3 − b2 a3 )(a1 + b1 i)
= a1 (a2 b3 − b2 a3 ) + (b1 (a2 b3 − b2 a3 ))i (2.2)
= (a1 a2 b3 − a1 a3 b2 ) + (a2 b1 b3 − a3 b1 b2 )i.

Next,
z3 = a3 − b3 i,
z1 z3 = (a1 + b1 i)(a3 − b3 i)
= (a1 a3 + b1 b3 ) + (b1 a3 − a1 b3 )i,
ℑ(z1 z3 ) = b1 a3 − a1 b3 .
From here,
z2 ℑ(z1 z3 ) = (b1 a3 − a1 b3 )(a2 + b2 i)
= a2 (b1 a3 − a1 b3 ) + (b2 (b1 a3 − a1 b3 ))i (2.3)
= (a2 a3 b1 − a1 a2 b3 ) + (a3 b1 b2 − a1 b2 b3 )i.
Moreover,
z1 = a1 − b1 i,
z1 z2 = (a1 − b1 i)(a2 + b2 i)
= (a1 a2 + b1 b2 ) + (a1 b2 − b1 a2 )i,
ℑ(z1 z2 ) = a1 b2 − b1 a2 .
Therefore
z3 ℑ(z1 z2 ) = (a1 b2 − b1 a2 )(a3 + b3 i)

114 2 Rn and Cn
= a3 (a1 b2 − b1 a2 ) + (b3 (a1 b2 − b1 a2 ))i
= (a1 a3 b2 − a2 a3 b1 ) + (a1 b2 b3 − a2 b1 b3 )i.
By the last equation and (2.2), (2.3), we find
z1 ℑ(z2 z3 ) + z2 ℑ(z1 z3 ) + z3 ℑ(z1 z2 ) = (a1 a2 b3 − a1 a3 b2 ) + (a2 b1 b3 − a3 b1 b2 )i
+(a2 a3 b1 − a1 a2 b3 ) + (a3 b1 b2 − a1 b2 b3 )i
+(a1 a3 b2 − a2 a3 b1 ) + (a1 b2 b3 − a2 b1 b3 )i
= 0.
Example 2.27. Let z1 , z2 , z3 ∈ C. We will prove that
z1 z2 z3 = z1 z2 z3 .
Really,
z1 z2 z3 = (z1 z2 )z3
= (z1 z2 )z3
= z1 z2 z3 .
Exercise 2.9. Let z1 , z2 , z3 ∈ C. Prove that

1.
z1 = z1 .
2.
zn1 = z1 n .
3.
(z1 + z2 )2 = (z1 + z2 )2 .
4.
z( z2 + z3 )2 = z1 (z2 + z3 )2 .
5.
|z1 z2 + 1|2 + |z1 − z2 |2 = (|z1 |2 + 1)(|z2 |2 + 1).

z2 + |z| = 0.
Let z = a + bi, a, b ∈ R, be its solution. Then
z2 = (a + bi)2
= a2 + 2abi + b2 i2
= a2 − b2 + 2abi
and p
|z| = a2 + b2 .
Hence, we obtain
0 = z2 + |z|
p
= a2 − b2 + 2abi + a2 + b2 .
By the last equation, we arrive at the system

p
a2 − b2 + a2 + b2 = 0
(2.4)
2ab = 0.
By the second equation of the last system, we get a = 0 or b = 0. Then we consider

1. Let a = 0. Then, by the first equation of the system (2.4), we get
√
−b2 + b2 = 0,
or
−b2 + |b| = 0.
a. Let b > 0. Then
−b2 + b = 0
or
b(1 − b) = 0,
whereupon b = 1 and z1 = i.
b. Let b ≤ 0 Then
−b2 − b = 0
or
b(b + 1) = 0.
116 2 Rn and Cn
Hence b = 0 or b = −1. Therefore z2 = 0 and z3 = −i.

2. Let b = 0. Then √
a2 + a2 = 0,
or
a2 + |a| = 0.
Since
a2 + |a| ≥ 0
for any a ∈ R, we get a = 0.

z − 12 5
z − 8i = 3

z−4
z − 8 = 1.

The given system can be rewritten in the form
|z − 12|2 25
=
|z − 8i|2 9
|z − 4|2
= 1.
|z − 8|2
Let z = a + bi, a, b ∈ R, be a solution to the given system. Then
z − 12 = a + bi − 12
= (a − 12) + bi,
|z − 12|2 = (a − 12)2 + b2
= a2 − 24a + b2 + 144,
z − 8i = a + bi − 8i
= a + (b − 8)i,
|z − 8i|2 = a2 + (b − 8)2
= a2 + b2 − 16b + 64,
z − 4 = a + bi − 4
= a − 4 + bi,
|z − 4|2 = (a − 4)2 + b2
= a2 − 8a + b2 + 16,
z − 8 = a + bi − 8
= a − 8 + bi,
|z − 8|2 = (a − 8)2 + b2
= a2 − 16a + b2 + 64.
Hence, we arrive at the system
a2 − 24a + b2 + 144 25
=
a2 + b2 − 16b + 64 9
a2 − 8a + b2 + 16
= 1,
a2 − 16a + b2 + 64
whereupon
9(a2 − 24a + b2 + 144) = 25(a2 + b2 − 16b + 64)
a2 − 8a + b2 + 16 = a2 − 16a + b2 + 64,
or
9a2 − 216a + 9b2 + 1296 = 25a2 + 25b2 − 400b + 1600
8a = 48,
or
16a2 + 16b2 + 216a − 400b = −304

118 2 Rn and Cn
a = 6,
or
2a2 + 2b2 + 27a − 50b = −38
a = 6.
Hence, we get the following quadratic equation
2 · 62 + 2b2 + 27 · 6 − 50b = −38,
or
72 + 2b2 + 162 − 50b = −38,
or
b2 − 25b + 136 = 0.
For the roots of the last quadratic equation, we have
√
25 ± 252 − 4 · 1 · 136
b1,2 =
2
√
25 ± 625 − 544
=
2
√
25 ± 81
=
2
25 ± 9
=
2
and
25 + 9
b1 =
2
34
=
2
= 17,
25 − 9
b2 =
2
16
=
2
= 8.
Consequently
z1 = a + b1 i
= 6 + 17i
and
z2 = a + b2 i
= 6 + 8i
are the solutions of the given system.
z|z| − z − i = 0.
Let z = a + bi, a, b ∈ R, be its solution. Then

p
|z| = a2 + b2
and
0 = z|z| − z − i
p
= a2 + b2 (a + bi) − (a + bi) − i
p p
= a a2 + b2 + (b a2 + b2 )i − a − bi − i
p p
= a a2 + b2 − a + b a2 + b2 − b − 1 .

p
a a2 + b2 − a = 0
p
b a2 + b2 − b − 1 = 0,
or
120 2 Rn and Cn
p
a a2 + b2 − 1 = 0
p (2.5)
b a2 + b2 − 1 = 1.
By the second equation of the system (2.5), we get

p
b 6= 0 and a2 + b2 6= 1.
Thus, by the first equation of the system (2.5), we find a = 0 and then
√
b( b2 − 1) = 0.
1. Let b ≥ 0. Then
b(b − 1) = 0,
whereupon b = 0 or b = 1, and
z1 = 0, z2 = i
are solutions of the given equation.

2. Let b < 0. Then
b(−b − 1) = 0.
Hence, b = −1 and z3 = −i is a solution of the considered equation.
Exercise 2.10. Solve

1.
|z|2 + 2iz + 2(1 + i) = 0.
2.
z|z| + 3z − i.
3.
z + |z| = 3.
4.
z2 = z2 .
5.
z + |z| = 2.
6. √
|z + 1 − i| = 2.
7.
z2 + |z| = 0
z = −4z.
2.5 Lists 121
8.
z2 + |z| = 0.
9.
z4 = z4 .
10.
z = z.
2.4 The Notation F
Throughout this book, F stands for either R and C. Thus, if we prove a theorem
in F, we will know that it holds when F is replaced with R and F is replaced with
C. The letter F is used because R and C are examples of what are called fields.
Elements of F are called scalars. The word ”scalar”, a fancy word for ”number”, is
often used when we want to emphasize that an object is a number, as opposed to a
vector (vectors will be defined soon).
2.5 Lists
Definition 2.9. Suppose n is a nonnegative integer. A list of length n is an ordered

collection of n elements (which might be numbers, other lists, or more abstract
entities) separated by commas and surrounded by parentheses. A list of length n
looks like this
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ).
Two lists are equal if and only if they have the same length and the same elements
in the same order. Thus, a list of length 2 is an ordered pair, a list of length 3 is an
ordered triple.
Remark 2.2. Many mathematicians call a list of length n an n-tuple.
Sometimes we will use the word list without specifying its length. Remember that
by definition each list has a finite length that is a non negative integer. Thus, an
object that looks like this
(x1 , x2 , . . .)
which may be said to have infinite length, is not a list. A list of length 0 looks like
this (). Lists differ from sets in two ways: in lists, order matters and repetitions have
meaning. In sets, order and repetitions are irrelevant.
Example 2.31. (1, 2, 3, −4) is a list of order 4.
122 2 Rn and Cn
Example 2.32. (3, 4, 5) is a list of order 3. Note that
(3, 4, 5) 6= (4, 3, 5),
but the sets {3, 4, 5} and {4, 3, 5} are equal.
Example 2.33. The lists (2, 2) and (2, 2, 2) are not equal because they do not have
the same length. Although, the sets {2, 2} and {2, 2, 2} both equal the set {2}.
Exercise 2.11. Find the length of the following lists.

1. (2, −1).
2. (1 + i, red, green).
3. (3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 5, 6, 6).
4. (−1, 2, 1).
5. (1).
2.6 Fn
Definition 2.10. Fn is the set of all lists of length n of elements of F, i.e.,
Fn = {(x1 , . . . , xn ) : x j ∈ F, j ∈ {1, . . . , n}}.
For (x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ Fn and j ∈ {1, . . . , n}, we say that x j is the jth coordinate of
(x1 , . . . , xn ).
Example 2.34. R3 is the set of all lists of three real numbers, i.e.,
R3 = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) : x1 , x2 , x3 ∈ R}.
Example 2.35. C4 is the set of all lists of four complex numbers, i.e.,
C4 = {(z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) : z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ∈ C}.
Definition 2.11. Addition and scalar multiplication on Fn are defined as follows:
(x1 , . . . , xn ) + (y1 , . . . , yn ) = (x1 + y1 , . . . , xn + yn ),
λ (x1 , . . . , xn ) = (λ x1 , . . . , λ xn ).
Now, we will deduct some of the properties of the defined two operations in Fn .
Suppose that
x = (x1 , . . . , xn ), y = (y1 , . . . , yn ), z = (z1 , . . . , zn ) ∈ Fn

2.6 Fn 123
and a, b ∈ F. Then, we have the following.

1.
x + y = (x1 , . . . , xn ) + (y1 , . . . , yn )
= (x1 + y1 , . . . , xn + yn )
= (y1 + x1 , . . . , yn + xn )
= (y1 , . . . , yn ) + (x1 , . . . , xn )
= y + x.
2.
x + (y + z) = (x1 , . . . , xn ) + ((y1 , . . . , yn ) + (z1 , . . . , zn ))
= (x1 , . . . , xn ) + (y1 + z1 , . . . , yn + zn )
= (x1 + (y1 + z1 ), . . . , xn + (yn + zn ))
= ((x1 + y1 ) + z1 , . . . , (xn + yn ) + zn )
= (x1 + y1 , . . . , xn + yn ) + (z1 , . . . , zn )
= ((x1 , . . . , xn ) + (y1 , . . . , yn )) + (z1 , . . . , zn )
= (x + y) + z.
3. Let
0 = (0, . . . , 0).
Then
x + 0 = (x1 , . . . , xn ) + (0, . . . , 0)
= (x1 + 0, . . . , xn + 0)
= (x1 , . . . , xn )
124 2 Rn and Cn
= x.
4. Let
w = (−x1 , . . . , −xn ).
Then
x + w = (x1 , . . . , xn ) + (−x1 , . . . , −xn )
= (x1 + (−x1 ), . . . , xn + (−xn ))
= (0, . . . , 0).
5.
1x = 1(x1 , . . . , xn )
= (1x1 , . . . , 1xn )
= (x1 , . . . , xn )
= x.
6.
a(x + y) = a((x1 , . . . , xn ) + (y1 , . . . , yn ))
= a(x1 + y1 , . . . , xn + yn )
= (a(x1 + y1 ), . . . , a(xn + yn ))
= (ax1 + ay1 , . . . , axn + ayn )
= (ax1 , . . . , axn ) + (ay1 , . . . , ayn )
= a(x1 , . . . , xn ) + a(y1 , . . . , yn )
= ax + ay.
Next,
2.6 Fn 125
a(x + y) = a((x1 , . . . , xn ) + (y1 , . . . , yn ))
= a(x1 + y1 , . . . , xn + yn )
= (a(x1 + y1 ), . . . , a(xn + yn ))
= (ax1 + ay1 , . . . , axn + ayn )
= (ax1 , . . . , axn ) + (ay1 , . . . , ayn )
= a(x1 , . . . , xn ) + a(y1 , . . . , yn )
= ax + ay.
Example 2.36. Consider R3 . Let
x = (−1, 2, 1),
y = (3, −4, 2).
We will find
2x − 3y.
We have
2x = 2(−1, 2, 1)
= (2 · (−1), 2 · 2, 2 · 1)
= (−2, 4, 2)
and
3y = 3(3, −4, 2)
= (3 · 3, 3 · (−4), 3 · 2)
= (9, −12, 6).
Therefore
126 2 Rn and Cn
2x − 3y = (−2, 4, 2) − (9, −12, 6)
= (−2 − 9, 4 − (−12), 2 − 6)
= (−11, 4 + 12, −4)
= (−11, 16, −4).
Example 2.37. Consider C4 . Let
z = (−1 + i, 2 − i, 3 + 2i, 4i),
w = (2, −3, 1 + i, 1 − i).
We will find
iz + 2w.
We have
iz = i(−1 + i, 2 − i, 3 + 2i, 4i)
= (i · (−1 + i), i · (2 − i), i · (3 + 2i), i · (4i))
= (−1 − i, 1 + 2i, −2 + 3i, −4)
and
2w = 2(2, −3, 1 + i, 1 − i)
= (2 · 2, 2 · (−3), 2 · (1 + i), 2 · (1 − i))
= (4, −6, 2 + 2i, 2 − 2i).
Therefore
iz + 2w = (−1 − i, 1 + 2i, −2 + 3i, −4) + (4, −6, 2 + 2i, 2 − 2i)
= (−1 − i + 4, 1 + 2i − 6, −2 + 3i + 2 + 2i, −4 + 2 − 2i)
= (3 − i, −5 + 2i, 5i, −2 − 2i).
Example 2.38. Consider C3 . We will find (z1 , z2 , z3 ) ∈ C3 so that

2.6 Fn 127
i(2 − i, i, 3 + i) + (z1 , z2 , z3 ) = (1 − i, 2i, 3).
We have
i(2 − i, i, 3 + i) = (i · (2 − i), i · i, i · (3 + i))
= (1 + 2i, −1, −1 + 3i).
Then
(1 − i, 2i, 3) = i(2 − i, i, 3 + i) + (z1 , z2 , z3 )
= (1 + 2i, −1, −1 + 3i) + (z1 , z2 , z3 )
= (1 + 2i + z1 , −1 + z2 , −1 + 3i + z3 ).
1 + 2i + z1 = 1 − i
−1 + z2 = 2i
−1 + 3i + z3 = 3,
whereupon
z1 = 1 − i − 1 − 2i
z2 = 1 + 2i
z3 = 3 + 1 + 2i,
or
z1 = −3i
z2 = 1 + 2i
z3 = 4 + 2i.
Exercise 2.12. Consider C3 . Let

128 2 Rn and Cn
z = (1 − i, 2 + 7i, 3 − 4i),
w = (2i, 3 − i, 2),
v = (1 + i, 2 − 3i, 4).
Find
1. 2z.
2. (1 + i)w.
3. (4 − 3i)v.
4. 2z − (1 + i)w.
5. (1 + i)w + (3 − 3i)v.
Exercise 2.13. Consider C3 . Find (z1 , z2 , z3 ) ∈ C3 so that
(1 + i)(i, 3 − i, 4 + 5i) + i(z1 , z2 , z3 ) = (−1, 3 + 2i, i).
Problem 2.1. Evaluate z1 + z2 and z1 z2 , where

1. z1 = 3 − i, z2 = 4 + i.
2. z1 = 2 + 3i, z2 = −1 − i.
3. z1 = 2 − 7i, z2 = 1 + 3i.
4. z1 = 2 + 4i, z2 = 3 − 8i.
5. z1 = 1 − 2i, z2 = 3 + 4i.
Problem 2.2. Represent in the form a + bi, a, b ∈ R, the following complex num-
bers.
1. i(1 + i).
2. (2 − i)(3 + i).
5i
3. .
2+i
3 + 4i
4. .
i
1
5. √ .
5 − 2i
6. (2 + 3i)(4 − 3i) + (3 − 4i)(4 + 3i).
7. (1 − i)(4 + 3i)(2 + i)(3 + i).
2−i 2+i
8. + .
2+i 2−i
1
9. .
i+1
3+i
10. .
4−i
Problem 2.3. Find
1. (3i)6 .
2. i11 .
3. i15 .
4. i412 .
1
5. 273
.
i
Problem 2.4. Compute
1. √
(1 + i)10 ( 3 + i)9 .
2. √
(−1 + 3i)90 .
3. 33
1+i 1
+ (1 − i)10 + (2 + 3i)(2 − 3i) + .
1−i i
4.
√ !30
1 + 3i
.
1−i
5.
(1 − i)5 − 1
.
(1 + i)5 + 1
6.
(1 + i)1000
.
(1 − i)998
7.
1 + (1 + i) + (1 + i)2 + (1 + i)3 + · · · + (1 + i)20 .
8.
1
i2 + .
i2
9. 2
3 1 − 5i
(1 − i) + .
1+i
10. 2
1 − 2i
(1 + i)4 + (1 + i)2 .
1−i
Problem 2.5. Solve the following equations.
130 2 Rn and Cn
1.
16z2 + 4z + 1 = 0.
2.
z2 − (2 + 3i)z + 4i − 2 = 0.
3.
z2 + 3z + 2i = 0.
4.
(1 + i)z2 + 3iz + 1 − i = 0.
5.
2(1 + i)z2 − 4(2 − i)z − 5 − 3i = 0.
Problem 2.6. Solve the following systems.

1.
6iz − (1 + i)w = 11 − 2i
12iz − (2 − i)w − 2z + i = 0.
2.
5iz − (6 + i)w = −2 + i
7z − (18 + i)w = 2i.
3.
(8 + i)z − 5iw + 16 − i = 0
10iz + (3 − i)w − 17 = 0.
4.
(4 + i)(z + 2 + i) − 7i(z − w − 2i) = 7 − 3i
(7 + i)(z + w) + (10 − i)(z − 2 + i) = 79 − i.
5.
3iz + (4 + i)(z − 3 − i) = 3(2w − 3 − 37i)
(3 + i)w + 2(z − 4i) = 5(w + 2 + i) − 28 − i.

Problem 2.7. Find ℜz and ℑz, where

1.
(1 − i)(3 − 2i) 7+2
z= + (1 + i)2 − .
4−i 1+i
2.
z = (3 + 5i)(7 − i) + i(i − 2)(i − 3).
3.
z = (1 − i)(2 + 3i) + i + 4.
4.
3−i 2+i
z= + (i − 1) .
7+i 3 + 5i
5.
1+i 1+i
z= − (2 + i) .
3 + 8i 5+i
Problem 2.8. Find z and |z|, where
1.
z = (2 + i)3 − i(2 − i)3 + i7 .
2.
3−i
1 + 2(1 − i)2 − 3(2 − i)3 .

z=
5 + 2i
3.
2+i
z = (4 + 2i) 1 − + (1 − 2i)2 .
5 + 3i
4.
1 1
z = (3 − i) 2 + 4
− .
(1 + i) (2 − i)4
5.
3 + 4i + (i + 2)2
z= + (i + 2)3 .
5 − (3 + 2i)3
Problem 2.9. Let z1 , z2 ∈ C. Prove that
1.
|z1 z2 − 1|2 − |z1 − z2 |2 = |z1 |2 − 1 |z2 |2 − 1 .

2.
|z1 + z2 |2 = (|z1 | + |z2 |)2 − 2 (|z1 z2 − ℜ(z1 z2 )) .
3.
|z1 + z2 |2 = (|z1 | − |z2 |)2 + 2 (|z1 z2 | + ℜ(z1 z2 )) .
4.
||z1 | − |z2 || ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |.
132 2 Rn and Cn
5.
||z1 | − |z2 || ≤ |z1 − z2 |.
Problem 2.10. Solve

1.
|z|2 + 2iz − 4(1 + i) = 0.
2.
z|z| − 5z − i = 0.
3. 4
z+i
= 1.
z−i
4.
z = −z.
5.
z = 2 − z.
6.
z = −4z.
7.
z2 + z = 0.
8.
z2 + |z|2 = 0.
9.
z2 + |z| = 0.
10.
2|z| − 4z + 1 + i = 0.
11.
z|z| + 2z + i = 0.
12.
z + |z + 1| + i = 0.
13.
z−4
z − 6 − 5i = 2.

14.
z − 1 + 4i 3
z − 8i = 2 .

15.
z + 3z = 5.
16.
z + 2 + |z − i| = 3 + i.
Problem 2.11. Find the length of the following lists.

1. (1 + 3i, i, 2i, 3 − i).
2. (3, 2, 1).
3. (red, white).
4. (−4, 2, 3, 2, 1, 2).
5. (−1, 1, −2, 2, 3, −10).
Problem 2.12. Consider C4 . Let
z = (1, 2 − 3i, 1 + i, 1 − 2i),
w = (3 + i, 4i, −1, 3),
v = (1 − 8i, 4i, 2 + 3i, −1 + 2i).
Find
1. (1 + i)z.
2. (2 − 3i)w.
3. (1 + 7i)v.
4. (1 + i)z + (2 − 3i)w.
5. (2 − 3i)w + (1 + 7i)v.
Problem 2.13. Consider C5 . Find (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 , z5 ) ∈ C5 so that
(2−i)(1+3i, 2+i, −3i, 2−5i, 1+7i)+(1+i)(z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 , z5 ) = (−1+2i, i, −10+i, i, 3).

Chapter 3
Vector Spaces
3.1 Definition of a Vector Space
Definition 3.1. An addition on a set V is a function that assigns an element u+v ∈ V

for each pair of elements u, v ∈ V .
Definition 3.2. A scalar multiplication on a set V is a function that assigns an ele-

ment λ v ∈ V for each λ ∈ F and each v ∈ V .
Now, we are ready to give a formal definition of a vector space.

Definition 3.3. A vector space is a set V along an addition on V and a scalar multi-
plication on V such that the following properties holds:
1. (commutativity)
u + v = v + u, u, v ∈ V.
2. (associativity)
u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w, u, v, w ∈ V.
3. (additive identity)
there exists an element 0 ∈ V such that
v + 0 = v, v ∈ V.
4. (additive inverse)
for any v ∈ V , there exists w ∈ V such that
v + w = 0.
5. (multiplicative identity)
1v = v, v ∈ V.
6. (distributive properties)
135
136 3 Vector Spaces
a(u + v) = au + av,
(a + b)u = au + bu
for any a, b ∈ F and any u, v ∈ V .

The elements of a vector space are called vectors or points.
The scalar multiplication in a vector space depends on F. Thus, when we need to be
precise, we will say that V is a vector space over F instead of saying simply V is a
vector space. For example, Rn is a vector space over R, Cn is a vector space over C.
Definition 3.4. A vector space over R is called a real vector space.
Definition 3.5. A vector space over C is said to be a complex vector space.
The simplest vector space contains only one point. In other words, {0} is a vector
space. With the usual operations of addition or scalar multiplication, Fn is a vector
space. The example of Fn motivated our definition of vector space.
Example 3.1. F ∞ is defined to be the set of all sequences of elements of F:
F∞ = {(x1 , x2 , . . .) : x j ∈ F, j ∈ {1, 2, . . .}}.
Addition and scalar multiplication on F∞ are defined as follows:
(x1 , x2 , . . .) + (y1 , y2 , . . .) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . .),
λ (x1 , x2 , . . .) = (λ x1 , λ x2 , . . .).
With these definitions we will show that F∞ becomes a vector space over F. Suppose
that
x = (x1 , x2 , . . .), y = (y1 , y2 , . . .), z = (z1 , z2 , . . .) ∈ F∞
and a, b ∈ F. Then, we have the following.

1.
x + y = (x1 , x2 , . . .) + (y1 , y2 , . . .)
= (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . .)
= (y1 + x1 , y2 + x2 , . . .)
= (y1 , y2 , . . .) + (x1 , x2 , . . .)
= y + x.
3.1 Definition of a Vector Space 137
2.
x + (y + z) = (x1 , x2 , . . .) + ((y1 , y2 , . . .) + (z1 , z2 , . . .))
= (x1 , x2 , . . .) + (y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 , . . .)
= (x1 + (y1 + z1 ), x2 + (y2 + z2 ), . . .)
= ((x1 + y1 ) + z1 , (x2 + y2 ) + z2 , . . .)
= (x1 + y1 , x2 + y+ 2, . . .) + (z1 , z2 , . . .)
= ((x1 , x2 , . . .) + (y1 , y2 , . . .)) + (z1 , z2 , . . .)
= (x + y) + z.
3. Let
0 = (0, 0, . . .).
Then
x + 0 = (x1 , x2 , . . .) + (0, 0, . . .)
= (x1 + 0, x2 + 0, . . .)
= (x1 , x2 , . . .)
= x.
4. Let
w = (−x1 , −x2 , . . .).
Then
x + w = (x1 , x2 , . . .) + (−x1 , −x2 , . . .)
= (x1 + (−x1 ), x2 + (−x2 ), . . .)
= (0, 0, . . .).
5.
138 3 Vector Spaces
1x = 1(x1 , x2 , . . .)
= (1x1 , 1x2 , . . .)
= (x1 , x2 , . . .)
= x.
6.
a(x + y) = a((x1 , x2 , . . .) + (y1 , y2 , . . .))
= a(x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . .)
= (a(x1 + y1 ), a(x2 + y2 ), . . .)
= (ax1 + ay1 , ax2 + ay2 , . . .)
= (ax1 , ax2 , . . .) + (ay1 , ay2 , . . .)
= a(x1 , x2 , . . .) + a(y1 , y2 , . . .)
= ax + ay.
Next,
a(x + y) = a((x1 , x2 , . . .) + (y1 , y2 , . . .))
= a(x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . .)
= (a(x1 + y1 ), a(x2 + y2 ), . . .)
= (ax1 + ay1 , ax2 + ay2 , . . .)
= (ax1 , ax2 , . . .) + (ay1 , ay2 , . . .)
= a(x1 , x2 , . . .) + a(y1 , y2 , . . .)
3.1 Definition of a Vector Space 139
= ax + ay.
Definition 3.6. Let S be a set. With FS we will denote the set of functions from S to
F. For f , g ∈ FS , the sum f + g ∈ FS is the function defined by
( f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x), x ∈ S.
For λ ∈ F and f ∈ FS , the product λ f ∈ FS is the function
(λ f )(x) = λ f (x), x ∈ S.
Example 3.2. R[0,1] is the set of all function from [0, 1] to R.

Example 3.3. FS is a vector space over F. Let f , g, h ∈ FS and a, b ∈ F. Then we have
the following.
1.
( f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)
= g(x) + f (x)
= (g + f )(x), x ∈ S.
2.
( f + (g + h))(x) = f (x) + (g + h)(x)
= f (x) + (g(x) + h(x))
= ( f (x) + g(x)) + h(x)
= ( f + g)(x) + h(x)
= (( f + g) + h)(x), x ∈ S.
3. Define 0 : S → F as follows:
0(x) = 0, x ∈ S.
Then
( f + 0)(x) = f (x) + 0(x)
= f (x) + 0
140 3 Vector Spaces
= f (x), x ∈ S.
4. Define − f : S → F as follows:
(− f )(x) = − f (x), x ∈ S.
Then
( f + (− f ))(x) = f (x) + (− f )(x)
= f (x) − f (x)
=0
= 0(x), x ∈ S.
5.
(1 f )(x) = 1 f (x)
= f (x), x ∈ S.
6.
(a( f + g))(x) = a( f + g)(x)
= a( f (x) + g(x))
= a f (x) + ag(x)
= (a f )(x) + (ag)(x)
= (a f + ag)(x), x ∈ S.
Next,
((a + b) f )(x) = (a + b) f (x)
= a f (x) + b f (x)
3.2 Elementary Properties of Vector Spaces 141
= (a f )(x) + (b f )(x)
= (a f + b f )(x), x ∈ S.
In fact, the elements of R[0,1] are real-valued functions on [0, 1], not lists. In general,
a vector space is an abstract entity whose elements might be lists, functions or weird
objects.
Our previous examples of vector spaces, Fn and F∞ , are special cases of the
vector space FS because a list of length n of numbers in F can be thought of as a
function from {1, 2, . . . , n} to F and a sequence of numbers in F can be thought of
as a function from the set of positive integers to F. In other words, we can think of
Fn as F{1,2,...,n} and we can think of F∞ as F{1,2,...} .
3.2 Elementary Properties of Vector Spaces
In this section, we will deduce some properties of vector spaces.

Theorem 3.1. A vector space has a unique additive identity.
Proof. Suppose that 01 and 02 are two additive identities in the vector space V . Then
01 = 01 + 02
= 02 + 01
= 02 .
Theorem 3.2. Every element in a vector space has a unique additive inverse.
Proof. Suppose that V is a vector space. Let v ∈ V and w1 , w2 ∈ V be its additive

inverse. Then
v + w1 = 0,
v + w2 = 0
and
w1 = w1 + 0
= w1 + (v + w2 )
142 3 Vector Spaces
= (w1 + v) + w2
= (v + w1 ) + w2
= 0 + w2
= w2 + 0
= w2 .

Below, suppose that V is a vector space. Because additive inverses are unique, the
following notation makes sense. Let v, w ∈ V .
1. −v denotes the additive inverse of v.
2. w − v is defined to be w + (−v).
0v = 0, v ∈ V,
where 0 denotes a scalar (the number 0 ∈ F) on the left side of the equation and a
vector(the additive identity of v) on right side of the equation.
Proof. For v ∈ V , we have
0v = (0 + 0)v
= 0v + 0v,
whereupon
0v = 0.
a0 = 0, a ∈ F, (3.1)
where 0 ∈ V is the additive identity of V .
Proof. For a ∈ F, we have
a0 = a(0 + 0)
= a0 + a0,
whereupon we get (3.1). This completes the proof.

3.3 Subspaces 143
Exercise 3.1. Suppose that a ∈ F, v ∈ V , and av = 0. Prove that a = 0 or v = 0.

(−1)v = −v, v ∈ V.
Proof. For v ∈ V , we have
v + (−1)v = 1v + (−1)v
= (1 + (−1))v
= 0v
= 0.
Thus, (−1)v is the additive inverse of v. This completes the proof.

−(−v) = v, v ∈ V.
Exercise 3.3. Suppose that v, w ∈ V . Explain why there exists a unique x ∈ V such
that
v + 3x = w.
3.3 Subspaces
Definition 3.7. A subset U of V is called a subspace of V if U is also vector space

using the same addition and scalar multiplication as on V .
Some mathematicians, use the term ”linear subspace”, which means the same as
subspace.
Example 3.4. The set
{(x1 , x2 , 0) : x1 , x2 ∈ F}
3
is a subspace of F .
Theorem 3.6. A subset U of V is a subspace if and only if U satisfies the following

three conditions:
1. 0 ∈ U.
2. if u, v ∈ U, then u + v ∈ U.
3. if a ∈ F and u ∈ U, then au ∈ U.
Proof. 1. Let U be a subspace of V . Then, by the definition for a subspace and by

the definition for a vector space, it follows that U satisfies 1, 2, 3.
144 3 Vector Spaces
2. Let U satisfies 1, 2, 3. Take u, v, w ∈ U and a, b ∈ F arbitrarily. Then u, v, w ∈ V

and hence,
u + v = v + u,
u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w,
a(u + v) = au + av,
(a + b)u = au + bu,
u + 0 = u.
By the third condition, it follows that (−1)u ∈ U and
u − u = u + (−1)u
= 0.
Thus, U is a subspace of V . This completes the proof.
Remark 3.1. The additive identity condition above could be replaced with the con-
dition that U is nonempty. Then, taking u ∈ U, multiplying it by 0, and using the
condition that U is closed under scalar multiplication would imply that 0 ∈ U. How-
ever, if U is indeed a subspace of V , then the easiest way to show that U is nonempty
is to show that 0 ∈ U.
Remark 3.2. The three conditions in the result above usually enable us to determine
quickly whether a given subset of V is a subspace of V .
Example 3.5. Consider the set
U = {(u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 ) ∈ F4 : u3 = 5u4 }.
Let
u = (u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 ), v = (v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 ) ∈ F4
and a ∈ F be arbitrarily chosen. Then
u3 = 5u4 ,
v3 = 5v4 ,
au3 = 5au4
3.4 Sum of Spaces 145
and
u3 + v3 = 5(u4 + v4 ).
Therefore 0 ∈ U, u + v ∈ U and au ∈ U. Hence and Theorem 3.6, it follows that U
is a subspace of F4 .
Note that {0} is the smallest subspace of V and V is the largest subspace of V . More-
over, the empty set is not a subspace because it must contain an additive identity.
Example 3.6. Let U be the set of real-valued continuous functions on [0, 1]. Let also,
u, v ∈ U and a ∈ F. Then, we have the following.
1. Since 0 is a continuous function on [0, 1], then 0 ∈ U.
2. Since the sum of two continuous functions u and v on [0, 1] is a continuous func-
tion on [0, 1], we have that u + v ∈ U.
3. Since the multiplication of a continuous function u ∈ U on [0, 1] by a constant
a ∈ F is a continuous function on [0, 1], we get au ∈ F.
Now, applying Theorem 3.6, we get that U is a subspace of R[0,1] .
Exercise 3.4. Prove that the set of all differentiable real-valued functions on R is a
subspace of RR .
3.4 Sum of Spaces
Definition 3.8. Suppose that U1 , . . ., Um are subsets of V . The sum of U1 , . . ., Um ,

denoted by
U1 + · · · +Um ,
is the set of all possible sums of elements of U1 , . . ., Um . More precisely,
U1 + · · · +Um = {u1 + · · · + um : u1 ∈ U1 , . . . , um ∈ Um }.
Example 3.7. Let
U = {(x, 0, 0) ∈ F3 : x ∈ F},
W = {(0, y, 0) ∈ F3 : y ∈ F}.
Take
(x, 0, 0) ∈ U, (0, y, 0) ∈ W.
Then
(x, 0, 0) + (0, y, 0) = (x, y, 0).

146 3 Vector Spaces
Therefore
U +W = {(x, y, 0) ∈ F3 : x, y ∈ F}.
Example 3.8. Let
U = {(x, x, y, y) ∈ F4 : x, y ∈ F},
W = {(x, x, x, y) ∈ F4 : x, y ∈ F}.
Take
(x1 , x1 , y1 , y1 ) ∈ U, (x2 , x2 , x2 , y2 ) ∈ W.
Then
(x1 , x1 , y1 , y1 ) + (x2 , x2 , x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , x1 + x2 , y1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ).
Therefore
U +W = {(x, x, y, z) ∈ F4 : x, y, z ∈ F}.
Exercise 3.5. Let
U = {(x, x, x, x, x) ∈ F5 : x ∈ F},
W = {(x, y, y, y, x) ∈ F5 : x, y ∈ F}.
Find U +W .
Theorem 3.7. Suppose U1 , . . ., Um are subspaces of V . Then U1 + · · · + Um is the

smallest subspace of V containing U1 , . . ., Um .
Proof. Since U1 , . . ., Um are subspaces of V , we have that 0 ∈ U1 , . . ., 0 ∈ Um and

then
0+···+0 = 0
∈ U1 + · · · +Um .
Let u, v ∈ U1 + · · · + Um be arbitrarily chosen. Then, there are u1 , v1 ∈ U1 , . . .,

um , vm ∈ Um so that
u = u1 + · · · + um ,
v = v1 + · · · + vm .
Hence,
u + v = (u1 + v1 ) + · · · + (um + vm ). (3.2)
3.4 Sum of Spaces 147
Since U1 is a subspace of V and u1 , v1 ∈ U1 , we conclude that u1 + v1 ∈ U1 . And

so on. Because Um is a subspace of V and um , vm ∈ Um , then um + vm ∈ Um . From
here and from (3.2), we obtain that u + v ∈ U1 + · · · +Um and U1 + · · · +Um is closed
under addition. Let a ∈ F be arbitrarily chosen. Then
au = au1 + · · · + aum . (3.3)
Since U1 is a subspace of V and a ∈ F, u1 ∈ U1 , we obtain au1 ∈ U1 . And so on.

Because Um is a subspace of V and a ∈ F, um ∈ Um , we find aum ∈ Um . Hence and
(3.3), we conclude that au ∈ U1 + · · · +Um and U1 + · · · +Um is closed under scalar
multiplication. Now, applying Theorem 3.6, we find that U1 + · · · +Um is a subspace
of V . Let now, w1 ∈ U1 be arbitrarily chosen and fixed. Then, using that 0 ∈ U2 , . . .,
um ∈ Um , we find
w1 = w1 + 0 + · · · + 0
∈ U1 + · · · +Um .
Because w1 ∈ U1 was arbitrarily chosen and we get that it is an element of U1 +

· · · +Um , we obtain the inclusion
U1 ⊆ U1 + · · · +Um .
And so on. Let wm ∈ Um be arbitrarily chosen and fixed. Then, using that 0 ∈ U1 ,
. . ., 0 ∈ Um−1 , we obtain
wm = 0 + · · · + 0 + wm
∈ U1 + · · · +Um .
Because wm ∈ Um was arbitrarily chosen and we get that it is an element of U1 +

· · · +Um , we find the inclusion
Um ∈ U1 + · · · +Um .
Now, let W be a subspace of V so that
U1 , . . . ,Um ∈ W.
Because subspaces must contain all finite sums of their elements, we get
U1 + · · · +Um ⊆ W.
Thus, U1 + · · · +Um is the smallest subspace of V containing U1 , . . ., Um . This com-

pletes the proof.
148 3 Vector Spaces
Remark 3.3. Sums of subspaces in the theory of vector spaces are analogous to
unions of subsets in the set theory. Given two subspaces of a vector space, the small-
est subspace containing them is their sum. Analogously, given two subsets of a set,
the smallest subset containing them is their union.
3.5 Direct Sums
Definition 3.9. Let U1 , . . ., Um be subspaces of V . Then U1 +· · ·+Um is called direct

sum if each element of U1 + · · · +Um can be represented in a unique way in the form
u1 + · · · + um ,
where u1 ∈ U1 , . . ., um ∈ Um . If U1 + · · · + Um is a direct sum, then U1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Um

denotes U1 + · · · +Um , with ⊕ notation serving as an indication that this is a direct
sum.
Example 3.9. Let
U = {(x, y, 0) ∈ F3 : x, y ∈ F},
W = {(0, 0, z) ∈ F3 : z ∈ F}.
Note that U and W are subspaces of F3 . Next,
U +W = {(x, y, z) ∈ F3 : x, y, z ∈ F}.
Assume that an elements u ∈ U +W has two representations
u = (x1 , y1 , 0) + (0, 0, z1 ) ∈ U +W,
u = (x2 , y2 , 0) + (0, 0, z2 ) ∈ U +W, x1 , y1 , z1 , x2 , y2 , z2 ∈ F.
Then
(x1 , y1 , 0) + (0, 0, z1 ) = (x1 , y1 , z1 )
= (x2 , y2 , 0) + (0, 0, z2 )
= (x2 , y2 , z2 ),
whereupon
x1 = x2 ,
3.5 Direct Sums 149
y1 = y2 ,
z1 = z2 ,
and
(x1 , y1 , 0) = (x2 , y2 , 0),
(0, 0, z1 ) = (0, 0, z2 ).
Therefore U ⊕W = F3 .
Example 3.10. Let
U1 = {(x, y, 0) ∈ F3 : x, y ∈ F},
U2 = {(0, 0, z) ∈ F3 : z ∈ F},
U3 = {(0, y, y) ∈ F3 : y ∈ F}.
We have that U1 , U2 and U3 are subspaces of F3 . Let
u1 = (x1 , y1 , 0) ∈ U1 ,
u2 = (0, 0, z2 ) ∈ U2 ,
u3 = (0, y3 , y3 ) ∈ U3 .
Then
u1 + u2 + u3 = (x1 , y1 , 0) + (0, 0, z2 ) + (0, y3 , y3 )
= (x1 , y1 + y3 , z2 + y3 )
and
U1 +U2 +U3 = F3 .
Note that
(0, 0, 0) ∈ U1 +U2 +U3
and
(0, 0, 0) ∈ U1 ,
150 3 Vector Spaces
(0, 0, 0) ∈ U2 ,
(0, 0, 0) ∈ U3 ,
(0, 1, 0) ∈ U1 ,
(0, 0, 1) ∈ U2 ,
(0, −1, −1) ∈ U3 .
Moreover,
(0, 0, 0) = (0, 0, 0) + (0, 0, 0) + (0, 0, 0)
and
(0, 0, 0) = (0, 1, 0) + (0, 0, 1) + (0, −1, −1).
Thus, (0, 0, 0) ∈ U1 +U2 +U3 has two different representations as a sum u1 +u2 +u3
with u1 ∈ U1 , u2 ∈ U2 and u3 ∈ U3 . Therefore U1 +U2 +U3 is not a direct sum.
Exercise 3.6. Let

U = {(x, y, y) ∈ F3 : x, y ∈ F}.
Find a subspace W ∈ F3 so that
U ⊕W = F3 .
Theorem 3.8. Suppose that U1 , . . ., Um are subspaces of V . Then U1 + · · · + Um is

a direct sum if and only if the only way to write 0 as a sum u1 + · · · + um , where
u1 ∈ U1 , . . ., um ∈ Um , is by taking each u1 , u2 , . . ., um equal to 0.
Proof. 1. Suppose that U1 +· · ·+Um is a direct sum. Since U1 , . . ., Um are subspaces

of V , we have that
0 ∈ U1 , ..., 0 ∈ Um , 0 ∈ U1 + · · · +Um .
By the definition of a direct sum, it follows that the only way to write 0 as a sum
u1 + · · · + um , where u1 ∈ U1 , . . ., um ∈ Um , is by taking each u1 , u2 , . . ., um equal
to 0.
2. Suppose that the only way to write 0 as a sum u1 + · · · + um , where u1 ∈ U1 , . . .,
um ∈ Um , is by taking each u1 , u2 , . . ., um equal to 0. Let v ∈ U1 + · · · + Um be
arbitrarily chosen and fixed. Let also,
u = u1 + · · · + um
and
3.5 Direct Sums 151
u = v1 + · · · + vm ,
with u1 , v1 ∈ U1 , . . ., um , vm ∈ Um . Subtracting these two equations, we find
0 = (u1 − v1 ) + · · · + (um − vm ).
Since U1 , . . ., Um are subspaces of V , we have
u1 − v1 ∈ U1 , ..., um − vm ∈ Um .
The equation above implies that
u1 − v1 = 0,
..
.
um − vm = 0,
whereupon
u1 = v1 ,
..
.
um = vm .

Theorem 3.9. Suppose that U1 and U2 are subspaces of V . Then U1 +U2 is a direct
sum if and only if U1 ∩U2 = {0}.
Proof. 1. Suppose that U1 +U2 is a direct sum. Take v ∈ U1 ∩U2 arbitrarily. Then
0 = v + (−v),
where v ∈ U1 and −v ∈ U2 . Because U1 +U2 is a direct sum, we have that 0 has a

unique representation. Therefore v = 0. Since v ∈ U1 ∩U2 was arbitrarily chosen,
we conclude that U1 ∩U2 = {0}.
2. Let U1 ∩U2 = {0}. We will prove that U1 +U2 is a direct sum. Suppose that
0 = u1 + u2 ,
where u1 ∈ U1 , u2 ∈ U2 . Then
u2 = −u1 .
Since U1 is a subspace of V , we have that −u1 ∈ U1 . Therefore u2 ∈ U1 and
u2 ∈ U1 ∩U2 . From here, u2 = 0 and u1 = 0. Thus, 0 has a unique representation
152 3 Vector Spaces
as a sum u1 + u2 with u1 ∈ U1 and u2 ∈ U2 . Hence and Theorem 3.8, we conclude

that U1 +U2 is a direct sum. This completes the proof.
Remark 3.4. The result above deals only with the case of two subspaces. When ask-
ing about a possible direct sum with more than two subspaces, it is not enough to test
that each pair of the subspaces intersect only at {0}. To see this, consider Example
3.10. We have that
U1 ∩U2 = {0}, U1 ∩U3 = {0}, U2 ∩U3 = {0}.
At the same time, we have that U1 +U2 +U3 is not a direct sum.
Remark 3.5. Sums of subspaces are analogous to unions of subsets. Similarly, direct
sums of subspaces are analogous to disjoint unions of subsets. No two subspaces of
a vector space can be disjoint, because both contain 0. So, disjointness is replaced, at
least in the case of two subspaces, with the requirement that the intersection equals
{0}.
−(−(−v)) = −v,
−(−(−(−v))) = v, v ∈ V.
Problem 3.2. Suppose that v, w ∈ V . Explain why there exists a unique x ∈ V such
that
2v − 5x = 3w.
Problem 3.3. Prove that the set of all differentiable real-valued functions f on the
interval (0, 3) such that
f 0 (2) = b
is a subspace of R(0,3) if and only if b = 0.
Problem 3.4. Let ∞ and −∞ be two distinct objects, neither of which is in R. Define
an addition and scalar multiplication on R ∪ {∞} ∪ {−∞} as you could guess from
the notation. Specifically, the sum and product of two real numbers is as usual, and
for t ∈ R define


 −∞ if t < 0



t∞ = 0 if t = 0




∞ if t > 0,



 ∞ if t < 0



t(−∞) = 0 if t = 0




−∞ if t > 0,

t + ∞ = ∞,
∞ + t = ∞,
t + (−∞) = −∞,
(−∞) + t = −∞,
∞ + ∞ = ∞,
(−∞) + (−∞) = −∞,
∞ + (−∞) = 0.
Is R ∪ {∞} ∪ {−∞} a vector space over R? Explain.
Problem 3.5. Prove that the set
{(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 ) ∈ F5 : x1 + x2 = 3x5 , x2 = 2x4 }
is a subspace of F5 .
Problem 3.6. Prove that the set
{(x1 , x2 , x3 ) : x1 = x2 + 3}
is not a subspace of F3 .
Problem 3.7. Let
U = {(x, y, −x) ∈ F3 : x, y ∈ F},
W = {(x, 2x, −x) ∈ F3 : x ∈ F}.
Find U +W .
Problem 3.8. Let

154 3 Vector Spaces
U1 = {(x, 0, . . . , 0) ∈ Fn : x ∈ F},
U2 = {(0, x, . . . , 0) ∈ Fn : x ∈ F},
..
.
Un = {(0, 0, . . . , 0, x) ∈ Fn : x ∈ F}.
Prove that
U1 ⊕ · · · ⊕Un = Fn .
Problem 3.9. For each of the following subsets of F4 , determine whether it is a
subspace of F4 .
1.
{(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) ∈ F4 : x1 − 2x2 + 4x3 − x5 = 0}.
2.
{(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) ∈ F4 : x1 − 2x2 + 4x3 − x5 = 2}.
3.
{(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) ∈ F4 : x1 x2 x3 x4 = 0}.
4.
{(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) ∈ F4 : x1 = 2x2 }.
5.
{(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) ∈ F4 : x1 = 3x3 }.
6.
{(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) ∈ F4 : x1 = 4x4 }.
7.
{(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) ∈ F4 : x2 = 7x3 }.
8.
{(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) ∈ F4 : x2 = 8x4 }.
9.
{(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) ∈ F4 : x3 = −x4 }.
10.
{(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) ∈ F4 : x1 = 2x2 x3 }.
Problem 3.10. Show that the set of all differentiable real-valued functions f on the
interval (−1, 1) for which
1
f 0 (0) = f
2
is a subspace of R(−1,1) .
Problem 3.11. Is R2 a subspace of C2 .
Problem 3.12. Is
{(a, b, c) : R3 : a3 = b3 }
a subspace of R3 .
Problem 3.13. Is
{(a, b, c) : C3 : a3 = b3 }
a subspace of C3 .
Problem 3.14. Suppose that U1 and U2 are subspaces of V . Prove that U1 ∩U2 is a
subspace of V .
Problem 3.15. Prove that the intersection of every collection of subspaces of V is a

subspace of V .
Problem 3.16. Prove that the union of two subspaces of V is a subspace if and only
if one of the subspaces is contained in the other.
Problem 3.17. Prove that the union of three subspaces of V is a subspace of V if

and only if one of the subspaces contains the other two.
Problem 3.18. Suppose that U is a subspace of V . What is U +U?
Problem 3.19. Is the operation addition on the subspaces of V commutative?
Problem 3.20. Is the operation addition on the subspaces of V associative?
Problem 3.21. Does the operation addition on the subspaces of V have an additive
identity?
Problem 3.22. Suppose
U = {(x, x, y, y) ∈ F4 : x, y ∈ F}.
Find a subspace W of F4 such that
U ⊕W = F4 .
U = {(x, y, x + y, x − y, 2x) ∈ F5 : x, y ∈ F}.
Find a subspace W of F5 such that
U ⊕W = F5 .
156 3 Vector Spaces
U = {(x, y, x + y, x − y, 2x) ∈ F5 : x, y ∈ F}.
Find subspaces W1 , W2 , W3 of F5 , none of which equals {0} such that
U ⊕W1 ⊕W2 ⊕W3 = F5 .
Problem 3.25. A function f : R → R is called even if
f (x) = f (−x)
for any x ∈ R. A function f : R → R is called odd if
f (x) = − f (−x)
for any x ∈ R. Let Ue denote the set of real-valued even functions on R and U0
denote the set of real-valued odd functions on R. Prove that
Ue ⊕U0 = RR .
Chapter 4
Finite-Dimensional Vector Spaces
4.1 Linear Combinations and Span
Suppose that V is a vector space.

Definition 4.1. A linear combination of a list of vectors v1 , . . ., vm in V is a vector
of the form
a1 v1 + · · · + am vm ,
where a1 , . . ., am ∈ F.
Example 4.1. Consider F4 and
v1 = (−1, 2, 0, 1),
v2 = ( − 3, 1, 1, 4).
Then
−2v1 + 3v2 = −2(−1, 2, 0, 1) + 3(−3, 1, 1, 4)
= (2, −4, 0, −2) + (−9, 3, 3, 12)
= (−7, −1, 3, 10).
Therefore the vector (−7, −1, 3, 10) is a linear combination of the vectors v1 and v2 .
Example 4.2. Consider F3 and the vectors
v1 = (2, 1, −3),
v2 = (1, −2, 4),
157
158 4 Finite-Dimensional Vector Spaces
v3 = (17, −4, 5).
We will check if the vector v3 is a linear combination of the vectors v1 and v2 .

Assume that there are a1 , a2 ∈ F so that
v3 = a1 v1 + a2 v2
or
(17, −4, 5) = a1 (2, 1, −3) + a2 (1, −2, 4)
= (2a1 , a1 , −3a1 ) + (a2 , −2a2 , 4a2 )
= (2a1 + a2 , a1 − 2a2 , −3a1 + 4a2 ).
By the last equations, we get the following system
2a1 + a2 = 17
a1 − 2a2 = −4
−3a1 + 4a2 = 5,
whereupon
a2 = 17 − 2a1
a1 − 2(17 − 2a1 ) = −4
−3a1 + 4(17 − 2a1 ) = 5,
or
a2 = 17 − 2a1
a1 − 34 + 4a1 = −4
−3a1 + 68 − 8a1 = 5,
or
a2 = 17 − 2a1
4.1 Linear Combinations and Span 159
5a1 = 30
−11a1 = −63,
or
a2 = 17 − 2a1
a1 = 6
63
a1 = ,
11
which is impossible. Therefore v3 is not a linear combination of the vectors v1 and
v2 .
Exercise 4.1. Consider F5 and the vectors
v1 = (−1, 3, 4, 1, 0),
v2 = (−3, 2, 1, 0, −1),
v3 = (−4, 1, −2, 10, 1),
v4 = (−3, 1, 1, 0, 1).
1. Check if v4 is a linear combination of v1 , v2 and v3 .

2. Check if v1 is a linear combination of v2 and v3 .
Definition 4.2. The set of all linear combinations of a list of vectors v1 , . . ., vm in V

is called span of v1 , . . ., vm , denoted
span(v1 , . . . , vm ).
In other words,
span(v1 , . . . , vm ) = {a1 v1 + · · · + am vm : a1 , . . . , am ∈ F}.
Example 4.3. Consider F4 . By Example 4.1, it follows that
(−7, −1, 3, 10) ∈ span((−1, 2, 0, 1), (−3, 1, 1, 4)).

Example 4.4. Consider F3 . By Example 4.2, it follows that
(17, −4, 5) 6∈ span((2, 1, −3), (1, −2, 4)).
Exercise 4.2. Consider F4 . Check if
(−1, −4, 9, 3) ∈ span((1, −2, 3, 0), (−1, 0, 1, 1)).
Theorem 4.1. The span of a list of vectors in V is the smallest subspace of V con-
taining all the vectors in the list.
Proof. Let v1 , . . ., vm be a list of vectors in V . We will prove that span(v1 , . . . , vm ) is

a subspace of V . Observe that
0 = 0v1 + · · · + 0vm ,
whereupon 0 ∈ span(v1 , . . . , vm ). Let
u = a1 v1 + · · · + am vm ∈ span(v1 , . . . , vm ),
w = b1 v1 + · · · + bm vm ∈ span(v1 , . . . , vm ),
where a1 , . . . , am , b1 , . . . , bm ∈ F. Then
u + w = a1 v1 + · · · + am vm
+a1 v1 + · · · + bm vm
= (a1 + b1 )v1 + · · · + (am + bm )vm .
Since a1 + b1 ∈ F, . . ., am + bm ∈ F, we conclude that
u + w ∈ span(v1 , . . . , vm ).
Take a ∈ F arbitrarily. Then
au = a(a1 v1 + · · · + am vm )
= aa1 v1 + · · · + aam vm .
Because aa1 ∈ F, . . ., aam ∈ F, we get that au ∈ span(v1 , . . . , vm ). Hence and The-

orem 3.6, we conclude that span(v1 , . . . , vm ) is a subspace of V . Note that, for any
j ∈ {1, . . . , m}, we have
v j = 0v1 + · · · + 0v j−1 + 1v j + 0v j+1 + · · · + 0vm ,

4.2 Polynomials 161
we have that v j ∈ span(v1 , . . . , vm ) for any j ∈ {1, . . . , m}. Because the subspaces are
closed under scalar multiplication and addition, every subspace of V containing v1 ,
. . ., vm contains span(v1 , . . . , vm ). So, span(v1 , . . . , vm ) is the smallest subspace in V
containing all the vectors v1 , . . ., vm . This completes the proof.
Definition 4.3. If span(v1 , . . . , vm ) = V , we say that the vectors v1 , . . ., vm spans V .
In other words, v1 , . . ., vm spans V if each u ∈ V can be represented in the form
u = a1 v1 + · · · + am vm
for some a1 , . . ., am ∈ F.
Theorem 4.2. The vectors
(1, 0, . . . , 0), (0, 1, 0, . . . , 0), ..., (0, . . . , 0, 1)
spans Fn .
Proof. Let (x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ Fn , x1 ∈ F, . . ., xn ∈ F, be arbitrarily chosen. Then
(x1 , . . . , xn ) = (x1 , 0, . . . , 0) + (0, x2 , 0, . . . , 0) + · · · + (0, . . . , 0, xn )
= x1 (1, 0, . . . , 0) + x2 (0, 1, 0, . . . , 0) + · · · + xn (0, . . . , 0, 1).

Definition 4.4. A vector space is called finite-dimensional if some list of vectors in
it spans the space. Recall that by the definition every list has finite dimension.
Example 4.5. By Theorem 4.2, it follows that Fn is finite-dimensional.
4.2 Polynomials
Definition 4.5. A function p : F → F is called a polynomial with coefficients in F if

there exist a0 , . . ., am ∈ F such that
p(z) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z2 + · · · + am zm
for any z ∈ F. The set of all polynomials with coefficients in F will be denoted by
P(F).
Let
p1 (z) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z2 + · · · + am1 zm1 ∈ P(F),
p2 (z) = b0 + b1 z + b1 z2 + · · · + bm2 zm2 ∈ P(F),

where a0 , . . ., am1 , b0 , . . ., bm2 ∈ F, m1 ≥ m2 . Define
p1 (z)+ p2 (z) = (a0 +b0 )+(a1 +b1 )z+(a2 +b2 )z2 +· · ·+(am2 +bm2 )zm2 +am2 +1 zm2 +1 +· · ·+am1 zm1 , z ∈ F,
(4.1)
and
ap1 (z) = (aa0 ) + (aa1 )z + (aa2 )z2 + · · · + (aam1 )zm1 , z ∈ F. (4.2)
Example 4.6. Let
p1 (z) = 1 + 2z + 3z2 − z3 ,
p2 (z) = −2 + z + z2 , z ∈ F.
Then
p1 (z) + p2 (z) = 1 + 2z + 3z2 − z3 + (−2) + z + z2
= (1 + (−2)) + (2 + 1)z + (3 + 1)z2 − z3
= −1 + 3z + 4z2 − z3 , z ∈ F,
and
−2p1 (z) = −2(1 + 2z + 3z2 − z3 )
= (−2 · 1) + (−2 · 2)z + (−2 · 3)z2 + (−2 · (−1))z3
= −2 − 4z − 6z2 + 2z3 , z ∈ F,
and
3p2 (z) = 3(−2 + z + z2 )
= (3 · (−2)) + (3 · 1)z + (3 · 1)z2
= −6 + 3z + 3z2 , z ∈ F.
Hence,
−2p1 (z) + 3p2 (z) = −2 − 4z − 6z2 + 2z3 − 6 + 3z + 3z2
= (−2 − 6) + (−4 + 3)z + (−6 + 3)z2 + 2z3

4.2 Polynomials 163
= −8 − z − 3z2 + 2z3 , z ∈ F.
Exercise 4.3. Let
p1 (z) = 3 + 5z − 5z2 + 8z3 ,
p2 (z) = 75 − 25z − 12z2 + 4z3 ,
p3 (z) = 12 + 20z − 51z2 − 5z3 + 12z4 , z ∈ F.
Find
1. p1 (z) + p2 (z), z ∈ F.
2. p1 (z) + p3 (z), z ∈ F.
3. p2 (z) + p3 (z), z ∈ F.
4. p1 (z) + p2 (z) + p3 (z), z ∈ F.
5. 2p1 (z), z ∈ F.
6. −3p2 (z), z ∈ F.
7. 4p3 (z), z ∈ F.
8. 2p1 (z) − 3p2 (z), z ∈ F.
9. −3p2 (z) + 4p3 (z), z ∈ F.
10. 2p1 (z) − 3p2 (z) + 4p3 (z), z ∈ F.
Theorem 4.3. P(F) is a vector space over F with the usual operations of addition
and scalar multiplication given by (4.1) and (4.2), respectively.
Proof. Let
p1 (z) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z2 + · · · + am1 zm1 ,
p2 (z) = b0 + b1 z + b2 z2 + · · · + bm2 zm2 ,
p3 (z) = c0 + c1 z + c2 z2 + · · · + cm3 zm3 , z ∈ F,
where
a 0 , . . . , a m1 , b0 , . . . , bm2 , c0 , . . . , cm3 ∈ F, m1 ≥ m2 ≥ m3 ,
and a, b ∈ F be arbitrarily chosen. Then we have the following.

1.
p1 (z) + p2 (z) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z2 + · · · + am1 zm1
+b0 + b1 z + b2 z2 + · · · + bm2 zm2

= a0 + a1 z + a2 z2 + · · · + am2 zm2 + am2 +1 zm2 +1 + · · · + am1 zm1
+b0 + b1 z + b2 z2 + · · · + bm2 zm2
= (a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )z + (a2 + b2 )z2 + · · ·
+(am2 + bm2 )zm2 + am2 +1 zm2 +1 + · · · + am1 zm1
= (b0 + a0 ) + (b1 + a1 )z + (b2 + a2 )z2 + · · ·
+(bm2 + am2 )zm2 + am2 +1 zm2 +1 + · · · + am1 zm1
= b0 + b1 z + b2 z2 + · · · + bm2 zm2
+a0 + a1 z + a2 z2 + · · · + am1 zm1
= p2 (z) + p1 (z), z ∈ F.
2.
p1 (z) + (p2 (z) + p3 (z)) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z2 + · · · + am1 zm1

2 m2 2 m3
+ b0 + b1 z + b2 z + · · · + bm2 z + c0 + c1 z + c2 z + · · · + cm3 z
= a0 + a1 z + a2 z2 + · · · + am3 zm3 + am3 +1 zm3 +1 + · · · + am2 zm2 + am2 +1 zm2 +1 + · · · + am1 zm1

+ b0 + b1 z + b2 z2 + · · · + bm3 zm3 + bm3 +1 zm3 +1 + · · · + bm2 zm2

2 m3
+c0 + c1 z + c2 z + · · · + cm3 z
= a0 + a1 z + a2 z2 + · · · + am3 zm3 + am3 +1 zm3 +1 + · · · + am2 zm2 + am2 +1 zm2 +1 + · · · + am1 zm1

+ (b0 + c0 ) + (b1 + c1 )z + (b2 + c2 )z2 + · · ·

+(bm3 + cm3 )zm3 + bm3 +1 zm3 +1 + · · · + bm2 zm2
4.2 Polynomials 165
= (a0 + (b0 + c0 )) + (a1 + (b1 + c1 ))z + (a2 + (b2 + c2 ))z2
+ · · · + (am3 + (bm3 + cm3 ))zm3 + (am3 +1 + bm3 +1 )zm3 +1
+ · · · + (am2 + bm2 )zm2 + am2 +1 zm2 +1 + · · · + am1 zm1
= ((a0 + b0 ) + c0 ) + ((a1 + b1 ) + c1 )z + ((a2 + b2 ) + c2 )z2
+ · · · + ((am3 + bm3 ) + cm3 )zm3 + (am3 +1 + bm3 +1 )zm3 +1
+ · · · + (am2 + bm2 )zm2 + am2 +1 zm2 +1 + · · · + am1 zm1
= (a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )z + (a2 + b2 )z2 + · · · + (am3 + bm3 )zm3
+(am3 +1 + bm3 +1 )zm3 +1 + · · · + (am2 + bm2 )zm2 + am2 +1 zm2 +1 + · · · + am1 zm1
+c0 + c1 z + c2 z2 + · · · + cm3 zm3
= (p1 (z) + p2 (z)) + p3 (z), z ∈ F.
3. Set
0 = 0 + 0z + oz2 + · · · + 0zm1 , z ∈ F.
Then
p1 (z) + 0 = a0 + a1 z + a2 z2 + · · · + am1 zm1 + 0 + 0z + 0z2 + · · · + 0zm1
= (a0 + 0) + (a1 + 0)z + (a2 + 0)z2 + · · · + (am1 + 0)zm1
= a0 + a1 z + a2 z2 + · · · + am1 zm1
= p1 (z), z ∈ F.
4. Define
q(z) = (−a0 ) + (−a1 )z + (−a2 )z2 + · · · + (−am1 )zm1 , z ∈ F.
Then
p1 (z) + q(z) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z2 + · · · + am1 zm1
+(−a0 ) + (−a1 )z + (−a2 )z2 + · · · + (−am1 )zm1
= (a0 + (−a0 )) + (a1 + (−a1 ))z + (a2 + (−a2 ))z2 + · · · + (am1 + (−am1 ))zm1
= 0 + 0z + 0z2 + · · · + 0zm1 , z ∈ F.
5. Now, using the computations in 1, we get
a(p1 (z) + p2 (z)) = a((a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )z + (a2 + b2 )z2 + · · · + (am2 + bm2 )zm2 + am2 +1 zm2 +1
+ · · · + am1 zm1 )
= (a(a0 + b0 )) + (a(a1 + b1 ))z + (a(a2 + b2 ))z2 + · · ·
+(a(am2 + bm2 ))zm2 + (aam2 +1 )zm2 +1 + · · · + (aam1 )zm1
= (aa0 + ab0 ) + (aa1 + ab1 )z + (aa2 + ab2 )z2 + · · ·
+(aam2 + abm2 )zm2 + (aam2 +1 )zm2 +1 + · · · + (aam1 )zm1
= (aa0 ) + (aa1 )z + (aa2 )z2 + · · · + (aam1 )zm1
+(ab0 ) + (ab1 )z + (ab2 )z2 + · · · + (abm2 )zm2
= ap1 (z) + ap2 (z), z ∈ F.
6.
(a + b)p1 (z) = (a + b)(a0 + a1 z + a2 z2 + · · · + am1 zm1 )
= ((a + b)a0 ) + ((a + b)a1 )z + ((a + b)a2 )z2 + · · · + ((a + b)am1 )zm1
= (aa0 + ba0 ) + (aa1 + ba1 )z + (aa2 + ba2 )z2 + · · · + (aam1 + bam1 )zm1
= (aa0 ) + (aa1 )z + (aa2 )z2 + · · · + (aam1 )zm1

4.2 Polynomials 167
+(ba0 ) + (ba1 )z + (ba2 )z2 + · · · + (bam1 )zm1
= ap1 (z) + bp1 (z), z ∈ F.
Therefore, all axioms for a vector space are fulfilled. Thus, P(F) is a vector
space. This completes the proof.
By Theorem 4.3, it follows that P(F) is a subspace of FF . If a polynomial p ∈ P(F)
is represented by two sets of coefficients, i.e.,
p(z) = a0 + a1 z + a22 + · · · + am1 zm1 , z ∈ F,
and
p(z) = b0 + b1 z + b2 z2 + · · · + bm2 zm2 , z ∈ F,
where a0 , . . . , am1 , b0 , . . . , bm2 ∈ F, m1 ≥ m2 , then
0 = 0 + 0z + 0z2 + · · · + 0zm1
= p1 (z) − p2 (z)
= a0 + a1 z + a2 z2 + · · · + am1 zm1
−b0 − b1 z − b2 z2 − · · · − bm2 zm2
= a0 + a1 z + a2 z2 + · · · + am2 zm2 + am2 +1 zm2 +1 + · · · + am1 zm1
−b0 − b1 z − b2 z2 − · · · − bm2 zm2
= (a0 − b0 ) + (a1 − b1 )z + (a2 − b2 )z2 + · · ·
+(am2 − bm2 )zm2 + am2 +1 zm2 +1 + · · · + am1 zm1 , z ∈ F.
Now, using that 0 has a unique representation, we get
a0 − b0 = 0
a1 − b1 = 0
a2 − b2 = 0
..
.
am2 − bm2 = 0
am2 +1 = 0
..
.
am1 = 0.
or
a0 = b0
a1 = b1
a2 = b2
..
.
am2 = bm2
am2 +1 = 0
..
.
am1 = 0.
Hence,
p(z) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z2 + · · · + am2 zm2 , z ∈ F.
Consequently, the coefficients of any polynomial are uniquely determined by the
polynomial.
Definition 4.6. A polynomial p ∈ P(F) is said to have degree m is there exist
scalars a0 , . . . , am ∈ F with am 6= 0 such that
p(z) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z2 + · · · + am zm , z ∈ F.
4.3 Infinite-Dimensional Vector Spaces 169
If p has a degree m, we will write deg p = m.The polynomial that is identically 0 is

said to have degree −∞. For m a nonnegative integer, Pm (F) denotes the set of all
polynomials with coefficients in F and degree at most m.
By the above definition, it follows that for each nonnegative integer m, using that
−∞ < m, we have that 0 ∈ Pm (F).
Example 4.7. The polynomial
p(z) = 1 + 3z + z7 , z ∈ F,
has a degree 7.
Exercise 4.4. Determine the degree of the following polynomials.

1. p(z) = −1 − 2z − 2z3 + 5z4 , z ∈ F.
2. p(z) = −27 + 27z− = 9z2 + z3 , z ∈ F.
3. p(z) = −1 + 9z2 + 4z3 − 12z4 , z ∈ F.
4. p(z) = −20z4 − 13z3 + 20z2 + 7z + 6, z ∈ F.
5. p(z) = z4 − z2 + 3, z ∈ F.
6. p(z) = z4 + 7z3 + 18z2 + 20z + 8, z ∈ F.
7. p(z) = z5 + z4 + z3 + z2 + z + 1, z ∈ F.
8. p(z) = z5 − z3 + 2z2 + z + 1, z ∈ F.
9. p(z) = z6 − 3z5 − 4z3 + z − 1, z ∈ F.
10. p(z) = z7 − z6 − 3z3 + z + 1, z ∈ F.
Note that
Pm (F) = span(1, z, z2 , . . . , zm ).
Therefore Pm (F) is a finite-dimensional vector space for each nonnegative integer
m.
4.3 Infinite-Dimensional Vector Spaces
Definition 4.7. A vector space is said to be infinite-dimensional if it is not finite-

dimensional.
Theorem 4.4. The vector space P(F) is infinite-dimensional.
Proof. Consider a list of elements of P(F). Let m denote the highest degree of the
polynomials in this list. Then every polynomial in the span of this list has a degree
at most m. Therefore zm+1 does not belong to this list. Hence, no list spans P(F)
and P(F) is infinite-dimensional. This completes the proof.
4.4 Linear Independence and Linear Independence
Definition 4.8. A list v1 , . . . , vm of vectors in V is called linearly independent if the

only choice of a1 , . . . , am ∈ F such that
a1 v1 + · · · + am vm = 0
is
a1 = . . . = am = 0.
Otherwise, the list v1 , . . . , vm is said to be linearly dependent. The empty list is de-
clared to be linearly independent.
v1 = (1, 4, 6),
v2 = (1, −1, 1),
v3 = (1, 1, 3).
Assume that there are a1 , a2 , a3 ∈ F so that
a1 v1 + a2 v2 + a3 v3 = 0.
Then
0 = (0, 0, 0)
= a1 (1, 4, 6) + a2 (1, −1, 1) + a3 (1, 1, 3)
= (a1 , 4a1 , 6a1 ) + (a2 , −a2 , a2 ) + (a3 , a3 , 3a3 )
= (a1 + a2 + a3 , 4a1 − a2 + a3 , 6a1 + a2 + 3a3 ).
a1 + a2 + a3 = 0
4a1 − a2 + a3 = 0
6a1 + a2 + 3a3 = 0,
whereupon
4.4 Linear Independence and Linear Independence 171
a3 = −a1 − a2
4a1 − a2 − a1 − a2 = 0
6a1 + a2 − 3a1 − 3a2 = 0,
or
a3 = −a1 − a2
3a1 − 2a2 = 0
3a1 − 2a2 = 0,
or
a3 = −a1 − a2
3a1 − 2a2 = 0,
or
a3 = −a1 − a2
3
a2 = a1 ,
2
or
3
a3 = −a1 − a1
2
3
a2 = a1 ,
2
or
5
a3 = − a1
2
3
a2 = a1 .
2
Take
a1 = 2,
a2 = 3,
a3 = −5.
Then a1 , a2 and a3 satisfy the last system, and
(a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (2, 3, −5)
6= (0, 0, 0),
and
2v1 + 3v2 − 6v3 = 2(1, 4, 6) + 3(1, −1, 1) − 5(1, 1, 3)
= (2, 8, 12) + (3, −3, 3) + (−5, −5, −15)
= (5, 5, 15) + (−5, −5, −15)
= (0, 0, 0).
Thus, the considered list v1 , v2 , v3 is linearly dependent.
v1 = (1, −1, 2),
v2 = (−1, 1, −1),
v3 = (2, −1, 1).
a1 v1 + a2 v2 + a3 v3 = 0.
Then
0 = (0, 0, 0)
= a1 (1, −1, 2) + a2 (−1, 1, −1) + a3 (2, −1, 1)
= (a1 , −a1 , 2a1 ) + (−a2 , a2 , −a2 ) + (2a3 , −a3 , a3 )

= (a1 − a2 + 2a3 , −a1 + a2 − a3 , 2a1 − a2 + a3 ).
Thus, we get the system
a1 − a2 + 2a3 = 0
−a1 + a2 − a3 = 0
2a1 − a2 + a3 = 0,
whereupon
a1 = a2 − 2a3
−a2 + 2a3 + a2 − a3 = 0
2a2 − 4a3 − a2 + a3 = 0,
or
a1 = a2 − 2a3
a3 = 0
a2 = 3a3 ,
or
a1 = 0
a2 = 0
a3 = 0.
Therefore the considered list v1 , v2 , v3 is linearly independent.
Exercise 4.5. Consider F3 . Check if the following lists of vectors are linearly inde-
pendent or linearly dependent.
1.
v1 = (−1, 0, 1),
v2 = (−3, 0, 2),
v3 = (1, 1, 1).
2.
v1 = (0, 0, 1),
v2 = (1, 0, 1),
v3 = (1, 1, 1).
3.
v1 = (1, 2, 3),
v2 = (4, 5, 6),
v3 = (7, 8, 9).
4.
v1 = (2, −3, 1),
v2 = (3, −1, 5),
v3 = (1, −4, 3).
5.
v1 = (5, 4, 3),
v2 = (3, 3, 2),
v3 = (8, 1, 3).
Example 4.10. Consider P2 (F) and
p1 (z) = 1,
p2 (z) = z − 1,
p3 (z) = (z + 3)2 , z ∈ F.
Assume that there are a1 , a2 , a3 ∈ F such that
a1 p1 (z) + a2 p2 (z) + a3 p3 (z) = 0, z ∈ F.
We have
0 = 0 + 0z + 0z2
= a1 + a2 (z − 1) + a3 (z + 3)2
= a1 − a2 + a2 z + a3 (z2 + 6z + 9)
= a1 − a2 + a2 z + a3 z2 + 6a3 z + 9a3
= (a1 − a2 + 9a3 ) + (a2 + 6a3 )z + a3 z2 , z ∈ F.
Since the last equation holds for any z ∈ F and the coefficients of any polynomial
are uniquely determined by the polynomial, we get the system
a1 − a2 + 9a3 = 0
a2 + 6a3 = 0
a3 = 0,
whereupon
a1 = 0
a2 = 0
a3 = 0.
Therefore the list p1 , p2 , p3 of polynomial of P2 (F) is linearly independent.

Example 4.11. Consider P2 (F) and
p1 (z) = 4z2 − 3z − 1,
p2 (z) = 4z − 3,
p3 (z) = 4z2 + 9z − 10, z ∈ F.
a1 p1 (z) + a2 p2 (z) + a3 p3 (z) = 0, z ∈ F.
We have
0 = 0 + 0z + 0z2
= a1 (4z2 − 3z − 1) + a2 (4z − 3) + a3 (4z2 + 9z − 10)
= 4a1 z2 − 3a1 z − a1 + 4a2 z − 3a2 + 4a3 z2 + 9a3 z − 10a3
= −a1 − 3a2 − 10a3 + (−3a1 + 4a2 + 9a3 )z + (4a1 + 4a3 )z2 , z ∈ F.
Since the last equation holds for any z ∈ F and the coefficients of any polynomials
are uniquely determined by the polynomial, we obtain the following system
−a1 − 3a2 − 10a3 = 0
−3a1 + 4a2 + 9a3 = 0
4a1 + 4a3 = 0,
whereupon
a1 = −a3
−a1 − 3a2 + 10a1 = 0
−3a1 + 4a2 − 9a1 = 0,
or
a1 = −a3
3a2 = 9a1
4a2 = 12a1 ,
or
a1 = −a3
a2 = 3a1 .
Take
a1 = 1,
a2 = 3,
a3 = −1.
Then
(a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (1, 3, −1)
6= (0, 0, 0)
and
a1 p1 (z) + a2 p2 (z) + a3 p3 (z) = 4z2 − 3z − 1 + 3(4z − 3) − (4z2 + 9z − 10)
= 4z2 − 3z − 1 + 12z − 9 − 4z2 − 9z + 10
= 0, z ∈ F.
Consequently the list p1 , p2 , p3 of polynomials of P2 (F) is linearly independent.
Exercise 4.6. Consider P2 (F). Check if the following lists of polynomials in

P2 (F) are linearly independent or linearly dependent.
1.
p1 (z) = z + 1,
p2 (z) = −3,
p3 (z) = (1 − 2z)2 , z ∈ F.
2.
p1 (z) = z2 + 4z,
p2 (z) = 2z2 − z + 4,
p3 (z) = 4z2 − 4z + 1, z ∈ F.
3.
p1 (z) = 4z2 − 3z + 2,
p2 (z) = −3z2 + 2z − 3,
p3 (z) = 7z2 − 5z − 2, z ∈ F.
4.
p1 (z) = z2 − 7z + 11,
p2 (z) = z2 + 4,
p3 (z) = 2z − 3, z ∈ F.
5.
p1 (z) = 3z − 4,
p2 (z) = 3z2 − 2z − 3,
p3 (z) = z2 + 3z + 3, z ∈ F.
Theorem 4.5. The list v1 , . . . , vm of vectors in V is linearly independent if and only

if each vector in V has only one representation as a linear combination of the list
v1 , . . ., vm .
Proof. 1. Let the list v1 , . . . , vm be linearly independent. Assume that for v ∈ V we

have the representations
v = a1 v1 + · · · + am vm
and
v = b1 v1 + · · · + bm vm ,
where a1 , . . . , am , b1 , . . ., bm ∈ F, and
(a1 , . . . , am ) 6= (b1 , . . . , bm ). (4.3)

We have
0 = v−v
= a1 v1 + · · · + am vm
−b1 v1 − · · · − bm vm
= (a1 − b1 )v1 + · · · + (am − bm )vm .
Since the list v1 , . . . , vm is linearly independent, the last equation holds if
a1 − b1 = 0
..
.
am − bm = 0,
or
a1 = b1
..
.
am = bm .
Thus,
(a1 , . . . , am ) = (b1 , . . . , bm ),
which contradicts with (4.3). Therefore each vector in V has only one represen-
tation as a linear combination of the list v1 , . . . , vm .
2. Let each vector in V has only one representation as a linear combination of the
list v1 , . . ., vm . We have
0 = 0v1 + · · · + 0vm .
Hence, the equation
0 = a1 v1 + · · · + am vm ,
a1 , . . . , am ∈ F, holds if
a1 = 0
..
.
am = 0.
By the definition, it follows that v1 , . . . , vm are linearly independent. This com-

pletes the proof.
Theorem 4.6. Let the list v1 , . . . , vm of vectors in V be linearly dependent. Then

there exists j ∈ {1, . . . , m} such that v j ∈ span(v1 , . . . , v j−1 ) and if v j is removed
from the list v1 , . . . , vm , the span of the remaining list equals span(v1 , . . . , vm ).
Proof. Since the list v1 , . . . , vm is linearly dependent, there are scalars a1 , . . . , am ∈ F,

not all 0, so that
0 = a1 v1 + · · · + am vm
and
(a1 , . . . , am ) 6= (0, . . . , 0).
Let j be the largest element of the set {1, . . . , m} so that a j 6= 0. Then
a j+1 = 0
..
.
am = 0.
1. Let j 6= 1. Then
a j v j = −a1 v1 − · · · − a j−1 v j−1 − a j+1 v j+1 − · · · − am vm ,
whereupon
a1 a j−1 a j+1 am
vj = − v1 − · · · − v j−1 − v j+1 − · · · − vm . (4.4)
aj aj aj aj
Thus, v j ∈ span(v1 , . . . , v j−1 ).

2. Let j = 1. Then
a1 v1 = 0,
whereupon
v1 = 0
and v1 ∈ span() = {0}.
Now, we will prove the remaining part of the assertion.
1. Let j 6= 1. Take u ∈ span(v1 , . . . , v j−1 , v j+1 , . . . , vm ) arbitrarily. Then, there are
scalars a1 , . . . , a j−1 , a j+1 , . . . , am ∈ F so that
u = a1 v1 + · · · + a j−1 v j−1 + a j+1 v j+1 + · · · + am vm

= a1 v1 + · · · + a j−1 v j−1 + 0v j + a j+1 v j+1 + · · · + am vm .
Hence, u ∈ span(v1 , . . . , vm ). Since u ∈ span(v1 , . . . , v j−1 , v j+1 , . . . , vm ) was arbi-

trarily chosen and we get that it is an element of span(v1 , . . . , vm ), we find the
inclusion
span(v1 , . . . , v j−1 , v j+1 , . . . , vm ) ⊆ span(v1 , . . . , vm ). (4.5)
Let now, v ∈ span(v1 , . . . , vm ). Then there are scalars b1 , . . . , bm ∈ F so that
v = b1 v1 + · · · + bm vm .
Hence, using (4.4), we obtain
v = b1 v1 + · · · + b j−1 v j−1 + b j v j + b j+1 v j+1 + · · · + bm vm
= b1 v1 + · · · + b j−1 v j−1

a1 a j−1 a j+1 am
+b j − v1 − v j−1 − v j+1 − · · · − vm
aj aj aj aj
+b j+1 v j+1 + · · · + bm vm

a1 a j−1
= b1 − b j v1 + · · · + b j−1 − v j−1
aj aj
+b j+1 v j+1 + · · · + bm vm ,
whereupon
v ∈ span(v1 , . . . , v j−1 , v j+1 , . . . , vm ).
Since v ∈ span(v1 , . . . , vm ) was arbitrarily chosen and we get that it is an element
of span(v1 , . . . , v j−1 , v j+1 , . . . , vm ), we obtain the inclusion
span(v1 , . . . , vm ) ⊆ span(v1 , . . . , v j−1 , v j+1 , . . . , vm ).
By the last inclusion and (4.5), we obtain the equality
span(v1 , . . . , vm ) = span(v1 , . . . , v j−1 , v j+1 , . . . , vm ).
2. Let j = 1. Then
v1 = 0.
Hence, for any a1 , . . . , am ∈ F, we have
a1 v1 + · · · + am vm = a2 v2 + · · · + am vm .
Therefore
span(v1 , . . . , vm ) = span(v2 , . . . , vm ).
Theorem 4.7. In a finite-dimensional vector space, the length of any linearly inde-
pendent list of vectors is less than or equal to the length of any spanning list of
vectors.
Proof. Let u1 , . . . , um be a linearly independent list of vectors in V and B = {w1 , . . . , wn }
spans V . Since B spans V , if we add to B a new vector from V we will get a linearly
dependent list. In particular,
u1 , w1 , . . . , wn
is a linearly dependent list in V . By Theorem 4.6, it follows that we can remove
some w’s from this list, so that the new list of length n consisting of u1 and the
remaining w’s spans V . The new list we will denote again by B. Now, we add u2
to B and we get a list of length (n + 1) which is linearly dependent. By Theorem
4.6, it follows that we can remove some vector of this new list so that the obtained
list spans V . Since u1 and u2 are linearly independent, this vector is one of the w’s,
not one of u’s. We can remove that w’s, so that the obtained new list B consisting
of u1 , u2 and remaining w’s spans V . And so on. After m steps, we have added all
u’s and the process stop. By Theorem 4.6, it follows that there is a vector that we
can remove it. Because u1 , . . ., um are linearly independent, this vector is one of the
w’s, not one of u’s. Thus, there are at least as many w’s as u’s and then m ≤ n. This
4.5 Finite-Dimensional Vector Subspaces
Theorem 4.8. Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space and U be its subspace.

Then U is finite-dimensional.
Proof. We will consider the following cases.
1. Let U = {0}. Then U is finite-dimensional.
2. Let U 6= {0}. Then, we choose a nonzero vector v1 ∈ U. If
U = span(v1 ),
then U is finite dimensional and the proof is completed. Otherwise, we choose a

vector v2 6∈ span(v1 ), v2 ∈ U. If
U = span(v1 , v2 ),
then U is finite-dimensional and we are done. And so on. If
U = span(v1 , . . . , v j−1 ),
4.6 Bases 183
then U is finite-dimensional and the proof is completed. Let
U 6= span(v1 , . . . , v j−1 ).
Then, we take v j ∈ U so that
v j 6∈ span(v1 , . . . , v j−1 ).
After each step we have constructed a list of vectors such that no vector in this
list which is in the span of the previous vectors. Thus, after each step we have
constructed a linearly independent list. This linearly independent list cannot be
longer than any spanning list of V . So, the process terminates and U is finite-
dimensional. This completes the proof.
4.6 Bases
Definition 4.9. A basis in V is a list of vectors in V that is linearly independent and

spans V .
v1 = (1, 2),
v2 = (3, 5).
Assume that there are scalars a1 , a2 ∈ F so that
a1 v1 + a2 v2 = 0.
We have
0 = (0, 0)
= a1 (1, 2) + a2 (3, 5)
= (a1 , 2a1 ) + (3a2 , 5a2 )
= (a1 + 3a2 , 2a1 + 5a2 ).
a1 + 3a2 = 0
2a1 + 5a2 = 0,
whereupon
a1 = −3a2
−6a2 + a2 = 0,
or
a1 = 0
a2 = 0.
Therefore the list v1 , v2 is linearly independent. Let u = (u1 , u2 ) ∈ F2 be arbitrarily

chosen. We will search b1 , b2 ∈ F so that
u = b1 u1 + b2 u2 .
We have
u = (u1 , u2 )
= b1 (1, 2) + b2 (3, 5)
= (b1 , 2b1 ) + (3b2 , 5b2 )
= (b1 + 3b2 , 2b1 + 5b2 ).
From here, we get the system
b1 + 3b2 = u1
2b1 + 5b2 = u2 ,
or
b1 = u1 − 3b2
2(u1 − 3b2 ) + 5b2 = u2 ,
or
b1 = u1 − 3b2
4.6 Bases 185
2u1 − 6b2 + 5b2 = u2 ,
or
b1 = u1 − 3b2
b2 = 2u1 − u2 ,
or
b1 = u1 − 3(2u1 − u2 )
b2 = 2u1 − u2 ,
or
b1 = u1 − 6u1 + 3u2
b2 = 2u1 − u2 ,
or
b1 = −5u1 + 3u2
b2 = 2u1 − u2 .
Consequently
u = (−5u1 + 3u2 )v1 + (2u1 − u2 )v2 .
Since u ∈ F was arbitrarily chosen, we conclude that any vector in F2 can be rep-
2
resented in a unique way as a linear combination of v1 and v2 . Thus, the list v1 , v2 is

a basis of F2 .
v1 = (1, 2, −4),
v2 = (7, −5, 6).
Let a1 , a2 ∈ F be such that

0 = a1 v1 + a2 v2 .
We have
0 = (0, 0)
= a1 (1, 2, −4) + a2 (7, −5, 6)
= (a1 , 2a1 , −4a1 ) + (7a2 , −5a2 , 6a2 )
= (a1 + 7a2 , 2a1 − 5a2 , −4a1 + 6a2 ),
a1 + 7a2 = 0
2a1 − 5a2 = 0
−4a1 + 6a2 = 0,
or
a1 = −7a2
−14a2 − 5a2 = 0
28a2 + 6a2 = 0,
or
a1 = 0
a2 = 0.
Therefore the list v1 , v2 is linearly independent in F2 . Let u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) ∈ F3 be

arbitrarily chosen. We will search b1 , b2 ∈ F so that
u = b1 v1 + b2 v2 .
We have
u = (u1 , u2 , u3 )
= b1 (1, 2, −4) + b2 (7, −5, 6)
= (b1 , 2b1 , −4b1 ) + (7b2 , −5b2 , 6b2 )

4.6 Bases 187
= (b1 + 7b2 , 2b1 − 5b2 , −4b1 + 6b2 ).
Hence,
b1 + 7b2 = u1
2b1 − 5b2 = u2
−4b1 + 6b2 = u3 ,
or
b1 = u1 − 7b2
2(u1 − 7b2 ) − 5b2 = u2
−4(u1 − 7b2 ) + 6b2 = u3 ,
or
b1 = u1 − 7b2
2u1 − 14b2 − 5b2 = u2
−4u1 + 28b2 + 6b2 = u3 ,
or
b1 = u1 − 7b2
19b2 = 2u1 − u2
−4u1 + 34b2 = u3 ,
or
b1 = u1 − 7b2
2u1 − u2
b2 =
19
u3 + 4u1
b2 = .
34
By the last two equations we find

2u1 − u2 u3 + 4u1
=
19 34
or
68u1 − 34u2 = 19u3 + 76u1 ,
or
8u1 + 34u2 + 19u3 = 0. (4.6)
3
Thus, only the vectors u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) ∈ F for which (4.6) holds can be represented
as a linear combination of v1 and v2 . Therefore
span(v1 , v2 ) 6= F3
and the list v1 and v2 is not a basis in F3 .

Exercise 4.7. Consider F2 and
v1 = (1, 2),
v2 = (3, 5),
v3 = (4, 13).
Prove that the list v1 , v2 , v3 is not basis in F3 .

Theorem 4.9. A list v1 , . . . , vm of vectors in V is basis if and only if any element of
V can be written uniquely as a linear combination of v1 , . . . , vm .
Proof. 1. Let the list v1 , . . . , vm be a basis of V . Assume that for v ∈ V we have two
representations
v = b1 v1 + · · · + bm vm
and
v = c1 v1 + · · · + cm vm ,
where b1 , . . . , bm , c1 , . . ., cm ∈ F, and
(b1 , . . . , bm ) 6= (c1 , . . . , cm ). (4.7)
Observe that
0 = v−v
= b1 v1 + · · · + bm vm
−c1 v1 − · · · − cm vm
4.6 Bases 189
= (b1 − c1 )v1 + · · · + (bm − cm )vm .
Since the list v1 , . . . , vm is a basis, we have that it is linearly independent. Thus,

the last equation holds if
b1 − c1 = 0
..
.
bm − cm = 0,
or
b1 = c1
..
.
bm = cm .
Consequently
(b1 , . . . , bm ) = (c1 , . . . , cm ),
which contradicts with (4.7). Hence, we conclude that each vector in V has only
one representation as a linear combination of the list v1 , . . . , vm .
2. Let each vector in V has only one representation as a linear combination of the
list v1 , . . ., vm . Then v1 , . . . , vm spans V . Because
0 = 0v1 + · · · + 0vm ,
the equation
0 = b1 v1 + · · · + bm vm ,
b1 , . . . , bm ∈ F, holds if
b1 = 0
..
.
bm = 0.
By the definition, it follows that v1 , . . . , vm are linearly independent. Now, using

that the list v1 , . . . , vm spans V , we conclude that this list is basis of V . This
Theorem 4.10. Every spanning list in a vector space can be reduced to a basis of
the vector space.
Proof. Let B = {v1 , . . . , vm } be a spanning list in V . If v1 = 0, then we remove it from
B. If v1 6= 0, then we leave B unchanged. If v2 ∈ span(v1 ), then we remove it from B.
If v2 6∈ span(v1 ), then we leave B unchanged. And so on. If v j ∈ span(v1 , . . . , v j−1 ),
then we remove it from B. If v j 6∈ span(v1 , . . . , v j−1 ), we leave B unchanged. We stop
the process after m steps. The last list B spans V because the original list spanned
B and we have discarded only vectors that were already in the span of the previous
vectors. The process ensures that no vector in the last list B is in the span of the
previous vectors. Now, applying Theorem 4.6, we get that the last list B is linearly
independent. Consequently the last list B is basis of V . This completes the proof.
Corollary 4.1. Every finite-dimensional vector space has a basis.
Proof. Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space. By the definition, it follows that
there is a list of vectors of V that spans V . Now, applying Theorem 4.6, we get that
V has a basis. This completes the proof.
v1 = (1, 0, 0, −1),
v2 = (2, 1, 1, 0),
v3 = (1, 1, 1, 1),
v4 = (1, 2, 3, 4),
v5 = (0, 1, 2, 3).
Firstly, we will show that
span(v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 ) = F4 .
Let
u = (u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 ) ∈ F4
be arbitrarily chosen and fixed. Let also, a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , a5 ∈ F be such that
u = a1 v1 + a2 v2 + a3 v3 + a4 v4 + a5 v5 .
We have
4.6 Bases 191
u = (u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 )
= a1 (1, 0, 0, −1) + a2 (2, 1, 1, 0) + a3 (1, 1, 1, 1)
+a4 (1, 2, 3, 4) + a5 (0, 1, 2, 3)
= (a1 , 0, 0, −a1 ) + (2a2 , a2 , a2 , 0) + (a3 , a3 , a3 , a3 )
+(a4 , 2a4 , 3a4 , 4a4 ) + (0, a5 , 2a5 , 3a5 )
= (a1 + 2a2 + a3 + a4 , a2 + a3 + 2a4 + a5 , a2 + a3 + 3a4 + 2a5 , −a1 + a3 + 4a4 + 3a5 ).
a1 + 2a2 + a3 + a4 = u1
a2 + a3 + 2a4 + a5 = u2
a2 + a3 + 3a4 + 2a5 = u3
−a1 + a3 + 4a4 + 3a5 = u4 ,
whereupon
a4 + a5 = u3 − u2
a1 + 2a2 + a3 + a4 = u1
a2 + a3 + 2a4 + a5 = u2
−a1 + a3 + 4a4 + 3a5 = u4 ,
or
a4 = u3 − u2 − a5
a1 + 2a2 + a3 + u3 − u2 − a5 = u1
a2 + a3 + 2u3 − 2u2 − 2a5 + a5 = u2

−a1 + a3 + 4u3 − 4u2 − 4a5 + 3a5 = u4 ,
or
a4 = u3 − u2 − a5
a1 + 2a2 + a3 − a5 = u1 + u2 − u3
a2 + a3 − a5 = 3u2 − 2u3
−a1 + a3 − a5 = 4u2 − 4u3 + u4 ,
or
a4 = u3 − u2 − a5
a1 = −2a2 − a3 + a5 + u1 + u2 − u3
a2 = a3 + a5 + 3u2 − 2u3
−2a2 − a3 + a5 + u1 + u2 − u3 + a3 − a5 = 4u2 − 4u3 + u4 ,
or
a4 = u3 − u2 − a5
a1 = −2a2 − a3 + a5 + u1 + u2 − u3
a2 = a3 + a5 + 3u2 − 2u3
2a2 = u1 − 3u2 + 3u3 − u4 ,
or
a4 = u3 − u2 − a5
a1 = −u1 + 3u2 − 3u3 + u4 − a3 + a5 + u1 + u2 − u3
1 3 3 1
u1 − u2 + u3 − u4 = a3 + a5 + 3u2 − 2u3
2 2 2 2
4.6 Bases 193
1 3 3 1
a2 = u1 − u2 + u3 − u4 ,
2 2 2 2
or
a4 = u3 − u2 − a5
1 3 3 1
a2 = u1 − u2 + u3 − u4
2 2 2 2
a1 = 4u2 − 4u3 + u4 − a3 + a5
1 9 7 1
a3 = u1 − u2 + u3 − u4 − a5 ,
2 2 2 2
or
1 9 7 1
a1 = 4u2 − 4u3 + u4 − u1 + u2 − u3 + u4 + a5 + a5
2 2 2 2
1 3 3 1
a2 = u1 − u2 + u3 − u4
2 2 2 2
1 9 7 1
a3 = u1 − u2 + u3 − u4 − a5
2 2 2 2
a4 = u3 − u2 − a5 .
Therefore
1 17 15 3
a1 = − u1 + u2 − u3 + u4 + 2a5
2 2 2 2
1 3 3 1
a2 = u1 − u2 + u3 − u4
2 2 2 2
1 9 7 1
a3 = u1 − u2 + u3 − u4 − a5
2 2 2 2
a4 = u3 − u2 − a5 .
and then
span(v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 ) = F4 .
We have that v1 6= 0 and v2 6∈ span(v1 ). Now, we will check if
v3 ∈ span(v1 , v2 ). (4.8)
Let c1 , c2 ∈ F be such that

v3 = c1 v1 + c2 v2 .
Then
v3 = (1, 1, 1, 1)
= c1 (1, 0, 0, −1) + c2 (2, 1, 1, 0)
= (c1 , 0, 0, −c1 ) + (2c2 , c2 , c2 , 0)
= (c1 + 2c2 , c2 , c2 , −c1 ),
whereupon
c1 + 2c2 = 1
c2 = 1
−c1 = 1,
or
c1 = −1
c2 = 1.
Therefore (4.8) holds and we remove v3 . Let d1 , d2 ∈ F be such that
v4 = d1 v1 + d2 v2 .
We have
v4 = (1, 2, 3, 4)
= d1 (1, 0, 0, −1) + d2 (2, 1, 1, 0)
= (d1 , 0, 0, −d1 ) + (2d2 , d2 , d2 , 0)
= (d1 + 2d2 , d2 , d2 , −d1 ).

4.6 Bases 195
d1 + 2d2 = 1
d2 = 2
d2 = 3
−d1 = 4,
which is impossible. Therefore
v4 6∈ span(v1 , v2 ).
Let e1 , e2 , e3 ∈ F be such that
v5 = e1 v1 + e2 v2 + e4 v4 .
We have
v5 = (0, 1, 2, 3)
= e1 (1, 0, 0, −1) + e2 (2, 1, 1, 0) + e3 (1, 2, 3, 4)
= (e1 , 0, 0, −e1 ) + (2e2 , e2 , e2 , 0) + (e3 , 2e3 , 3e3 , 4e3 )
= (e1 + 2e2 + e3 , e2 + 2e3 , e2 + 3e3 , −e1 + 4e3 ),
e1 + 2e2 + e3 = 0
e2 + 2e3 = 1
e2 + 3e3 = 2
−e1 + 4e3 = 3,
or
e1 = 4e3 − 3
e2 = 2 − 3e3
e2 = 1 − 2e3
4e3 − 3 + 4 − 6e3 + e3 = 0,
or
e3 = 1
e1 = 1
e2 = −1
−e3 + 1 = 0.
Consequently
v5 ∈ span(v1 , v2 , v4 )
and we remove it. Now, applying Theorem 4.10, we get that the list v1 , v2 , v4 is a
basis of F4 .
Exercise 4.8. Consider F2 and
v1 = (−1, 1),
v2 = (2, 1),
v3 = (3, 2).
Find a basis of F2 .
Theorem 4.11. Every linearly independent list of vectors in a finite-dimensional
vector space can be extended to a basis of the vector space.
Proof. Suppose that u1 , . . . , um is a linearly independent list in a finite-dimensional
vector space V and let w1 , . . . , wn be a basis of V . Then, the list
u1 , ..., um , w1 , ..., wn (4.9)
spans V . Applying Theorem 4.10, by the list (4.9) we get a basis of V that contains
all u’s, because they are linearly independent, and some of w’s. This completes the
proof.
v1 = (2, 3, 4),
4.6 Bases 197
v2 = (9, 6, 8).
Let a ∈ F be such that

v1 = av2 .
Then
v1 = (2, 3, 4)
= a(9, 6, 8)
= (9a, 6a, 8a),
whereupon
9a = 2
6a = 3
8a = 4,
or
2
a= ,
9
1
a= .
2
This is impossible. Therefore v1 and v2 are linearly independent. Note that
w1 = (1, 0, 0),
w2 = (0, 1, 0),
w3 = (0, 0, 1)
is a basis of F3 . Consider the list v1 , v2 , w1 , w2 , w3 . Let b1 , b2 ∈ F be such that
w1 = b1 v1 + b2 v2 .
Then
w1 = (1, 0, 0)
= b1 (2, 3, 4) + b2 (9, 6, 8)
= (2b1 , 3b1 , 4b1 ) + (9b2 , 6b2 , 8b2 )
= (2b1 + 9b2 , 3b1 + 6b2 , 4b1 + 8b2 ),
whereupon
2b1 + 9b2 = 1
3b1 + 6b2 = 0
4b1 + 8b2 = 0,
or
2b1 + 9b2 = 1
b1 = −2b2 ,
or
−4b2 + 9b2 = 1
b1 = −2b2 ,
or
2
b1 = −
5
1
b2 = .
5
Therefore
w1 ∈ span(v1 , v2 )
and we remove it. Now, consider the list v1 , v2 , w2 , w3 . Let c1 , c2 ∈ F be such that
w2 = c1 v1 + c2 v2 .
Then
w2 = (0, 1, 0)
4.6 Bases 199
= c1 (2, 3, 4) + c2 (9, 6, 8)
= (2c1 , 3c1 , 4c1 ) + (9c2 , 6c2 , 8c2 )
= (2c1 + 9c2 , 3c1 + 6c2 , 4c1 + 8c2 ),
whereupon
2c1 + 9c2 = 0
3c1 + 6c2 = 1
4c1 + 8c2 = 0,
or
2c1 + 9c2 = 0
3c1 + 6c2 = 1
4c1 + 8c2 = 0,
or
2c1 + 9c2 = 0
3c1 + 6c2 = 1
c1 = −2c2 ,
or
2c1 + 9c2 = 0
0=1
c1 = −2c2 ,
which is impossible. Therefore

w2 6∈ span(v1 , v2 ).
Let now, d1 , d2 , d3 ∈ F be such that
w3 = d1 v1 + d2 v2 + d3 w2 .
We have
w3 = (0, 0, 1)
= d1 (2, 3, 4) + d2 (9, 6, 8) + d3 (0, 1, 0)
= (2d1 , 3d1 , 4d1 ) + (9d2 , 6d2 , 8d2 ) + (0, d3 , 0)
= (2d1 + 9d2 , 3d1 + 6d2 + d3 , 4d1 + 8d2 ),
2d1 + 9d2 = 0
3d1 + 6d2 + d3 = 0
4d1 + 8d2 = 1,
or
9
d1 = − d2
2
10d2 = −1
3d1 + 6d2 + d3 = 0,
or
9
d1 = − d2
2
1
d2 = − ,
10
3d1 + 6d2 + d3 = 0,
or
4.6 Bases 201
9
d1 =
20
1
d2 = − ,
10
27 6
− + d3 = 0,
20 10
or
9
d1 =
20
1
d2 = −
10
3
d3 = − .
4
Consequently
w3 ∈ span(v1 , v2 , w2 )
and we remove it. Now, applying Theorem 4.11, we get that the list v1 , v2 , w2 is a
basis of V .
Exercise 4.9. Consider F3 . Extend the list
v1 = (−1, 2, 5),
v2 = (1, 4, 10)
to a basis of F3 .
Theorem 4.12. Suppose V is a finite-dimensional vector space and U is its sub-

space.Then there is a subspace W of V so that
V = U ⊕W.
Proof. Because V is finite-dimensional, by Theorem 4.8, it follows that U is finite

dimensional. Let the list
u1 , . . . , um
be a basis of U. This list is linearly independent in V and then, applying Theorem
4.11, this list can be extended to a basis of V , i.e., there is a list
u1 , . . . , um , w1 , . . . , wn (4.10)
that is a basis of V . Set

W = span(w1 , . . . , wn ).
Now, we will show that

V = U +W. (4.11)
Take v ∈ V arbitrarily. Then, there are scalars a1 , . . . , am , b1 , . . . , bn ∈ F, so that
v = a1 u1 + · · · + am um + b1 w1 + · · · + bn wn .
Denote
u = a1 u1 + · · · + am um ,
w = b1 w1 + · · · + bn wn .
Then, u ∈ U, w ∈ W and
v = u + w.
Because v ∈ V was arbitrarily chosen, we get the equation (4.11). Let now, z ∈
U ∩ W be arbitrarily chosen. Then z ∈ U and z ∈ W . Hence, there are scalars
c1 , . . . , cm , d1 , . . . , dn ∈ F such that
z = c1 u1 + · · · + cm um
= d1 w1 + · · · + dn wn .
By the last two equations, we find
c1 u1 + · · · + cm um − d1 w1 − · · · − dn wn = 0.
Because (4.10) is a basis of V , by the last equation, we find the system
c1 = 0
..
.
cm = 0
d1 = 0
..
.
dn = 0
and so, z = 0. Because z ∈ U ∩W was arbitrarily chosen, we conclude that

4.6 Bases 203
U ∩W = {0}.
By the last equation and the equation (4.11), applying Theorem 3.9, we arrive at
V = U ⊕W.
Example 4.16. Let U be a subspace of R5 , defined by
U = {(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 ) ∈ R5 : x1 = 3x2 , x3 = 7x4 }.
Firstly, we will find a basis of U. Take
u1 = (3, 1, 0, 0, 0),
u2 = (0, 0, 7, 3, 0),
u3 = (0, 0, 0, 0, 1).
Assume that there are scalars a1 , a2 , a3 ∈ R so that
a1 u1 + a2 u2 + a3 u3 = 0.
We have
0 = (0, 0, 0, 0, 0)
= a1 (3, 1, 0, 0, 0) + a2 (0, 0, 7, 3, 0) + a3 (0, 0, 0, 0, 1)
= (3a1 , a1 , 0, 0, 0) + (0, 0, 7a2 , 3a2 , 0) + (0, 0, 0, 0, a3 )
= (3a1 , a1 , 7a2 , 3a2 , a3 ),
3a1 = 0
a1 = 0
7a2 = 0
3a2 = 0
a3 = 0,
i.e.,
a1 = 0
a2 = 0
a3 = 0.
Thus, the list u1 , u2 , u3 is linearly independent in R5 . Let now,
v = (3v2 , v2 , 7v4 , v4 , v5 ) ∈ U, v2 , v4 , v5 ∈ R,
be arbitrarily chosen. We will search scalars b1 , b2 , b3 ∈ R so that
v = b1 u1 + b2 u2 + b3 u3 .
We have
v = (3v2 , v2 , 7v4 , v4 , v5 )
= b1 (3, 1, 0, 0, 0) + b2 (0, 0, 7, 1, 0) + b3 (0, 0, 0, 0, 1)
= (3b1 , b1 , 0, 0, 0) + (0, 0, 7b2 , b2 , 0) + (0, 0, 0, 0, b3 )
= (3b1 , b1 , 7b2 , b2 , b3 ),
3v2 = 3b1
v2 = b1
7v4 = 7b2
v4 = b2
v5 = b3 ,
or
4.6 Bases 205
b1 = v2
b2 = v4
b3 = v5 .
Thus, any vector of v ∈ U can be represented in a unique way as a linear combination

of the list u1 , u2 , u3 . Therefore
span(u1 , u2 , u3 ) = V.
Since the list u1 , u2 , u3 is linearly independent in U, we conclude that the list

u1 , u2 , u3 is a basis of U. Now, we will extend this basis to basis of R5 . Note that the
standard basis of R5 is
w1 = (1, 0, 0, 0, 0),
w2 = (0, 1, 0, 0, 0),
w3 = (0, 0, 1, 0, 0),
w4 = (0, 0, 0, 1, 0),
w5 = (0, 0, 0, 0, 1).
Since u3 = w5 , we consider the list
u1 , u2 , u3 , w1 , w2 , w3 , w4 .
We will search scalars c1 , c2 , c3 so that
w1 = c1 u1 + c2 u2 + c3 u3 .
We have
w1 = (1, 0, 0, 0, 0)
= c1 (3, 1, 0, 0, 0) + c2 (0, 0, 7, 1, 0) + c3 (0, 0, 0, 0, 1)
= (3c1 , c1 , 0, 0, 0) + (0, 0, 7c2 , c2 , 0) + (0, 0, 0, 0, c3 )
= (3c1 , c1 , 7c2 , c2 , c3 ),
3c1 = 1
c1 = 0
7c2 = 0
c2 = 0
c3 = 0,
which is impossible. Thus,
w1 6∈ span(u1 , u2 , u3 ).
Now, we will search scalars d1 , d2 , d3 , d4 ∈ R so that
w2 = d1 u1 + d2 u2 + d3 u3 + d4 w1 .
We have
w2 = (0, 1, 0, 0, 0)
= d1 (3, 1, 0, 0, 0) + d2 (0, 0, 7, 1, 0) + d3 (0, 0, 0, 0, 1) + d4 (1, 0, 0, 0, 0)
= (3d1 , d1 , 0, 0, 0) + (0, 0, 7d2 , d2 , 0) + (0, 0, 0, 0, d3 ) + (d4 , 0, 0, 0, 0)
= (3d1 + d4 , d1 , 7d2 , d2 , d3 ),
3d1 + d4 = 0
d1 = 1
7d2 = 0
d2 = 0
d3 = 0,
4.6 Bases 207
or
d1 = 1
d2 = 0
d3 = 0,
d4 = −3.
Thus,
w2 ∈ span(u1 , u2 , u3 , w1 )
and we remove it. We will search scalars e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 ∈ R so that
w3 = e1 u1 + e2 u2 + e3 u3 + e4 w1 .
We have
w3 = (0, 0, 1, 0, 0)
= e1 (3, 1, 0, 0, 0) + e2 (0, 0, 7, 1, 0) + e3 (0, 0, 0, 0, 1) + e4 (1, 0, 0, 0, 0)
= (3e1 , e1 , 0, 0, 0) + (0, 0, 7e2 , e2 , 0) + (0, 0, 0, 0, e3 ) + (e4 , 0, 0, 0, 0)
= (3e1 + e4 , e1 , 7e2 , e2 , e3 ),
3e1 + e4 = 0
e1 = 0
7e2 = 1
e2 = 0
e3 = 0,
which is impossible. So,
w3 6∈ span(u1 , u2 , u3 , w1 ).
Now, we will search scalars f1 , f2 , f3 , f4 , f5 ∈ R so that
w4 = f1 u1 + f2 u2 + f3 u3 + f4 w1 + f5 w3 .
We have
w4 = (0, 0, 0, 1, 0)
= f1 (3, 1, 0, 0, 0) + f2 (0, 0, 7, 1, 0) + f3 (0, 0, 0, 0, 1) + f4 (1, 0, 0, 0, 0)
+ f5 (0, 0, 1, 0, 0)
= (3 f1 , f1 , 0, 0, 0) + (0, 0, 7 f2 , f2 , 0) + (0, 0, 0, 0, f3 ) + ( f4 , 0, 0, 0, 0)
+(0, 0, f5 , 0, 0)
= (3 f1 + f4 , f1 , 7 f2 + f5 , f2 , f3 ),
3 f1 + f4 = 0
f1 = 0
7 f2 + f5 = 0
f2 = 1
f3 = 0,
or
f1 = 0
f2 = 1
f3 = 0,
f4 = 0,
4.7 Dimension 209
f5 = −7.
Thus,
w4 ∈ span(u1 , u2 , u3 , w1 , w3 )
and we remove it. Consequently, the list
u1 , u2 , u3 , w1 , w3
is a basis of R5 . Let
W = span(w1 , w3 )
= {g1 (1, 0, 0, 0, 0) + g2 (0, 0, 1, 0, 0) : g1 , g2 ∈ R}.
We have
U ⊕W = R5 .
Exercise 4.10. Let U be a subspace of R5 , defined by
U = {(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 ) : x1 = 2x5 , x2 = 7x4 }.
1. Find a basis of U.
2. Extend the basis from 1 to a basis of R5 .
3. Find a subspace W of R5 so that
U ⊕W = R5 .
4.7 Dimension
We will start with the following useful lemma.

Lemma 4.1. Any two bases of a finite-dimensional vector space have the same
length.
Proof. Suppose that V is a finite-dimensional vector space and let B1 and B2 be two
bases of V . Then B1 is linearly independent in V and B2 spans V . So, the length of
B1 is at most the length of B2 . Interchanging the roles of B1 and B2 , we obtain that
the length of B2 is at most the length of B1 . Therefore the length of B1 equals the
length of B2 . This completes the proof.
Definition 4.10. The dimension of a finite-dimensional vector space is the length of

any basis of the vector space. It is denoted by dimV .
By Lemma 4.1, it follows that the dimension of a finite-dimensional vector space

does not depend on the choice of the basis.
Example 4.17. Consider Fn . The standard basis in Fn is
w1 = (1, 0, . . . , 0),
w2 = (0, 1, 0, . . . , 0),
..
.
wn = (0, . . . , 0, 1).
Therefore dim Fn = n.
Example 4.18. Consider Pm (F). A basis in it is
1, z, z2 , . . . , zm .
Then dim Pm (F) = m + 1.

Theorem 4.13. If V is a finite-dimensional vector space and U is its subspace, then
dimU ≤ dimV .
Proof. Note that any basis of U is linearly independent in V and basis of V spans V .
Hence and Theorem 4.7, it follows that dimU ≤ dimV . This completes the proof.
Remark 4.1. The real vector space R2 has dimension 2 and the space C has dimen-
sion 1. On the other hand, as set, R2 can be identified with C. Thus, when we talk
about the dimension of a vector space, the role played by the choice of F cannot be
neglected.
Theorem 4.14. Suppose that V is finite-dimensional. Then any linearly independent
list of vectors in V with length dimV is a basis of V .
Proof. Let dimV = m and v1 , . . . , vm be a linearly independent list in U. By Theorem
4.11, it follows that the list v1 , . . . , vm can be extended to a basis of V . However, every
basis of V has length m. So, in this case the extension is the trivial one, meaning that
no elements are adjoined to v1 , . . . , vm . In other words, v1 , . . . , vm is a basis of V . This
v1 = (1, 2),
v2 = (−1, 1).
We will search a scalar a ∈ F so that
v1 = av2 .
4.7 Dimension 211
We have
(1, 2) = a(−1, 1)
= (−a, a),
−a = 1
a = 2,
which is impossible. Thus, v1 , v2 is linearly independent in F2 and since its length

is 2 and dim F2 = 2, we conclude that v1 , v2 form a basis of F2 .
Example 4.20. Consider P3 (R) and the subspace
U = {p ∈ P3 (R) : p0 (1) = 0}.
Let also,
p1 (x) = 1,
p2 (x) = (x − 1)2 ,
p3 (x) = (x − 1)3 , x ∈ R.
Then
p01 (x) = 0,
p02 (x) = 2(x − 1),
p03 (x) = 3(x − 1)2 , x ∈ R,
and
p01 (1) = 0,
p02 (1) = 0,
p03 (1) = 0.
Therefore p1 , p2 , p3 ∈ U. Assume that a1 , a2 , a3 ∈ F be such that

a1 p1 (x) + a2 p2 (x) + a3 p3 (x) = 0, x ∈ R.
We have
0 = a1 + a2 (x − 1)2 + a3 (x − 1)3
= a1 + a2 (x2 − 2x + 1) + a3 (x3 − 3x2 + 3x − 1)
= a1 + a2 x2 − 2a2 x + a2 + a3 x3 − 3a3 x2 + 3a3 x − a3
= a3 x3 + (a2 − 3a3 )x2 + (3a3 − 2a2 )x + a1 + a2 − a3 .
a3 = 0
a2 − 3a3 = 0
3a3 − 2a2 = 0
a1 + a2 − a3 = 0,
or
a1 = 0
a2 = 0
a3 = 0.
Therefore the list p1 , p2 , p3 is linearly independent in U. Hence, dimU ≥ 3. On the

other hand dim P3 (F) = 4 and then dimU ≤ 4. If we assume that dimU = 4, then
when we extend a basis of U to a basis of P3 (F) we will get a list with a length
greater than 4. This is impossible. Consequently dimU = 3. By Theorem 4.16, it
follows that 1, (x − 1)2 , (x − 1)3 forms a basis of U.
Exercise 4.11. Consider P2 (F) and
U = {p ∈ P2 (F) : p(2) = 0}.
2. Extend the basis in 1 to a basis of P2 (F).
3. Find a subspace W of P2 (F) so that
4.7 Dimension 213
U ⊕W = P2 (F).
Theorem 4.15. Suppose that V is finite-dimensional. Then any spanning list of vec-
tors in V with length dimV is a basis of V .
Proof. Let dimV = m and v1 , . . . , vm be a spanning list in U. By Theorem 4.10, it
follows that the list v1 , . . . , vm can be extended to a basis of V . However, every basis
of V has length m. So, in this case the extension is the trivial one, meaning that no
elements are adjoined to v1 , . . . , vm . In other words, v1 , . . . , vm is a basis of V . This
Theorem 4.16. Suppose that V is finite-dimensional and U be its subspace so that
dimU = dimV . Then U = V .
Proof. Let dimU dimV = m and v1 , . . . , vm be a basis of U. By Theorem 4.11, it
follows that the list v1 , . . . , vm can be extended to a basis of V . However, every basis
of V has length m. So, in this case the extension is the trivial one, meaning that
no elements are adjoined to v1 , . . . , vm . In other words, v1 , . . . , vm is a basis of V .
Therefore U = V . This completes the proof.
Theorem 4.17. Let U1 and U2 be subspaces of a finite-dimensional vector space.
Then
dim(U1 +U2 ) = dimU1 + dimU2 − dim(U1 ∩U2 ).
Proof. Let u1 , . . . , um be a basis of U1 ∩U2 . Thus,
dim(U1 ∩U2 ) = m.
Since u1 , . . . , um is a basis of U1 ∩ U2 , it is linearly independent in U1 and linearly

independent in U2 . Therefore it can be extended to a basis
u1 , . . . , um , v1 , . . . v j (4.12)
of U1 and to a basis
u1 , . . . , um , w1 , . . . , wk (4.13)
of U2 . Then
dimU1 = m + j
and
dimU2 = m + k.
Consider the list
u1 , . . . , um , v1 , . . . , v j , w1 , . . . , wk . (4.14)
Note that
span(u1 , . . . , um , v1 , . . . , v j , w1 , . . . , wk )
contains U1 and U2 and thus,
span(u1 , . . . , um , v1 , . . . , v j , w1 , . . . , wk ) = U1 +U2 . (4.15)

Let a1 , . . . , am , b1 , . . . , b j , c1 , . . . , ck ∈ F be such that
a1 u1 + · · · + am um + b1 v1 + · · · + b j v j + c1 w1 + · · · + ck wk = 0. (4.16)
By the last equation, we find
c1 w1 + · · · + ck wk = −a1 u1 − · · · − am um − b1 v1 − · · · − b j v j .
Since
−a1 u1 − · · · − am um − b1 v1 − · · · − b j v j ∈ U1 ,
by the last equation, we conclude that
c1 w1 + · · · + ck wk ∈ U1 .
Because w1 , . . . , wk ∈ U2 and U2 is a subspace, we find
c1 w1 + · · · + ck wk ∈ U2
and then
c1 w1 + · · · + ck wk ∈ U1 ∩U2 .
From here, we conclude that there are d1 , . . . , dm ∈ F so that
c1 w1 + · · · + ck wk = d1 u1 + · · · + dm um ,
or
d1 u1 + · · · + dm um − c1 w1 − · · · − ck wk = 0.
Because the list (4.13) is a basis of U2 , the last equality is true if
c1 = 0
..
.
ck = 0
d1 = 0
..
.
dm = 0.
From here and from (4.16), we obtain

a1 u1 + · · · + am um + b1 v1 + · · · + b j v j = 0.
Since the list (4.12) is a basis of U1 , it is linearly independent in U1 and
a1 = 0
..
.
am = 0
b1 = 0
..
.
b j = 0.
Now, using (4.16), we conclude that the list (4.14) is linearly independent in U1 +U2 .
Hence and (4.15), we obtain that the list (4.14) is a basis of U1 +U2 . Therefore
dim(U1 +U2 ) = m + j + k
= (m + j) + (m + k) − m
= dimU1 + dimU2 − dim(U1 ∩U2 ).
Problem 4.1. Consider F4 and
v1 = (0, −1, 1, −1),
v2 = (1, −2, 0, 1),
v3 = (3, 1, −1, 2),
v4 = (−1, 0, 3, 1).

Problem 4.2. Consider F2 . Check if
(−1, 7) ∈ span((1, 2), (−1, 1)).
Problem 4.3. Consider F5 . Check if
(0, 0, 1, 0, −4) ∈ span((−1, 0, 1, 1, 1), (−2, 0, 1, 3, 2), (0, 0, 0, −1, 4)).
Problem 4.4. Let
p1 (z) = −12 + 37z + 42z2 + 8z3 ,
p2 (z) = −8 − 28z − 22z2 + 7z3 + 6z4 ,
p3 (z) = 4 + 10z + 5z2 + 2z3 , z ∈ F.
Find
1. p1 (z) + p2 (z), z ∈ F.
2. p1 (z) + p3 (z), z ∈ F.
3. p2 (z) + p3 (z), z ∈ F.
4. p1 (z) + p2 (z) + p3 (z), z ∈ F.
5. −3p1 (z), z ∈ F.
6. 4p2 (z), z ∈ F.
7. −p3 (z), z ∈ F.
8. −3p1 (z) + p2 (z), z ∈ F.
9. 4p2 (z) − p3 (z), z ∈ F.
10. −3p1 (z) + 4p2 (z) − p3 (z), z ∈ F.
Problem 4.5. Determine the degree of the following polynomials.

1. p(z) = 5z3 + 18z2 − 10z − 8, z ∈ F.
2. p(z) = 2z3 − 5z2 − 8z + 20, z ∈ F.
3. p(z) = 3z3 − z2 − 27z − 8, z ∈ F.
4. p(z) = 3z4 = 5z3 − 9z2 − 9z + 10, z ∈ F.
5. p(z) = 2z4 + 3z3 − z2 + 3z + 4, z ∈ F.
6. p(z) = z4 + 14z3 + 71z2 + 154z + 20, z ∈ F.
7. p(z) = 3z4 − 4z3 − 49z2 + 64z + 16, z ∈ F.
8. p(z) = 2z5 − 9z4 + 8z3 + 15z2 − 28z + 12, z ∈ F.
9. p(z) = 4z5 − 5z4 − 11z3 + 23z2 − 13z + 12, z ∈ F.
10. p(z) = 3z5 − 19z4 + 9z3 + 71z2 − 84z + 20, z ∈ F.
Problem 4.6. Consider F3 . Check if the following lists of vectors are linearly inde-
pendent or linearly dependent.
1.
v1 = (3, 0, 4),
v2 = (2, 4, 4),
v3 = (−3, −4, 2).
2.
v1 = (2, 3, −2),
v2 = (−2, −2, −3),
v3 = (6, 7, 4).
3.
v1 = (0, 1, 1),
v2 = (3, 2, −1),
v3 = (−6, −5, 1).
4.
v1 = (−3, 2, 3),
v2 = (−1, 1, −1),
v3 = (0, 4, 1).
5.
v1 = (−1, 10, −1),
v2 = (3, −4, 5),
v3 = (1, 0, 1).
Problem 4.7. Consider P2 (F). Check if the following lists of polynomials in

P2 (F) are linearly independent or linearly dependent.
1.
p1 (z) = 1 − 2z,
p2 (z) = (2z + 9)2 ,
p3 (z) = (1 − z)2 + z2 , z ∈ F.
2.
p1 (z) = 1 − 3z − 2z2 ,
p2 (z) = 2 − 4z + z2 ,
p3 (z) = 2 + 3z + 2z2 , z ∈ F.
3.
p1 (z) = −1 + 2z + 3z2 ,
p2 (z) = z − 2z2 ,
p3 (z) = −2 + z + 5z2 , z ∈ F.
4.
p1 (z) = −4 + 2z − z2 ,
p2 (z) = 4 + z + 4z2 ,
p3 (z) = −3 − 3z − 2z2 , z ∈ F.
5.
p1 (z) = −1 + 2z + z2 ,
p2 (z) = −2 − z + z2 ,
p3 (z) = −7 + 4z + 5z2 , z ∈ F.
Problem 4.8. Let v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 spans V . Prove that
v1 − 2v2 , v2 − 3v3 , v3 − 4v4 , v4
spans V .
Problem 4.9. Let v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 spans V prove that
v1 − 4v2 , v2 − 5v3 , v3 − 7v4 , v4 + 2v5 , v5
spans V .
Problem 4.10. Prove that if we consider C as a vector space over R, then the list
(2 + 3i, 2 − 3i)
is linearly independent.
Problem 4.11. Prove that if we consider C as a vector space over C, then the list
(3 + i, 3 − i)
is linearly dependent.
Problem 4.12. Let v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 be a linearly independent list in V . Prove that the list
v1 − v2 , v2 − v3 , v3 − v4 , v4
Problem 4.13. Prove or give a counterexample: if v1 , . . . , vm is a linearly indepen-

dent list of vectors in V , then the list of vectors
3v1 − v2 , v2 , ..., vm
Problem 4.14. Prove or give a counterexample: if v1 , . . . , vm is a linearly indepen-

dent list of vectors in V and λ ∈ F, λ 6= 0, then the list of vectors
λ v1 , λ v2 , ..., λ vm
Problem 4.15. Prove or give a counterexample: if v1 , . . . , vm and w1 , . . . , wm are lin-

early independent, then the list of vectors
v1 + w1 , v2 + w2 , ..., vm + wm
Problem 4.16. Let v1 , . . . , vm be a linearly independent list of vectors in V and w ∈

V . If
v1 + w, v2 + w, . . . , vm + w
is linearly dependent, prove that
w ∈ span(v1 , . . . , vm ).
Problem 4.17. Let v1 , . . . , vm be a linearly independent list of vectors in V and w ∈

V . Prove that
v1 + w, v2 + w, . . . , vm + w
is linearly independent if and only if
w 6∈ span(v1 , . . . , vm ).
Problem 4.18. Consider Fm and
v1 = (1, 0, . . . , 0),
..
.
vm = (0, 0, . . . , 0, 1).
Prove that the list v1 , . . . , vm is basis of Fm .

Problem 4.19. Consider
V = {(x, x, y) ∈ F3 : x, y ∈ F}
and
v1 = (1, 1, 0),
v2 = (0, 0, 1).
Prove that the list v1 , v2 is a basis of V .

Problem 4.20. Consider
V = {(x, y, z) ∈ F3 : x + y + z = 0}
and
v1 = (1, −1, 0),
v2 = (1, 0, −1).
Prove that the list v1 , v2 is a basis of V .

Problem 4.21. Prove that the list 1, z, . . . , zm is a basis of Pm (F).
Problem 4.22. Consider F5 and
v1 = (1, 1, 1, 1, 0),
v2 = (1, 1, −1, −1, −1),
v3 = (2, 2, 0, 0, −1),
v4 = (1, 1, 5, 5, 2),
v5 = (1, −1, −1, 0, 0).
Find a basis of F5 .
Problem 4.23. Consider F4 . Extend the list
v1 = (1, −2, 4),
v2 = (−1, 4, 8),
v3 = (0, −1, −2)
to a basis of F4 .
Problem 4.24. Find a basis of
span(u1 , u2 , u3 ),
where
1.
u1 = (1, 2, 1),
u2 = (1, 1, −1),
u3 = (1, 3, 3).
2.
u1 = (2, 3, −1),
u2 = (1, 1, −3),
u3 = (1, 2, 2).
3.
u1 = (1, 2, 1, −2),
u2 = (2, 3, 2, 0),
u3 = (1, 2, 2, −3).
4.
u1 = (1, 1, 1, 1),
u2 = (1, 0, 1, −1),
u3 = (1, 3, 0, −4).
5.
u1 = (1, 1, 0, 0),
u2 = (0, 1, 1, 0),
u3 = (0, 0, 1, 1).
Problem 4.25. Suppose that v1 , v2 , v3 , v3 is a basis of V . Prove that
v1 + v2 , v2 + v3 , v3 + v4 , v4
is a basis of V .
Problem 4.26. Suppose that U and W are subspaces of V such that
U ⊕W = V.
Suppose also that u1 , . . . , um is a basis of U and w1 , . . . , wn is a basis of W . Prove

that
u1 , . . . , um , w1 , . . . , wn
is a basis of V .
Problem 4.27. Consider P4 (F) and
U = {p ∈ P4 (F) : p00 (2) = 0}.
U ⊕W = P4 (F).
U = {p ∈ P4 (F) : p(1) = p(2)}.
U ⊕W = P4 (F).
U = {p ∈ P4 (F) : p(1) = p(2) = p(3)}.
U ⊕W = P4 (F).
Problem 4.30. Suppose that U and W are subspaces of R8 such that dimU = 3,
dimW = 5 and U +W = R8 . Prove that
U ⊕W = R8 .
Chapter 5
Linear Maps
5.1 Definition and Examples of Linear Maps
Suppose that U, V , W and Y are vector spaces.

Definition 5.1. A linear map from V to W is a function T : V → W with the follow-
ing properties:
1. additivity
T (u + v) = T (u) + T (v)
for all u, v ∈ V .
2. homogeneity
T (λ u) = λ T (u)
for all λ ∈ F and for all u ∈ V . The set of all linear maps from U to V will be
denoted by L (U,V ). For a linear map T from U to V we will write T ∈ L (U,V ).
Some mathematicians use the term linear transformation, which means the same as
linear map. Note that for linear maps we often use the notation T v as well as the
more standard functional notation T (v).
Example 5.1. Let T : R3 → R2 be defined by
T (x, y, z) = (2x − y + 3z, 7x + 5y − 6z), (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .
We will prove that T ∈ L (R3 , R2 ). Take
(x1 , y1 , z1 ), (x2 , y2 , z2 ) ∈ R3
and λ ∈ R arbitrarily. Then
T (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = (2x1 − y1 + 3z1 , 7x1 + 5y1 − 6z1 ),
225
226 5 Linear Maps
T (x2 , y2 , z2 ) = (2x2 − y2 + 3z2 , 7x2 + 5y2 − 6z2 )
and
T (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + T (x2 , y2 , z2 ) = (2x1 − y1 + 3z1 , 7x1 + 5y1 − 6z1 ) + (2x2 − y2 + 3z2 , 7x2 + 5y2 − 6z2 )
= (2x1 − y1 + 3z1 + 2x2 − y2 + 3z2 , 7x1 + 5y1 − 6z1 + 7x2 + 5y2 − 6z2 )
= (2(x1 + x2 ) − (y1 + y2 ) + 3(z1 + z2 ), 7(x1 + x2 ) + 5(y1 + y2 ) − 6(z1 + z2 )),

(5.1)
and
λ T (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = λ (2x1 − y1 + 3z1 , 7x1 + 5y1 − 6z1 )
= (λ (2x1 − y1 + 3z1 ), λ (7x1 + 5y1 − 6z1 )) (5.2)
= (2λ x1 − λ y1 + 3λ z1 , 7λ x1 + 5λ y1 − 6λ z1 ).
Next,
(x1 , y1 , z1 ) + (x2 , y2 , z2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 , z1 + z2 )
and
T ((x1 , y1 , z1 ) + (x2 , y2 , z2 )) = T (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 , z1 + z2 )
= (2(x1 + x2 ) − (y1 + y2 ) + 3(z1 + z2 ), 7(x1 + x2 ) + 5(y1 + y2 ) − 6(z1 + z2 )).
By the last equation and (5.1), we find
T ((x1 , y1 , z1 ) + (x2 , y2 , z2 )) = T (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + T (x2 , y2 , z2 ). (5.3)
Moreover,
λ (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = (λ x1 , λ y1 , λ z1 )
and
T (λ (x1 , y1 , z1 )) = T (λ x1 , λ y1 , λ z1 )
= (2(λ x1 ) − λ y1 + 3(λ z1 ), 7(λ x1 ) + 5(λ y1 ) − 6(λ z1 ))
= (2λ x1 − λ y1 + 3λ z1 , 7λ x1 + 5λ y1 − 6λ z1 ).
From the last equation and (5.2), we find
T (λ (x1 , y1 , z1 )) = λ T (x1 , y1 , z1 ).
Hence and (5.3), we conclude that T ∈ L (R3 , R2 ).

5.1 Definition and Examples of Linear Maps 227
Example 5.2. Let T : P(F) → P(F) be defined by
T p(x) = x2 p(x), x ∈ R, p ∈ P(F).
We will prove that T ∈ L (P(F), P(F)). Take p1 , p2 ∈ P(F) and λ ∈ F arbitrarily.

Then, using that P(F) is a vector space, we have that p1 + p2 ∈ P(F) and λ p1 ∈
P(F). We have
T p1 (x) = x2 p1 (x),
T p2 (x) = x2 p2 (x), x ∈ R,
whereupon
T p1 (x) + T p2 (x) = x2 p1 (x) + x2 p2 (x)
(5.4)
2
= x (p1 (x) + p2 (x)), x ∈ R.
Note that
T (p1 (x) + p2 (x)) = x2 (p1 (x) + p2 (x)), x ∈ R.
By the last equation and (5.4), we find
T (p1 (x) + p2 (x)) = T p1 (x) + T p2 (x), x ∈ R. (5.5)
Next,
λ T p1 (x) = λ x2 p1 (x), x ∈ R, (5.6)
and
T (λ p1 (x)) = x2 (λ p1 (x))
= λ x2 p1 (x), x ∈ R.
From the last equation and (5.6), we obtain
T (λ p1 (x)) = λ T p1 (x), x ∈ R.
Hence and (5.5), we conclude that T ∈ L (P(F), P(F)) .
Example 5.3. Let T : F∞ → F∞ be defined by
T (x1 , x2 , x3 , . . .) = (x2 , x3 , . . .), (x1 , x2 , x3 , . . .) ∈ F∞ .
We will prove that T ∈ L (F∞ , F∞ ). Take
y = (y1 , y2 , y3 , . . .), z = (z1 , z2 , z3 , . . .) ∈ F∞
and λ ∈ F arbitrarily. Then

228 5 Linear Maps
y + z = (y1 , y2 , y3 , . . .) + (z1 , z2 , z3 , . . .)
= (y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 , y3 + z3 , . . .),
λ y = λ (y1 , y2 , y3 , . . .)
= (λ y1 , λ y2 , λ y3 , . . .),
Ty = (y2 , y3 , . . .),
T z = (z2 , z3 , . . .).
Hence,
Ty + T z = (y2 , y3 , . . .) + (z2 , z3 , . . .)
(5.7)
= (y2 + z2 , y3 + z3 , . . .)
and
T (y + z) = (y2 + z2 , y3 + z3 , . . .).
By the last equation and (5.7), we get
T (y + z) = Ty + T z. (5.8)
Next,
λ Ty = λ (y2 , y3 , . . .)
(5.9)
= (λ y2 , λ y3 , . . .)
and
T (λ y) = (λ y2 , λ y3 , . . .).
From the last equation and (5.9), we arrive at
T (λ y) = λ y.
Hence and (5.7), we conclude that T ∈ L (F∞ , F∞ ).
Exercise 5.1. Let T : R3 → R3 be defined by

1. T (x, y, z) = (6x − 5y − 4z, 3x − 2y − z, y + 2z), (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .
2. T (x, y, z) = (x − 5y − 4z, 3x − 2y − z, y), (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .
3. T (x, y, z) = (5x − 4y − 3z, 2x − y, y + z), (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .
4. T (x, y, z) = (x + y + z, z, y), (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .
5. T (x, y, z) = (x + 5y + 2z, 2x − y, 7y + 2z), (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .
Check if T ∈ L (R3 , R3 ).
5.1 Definition and Examples of Linear Maps 229
Theorem 5.1. Suppose that v1 , . . . , vm is a basis of V and w1 , . . . , wm ∈ W . Then

there exists a unique linear map T : V → W such that
T v j = w j.
Proof. Since v1 , . . . , vm is a basis of V , any element of V is represented in a unique

way as a linear combination of v1 , . . . , vm . For arbitrary constants c1 , . . . , cm , define
the map
T (c1 v1 + · · · + cm vm ) = c1 w1 + · · · + cm wm . (5.10)
Since c1 v1 + · · · + cm vm ∈ V and W is a subspace, we have that c1 w1 + · · · + cm wm ∈
W and thus, T : V → W . For any j ∈ {1, . . . , m}, take c j = 1 and
c1 = . . . = c j−1 = c j+1 = . . . cm = 0,
and we get
T v j = w j.
Note that the map T is uniquely determined by the equality (5.10). Now, we will
prove that T : V → W is a linear map. Let u, z ∈ V be such that
u = a1 v1 + · · · + am vm ,
z = b1 v1 + · · · + bm vm ,
and λ ∈ F. Then
u + v = a1 v1 + · · · + am vm
+b1 v1 + · · · + bm vm
= (a1 + b1 )v1 + · · · + (am + bm )vm ,
λ u = λ (a1 v1 + · · · + am vm )
= λ a1 v1 + · · · + λ am vm .
Hence,
Tu = T (a1 v1 + · · · + am vm )
= a1 w1 + · · · + am wm ,
T v = T (b1 v1 + · · · + bm vm )
230 5 Linear Maps
= b1 w1 + · · · + bm wm ,
Tu + T v = a1 w1 + · · · + am wm
+b1 w1 + · · · + bm wm
= (a1 + b1 )w1 + · · · + (am + bm )wm
= T ((a1 + b1 )v1 + · · · + (am + bm )vm )
= T (u + v),
and
λ Tu = λ T (a1 v1 + · · · + am vm )
= λ (a1 w1 + · · · + am wm )
= (λ a1 )w1 + · · · + (λ am )wm
= T ((λ a1 )v1 + · · · + (λ am )vm )
= T (λ (a1 v1 + · · · + am vm ))
= T (λ u).
Consequently T ∈ L (V,W ). This completes the proof.
5.2 Algebraic Properties of L (V,W )
In this section, we will define some basic operations in L (V,W ).

Definition 5.2. Let S, T ∈ L (V,W ) and λ ∈ F. The sum S + T and the product λ T
are the maps from V to W defined by
(S + T )(v) = Sv + T v,
(λ T )v = λ T v, v ∈ V.
5.2 Algebraic Properties of L (V,W ) 231
Since W is a vector space and S, T ∈ L (V,W ), we have Sv + T v ∈ W and λ T v ∈ W .
Example 5.4. Let S, T : R3 → R be defined by
S(x, y, z) = x + y + z,
T (x, y, z) = 2x − y − 2z, (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .
We will find
(S + T )(x, y, z), (2T )(x, y, z), (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .
We have
(S + T )(x, y, z) = S(x, y, z) + T (x, y, z)
= x + y + z + 2x − y − 2z
= 3x − z, (x, y, z) ∈ R3 ,
and
(2T )(x, y, z) = 2T (x, y, z)
= 2(2x − y − 2z)
= 4x − 2y − 4z, (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .
Exercise 5.2. Let S, T : R4 → R2 be defined by
S(x, y, z,t) = (x − y + z − t, y),
T (x, y, z,t) = (−2x − y + z + 3t, x + y), (x, y, z,t) ∈ R4 .
Find
1. (S + T )(x, y, z,t), (x, y, z,t) ∈ R4 .
2. (3S)(x, y, z,t), (x, y, z,t) ∈ R4 .
3. (2T )(x, y, z,t), (x, y, z,t) ∈ R4 .
Definition 5.3. Let S, T ∈ L (V,W ). For a, b ∈ F, define
(aS + bT )v = aSv + bT v,
(aS − bT )v = aSv + (−b)T v, v ∈ V.

232 5 Linear Maps
Since W is a vector space, we have aSv ± bT v ∈ W , v ∈ V , and thus, aS ± bT : V →

W.
Example 5.5. Let S, T : R2 → R be defined by
S(x, y) = 2x − y,
T (x, y) = x + y, (x, y) ∈ R2 .
We have
(S + T )(x, y) = S(x, y) + T (x, y)
= 2x − y + x + y
= 3x, (x, y) ∈ R2 ,
and
(3S)(x, y) = 3S(x, y)
= 3(2x − y)
= 6x − 3y,
(2T )(x, y) = 2T (x, y)
= 2(x + y)
= 2x + 2y, (x, y) ∈ R2 .
Hence,
(3S + 2T )(x, y) = (3S)(x, y) + (2T )(x, y)
= 6x − 3y + 2x + 2y
= 8x − y, (x, y) ∈ R2 .
Next,
(−(2T ))(x, y) = (−1)(2T )(x, y)

= (−1)(2x + 2y)
= −2x − 2y, (x, y) ∈ R2 ,
and
(3S − 2T )(x, y) = (3S)(x, y) + (−(2T ))(x, y)
= 6x − 3y − 2x − y
= 4x − 4y, (x, y) ∈ R2 .
Exercise 5.3. Let S, T : R3 → R be defined by
S(x, y, z) = 3x − y + z,
T (x, y, z) = x + y − 4z, (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .
Find
1. (S + T )(x, y, z), (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .
2. (2S)(x, y, z), (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .
3. (4T )(x, y, z), (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .
4. (S − T )(x, y, z), (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .
5. (2S − 4T )(x, y, z), (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .
Theorem 5.2. Let S, T ∈ L (V,W ). For any a, b ∈ F, we have
aS + bT, aS − bT ∈ L (V,W ).
Proof. Let v1 , v2 ∈ V and c ∈ F be arbitrarily chosen. Then
S(v1 + v2 ) = Sv1 + Sv2 ,
T (v1 + v2 ) = T v1 + T v2 ,
S(cv1 ) = cSv1 ,
T (cv1 ) = cT v1 .
Hence,
(aS + bT )(v1 + v2 ) = aS(v1 + v2 ) + bT (v1 + v2 )

234 5 Linear Maps
= a(Sv1 + Sv2 ) + b(T v1 + T v2 )
= aSv1 + aSv2 + bT v1 + bT v2
= (aSv1 + bT v1 ) + (aSv2 + bT v2 )
= (aS + bT )v1 + (aS + bT )v2
and
(aS + bT )(cv1 ) = aS(cv1 ) + bT (cv1 )
= a(cSv1 ) + b(cT v1 )
= acSv1 + bcT v1
= caSv1 + cbT v1
= c(aSv1 + bT v1 )
= c(aS + bT )v1 .
Therefore aS + bT ∈ L (V,W ). Next,
(aS − bT )(v1 + v2 ) = aS(v1 + v2 ) − bT (v1 + v2 )
= a(Sv1 + Sv2 ) − b(T v1 + T v2 )
= aSv1 + aSv2 − bT v1 − bT v2
= (aSv1 − bT v1 ) + (aSv2 − bT v2 )
= (aS − bT )v1 + (aS − bT )v2
and
(aS − bT )(cv1 ) = aS(cv1 ) − bT (cv1 )

= a(cSv1 ) − b(cT v1 )
= acSv1 − bcT v1
= caSv1 − cbT v1
= c(aSv1 − bT v1 )
= c(aS − bT )v1 .
Consequently aS − bT ∈ L (V,W ). This completes the proof.
Definition 5.4. Define the zero linear map from V to W as follows:
Ov = 0, v ∈ V.
Definition 5.5. Define the identity linear map from V to W as follows:
Iv = v, v ∈ V.
Theorem 5.3. L (V,W ) is a vector space.
Proof. Suppose that S, T, K ∈ L (V,W ), a, b ∈ F and v ∈ V be arbitrarily chosen and

fixed. Then, we have the following.
1.
(S + T )v = Sv + T v
= T v + Sv
= (T + S)v,
i.e.,
S + T = T + S.
2.
(S + (T + K))v = Sv + (T + K)v
= Sv + (T v + Kv)
= (Sv + T v) + Kv
236 5 Linear Maps
= (S + T )v + Kv
= ((S + T ) + K)v,
i.e.,
S + (T + K) = (S + T ) + K.
3.
(a(S + T ))v = a(S + T )v
= a(Sv + T v)
= aSv + aT v
= (aS)v + (aT )v
= (aS + aT )v,
i.e.,
a(S + T ) = aS + aT.
4.
((a + b)S)v = (a + b)Sv
= aSv + bSv
= (aS)v + (bS)v
= (aS + bS)v,
i.e.,
(a + b)S = aS + bS.
5.
(S + (−S))v = Sv + (−S)v
= Sv − Sv
=0
= Ov,
i.e.,
S + (−S) = O.
6.
(S + O)v = Sv + Ov
= Sv + 0
= Sv,
i.e.,
S + O = S.
7.
(1S)v = 1Sv
= Sv,
i.e.,
1S = S.
Therefore L (V,W ) is a vector space. This completes the proof.
Definition 5.6. Let T ∈ L (V,U) and S ∈ L (U,W ). Then the product ST ∈ L (V,W )
is defined by
(ST )u = S(Tu), u ∈ V.
Theorem 5.4. Let T ∈ L (V,U) and S ∈ L (U,W ). Then ST ∈ L (V,W ).
Proof. Let v1 , v2 ∈ V and a ∈ F be arbitrarily chosen. Then
T (v1 + v2 ) = T v1 + T v2 ,
S(T v1 + T v2 ) = S(T v1 ) + S(T v2 )
and
T (av1 ) = aT v1 ,
S(aT v1 ) = aS(T v1 ).
238 5 Linear Maps
Hence,
(ST )(v1 + v2 ) = S(T (v1 + v2 ))
= S(T v1 + T v2 )
= S(T v1 ) + S(T v2 )
= (ST )v1 + (ST )v2
and
(ST )(av1 ) = S(T (av1 ))
= S(aT v1 )
= aS(T v1 )
= a(ST )(v1 ).
Consequently ST ∈ L (V,W ). This completes the proof.
Example 5.6. Let S, T : R|toR be defined by
Sx = 2x + 3,
T x = x − 4, x ∈ R.
Then
(ST )x = S(T x)
= S(x − 4)
= 2(x − 4) + 3
= 2x − 8 + 3
= 2x − 5, x ∈ R,
and
(T S)x = T (Sx)
= T (2x + 3)
= 2x + 3 − 4
= 2x − 1, x ∈ R.
Remark 5.1. By the above example, it follows that in the general case we have
ST 6= T S.
Example 5.7. Let T : R3 → R2 and S : R2 → R2 be defined by
T (x, y, z) = (x + 2z, y − 3z), (x, y, z) ∈ R3 ,
S(x, y) = (2x − y, x + y), (x, y) ∈ R2 .
We will find
(ST )(x, y, z), (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .
We have
(ST )(x, y, z) = S(T (x, y, z))
= S(x + 2z, y − 3z)
= (2(x + 2z) − (y − 3z), x + 2z + y − 3z)
= (2x + 4z − y + 3z, x + y − z)
= (2x − y + 7z, x + y − z), (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .
Exercise 5.4. Let T : R4 → R4 and S : R4 → R2 be defined by
T (x, y, z,t) = (x − 1 − 2y + 3z, y + z, z − t, 3t),
S(x, y, z,t) = (2x − 3y, y − 2t), (x, y, z,t) ∈ R4 .
Find
1. (ST )(x, y, z,t), (x, y, z,t) ∈ R4 .
2. (2T )(x, y, z,t), (x, y, z,t) ∈ R4 .
240 5 Linear Maps
3. (ST − 4T )(x, y, z,t), (x, y, z,t) ∈ R4 .

4. ((3S)T )(x, y, z,t), (x, y, z,t) ∈ R4 .
5. (S(−4T ))(x, y, z,t), (x, y, z,t) ∈ R4 .
Theorem 5.5. Let T1 ∈ L (U,V ), T2 ∈ L (W,U), T3 ∈ L (X,W ). Then
(T1 T2 )T3 = T1 (T2 T3 ). (5.11)
Proof. Let v ∈ X be arbitrarily chosen. Then, we have the following.
(T1 T2 )T3 v = (T1 T2 )(T3 v)
= T1 (T2 (T3 v))
= T1 ((T2 T3 )v)
= T1 (T2 T3 )v.
Because v ∈ X was arbitrarily chosen, we get (5.11). This completes the proof.
Theorem 5.6. . Let T ∈ L (V,W ). Then
IT = T I = T, (5.12)
where the first identity is on W and the second identity is on V .
Proof. Let I be the identity on W . Take v ∈ V arbitrarily. Then
IT v = I(T v)
= T v.
Because v ∈ V was arbitrarily chosen, we get
IT = T. (5.13)
Now, suppose that I is the identity on V . Let u ∈ V be arbitrarily chosen and fixed.
Then
T Iu = T (Iu)
= Tu.
Because u ∈ V was arbitrarily chosen, we find
T I = T.
By the last equality and by (5.13), we find (5.12). This completes the proof.
Theorem 5.7. Let T1 , T2 ∈ L (U,V ), S ∈ L (V,W ). Then
S(T1 + T2 ) = ST1 + ST2 . (5.14)
Proof. Let u ∈ V be arbitrarily chosen. Then
S(T1 + T2 )u = S((T1 + T2 )u)
= S(T1 u + T2 u)
= S(T1 u) + S(T2 u)
= ST1 u + ST2 u.
Because u ∈ U was arbitrarily chosen, we get (5.14). This completes the proof.
Theorem 5.8. Let T ∈ L (U,V ) and S1 , S2 ∈ L (V,W ). Then
(S1 + S2 )T = S1 T + S2 T. (5.15)
Proof. Let u ∈ U be arbitrarily chosen and fixed. Then
(S1 + S2 )Tu = (S1 + S2 )(Tu)
= S1 (Tu) + S2 (Tu)
= S1 Tu + S2 Tu.
Because u ∈ U was arbitrarily chosen, we get (5.15). This completes the proof.
Theorem 5.9. Let T ∈ L (V,W ). Then
T 0 = 0. (5.16)
Proof. Note that

0 = 0 + 0.
Since T : V → W is a linear map, we get
T 0 = T (0 + 0)
= T 0 + T 0,
whereupon we obtain (5.16). This completes the proof.

242 5 Linear Maps
5.3 Kernels and Ranges
Definition 5.7. Let T ∈ L (V,W ). The kernel of T , denoted by ker T , is the subset
of V consisting of those vectors in V that T maps to 0. In other words,
ker T = {v ∈ V : T v = 0}.
Some mathematicians use the term null space instead of kernel.

Example 5.8. Let φ : R3 → R be defined by
φ (x, y, z) = x + 2y + 3z, (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .
Then
ker φ = {(x, y, z) : x + 2y + 3z = 0}.
Define
v1 = (−2, 1, 0),
v2 = (−3, 0, 1).
We will show that the list v1 , v2 is a basis of ker φ . Let a ∈ R be such that
v1 = av2 .
Then
(−2, 1, 0) = a(−3, 0, 1)
= (−3a, 0, a),
−3a = −2
1=0
a = 0,
which is impossible. Thus, the list v1 , v2 is linearly independent in R3 . In particu-

lar, the list v1 , v2 is linearly independent in ker φ . Let now, u ∈ ker φ be arbitrarily
chosen. Then
u = (−2u2 − 3u3 , u2 , u3 ), u2 , u3 ∈ R.
5.3 Kernels and Ranges 243
Let also, b1 , b2 ∈ R be such that
u = b1 v1 + b2 v2 .
Then
(−2u2 − 3u3 , u2 , u3 ) = b1 (−2, 1, 0) + b2 (−3, 0, 1)
= (−2b1 , b1 , 0) + (−3b2 , 0, b2 )
= (−2b1 − 3b2 , b1 , b2 ),
−2u2 − 3u3 = −2b1 − 3b2
u2 = b1
u3 = b2 .
Therefore
span(v1 , v2 ) = ker φ .
Hence, using that the list v1 , v2 is linearly independent in ker φ , we conclude that the
list v1 , v2 is a basis of ker φ .
Example 5.9. Let φ : R2 → R be defined by
φ (x, y) = 2x − 4y + 6, (x, y) ∈ R2 .
Then
φ (x, y) = 0 ⇐⇒
2x − 4y + 6 = 0 ⇐⇒
2x = 4y − 6 ⇐⇒
x = 2y − 3, (x, y) ∈ R2 .
Therefore
ker φ = {(2y − 3, y) : y ∈ R}.
Example 5.10. Let φ : R3 → R2 be defined by

244 5 Linear Maps
φ (x, y, z) = (x − 2y, y − z), (x, y, z) ∈ R2 .
Then
φ (x, y, z) = 0 ⇐⇒
(x − 2y, y − z) = (0, 0) ⇐⇒
x − 2y = 0
y−z = 0
or
x = 2y
y = z.
Therefore
ker φ {(2y, y, y) : y ∈ R}.
Exercise 5.5. Let φ : R3 → R2 be defined by
φ (x, y, z) = (x2 − y2 , x + y + z, z), (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .
Find ker φ .
Theorem 5.10. Let T ∈ L (V,W ). Then T is injective if and only if ker T = {0}.
Proof. 1. Let T be injective. By Theorem 5.9, it follows that {0} ⊆ ker T . Suppose
that u ∈ ker T . Then
Tu = 0.
Since T 0 = 0 and T is injective, we conclude that u = 0 and ker T = {0}.
2. Let ker T = {0}. Take u, v ∈ V and suppose that
Tu = T v.
Since T is linear, by the last equation, we find
T (u − v) = 0,
whereupon u − v ∈ ker T and u = v. Therefore T is injective. This completes the

proof.
5.3 Kernels and Ranges 245
Since any T ∈ L (V,W ) can be considered as a function, we have
rangeT = {T v : v ∈ V }.
If T ∈ L (V,W ) is surjective, then rangeT = W .

Theorem 5.11. Let T ∈ L (V,W ). Then rangeT is a subspace of W .
Proof. Since T 0 = 0, we get 0 ∈ rangeT . Let now, v1 , v2 ∈ V and a ∈ F. By the

equations
T (v1 + v2 ) = T v1 + T v2 ,
T (av1 ) = aT v1 ,
it follows that rangeT is closed under addition and scalar multiplication. Therefore
rangeT is a subspace of W . This completes the proof.
Theorem 5.12 (Fundamental Theorem of Linear Maps). Suppose that V is finite-

dimensional and T ∈ L (V,W ). Then rangeT is finite-dimensional and
dimV = dim ker T + dimrangeT.
Proof. Let u1 , . . . , um be a basis of ker T . Then it is linearly independent in V . By

Theorem 4.11, it follows that it can be extended to a basis of V
u1 , . . . , um , v1 , . . . , vn . (5.17)
Thus,
dimV = m + n.
Consider the list
T v1 , . . . , T vn . (5.18)
Let v ∈ V be arbitrarily chosen. Since the list (5.17) is a basis of V , we have that
v = a1 u1 + · · · + am um + b1 v1 + · · · + bn vn ,
where a1 , . . . , am , b1 , . . . , bn ∈ F. Note that
Tu j = 0, j ∈ {1, . . . , m},
because u1 , . . . , um is a basis of ker T and u j ∈ ker T for any j ∈ {1, . . . , m}. Hence,
T v = T (a1 u1 + · · · + am um + b1 v1 + · · · + bn vn )
= a1 Tu1 + · · · + am Tum + b1 T v1 + · · · + bn T vn
246 5 Linear Maps
= b1 T v1 + · · · + bn T vn .
Therefore
span(T v1 , . . . , T vn ) = rangeT. (5.19)
Let now, c1 , . . . , cn ∈ F be such that
c1 T v1 + · · · + cn T vn = 0.
Then
0 = T (c1 v1 + · · · + cn vn ).
Hence,
c1 v1 + · · · + cn vn ∈ ker T.
Since the list u1 , . . . , um is a basis of ker T , there are d1 , . . . , dm ∈ F so that
c1 v1 + · · · + cn vn = d1 u1 + · · · + dm um .
Now, using that the list (5.17) is a basis of V , we get that it is linearly independent.
Then
c1 = 0
..
.
cn = 0
d1 = 0
..
.
dm = 0.
From here, we conclude that (5.18) is linearly independent. Hence, applying (5.19),
we find that (5.18) is a basis of rangeT . Therefore
dim rangeT = n
and
dimV = m + n
5.4 Applications to Systems of Linear Equations 247
= dim ker T + dim rangeT.

Theorem 5.13. Suppose V and W are finite-dimensional vector spaces such that
dimV > dimW . Then no linear map from V to W is injective.
Proof. Let T ∈ L (V,W ) be arbitrarily chosen and fixed. By Theorem 5.12, we find
dim ker T = dimV − dim rangeT
≥ dimV − dimW
> 0.
This means ker T 6= {0}. Now, applying Theorem 5.10, we conclude that T is not
injective. This completes the proof.
Theorem 5.14. Suppose V and W are finite-dimensional vector spaces and dimV <
dimW . Then no linear map from V to W is surjective.
Proof. Let T ∈ L (V,W ) be arbitrarily chosen. Then, applying Theorem 5.12, we
obtain
dim rangeT = dimV − dim ker T
≤ dimV
< dimW.
This means that rangeT cannot equal W . Thus, T is not surjective. This completes
the proof.
5.4 Applications to Systems of Linear Equations
Suppose that a jk ∈ F, j ∈ {1, . . . , m}, k ∈ {1, . . . , n}. Consider the homogeneous

system
n
∑ a1k xk =0
k=1
.. (5.20)
.
n
∑ amk xk = 0.
k=1
248 5 Linear Maps
Remark 5.2. Homogeneous, in this context, means that the constant term on the right
hand side of each equation above is 0.
Obviously
x1 = 0
..
.
xn = 0
is a solution to the system (5.20). The question here is whether any other solutions
exist. Define the map T : Fn → Fm by
!
n b
T (x1 , . . . , xn ) = ∑ a1k xk , . . . , ∑ amk xk , (x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ Fn . (5.21)
k=1 k=1
The equation
T (x1 , . . . , xn ) = (0, . . . , 0), (x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ Fn
is the same as the homogeneous system (5.20).
Theorem 5.15. A homogeneous system of linear equations with more variables than
equations has nonzero solutions.
Proof. Note that T ∈ L (Fn , Fm ). In this case, we have n > m. Applying Theorem
5.13, we get that T is not injective. This completes the proof.
Let n > m. Then, to find a nonzero solution to the system (5.20), we introduce n − m
parameters. Set
xm+1 = p1
..
.
xn = pn−m .
Then, we find a representation of x1 , . . . , xm via p1 , . . . , pn−m .

Example 5.11. Consider the system
x1 − 2x2 + x3 = 0
x2 − 2x3 = 0.
Here, we have three variables and two equations. By Theorem 5.15, it follows that
the considered system has a nonzero solution. Set
x3 = p.
Then
x1 = 2x2 − p
x2 = 2p
and
x1 = 4p − p
x2 = 2p,
or
x1 = 3p
x2 = 2p.
Take p = 1 and we find that
x1 = 3
x2 = 2
is a solution to the considered system.
x1 − x2 + x3 − x4 = 0
x1 + x2 − x3 = 0
x2 − 2x3 − 3x4 = 0.
Here, we have four variables and three equations. By Theorem 5.15, it follows that
the considered system has a nonzero solution. Set
x4 = p.
Then
250 5 Linear Maps
x1 − x2 + x3 = p
x1 + x2 − x3 = 0
x2 − 2x3 = 3p,
whereupon
2x1 = p
x1 + x2 − x3 = 0
x2 − 2x3 = 3p,
or
p
x1 =
2
p
x2 − x3 = −
2
x2 − 2x3 = 3p,
or
p
x1 =
2
7p
x3 = −
2
p
x2 − x3 = − ,
2
or
p
x1 =
2
x2 = −4p
7p
x3 = − .
2
Take p = 2. Then
x1 = 1
x2 = −8
x3 = −7
is a solution of the considered system.

x1 − 2x2 + x3 − 4x4 = 0.
Here, we have four variables and one equation. By Theorem 5.15, it follows that the
considered system has a nonzero solution. Set
x2 = p,
x3 = q,
x4 = r.
Then
x1 = 2p − q + 4r.
Take
p = 1,
q = 2,
r = 1.
Then
x1 = 4
x2 = 1
x3 = 2
x4 = 1

Exercise 5.6. Find a nonzero solution to the following systems.
252 5 Linear Maps
1.
x1 − 2x2 = 0.
2.
x1 − x2 − x3 = 0
x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 0.
3.
2x1 + 3x2 − 4x3 = 0
x1 − 4x2 − 5x3 = 0.
4.
x1 + x2 − 2x3 − 3x4 = 0
x1 + 2x2 − 3x3 − x4 = 0
x2 + 2x3 + 3x4 = 0.
5.
2x1 − x2 + x3 − x4 = 0
x2 − 2x3 + 3x4 = 0
3x1 + x3 = 0.
Suppose that c1 , . . . , cm ∈ F. Consider the inhomogeneous system

n
∑ a1k xk = c1
k=1
.. (5.22)
.
n
∑ amk xk = cm .
k=1
The question here is whether there is a choice of c1 , . . . , cm ∈ F so that the system

(5.22) has no solutions. Note that the equation
T (x1 , . . . , xn ) = (c1 , . . . , cm ), (x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ Fn
is the same as the homogeneous system (5.22).

Theorem 5.16. An inhomogeneous system of linear equations with more equations
than variables has no solutions for some choice of the constant terms.
Proof. Since T ∈ L (Fn , Fm ), n < m, applying Theorem 5.14, we have that T is not
surjective. This completes the proof.
Remark 5.3. Our results for homogeneous systems with more variables than equa-
tions and inhomogeneous systems with more equations than variables are often
proved using Gaussian elimination. The abstract approach taken here leads to
cleaner proofs.
2x1 + 3x2 = 5
x1 − x2 = 2
x1 + 4x2 = 2.
We have
2x1 + 3x2 = 5
x1 = 2 + x2
x1 = 2 − 4x2 .
2 + x2 = 2 − 4x2 ,
whereupon
x2 = 0
and
x1 = 2.
We put them in the first equation of the considered system and we obtain
4 + 0 = 5,
254 5 Linear Maps
which is impossible.
2x1 + 3x2 = 5
x1 − x2 = 2
x1 + 4x2 = 3.
We have
2x1 + 3x2 = 5
x1 = 2 + x2
x1 = 3 − 4x2 .
2 + x2 = 3 − 4x2 ,
whereupon
5x2 = 1,
or
1
x2 =
5
and
1
x1 = 2 +
5
11
= .
5
We put them in the first equation of the given system and we arrive at
22 3
+ = 5.
5 5
Therefore
11
x1 =
5
1
x2 =
5
Example 5.16. We will investigate the system
ax1 + bx2 = a
(a − 2)x1 + x2 = 3
x1 + x2 = 1,
where a, b ∈ R are parameters. We have
ax1 + bx2 = a
x2 = 3 − (a − 2)x1
x2 = 1 − x1 .
By the last two equations, we get
1 − x1 = 3 − (a − 2)x1 ,
or
(a − 3)x1 = 2.
1. Let a = 3. Then the last equation has no solutions and from here, the considered
system has no any solutions.
2. Let a 6= 3. Then
2
x1 =
a−3
and
x2 = 1 − x1
2
= 1−
a−3
a−3−2
=
a−3
a−5
= .
a−3
We put them in the first equation of the given system and we find
256 5 Linear Maps
2a b(a − 5)
+ = a,
a−3 a−3
whereupon
2a + b(a − 5) = a(a − 3),
or
2a + b(a − 5) = a2 − 3a,
or
b(a − 5) = a2 − 5a,
or
b(a − 5) = a(a − 5).
We have the following cases.
a. If a = 5, then
x1 = 1
x2 = 0
is a solution of the considered system for any b ∈ R.

b. Let a 6= 5. Then b = a. Therefore for a 6= 3, 5 and a = b the considered system
has a solution
2
x1 =
a−3
a−5
x2 = .
a−3
Exercise 5.7. Investigate the following system
x1 + 2x2 = 3
ax1 − 4x2 = −6
x1 + x2 = 1,
where a ∈ R is a parameter.
5.5 Matrices. Representing a Linear Map by a Matrix 257
5.5 Matrices. Representing a Linear Map by a Matrix
Suppose that the list v1 , . . . , vn is a basis of V and the list w1 , . . . , wm is a basis of W .

Let T ∈ L (V,W ).
Definition 5.8. Let m and n denote positive integers. A m × n matrix A is a rectan-
gular array of elements of F with m rows and n columns
 
a11 · · · a1n
A =  ... ... ...  .
 
am1 · · · amn
The notation a jk denotes the entry in row j and column k of the matrix A, shortly jk
entry of A.
Example 5.17. We have that

−1 1 2 3i
A=
0 −1 3 4
is a 2 × 4 matrix with
a23 = 3,
a14 = 3i.
Example 5.18. We have that

 
1 −1 0 2
 −1 1 2 3
A=
 −3 1 0

1
0 1 −2 1
is a 4 × 4 matrix with
a23 = 2,
a14 = 2.
Because T ∈ L (V,W ), there are a jk ∈ F, j ∈ {1, . . . , m}, k ∈ {1, . . . , n}, such that
258 5 Linear Maps
T v1 = a11 w1 + a21 w2 + · · · + am1 wm
T v2 = a12 w1 + a22 w2 + · · · + am2 wm

(5.23)
..
.
T vn = a1n w1 + a2n w2 + · · · + amn wm .
Definition 5.9. The matrix T with respect the bases v1 , . . . , vn and w1 , . . . , wm is the
matrix M (T ) whose entries a jk , j ∈ {1, . . . , m}, k ∈ {1, . . . , n}, are determined by
(5.23). If the bases are not clear from the context, then we will use the notation
M (T, (v1 , . . . , vn ), (w1 , . . . , wm )).
Example 5.19. Let T ∈ L (F2 , F3 ) be defined by
T (x, y) = (x + y, x − y, 2x + 3y), (x, y) ∈ F2 .
We have that
v1 = (1, 0),
v2 = (0, 1)
is a basis of F2 and
w1 = (1, 0, 0),
w2 = (0, 1, 0),
w3 = (0, 0, 1)
is a basis of F3 . We compute
T v1 = (1, 1, 2)
= w1 + w2 + 2w3
and
T v2 = (1, −1, 3)
= w1 − w2 + 3w2 .
Therefore the matrix of T is

 
1 1
M (T ) =  1 −1  .
2 3
Example 5.20. Let T ∈ L (F3 , F3 ) be defined by
T (x, y, z) = (x + y + z, 2x − y − z, 2y − 3z), (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .
Here
v1 = (1, 0, 0),
v2 = (0, 1, 0),
v3 = (0, 0, 1)
is a basis of F3 . Then
T v1 = (1, 2, 0)
= v1 + 2v2 ,
T v2 = (1, −1, 2)
= v1 − v2 + 2v3 ,
T v3 = (1, −1, −3)
= v1 − v2 − 3v3 .
Therefore  
1 1 1
M (T ) =  2 −1 −1  .
0 2 −3
Example 5.21. Let V,W ⊂ F2 , v1 , v2 be a basis of V and
w1 = (−1, 1),
w2 = (2, −1)
260 5 Linear Maps
be a basis of W . Suppose that T ∈ L (V,W ) be defined by
T (x, y) = (x − y, x + y), (x, y) ∈ F2 ,
and
1 −1
M (T ) = .
−1 2
We will find the basis v1 , v2 . Let
v1 = (v11 , v12 ),
v2 = (v21 , v22 ).
Then
T v1 = (v11 − v12 , v11 + v12 ),
T v2 = (v21 − v22 , v21 + v22 )
and
T v1 = w1 − w2
= (−1, 1) − (2, −1)
= (−1 − 2, 1 + 1)
= (−3, 2),
T v2 = −w1 + 2w2
= −(−1, 1) + 2(2, −1)
= (1, −1) + (4, −2)
= (1 + 4, −1 − 2)
= (5, −3).
Therefore
(v11 − v12 , v11 + v12 ) = (−3, 2),
(v21 − v22 , v21 + v22 ) = (5, −3).
By the last system, we find
v11 − v12 = −3
v11 + v12 = 2,
whereupon
2v11 = −1
2v12 = 5,
or
1
v11 = −
2
5
v12 = .
2
Moreover,
v21 − v22 = 5
v21 + v22 = −3.
Hence,
2v21 = 2
2v22 = −8,
or
v21 = 1
v22 = −4.
Thus,
262 5 Linear Maps

1 5
v1 = − , ,
2 2
v2 = (1, −4).
Exercise 5.8. Let T ∈ L (R4 , R3 ) be given by
T (x, y, z,t) = (x − 2y + z + t, y + z, 2y − 3z + 4t), (x, y, z,t) ∈ R4 .
Find M (T ).
5.6 Addition and Scalar Multiplication of Matrices
Definition 5.10. The sum of two matrices of the same size is the matrix obtained by
adding the corresponding entries in the matrices
     
a11 · · · a1n b11 · · · b1n a11 + b11 · · · a1n + b1n
 .. .. ..   .. .. ..   .. .. ..
 . . . + . . .  =  .

. . .
am1 · · · amn bm1 · · · bmn am1 + bm1 · · · amn + bmn
In other words,
(A + B) jk = a jk + b jk , j ∈ {1, . . . , m}, k ∈ {1, . . . , n}.

     
−1 2 3 4 2 1 −1 3 −1 + 2 2 + 1 3 + (−1) 4 + 3
 −3 2 1 0  +  1 −2 1 2  =  −3 + 1 2 + (−2) 1 + 1 0+2 
0 012 −1 1 1 −1 0 + (−1) 0 + 1 1 + 1 2 + (−1)
 
1 327
=  −2 0 2 2  .
−1 1 2 1
Exercise 5.9. Find A + B, where

 
−3 12 5 78
A= 3 4 2 −1 3 4  ,
−1 2 3 −4 0 1
 
−1 0 −2 −5 −11 9
B =  −3 1 −2 1 −4 7 .
1 0 2 0 11 0
Theorem 5.17. Let S, T ∈ L (V,W ). Then

5.6 Addition and Scalar Multiplication of Matrices 263
M (S + T ) = M (S) + M (T ).
Proof. Let v1 , . . . , vn be a basis of V and w1 , . . . , wm be a basis of W . Let also,
Sv1 = a11 w1 + · · · + a1m wm
..
.
Svn = an1 w1 + · · · + anm wm
and
T v1 = b11 w1 + · · · + b1m wm
..
.
T vn = bn1 w1 + · · · + bnm wm ,
where a jk , b jk ∈ F, j ∈ {1, . . . , n}, k ∈ {1, . . . , m}. Then

 
a11 · · · a1m
M (S) =  ... ... ... 
 
an1 · · · anm
and
 
b11 · · · b1m
 .. .. ..  .
M (T ) =  . . . 
bn1 · · · bnm
Moreover,
(S + T )v1 = Sv1 + T v1
= a11 w1 + · · · + a1m wm + b11 w1 + · · · + b1m wm
= (a11 + b11 )w1 + · · · + (a1m + b1m )wm
..
.
(S + T )vn = Svn + T vn
264 5 Linear Maps
= an1 w1 + · · · + anm wm + bn1 w1 + · · · + bnm wm
= (an1 + bn1 )w1 + · · · + (anm + bnm )wm .
Therefore
 
a11 + b11 · · · a1m + b1m
M (S + T ) = 
 .. .. .. 
. . . 
an1 + bn1 · · · anm + bnm
   
a11 · · · a1m b11 · · · b1m
=  ... ... ...  +  ... ... ... 
   
an1 · · · anm bn1 · · · bnm
= M (S) + M (T ).
Definition 5.11. The product of a scalar and a matrix is the matrix obtained by mul-
tiplying each entry in the matrix by the scalar
   
a11 · · · a1m λ a11 · · · λ a1m
λ  ... ... ...  =  ... .. ..  .
  
. . 
an1 · · · anm λ an1 · · · λ anm
In other words,
(λ A) jk = λ (A jk ), j ∈ {1, . . . , n}, k ∈ {1, . . . , m}.
Example 5.23. Let  

−1 2 1 3
A =  0 1 4 2 .
−3 1 2 −1
We will find 2A. We have
 
2 · (−1) 2 · 2 2 · 1 2 · 3
2A =  2 · 0 2 · 1 2 · 4 2 · 2 
2 · (−3) 2 · 1 2 · 2 2 · (−1)
 
−2 4 2 6
=  0 2 8 4 .
−6 2 4 −2
Exercise 5.10. Let

1
 
−4 0 3 5
 2 
 5 
A= 2 1 −3 4 .
 3 
 7 4 
3 −1 −1
8 5
Find
1. 2A.
2. (−4)A.
3. 5A.
1
4. A.
2
7
5. A.
3
Definition 5.12. Let
 
a11 · · · a1m
 .. .. .. 
A= . . . 
an1 · · · anm
and
 
b11 · · · b1m
 .. .. ..  .
B= . . . 
bn1 · · · bnm
Let also, a, b ∈ F. Define aA + bB by

 
aa11 + bb11 · · · aa1m + bb1m
aA + bB =  .. .. ..
.
 
. . .
aan1 + bbn1 · · · aanm + bbnm
Define aA − bB by
aA − bB = aA + (−b)B.
Example 5.24. Let

 
2 −1 0
A =  3 4 −2  ,
−3 1 5
 
3 1 2
B =  −2 1 3  .
0 2 −4
We will find
266 5 Linear Maps
4A − 5B.
We have
 
4 · 2 4 · (−1) 4 · 0
4A =  4 · 3 4 · 4 4 · (−2) 
4 · (−3) 4 · 1 4·5
 
8 −4 0
=  12 16 −8 
−12 4 20
and
 
(−5) · 3 (−5) · 1 (−5) · 2
(−5)B =  (−5) · (−2) (−5) · 1 (−5) · 3 
(−5) · 0 (−5) · 2 (−5) · (−4)
 
−15 −5 −10
=  10 −5 −15  .
0 −10 20
Therefore
4A − 5B = 4A + (−5)B
   
8 −4 0 −15 −5 −10
=  12 16 −8  +  10 −5 −15 
−12 4 20 0 −10 20
 
8 + (−15) −4 + (−5) 0 + (−10)
=  12 + 10 16 + (−5) −8 + (−15) 
−12 + 0 4 + (−10) 20 + 20
 
−7 −9 −10
=  22 11 −23  .
−12 −6 40
Exercise 5.11. Let

 
−2 3 1
A =  5 4 0 ,
2 −1 −5
 
1 −2 −3
B =  0 −3 1  .
4 −4 5
Find
1. 2A.
2. 3B.
3. A − B.
4. −3A.
5. 4A − 2B.
Theorem 5.18. Let T ∈ L (V,W ) and λ ∈ F. Then
M (λ T ) = λ M (T ).
Proof. Let v1 , . . . , vn be a basis of V and w1 , . . . , wm be a basis of W . Let also,
T v1 = a11 w1 + · · · + a1m wm
..
.
T vn = an1 w1 + · · · + anm wm ,
i.e.,  
a11 · · · a1m
 .. .. ..  .
M (T ) =  . . . 
an1 · · · anm
Then
(λ T )v1 = λ T v1
= λ (a11 w1 + · · · + a1m wm )
= (λ a11 )w1 + · · · + (λ a1m )wm
..
.
(λ T )vn = λ T vn
= λ (an1 w1 + · · · + anm wm )
= (λ an1 )w1 + · · · + (λ anm )wm .
Therefore
268 5 Linear Maps
 
λ a11 · · · λ a1m
M (λ T ) =  ... .. .. 

. . 
λ an1 · · · λ anm
 
a11 · · · a1n
= λ  ... ... ... 
 
an1 · · · anm
= λ M (T ).
Definition 5.13. For m and n positive integers, the set of all m × n matrices with
entries in F is denoted by Fm,n .
Definition 5.14. Define the zero matrix

 
0 ··· 0
 .. .. ..  ,
O=. . .
0 ··· 0
i.e., the zero matrix is an m × n matrix whose entries are zero.
Theorem 5.19. The set Fm,n is a vector space.
Proof. Let
 
a11 · · · a1n
 .. .. ..  ∈ Fm,n ,
A= . . . 
am1 · · · amn
 
b11 · · · b1n
B =  ... ... ...  ∈ Fm,n ,
 
bm1 · · · bmn
 
c11 · · · c1n
C =  ... ... ...  ∈ Fm,n
 
cm1 · · · cmn
and a, b ∈ F be arbitrarily chosen. Then, we have the following.

1.
   
a11 · · · a1n b11 · · · b1n
A + B =  ... .. ..  +  .. .. .. 

. .   . . . 
am1 · · · amn bm1 · · · bmn
 
a11 + b11 · · · a1n + b1n
=
 .. .. .. 
. . . 
am1 + bm1 · · · amn + bmn
 
b11 + a11 · · · b1n + a1n
=
 .. .. .. 
. . . 
bm1 + am1 · · · bmn + amn
   
b11 · · · b1n a11 · · · a1n
=  ... ... ...  +  ... ... ... 
   
bm1 · · · bmn am1 · · · amn
= B + A,
i.e.,
A + B = B + A.
2.
     
a11 · · · a1n b11 · · · b1n c11 · · · c1n
 .. .. ..  +  .. .. ..  +  .. .. .. 
A + (B +C) =  . . .   . . .   . . . 
am1 · · · amn bm1 · · · bmn cm1 · · · cmn
   
a11 · · · a1n b11 + c11 · · · b1n + c1n
=  ... ... ...  +  .. .. ..
   
. . . 
am1 · · · amn bm1 + cm1 · · · bmn + cmn
 
a11 + (b11 + c11 ) · · · a1n + (b1n + c1n )
=
 .. .. .. 
. . . 
am1 + (bm1 + cm1 ) · · · amn + (bmn + cmn )
 
(a11 + b11 ) + c11 · · · (a1n + b1n ) + c1n
=
 .. .. .. 
. . . 
(am1 + bm1 ) + cm1 · · · (amn + bmn ) + cmn
   
a11 + b11 · · · a1n + b1n c11 · · · c1n
= .. .. ..   .. .. .. 
+ . . . 

. . .
am1 + bm1 · · · amn + bmn cm1 · · · cmn
     
a11 · · · a1n b11 · · · b1n c11 ··· c1n
 .. .. ..   .. .. ..  +  .. .. .. 
=  . . .  +  . . .   . . . 
am1 · · · amn bm1 · · · bmn cm1 · · · cmn
270 5 Linear Maps
= (A + B) +C,
i.e.,
A + (B +C) = (A + B) +C.
3. Let  
−a11 · · · −a1n
 .. .. ..  .
−A =  . . . 
−am1 · · · −amn
Then
   
a11 · · · a1n −a11 · · · −a1n
 .. .. ..  +  .. .. .. 
A + (−A) =  . . .   . . . 
am1 · · · amn −am1 · · · −amn
 
a11 + (−a11 ) ··· a1n + (−a1n )
=
 .. .. .. 
. . . 
am1 + (−am1 ) · · · amn + (−amn )
 
0 ··· 0
=  ... ... ... 
 
0 ··· 0
= O,
i.e.,
A + (−A) = O.
4.
   
a11 · · · a1n 0 ··· 0
 .. .. ..  +  .. .. .. 
A+O =  . . .  . . .
am1 · · · amn 0 ··· 0
 
a11 + 0 · · · a1n + 0
=
 .. .. .. 
. . . 
am1 + 0 · · · amn + 0
 
a11 · · · a1n
=  ... ... ... 
 
am1 · · · amn
= A,
i.e.,
A + O = A.
5.
 
a11 · · · a1n
 .. .. .. 
1A = 1  . . . 
am1 · · · amn
 
1 · a11 · · · 1 · a1n
 .. .. .. 
= . . . 
1 · am1 · · · 1 · amn
 
a11 · · · a1n
=  ... ... ... 
 
am1 · · · amn
= A,
i.e.,
1A = A.
6.
   
a11 · · · a1n b11 · · · b1n
a(A + B) = a  ... .. ..  +  .. .. .. 

. .   . . . 
am1 · · · amn bm1 · · · bmn
 
a11 + b11 · · · a1n + b1n
= a
 .. .. .. 
. . . 
am1 + bm1 · · · amn + bmn
 
a(a11 + b11 ) · · · a(a1n + b1n )
=
 .. .. .. 
. . . 
a(am1 + bm1 ) · · · a(amn + bmn )
 
aa11 + ab11 · · · aa1n + ab1n
=
 .. .. .. 
. . . 
aam1 + abm1 · · · aamn + abmn
   
aa11 · · · aa1n ab11 · · · ab1n
=  ... .. ..  +  .. .. .. 

. .   . . . 
aam1 · · · aamn abm1 · · · abmn
= aA + aB,
272 5 Linear Maps
i.e.,
a(A + B) = aA + aB.
7.
 
a11 · · · a1n
 .. .. .. 
(a + b)A = (a + b)  . . . 
am1 · · · amn
 
(a + b)a11 · · · (a + b)a1n
=
 .. .. .. 
. . . 
(a + b)am1 · · · (a + b)amn
 
aa11 + ba11 · · · aa1n + ba1n
=
 .. .. .. 
. . . 
aam1 + bam1 · · · aamn + bamn
   
aa11 · · · aa1n ba11 · · · ba1n
=  ... .. ..  +  .. .. .. 

. .   . . . 
aam1 · · · aamn bam1 · · · bamn
= aA + bA,
i.e.,
(a + b)A = aA + bA.
m,n
Therefore F is a vector space. This completes the proof.

dim Fm,n = mn. (5.24)
Proof. Let A jk , j ∈ {1, . . . , m}, k ∈ {1, . . . , n}, be a m × n matrix that have 0 in all
entries except for a 1 in jk entry. Let ai j ∈ F, j ∈ {1, . . . , m}, k ∈ {1, . . . , n}, be such
that
O = a11 A11 + · · · + a1n A1n
..
.
+am1 Am1 + · · · + amn Amn

 
a11 · · · a1n
 .. .. ..  ,
= . . . 
am1 · · · amn
whereupon
a jk = 0, j ∈ {1, . . . , m}, k ∈ {1, . . . , n}.
Therefore, the list
A jk , j ∈ {1, . . . , m}, k ∈ {1, . . . , n}, (5.25)
is linearly independent in Fm,n . Next, let

 
b11 · · · b1n
B =  ... ... ...  ∈ Fm,n
 
bm1 · · · bmn
be arbitrarily chosen. Then, we have the following
B = b11 A11 + · · · + b1n A1n
..
.
+bm1 Am1 + · · · + bmn Amn .
Assume that there are c jk , j ∈ {1, . . . , m}, k ∈ {1, . . . , n}, so that
B = c11 A11 + · · · + c1n A1n
..
.
+cm1 Am1 + · · · + cmn Amn .
Therefore
O = (b11 − c11 )A11 + · · · + (b1n − c1n )A1n
..
.
+(bm1 − cm1 )Am1 + · · · + (bmn − cmn )Amn

 
b11 − c11 · · · b1n − c1n
= .. .. ..
.
 
. . .
bm1 − cm1 · · · bmn − cmn
Hence,
274 5 Linear Maps
b jk = c jk , j ∈ {1, . . . , m}, k ∈ {1, . . . , n}.
Thus, the list (5.25) spans Fm,n and it is a basis of Fm,n . Since the list (5.25) has mn
elements, we conclude that (5.24) holds. This completes the proof.
5.7 Matrix Multiplication
Let v1 , . . . , vn be a basis of V , w1 , . . . , wm be a basis of W and u1 , . . . , u p be a basis of

U. Consider the linear maps T ∈ L (U,V ) and S ∈ L (V,W ). Suppose that M (S) =
A and (T ) = C. Then, for any k ∈ {1, . . . , p}, we have
(ST )uk = S(Tuk )

!
k
=S ∑ Crk vr
r=1
n
= ∑ S(Crk vr )
r=1
n
= ∑ Crk Svk
r=1
n m
= ∑ Crk ∑ A jr w j
r=1 j=1
n m
= ∑ ∑ Crk A jr w j
r=1 j=1
!
m n
= ∑ ∑ Crk A jr w j.
j=1 r=1
Thus, M (ST ) is the m × p matrix whose jk entry is

n
∑ Crk A jr . (5.26)
r=1
Definition 5.15. Let A ∈ Fm,n , C ∈ Fn,p . Then AC is the matrix defined to be the
m × p matrix whose jk entry is given by (5.26). In other words, the jk entry of
AC is computed by taking row j of A and column k of C, multiplying together
corresponding entries, and then summing.
By the above definition, it follows that
M (ST ) = M (S)M (T ).
5.7 Matrix Multiplication 275
Remark 5.4. Let A ∈ Fn,p and B ∈ Fq,m . If p 6= q, then the multiplication AB does
not exist.
Example 5.25. Let

3 −2
A= ,
5 −4

34
B= .
25
Then

3 −2 34
AB =
5 −4 25

3 · 3 + (−2) · 2 3 · 4 + (−2) · 5
=
5 · 3 + (−4) · 2 5 · 4 + (−4) · 5

52
=
70
and

34 3 −2
BA =
25 5 −4

3·3+4·5 3 · (−2) + 4 · (−4)
=
2·3+5·5 2 · (−2) + 5 · (−4)

29 −22
= .
31 −24
Remark 5.5. By the last example, it follows that in the general case we have
AB 6= BA.
Example 5.26. Let

12 3
A= ,
1 0 −1
 
34 5
B =  6 0 −2  .
71 8
Then
276 5 Linear Maps
 
34 5
12 3 
AB = 6 0 −2 
1 0 −1
71 8

1·3+2·6+3·7 1·4+2·0+3·1 1 · 5 + 2 · (−2) + 3 · 1
=
1 · 3 + 0 · 6 + (−1) · 7 1 · 4 + 0 · 0 + (−1) · 1 1 · 5 + 0 · (−2) + (−1) · 8

36 7 4
= .
−4 3 −3
Note that the multiplication BA does not exist.
Example 5.27. Let

2 03
A= ,
−1 2 1
 
−4
B =  −3  ,
5

2
C= .
−3
We will find
2AB − 3C.
We have
 
−4
2 03 
AB = −3 
−1 2 1
5

2 · (−4) + 0 · (−3) + 3 · 5
=
−1 · (−4) + 2 · (−3) + 1 · 5

7
= ,
3

7
2AB = 2
3

2·7
=
2·3

14
= ,
6

2
3C = 3
−3

3·2
=
3 · (−3)

6
= .
−9
Therefore

14 6
2AB − 3C = −
6 −9

14 − 6
=
6+9

8
= .
15
Exercise 5.12. Find AB and BA, provided they exist, where

1.

3 5 −1
A= ,
2 −2 0
 
2 4
B =  −3 0  .
5 1
2.
 
−2 3 1
A =  5 4 0 ,
2 −1 −5
 
1 −2 −3
B =  0 −3 1  .
4 −4 5
3.
 
1 −3 2
A =  3 −4 1  ,
2 −5 3
 
256
B =  1 2 5 .
132
278 5 Linear Maps
 
5 8 −4
A =  6 9 −5  ,
4 7 −3
 
3 2 5
B =  4 −1 3  .
9 6 5
4.
 
2 −1 3 −4
 3 −2 4 −3 
A=
 5 −3 −2 1  ,

3 −3 −1 2
 
7869
5 7 4 5
 3 4 5 6 .
B= 
2112
Definition 5.16. Let A ∈ Fn,p , B ∈ F p,q , C ∈ Fq,m . Then, we define
ABC = A(BC). (5.27)
Remark 5.6. For A ∈ Fn,p , B ∈ F p,q , C ∈ Fq,m , we can define
ABC = (AB)C. (5.28)
In fact, (5.27) and (5.28) are equivalently. Really, we have the following.
q
(BC) jk = ∑ B jrCrk , j ∈ {1, . . . , p}, k ∈ {1, . . . , m},
r=1
p
(A(BC)) jk = ∑ A jr (BC)rk
r=1
!
p q
= ∑ A jr ∑ BrlClk
r=1 l=1
p q
= ∑ ∑ A jr BrlClk , j ∈ {1, . . . , n}, k ∈ {1, . . . , m},
r=1 l=1
and
p
(AB) jk = ∑ A jr Brk , j ∈ {1, . . . , n}, k ∈ {1, . . . , q},
r=1
q
((AB)C) jk = ∑ (AB) jlClk
l=1
!
q p
= ∑ ∑ A jr Brl Clk
l=1 r=1
q p
= ∑ ∑ A jr BrlClk
l=1 r=1
q q
= ∑ ∑ A jr BrlClk , j ∈ {1, . . . , n}, k ∈ {1, . . . , m}.
r=1 l=1
Hence,
(A(BC)) jk = ((AB)C) jk , j ∈ {1, . . . , n}, k ∈ {1, . . . , m}.
Therefore
A(BC) = (AB)C
and (5.27) and (5.28) are equivalently.
Example 5.28. Let

 
0 2 −1
A =  −2 −1 2  ,
3 −2 −1
 
70 34 −107
B =  52 26 −68  ,
101 50 −140
 
27 −18 10
C =  −46 31 −17  .
3 −2 1
We will find
ABC.
We have
  
0 2 −1 70 34 −107
AB =  −2 −1 2   52 26 −68 
3 −2 −1 101 50 −140
 
0 · 70 + 2 · 52 + (−1) · 101 0 · 34 + 2 · 26 + (−1) · 50 0 · (−107) + 2 · (−68) + (−1) · (−140)
=  (−2) · 70 + (−1) · 52 + 2 · 101 (−2) · 34 + (−1) · 26 + 2 · 50 (−2) · (−107) + (−1) · (−68) + 2 · (−140) 
3 · 70 + (−2) · 52 + (−1) · 101 3 · 34 + (−2) · 26 + (−1) · 50 3 · (−107) + (−2) · (−68) + (−1) · (−140)
280 5 Linear Maps
 
3 2 4
=  10 6 2 
5 0 −45
and
ABC = (AB)C
  
3 2 4 27 −18 10
=  10 6 2   −46 31 −17 
5 0 −45 3 −2 1
 
3 · 27 + 2 · (−46) + 4 · 3 3 · (−18) + 2 · 31 + 4 · (−2) 3 · 10 + 2 · (−17) + 4 · 1
=  10 · 27 + 6 · (−46) + 2 · 3 10 · (−18) + 6 · 31 + 2 · (−2) 10 · 10 + 6 · (−17) + 2 · 1 
5 · 27 + 0 · (−46) + (−45) · 3 5 · (−18) + 0 · 31 + (−45) · (−2) 5 · 10 + 0 · (−17) + (−45) · 1
 
100
=  0 2 0 .
005
Exercise 5.13. Find ABC, where

43
A= ,
75

−28 93
B= ,
38 −126

73
C= .
21
Definition 5.17. Let A1 ∈ F p1 ,p2 , A2 ∈ F p2 ,p3 , . . ., A ∈ F pn ,pn+1 . Define A1 A2 . . . An

as follows:
A1 A2 . . . An = (. . . (((A1 A2 ) A3 ) A4 ) . . . An−1 ) An .
Example 5.29. Let A, B, C be as in Example 5.28 and

 
−3 −1 2
D =  1 1 0 .
−1 1 1
We will find
ABCD.
Using the computations in Example 5.28, we get
ABC = ((AB)C)D
= (ABC)D
  
100 −3 −1 2
=  0 2 0  1 1 0 
005 −1 1 1
 
1 · (−3) + 0 · 1 + 0 · (−1) 1 · (−1) + 0 · 1 + 0 · 1 1·2+0·0+0·1
=  0 · (−3) + 2 · 1 + 0 · (−1) 0 · (−1) + 2 · 1 + 0 · 1 0·2+2·0+0·1
0 · (−3) + 0 · 1 + 5 · (−1) 0 · (−1) + 0 · 1 + 5 · 1 0·2+0·0+5·1
 
−3 −1 2
=  2 2 0 .
−5 5 5
Exercise 5.14. Find ABCD, where

 
−1 1 2
A =  2 0 −2  ,
−3 1 1
 
1 2 3
B =  −5 −4 −6  ,
1 −1 −1
 
−3 0 0
C =  0 1 0 ,
0 0 −2
 
−1 0 1
D =  −3 1 −2  .
−4 −1 1
Definition 5.18. A matrix for which the number of the rows equals the number of
the columns is said to be quadratic.

−3 1 2 0
 1 2 −3 1 
A=
 .
−1 1 4 2 
4 0 −2 −3
Here the number of the rows is 4 and the number of the columns is 4. Therefore A
is a quadratic matrix.

−1 7 8 9 0 1
A =  1 2 2 4 6 8 .
−1 3 3 2 2 0
282 5 Linear Maps
Here the number of the rows is 3 and the number of the columns is 6. Therefore A
is not a quadratic matrix.
Exercise 5.15. Determine which matrices are quadratic.

1.
A = −1 7 3 4 8 0 1 .
2.  
−1 0 1 3 2
 −2 −3 0 0 2 
 
A=
 1 0 0 0 .
4 
 0 3 5 101 32 
2 1 −1 −4 2
3. 
0
 −1 
 
 1 .
A= 
 2 
−2
4.
−1 1
A= .
3 2
5.  
−1 3 1
A =  1 0 4 .
−2 1 2
Definition 5.19. For a quadratic matrix A ∈ Fm,m , define
A2 = AA,
A3 = A2 A = AA2 ,
..
.
Am = Am−1 A = AAm−1 , m ∈ N.
Example 5.32. Let

1 −2
A= .
3 −4
We will find A3 . We have
A2 = AA

1 −2 1 −2
=
3 −4 3 −4

1 · 1 + (−2) · 3 1 · (−2) + (−2) · (−4)
=
3 · 1 + (−4) · 3 3 · (−2) + (−4) · (−4)

−5 6
=
−9 10
and
A3 = A2 A

−5 6 1 −2
=
−9 10 3 −4

−5 · 1 + 6 · 3 −5 · (−2) + 6 · (−4)
=
−9 · 1 + 10 · 3 −9 · (−2) + 10 · (−4)

13 −14
=
21 −22
.
Exercise 5.16. Let

4 −1
A= .
5 −2
Find A5 .
Definition 5.20. Let A ∈ Fm,n and j ∈ {1, . . . , m}, k ∈ {1, . . . , n}. With A j, we will
denote the 1 × n matrix consisting of the row j of A. With A,k we will denote the
m × 1 matrix consisting the column k of A.
Example 5.33. Let

845
A= .
197
Then

A1, = 8 4 5 ,

A2, = 1 9 7 ,

8
A,1 = ,
1
284 5 Linear Maps

4
A,2 = ,
9

5
A,3 = .
7
Exercise 5.17. Let  

−1 0 3 5 6
A =  2 3 −1 4 5  .
0 1 2 34
Find
1. A2, .
2. A3, .
3. A,3 .
4. A,5 .
5. 2A2, − 3A3, .
6. 3A,3 + 4A,5 .
7. A,3 A2, .
8. A,5 A3, .
9. 2A,3 A2, .
10. 4A,5 A3, .
Theorem 5.21. Let A ∈ Fm,n , C ∈ Fn,p . Then
(AC) jk = A j,C,k , j ∈ {1, . . . , m}, k ∈ {1, . . . , p}.
Proof. We have
n
(AC) jk = ∑ A jrCrk
r=1
= A j,C,k , j ∈ {1, . . . , m}, k ∈ {1, . . . , p}.
Theorem 5.22. Let A ∈ Fm,n , C ∈ Fn,p . Then
(AC) jk = AC,k , k ∈ {1, . . . , p}. (5.29)
Proof. We have
n
(AC) jk = ∑ A jrCrk , j ∈ {1, . . . , m}, k ∈ {1, . . . , n}.
r=1
Then
 n 
A C
 ∑ 1r rk 
 r=1 
 n 
 ∑ A2rCrk 
 
(AC) jk =  r=1 . (5.30)

 .. 

 . 
 n 
 
∑ AmrCrk
r=1
Next,  
C1k
 C2k 
C,k =  . 
 
 .. 
Cnk
and
  
A11· · · A1n C1k
 A21· · · A2n 
  C2k 
 
AC,k =  .

.. ..   .. 
 .. . .  . 
Am1 · · · Amn Cnk
 n 
 ∑ A1rCrk 
 r=1 
 n 
 ∑ A2rCrk 
 
=  r=1
 .
 .. 

 . 
 n 
 
∑ AmrCrk
r=1
By the last equation and (5.30), it follows (5.29). This completes the proof.
Theorem 5.23. Let A ∈ Fm,n , C ∈ Fn,1 ,

 
A11 · · · A1n
 A21 · · · A2n 
A= . .. ..  ,
 
 .. . . 
Am1 · · · Amn
 
C1
 C2 
C =  . .
 
 .. 
Cn
Then
286 5 Linear Maps
AC = C1 A,1 + · · · +Cn A,n . (5.31)
Proof. We have   
A11 · · · A1n C1
 A21 · · · A2n   C2 
AC =  .
  
.. ..   .. 
 .. . .  . 
Am1 · · · Amn Cn
 n 
A
 ∑ 1r r C (5.32)
 r=1 
 n 
 ∑ A2rCr 
 
= r=1 .

 .. 

 . 
 n 
 
∑ AmrCr
r=1
Next,
   
A11 A12
 A21   A22 
C1 A,1 +C2 A,2 + · · · +Cn A,n = C1  .  +C2  . 
   
 ..   .. 
Am1 Am2
 
A1n
 A2n 
+ · · · +Cn  . 
 
 .. 
Amn
   
C1 A11 C2 A12
 C1 A21   C2 A22 
=  . + . 
   
 ..   .. 
C1 An1 C2 Am2
 
Cn A1n
 Cn A2n 
+···+ . 
 
 .. 
Cn Amn
 n 
A
 ∑ 1r r C
 r=1 
 n 
 ∑ A2rCr 
 
= r=1 .

 .. 

 . 
 n 
 
∑ AmrCr
r=1
By the last equation and (5.32), we get (5.31). This completes the proof.
Problem 5.1. Let T : R3 → R3 be defined by

1. T (x, y, z) = (4x − 3y − 2z, x, x + 3z), (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .
2. T (x, y, z) = (x − 4z, x, x), (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .
3. T (x, y, z) = (x, 2y, 3z), (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .
4. T (x, y, z) = (y + z, 2x + z, 3x − y + z), (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .
5. T (x, y, z) = (x − y + z, z, y), (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .
Check if T ∈ L (R3 , R3 ).
Problem 5.2. Let S, T : R4 → R3 be defined by
S(x, y, z,t) = (2x − 2y + z + t, 2x − y, z + t),
T (x, y, z,t) = (x + y − z, x − 2y + z + t, z + 2t) (x, y, z,t) ∈ R4 .
Find
1. (S + T )(x, y, z,t), (x, y, z,t) ∈ R4 .
2. (3S)(x, y, z,t), (x, y, z,t) ∈ R4 .
3. (2T )(x, y, z,t), (x, y, z,t) ∈ R4 .
4. (S − T )(x, y, z,t), (x, y, z,t) ∈ R4 .
5. (3S − 5T )(x, y, z,t), (x, y, z,t) ∈ R4 .
Problem 5.3. Let T : R5 → R4 and S : R4 → R3 be defined by
T (x, y, z,t, w) = (x, 3y + z + t, z + 2t + w,t − 3w), (x, y, z,t, w) ∈ R5 ,
S(x, y, z,t) = (x + y + z, y − 2z, y + z + t), (x, y, z,t) ∈ R4 .
Find
1. (ST )(x, y, z,t, w), (x, y, z,t, w) ∈ R5 .
288 5 Linear Maps
2. (2T )(x, y, z,t, w), (x, y, z,t, w) ∈ R5 .

3. (ST − 2T )(x, y, z,t, w), (x, y, z,t, w) ∈ R5 .
4. ((3S)T )(x, y, z,t, w), (x, y, z,t, w) ∈ R5 .
5. ((2S)T − 4T )(x, y, z,t, w), (x, y, z,t, w) ∈ R5 .
Problem 5.4. Let φ : R3 → R2 be defined by
φ (x, y, z) = (x − y, y2 − z2 , x + z), (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .
Find ker φ .
Problem 5.5. Find a nonzero solution to the following systems.

1.
x1 − 5x2 + 4x3 = 0.
2.
x1 − 3x2 + 4x3 + 8x4 = 0.
3.
x1 + 2x3 + x4 + x5 = 0
x3 + x4 + x5 = 0
−x1 + x2 + 4x4 = 0.
4.
x1 + x2 − 3x3 = 0
x2 − x3 + x4 = 0.
5.
x1 + x2 = 0
x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 + x6 = 0.
Problem 5.6. Investigate the system
x1 + ax2 = 1
2x1 + 4x2 = 2
bx1 + 4x2 = 2,
where a, b ∈ R are parameters.

Problem 5.7. Let T ∈ L (R5 , R3 ) be given by
T (x, y, z,t, w) = (x − y + 3z + 4t − w, y + z − w, 2y − z + t + 4w), (x, y, z,t, w) ∈ R5 .
Find M (T ).
Problem 5.8. Find A + B, where
 
−4 1 2 3 −11 12 15
A =  −3 0 0 1 2 3 5 ,
−4 −1 −3 1 2 −1 3
 
−3 0 1 2 11 −15 1
B =  −4 1 2 3 −5 6 7 .
−3 −1 2 −1 4 −3 1
Problem 5.9. Let

1 1 1
 
−3 1 −
 2 3 4 
 1 1
A=
 0 5 −1 2 −  .
 1 3
2 
− 1 1 2
4 3
Find
1. 3A.
2. (−2)A.
3. 4A.
1
4. A.
3
5
5. A.
4
Problem 5.10. Let
 
1 −2 5 3
A =  2 0 −3 1  ,
5 −1 0 4
 
0 2 7 −5
B =  −8 1 3 0  .
4 2 −2 5
Find
1. 3A.
290 5 Linear Maps
2. 2B.
3. 2A + 4B.
4. −3B.
5. 2A − 5B.
Problem 5.11. Find AB and BA, provided they exist, where
1.
 
5 7 −3 −4
7 6 −4 −5 
A= ,
6 4 −3 −2 
8 5 −6 −1
 
1 2 34
2 3 4 5
B=
1
.
3 5 7
2 4 68
2.

2 −3
A= ,
4 −6

9 −6
B= .
6 −4
3.
 
5 2 −2 −3
 6 4 −3 5 
 9 2 −3 4  ,
A= 
7 6 −4 7
 
2 2 2 2
 −1 −5 3 11 
 16 24 8 −8  .
B= 
8 16 0 −16
4.
 
0 2 −1
A =  −2 −1 2  ,
3 −2 −1
 
70 34 −107
B =  52 26 −68  .
101 50 −140
5.
 
1 1 1 −1
 −5 −3 −4 4 
A= ,
 5 1 4 −3 
−16 −11 −15 14
 
7 −2 3 4
 11 0 3 4 
B=
 5 4 3 0 .

22 2 9 8
Problem 5.12. Find ABC, where

 
131
A =  2 2 1 ,
342
 
100
B =  0 2 0 ,
001
 
0 2 −1
C =  −1 1 −1  .
−2 −5 4
Problem 5.13. Find ABCD, where

 
1 0 −4
A =  3 1 2 ,
2 −2 7
 
1 1 −3
B =  2 3 5 ,
−1 1 1
 
110
C =  1 1 1 ,
002
 
4 −1 −1
D =  1 10 2  .
0 1 3
Problem 5.14. Determine which matrices are quadratic.

1.
−1 7 3 4 8 0
A= .
0 −3 2 1 4 −5
2.
292 5 Linear Maps
 
2 1 2 0
 1 −1 1 1
A=
 .
1 −4 0 2
2 3 5 10
3.  
7 0
 −3 1 
 
 4 0 
A=
 .
 1 −3 

 2 2 
0 −4
4.  
−1 1 0
A= 3 2 6 .
0 −1 3
5.  
1 02
A =  −3 2 1  .
−1 3 0
Problem 5.15. Let

2 −1
A= .
3 −2
Find A5 .
Problem 5.16. Let  

−2 1 0 0 3 5
A =  0 −1 1 0 1 2  .
3 4 5 −1 2 1
Find
1. A1, .
2. A3, .
3. A,2 .
4. A,6 .
5. A1, + 3A3, .
6. 4A,2 − A,6 .
7. A,2 A1, .
8. A,6 A3, .
9. 3A,2 A1, − A,6 A3, .
10. A,2 A1, + 4A,6 A3, .
Problem 5.17. Let A ∈ Fm,n , C ∈ Fn,p . Prove that
(AC) j, = A j,C, j ∈ {1, . . . , m}.

Problem 5.18. Let C ∈ Fn,p and
a = (a1 , . . . , an ) ∈ F1,n .
Prove that
aC = a1C1, + · · · + anCn, .
Problem 5.19. Suppose that V and W are finite-dimensional and T ∈ L (V,W ).

Prove that dim rangeT = 1 if and only if there are a basis of V and a basis of W
such that with respect to these bases all entries of M (T ) equal 1.
Problem 5.20. Let A, B ∈ Fn,n and AB = BA. Prove that
(A + B)2 = A2 + 2AB + B2 ,
(A − B)2 = A2 − 2AB + B2 .
Chapter 6
Iso-Real Numbers
6.1 Algebra of Iso-Real Number Systems
1
Let T̂1 be a positive constant. We set Iˆ1 = and
T̂1

ˆ a
F̂R̂I1 = â = :a∈R .
T̂1
Definition 6.1. The number Iˆ1 will be called basic iso-unit.

ˆ
Definition 6.2. The set F̂R̂I1 will be called a set of iso-real numbers with basic iso-
unit Iˆ1 .
ˆ
Definition 6.3. We will say that two elements â, b̂ ∈ F̂RI1 are equal and will write
â = b̂ if a = b.
a b
The relation equality is well defined. Really, if a, b ∈ R and â = b̂, then = .
T̂1 T̂1
a b
Hence, a = b. Also, if a, b ∈ R and a = b, then = , i.e., â = b̂.
T̂1 T̂1
By the properties of the equality of real numbers, they follow the following proper-
ˆ
ties of the equality of the elements of F̂RI1 .
ˆ
1. ĝ = ĝ for every ĝ ∈ F̂RI1 .
ˆ
2. If ĝ = ĥ, then ĥ = ĝ for every ĝ, ĥ ∈ F̂RI1 .
ˆ
3. If ĝ = ĥ and ĥ = l,ˆ then ĝ = lˆ for every ĝ, ĥ, lˆ ∈ F̂ I1 .
R
ˆ
Definition 6.4. In the set F̂RI1 we define the operations iso-addition(shortly addition)
and iso-multiplication(shortly multiplication) as follows
a b a b ab
â + b̂ = + , ˆ b̂ = âT̂1 b̂ =
â× T̂1 = ,
T̂1 T̂1 T̂1 T̂1 T̂1
295
296 6 Iso-Real Numbers
respectively.
1
Example 6.1. Let T̂1 = 2. Then Iˆ1 = and
2
1 na o
F̂R2 = :a∈R .
2
We have
3 4
3̂ + 4̂ = +
2 2
7
=
2
= 7̂,
3 4
ˆ 4̂ =
3̂× ·2·
2 2
12
=
2
ˆ
= 12.
ˆ ˆ
Theorem 6.1. The set F̂RI1 is a field, i.e., if fˆ, ĝ, ĥ ∈ F̂RI1 , then
ˆ
1. fˆ + ĝ ∈ F̂RI1 .
ˆ
2. fˆ×ˆ ĝ ∈ F̂RI1 .
3. fˆ + ĝ + ĥ = fˆ + ĝ + ĥ.

4. fˆ× ˆ ĥ = fˆ×

ˆ ĝ× ˆ ĝ ×ˆ ĥ.
ˆ
5. f + ĝ = ĝ + f . ˆ
6. fˆ×ˆ ĝ = ĝ× ˆ fˆ.
ˆ
7. there exists an element of F̂RI1 , called the additive identity element and denoted
by 0̂, such that fˆ + 0̂ = fˆ.
8. fˆ×ˆ Iˆ1 = fˆ.
ˆ
9. there is an element − fˆ ∈ F̂RI1 such that
fˆ + − fˆ = 0̂.

ˆ
6 0̂, then there is an element fˆ−1 ∈ F̂RI1 such that
10. If fˆ =
ˆ fˆ−1 = Iˆ1 .
fˆ×
11. fˆ×
ˆ ĝ + ĥ = fˆ×
ˆ ĝ + fˆ×

ˆ ĥ .
6.1 Algebra of Iso-Real Number Systems 297
Proof. 1. We have
f g
fˆ + ĝ = +
T̂1 T̂1
f +g
=
T̂1
ˆ
f + g ∈ F̂RI1 .
= [
2. We have
f g
fˆ×
ˆ ĝ = T̂1
T̂1 T̂1
fg
=
T̂1
ˆ
f g ∈ F̂RI1 .
=c
3. We have

f g h
fˆ + ĝ + ĥ =

+ +
T̂1 T̂1 T̂1

f g h
= + +
T̂1 T̂1 T̂1
= fˆ + ĝ + ĥ.

4. We have

ˆf ×
f g h
ˆ ĝ×
ˆ ĥ = T̂1 T̂1
T̂1 T̂1 T̂1

h
= f g
T̂1

h
= ( f g)
T̂1

f g h
= T̂1 T̂1
T̂1 T̂1 T̂1
= fˆ×

ˆ ĝ × ˆ ĥ.
5. We have
f g
fˆ + ĝ = +
T̂1 T̂1
g f
= +
T̂1 T̂1
= ĝ + fˆ.
6. We have
f g
fˆ×
ˆ ĝ = T̂1
T̂1 T̂1
g
= f
T̂1
g
= f
T̂1
g f
= T̂1
T̂1 T̂1
ˆ fˆ.
= ĝ×
7. Let
0
0̂ = .
T̂1
Then
f 0
fˆ + 0̂ = +
T̂1 T̂1
f +0
=
T̂1
f
=
T̂1
= fˆ.
8. We have
f 1
fˆ×
ˆ Iˆ1 = T̂1
T̂1 T̂1
f
=
T̂1
= fˆ.
9. Let
−f
− fˆ = =−
cf .
T̂1
Then

ˆf + − fˆ = f + − f

T̂1 T̂1
=0
0
=
T̂1
= 0̂.
10. Let fˆ 6= 0̂. We set fˆ−1 = d

f −1 . Then
f f −1
ˆ fˆ−1 = T̂1
fˆ×
T̂1 T̂1
f f −1
=
T̂1
1
=
T̂1
= Iˆ1 .
11. We have

f g h
fˆ×

ˆ ĝ + ĥ = T̂1 +
T̂1 T̂1 T̂1

g h
= f +
T̂1 T̂1
g h
= f +f
T̂1 T̂1
f g f h
= T̂1 + T̂1
T̂1 T̂1 T̂1 T̂1
= fˆ×
ˆ ĝ + fˆ×
ˆ ĥ.

ˆ ĝ−1 is also denoted by fˆ i ĝ.
Remark 6.1. 1. If ĝ 6= 0̂, the element fˆ×
2. The element f + (−ĝ) is also denoted by fˆ − ĝ.
ˆ
In other words, iso-division and iso-subtraction operations exist.

ˆ
Definition 6.5. For fˆ, ĝ, ĥ ∈ F̂RI1 we define fˆ + ĝ + ĥ and fˆ×
ˆ ĝ×
ˆ ĥ in the following
manner
fˆ + ĝ + ĥ = fˆ + ĝ + ĥ ,

fˆ× ˆ ĥ = fˆ×

ˆ ĝ× ˆ ĝ×
ˆ ĥ ,
respectively.
Definition 6.6. Using Definition 6.5, we define
fˆ + ĝ + ĥ + lˆ = fˆ + ĝ + ĥ + lˆ ,

fˆ× ˆ lˆ = fˆ× ˆ lˆ ,

ˆ ĝ×
ˆ ĥ× ˆ ĝ×
ˆ ĥ×
ˆ
for fˆ, ĝ, ĥ, lˆ ∈ F̂RI1 . And so on.
ˆ
Corollary 6.1. Every solution r̂ of the equation ĝ + r̂ = ĝ, ĝ ∈ F̂RI1 is a solution of
ˆ
the equation ĥ + r̂ = ĥ, ĥ ∈ F̂RI1 .
ˆ ˆ
Proof. Let r̂ ∈ F̂RI1 be a solution to the equation ĝ + r̂ = ĝ and ŷ ∈ F̂RI1 be a solution
to the equation ĝ + ŷ = ĥ. Then
ĥ + r̂ = (ĝ + ŷ) + r̂
= ĝ + (ŷ + r̂)
= ĝ + (r̂ + ŷ)
= (ĝ + r̂) + ŷ
= ĝ + ŷ
= ĥ,
which completes the proof.

ˆ ˆ
Corollary 6.2. The equation ĝ + r̂ = ĝ, ĝ ∈ F̂RI1 , has a unique solution r̂ ∈ F̂RI1 .
ˆ ˆ
Proof. Since F̂RI1 is a field, the considered equation has a solution r̂ ∈ F̂RI1 . Suppose
ˆ
that ŷ ∈ F̂RI1 is a solution to the considered equation. Then
ĝ + ŷ = ĝ.
Hence, using Corollary 6.1, it follows
ŷ + r̂ = ŷ, r̂ + ŷ = r̂.
Since ŷ + r̂ = r̂ + ŷ, we obtain r̂ = ŷ. This completes the proof.

ˆ
Corollary 6.3. Let ĝ, ĥ ∈ F̂RI1 . Then the equation ĝ + r̂ = ĥ has a unique solution
ˆ
r̂ ∈ F̂RI1 .
Proof. Let us suppose that the considered equation has two solutions r̂ and ŷ. For
them we have
ĝ + r̂ = ĥ and ĝ + ŷ = ĥ.
Hence,
ĝ + r̂ = ĝ + ŷ.
ˆ
Since F̂RI1 is a field, it follows that the equation ĝ + ẑ = 0̂ has a solution. Then
ŷ = ŷ + 0̂
= ŷ + (ĝ + ẑ)
= (ŷ + ĝ) + ẑ
= (ĝ + ŷ) + ẑ
= (ĝ + r̂) + ẑ
= (r̂ + ĝ) + ẑ
= r̂ + (ĝ + ẑ)
= r̂ + 0̂
= r̂.
Remark 6.2. By Corollary 6.3, it follows that for every two iso-real numbers ĝ, ĥ the
equation ĝ + r̂ = ĥ has a unique solution. This unique solution can be represented in
the form ĥ − ĝ. We have ĥ − ĝ = ĥ + (−ĝ) and
ĝ + (ĥ − ĝ) = ĥ.
From Corollary 6.3, it follows that the equation ĝ + r̂ = 0̂ has a unique solution. This
unique solution is given by r̂ = −ĝ.
ˆ
Corollary 6.4. Let ĝ ∈ F̂RI1 . Then
−(−ĝ) = ĝ.
Proof. We have
−(−ĝ) = −(−ĝ) + 0̂
= −(−ĝ) + (ĝ + (−ĝ))
= (ĝ + (−ĝ)) − (−ĝ)
= (ĝ + (−ĝ)) + (−(−ĝ))
= ĝ + ((−ĝ) + (−(−ĝ)))
= ĝ + 0̂
= ĝ.

ˆ
Corollary 6.5. Let ĝ, ĥ ∈ F̂RI1 , ĝ 6= 0̂. Then the equation
ˆ = ĥ
ĝ×r̂
ˆ
has a unique solution r̂ ∈ F̂RI1 .
ˆ
Proof. Since ĝ 6= 0̂ and F̂RI1 is a field, there exists ĝ−1 . We will show that
ˆ ĝ−1
r̂ = ĥ×
= ĥ i ĝ
is a solution of the considered equation. Really,
ˆ ĝ−1

ˆ = ĝ×
ĝ×r̂ ˆ ĥ×
ˆ ĝ−1 ×

= ĝ× ˆ ĥ
ˆ ĝ−1 ×

= ĝ× ˆ ĥ
g g−1

h
= T̂1 T̂1
T̂1 T̂1 T̂1
h
=
T̂1
= ĥ.
Now, suppose that the considered equation has other solution ŷ. Let ẑ be a solution
ˆ = Iˆ1 . Then
of the equation ĝ×r̂
ˆ Iˆ1
ŷ = ŷ×
ˆ ĝ×ẑ)
= ŷ×( ˆ
ˆ ĝ)×ẑ
= (ŷ× ˆ
ˆ ŷ)×ẑ
= (ĝ× ˆ
ˆ
= ĥ×ẑ
ˆ ×ẑ
= (ĝ×r̂) ˆ
ˆ ĝ)×ẑ
= (r̂× ˆ
ˆ ĝ×ẑ)
= r̂×( ˆ
ˆ Iˆ1
= r̂×
= r̂.

ˆ
Corollary 6.6. Let ĝ, ĥ ∈ F̂RI1 . Then
1. 0̂ = −0̂.
2. ĝ − 0̂ = ĝ.
3. ĝ×ˆ 0̂ = 0̂.
4. Iˆ1 6= 0̂.
5. (−Iˆ1 )× ˆ â = −â.
6. (−Iˆ1 )×(−
ˆ Iˆ1 ) = Iˆ1 .
7. −(ĝ − ĥ) = ĥ − ĝ.
Proof. 1. The iso-real numbers 0̂ and −0̂ are solutions of the equation 0̂ + r̂ = 0̂,
which has unique solution. Therefore 0̂ = −0̂.
2. Since 0̂ + (ĝ − 0̂) = ĝ, then ĝ − 0̂ is a solution of the equation 0̂ + r̂ = ĝ. The
solution of the last equation is ĝ, because 0̂ + ĝ = ĝ + 0̂ = ĝ. This solution is
unique. Therefore ĝ − 0̂ = ĝ.
3. We have
ˆ 0̂ = ĝ×
ĝ× ˆ 0̂ + 0̂
ˆ 0̂ + (ĝ + (−ĝ))
= ĝ×
ˆ 0̂ + ĝ) + (−ĝ)
= (ĝ×
ˆ Iˆ1 ) + (−ĝ)
ˆ 0̂ + ĝ×
= (ĝ×
ˆ 0̂ + Iˆ1 ) + (−ĝ)
= ĝ×(
ˆ Iˆ1 + 0̂) + (−ĝ)

= ĝ×(
ˆ Iˆ1 + (−ĝ)
= ĝ×
= ĝ + (−ĝ)
= 0̂.
4. Since there exists â ∈ F̂R so that â 6= 0̂, then if we suppose that Iˆ1 = 0̂, we will
have
ˆ Iˆ1
â = â×
ˆ 0̂
= â×
= 0̂,
which is a contradiction. Therefore Iˆ1 6= 0̂.

5. We have
(−Iˆ1 )×
ˆ ĝ = (−Iˆ1 )×
ˆ ĝ + 0̂
= (−Iˆ1 )×
ˆ ĝ + (ĝ + (−ĝ))
= ((−Iˆ1 )×
ˆ ĝ + ĝ) + (−ĝ)
ˆ
= ĝ×((−Iˆ1 ) + Iˆ1 ) + (−ĝ)
ˆ Iˆ1 + (−Iˆ1 )) + (−ĝ)

= ĝ×(
ˆ 0̂ + (−ĝ)
= ĝ×
= 0̂ + (−ĝ)
= −ĝ.
6. We have
(−Iˆ1 )×(−
ˆ Iˆ1 ) = −(−Iˆ1 )
= Iˆ1 .
7. We have
−(ĝ − ĥ) = (−Iˆ1 )×(

ˆ ĝ − ĥ)
= (−Iˆ1 )×(
ˆ ĝ + (−ĥ))
= (−Iˆ1 )×
ˆ ĝ + (−Iˆ1 )×(−
ˆ ĥ)
= −(−ĥ) + (−ĝ)
= ĥ − ĝ.

We will define a positive iso-real number by the following axioms.

A1. The iso-zero 0̂ is not a positive iso-real number.
A2. If ĝ 6= 0̂, then one of the iso-real numbers ĝ and −ĝ is a positive iso-real
number.
A3. If the iso-real numbers ĝ, ĥ ∈ F̂R are positive, then the iso-real numbers ĝ + ĥ
ˆ ĥ are positive iso-real numbers.
and ĝ×
A4. If ĝ, ĥ ∈ F̂R and ĝ is a positive iso-real number, and ĝ = ĥ, then ĥ is a positive
iso-real number.
Corollary 6.7. If ĝ ∈ F̂R and ĝ 6= 0̂, then the iso-real numbers ĝ and −ĝ cannot be
simultaneously positive.
Proof. If ĝ and −ĝ are simultaneously positive iso-real numbers, then, using the
axiom A3, it follows that their sum is a positive iso-real number. On the other hand,
their sum is the iso-zero. This is a contradiction with the axiom A1. This completes
the proof.
Definition 6.7. The iso-real numbers which are not positive and are not equal to the
iso-zero will be called negative iso-real numbers.
Corollary 6.8. The iso-real number Iˆ1 is a positive iso-real number.
Proof. We have that Iˆ1 6= 0̂. If we suppose that −Iˆ1 is a positive iso-real number,
then, using the axiom A3, it follows that
(−Iˆ1 )×(−
ˆ Iˆ1 ) = Iˆ1
is a positive iso-real number. Therefore Iˆ1 and −Iˆ1 are simultaneously positive,
which is a contradiction. Consequently Iˆ1 is a positive iso-real number. This com-
pletes the proof
ˆ
Definition 6.8. We will say that the iso-real number ĝ ∈ F̂RI1 is less than the iso-real
ˆ
number ĥ ∈ F̂RI1 and we will write
ĝ < ĥ or ĥ > ĝ,
if ĥ − ĝ is a positive iso-real number.
Example 6.2. Let T̂1 = 4. Then
ˆ x̂ + 4̂ = 5̂
3̂× ⇐⇒
3 x 4 5
·4· + = =⇒
4 4 4 4
3 5
x+1 = =⇒
4 4
3 5
x = −1 =⇒
4 4
3 1
x= =⇒
4 4
1
x= =⇒
3
1 1
x̂ = ·
3 4
1
b
= .
3
Example 6.3. Let T̂1 = 5 and let us consider the equation
3̂x̂ + 2̂ = 7̂,
which is equivalent to the equation

3 x 2 7
· + = .
5 5 5 5
Hence,
3
x+2 = 7 =⇒
5
3
x=5 =⇒
5
25
x= =⇒
3
25
c
x̂ = .
3
Exercise 6.1. Let T̂1 = 2. Find x̂ such that
1. 2̂×ˆ x̂ = 4̂.
2. 2̂x̂ = 4̂.
Definition 6.9. We will say that the iso-real number ĝ ∈ F̂R is less than or equal to
the iso-real number ĥ ∈ F̂R and we will write
ĝ ≤ ĥ or ĥ ≥ ĝ,
if ĥ − ĝ is a positive iso-real number or it is equal to the iso-zero 0̂.
Corollary 6.9. For every two iso-real numbers ĝ, ĥ ∈ F̂R is true one of the following
relations.
1. ĝ = ĥ.
2. ĝ > ĥ.
3. ĝ < ĥ.
Proof. We have two possibilities ĝ = ĥ or ĝ 6= ĥ. If ĝ 6= ĥ, then ĝ − ĥ 6= 0̂ and one

of the iso-real numbers ĝ − ĥ, −(ĝ − ĥ) is a positive iso-real number. If ĝ − ĥ is a
positive iso-real number, then we have the second relation. If −(ĝ − ĥ) is a positive
iso-real number, then we have the third relation. This completes the proof.
ˆ
Corollary 6.10. The iso-real number ĝ ∈ F̂RI1 is a positive iso-real number if and
only if ĝ > 0̂.
Proof. Note that ĝ > 0̂ if and only if ĝ − 0̂ = ĝ is a positive iso-real number. This
ˆ
Corollary 6.11. Let â, b̂, ĉ, dˆ ∈ F̂RI1 . If â > b̂ and ĉ > d,ˆ then
ˆ
â + ĉ > b̂ + d.
Proof. From â > b̂ and ĉ > d,ˆ it follows that
â − b̂ > 0̂, ĉ − dˆ > 0̂.
Hence, using the axiom A3, it follows that

ˆ > 0̂.
(â − b̂) + (ĉ − d) (6.1)
Also,
ˆ = (â + ĉ) + (−Iˆ1 )×(

(â + ĉ) − (b̂ + d) ˆ
ˆ b̂ + d)
= (â + ĉ) + ((−Iˆ1 )×

ˆ b̂ + (−Iˆ1 )× ˆ
ˆ d)
= ((â + ĉ) + (−Iˆ1 )× ˆ dˆ

ˆ b̂) + (−Iˆ1 )×
and
((ĉ + â) + (−Iˆ1 )× ˆ dˆ = (ĉ + (â + (−Iˆ1 )×

ˆ b̂) + (−Iˆ1 )× ˆ dˆ
ˆ b̂)) + (−Iˆ1 )×
= ((â + (−Iˆ1 )× ˆ dˆ
ˆ b̂) + ĉ) + (−Iˆ1 )×
= (â + (−Iˆ1 )×
ˆ b̂) + (ĉ + (−Iˆ1 )× ˆ
ˆ d)
ˆ
= (â − b̂) + (ĉ − d)
Hence, (6.1) and the axiom A4, we obtain

ˆ > 0̂.
(â + ĉ) − (b̂ + d)
From here,
ˆ
â + ĉ > b̂ + d.
ˆ ˆ
Corollary 6.12. 1. If ĝ, ĥ ∈ F̂RI1 and ĝ > ĥ, then ĝ + lˆ > ĥ + lˆ for every lˆ ∈ F̂RI1 .
ˆ
2. If ĝ, ĥ, lˆ ∈ F̂ I1 , ĝ > ĥ and ĥ > l,ˆ then ĝ > l.ˆ
R
ˆ
3. If ĝ, ĥ, lˆ ∈ F̂RI1 , ĝ > 0̂ and ĥ > l,ˆ then ĝ×ˆ ĥ > ĝ× ˆ l.ˆ
ˆI1
4. If ĝ, ĥ, lˆ ∈ F̂ , ĝ < 0̂, ĥ > l,ˆ then ĝ×
R
ˆ ĥ < ĝ×ˆ l.ˆ
Proof. 1. We have that ĝ > ĥ if and only if ĝ − ĥ > 0̂. On the other hand,
ˆ − (ĥ + l)
(ĝ + l) ˆ = (ĝ − ĥ).
From here and from the axiom A4, it follows that

ˆ − (ĥ + l)
(ĝ + l) ˆ > 0̂.
Therefore
ĝ + lˆ > ĥ + l.
ˆ
2. From ĝ > ĥ and ĥ > l,ˆ it follows that ĝ − ĥ > 0̂ and ĥ − lˆ > 0̂. Hence and 1, it
follows that
ˆ > 0̂.
(ĝ − ĥ) + (ĥ − l)
Since
ĝ − lˆ = (ĝ − ĥ) + (ĥ − l),
ˆ
using the axiom A4, we conclude that ĝ − lˆ is a positive iso-real number. Then
ĝ > l.ˆ
3. We have that ĥ − lˆ > 0̂. Therefore
ˆ > 0̂.
ˆ ĥ − l)
ĝ×(
Because
ĝ×( ˆ = ĝ×
ˆ ĥ − l) ˆ ĥ − ĝ× ˆ
ˆ l,
we have
ˆ lˆ > 0̂.
ˆ ĥ − ĝ×
ĝ×
4. We have ĥ − lˆ > 0̂ and −ĝ > 0̂. Therefore
ˆ = −ĝ×
ˆ ĥ − l)
−ĝ×( ˆ lˆ
ˆ ĥ + ĝ×
ˆ lˆ − ĝ×
= ĝ× ˆ ĥ
is a positive iso-real number. Consequently
ˆ lˆ > ĝ×
ĝ× ˆ ĥ.
From here,
ˆ ĥ < ĝ×
ĝ× ˆ
ˆ l.
ˆ
Definition 6.10. Absolute value or modulus of the iso-real ĝ ∈ F̂RI1 is called the
larger iso-real number of the iso-real numbers ĝ, −ĝ. We will write |ĝ|.
From this definition it follows that
ˆ
1. |ĝ| ≥ 0̂ for every ĝ ∈ F̂RI1 , |ĝ| = 0̂ if and only if ĝ = 0̂.
ˆ
2. ĝ ≤ |ĝ|, −ĝ ≤ |ĝ| for every ĝ ∈ F̂RI1 .
ˆ
3. |ĝ| = | − ĝ| for every ĝ ∈ F̂RI1 .
ˆ
Theorem 6.2. Let ĝ, ĥ, lˆ ∈ F̂RI1 . Then
1. |ĝ + ĥ| ≤ |ĝ| + |ĥ|,
2. |ĝ − ĥ| ≥ |ĝ| − |ĥ|,
3. ||ĝ| − |ĥ|| ≤ |ĝ − ĥ|,
4. |ĝ×ˆ ĥ| = |ĝ|×|
ˆ ĥ|,
5. |ĝ i ĥ| = |ĝ| i |ĥ|, ĥ 6= 0̂,
6. |ĝ| < ĥ if and only if −ĥ < ĝ < ĥ for ĥ > 0̂.
Proof. 1. If
ĝ + ĥ ≥ 0̂,
then
|ĝ + ĥ| = ĝ + ĥ ≤ |ĝ| + |ĥ|.
If ĝ + ĥ ≤ 0̂, then
|ĝ + ĥ| = −(ĝ + ĥ)
= −ĝ − ĥ
≤ |ĝ| + |ĥ|.
2. Using 1, we have
|ĝ| − |ĥ| = |ĝ − ĥ + ĥ| − |ĥ|
= |(ĝ − ĥ) + ĥ| − |ĥ|
≤ |ĝ − ĥ| + |ĥ| − |ĥ|
= |ĝ − ĥ|.
3. If
|ĝ| − |ĥ| ≥ 0̂,
then
||ĝ| − |ĥ|| = |ĝ| − |ĥ|
≤ |ĝ − ĥ|.
If
|ĝ| − |ĥ| ≤ 0̂,
then
||ĝ| − |ĥ|| = |ĥ| − |ĝ|
≤ |ĥ − ĝ|
= |ĝ − ĥ|.
4. If ĝ ≥ 0̂ and ĥ ≥ 0̂, then

ˆ ĥ ≥ 0̂
ĝ×
and
ˆ ĥ| = ĝ×
|ĝ× ˆ ĥ
ˆ ĥ|.
= |ĝ|×|
If ĝ ≥ 0̂ and ĥ ≤ 0̂, then

ˆ ĥ ≤ 0̂
ĝ×
and
ˆ ĥ| = −(ĝ×
|ĝ× ˆ ĥ)
= (−Iˆ1 )×(
ˆ ĝ×
ˆ ĥ)
= (−Iˆ1 )×(
ˆ ĥ×
ˆ ĝ)
= (−Iˆ1 ×
ˆ ĥ)×
ˆ ĝ
ˆ ĝ)
= (−ĥ)×(
ˆ ĝ|
= |ĥ|×|
ˆ ĥ|.
= |ĝ|×|
ˆ ĥ ≤ 0̂ and
If ĝ ≤ 0̂ and ĥ ≥ 0̂, then ĝ×
ˆ ĥ| = −(ĝ×
|ĝ× ˆ ĥ)
= (−Iˆ1 )×(
ˆ ĝ×
ˆ ĥ)
= (−Iˆ1 ×
ˆ ĝ)×(
ˆ ĥ)
ˆ ĥ|.
= |ĝ|×|
ˆ ĥ ≥ 0̂ and
If ĝ ≤ 0̂ and ĥ ≤ 0̂, then ĝ×
ˆ ĥ| = ĝ×
|ĝ× ˆ ĥ
= (−Iˆ1 )×(−
ˆ Iˆ1 )×(
ˆ ĝ×
ˆ ĥ)
= (−Iˆ1 )×((−
ˆ Iˆ1 )×(
ˆ ĝ×
ˆ ĥ))
= (−Iˆ1 )×(((−
ˆ Iˆ1 )×
ˆ ĝ)×
ˆ ĥ)
= (−Iˆ1 )×((−
ˆ ˆ ĥ)
ĝ)×
= (−Iˆ1 )×(
ˆ ĥ×(−
ˆ ĝ))
= ((−Iˆ1 )×
ˆ ĥ)×(−
ˆ ĝ)
ˆ ĝ)
= (−ĥ)×(−
ˆ ĥ)
= (−ĝ)×(−
ˆ ĥ|.
= |ĝ|×|
5. This assertion follows from the previous statement for ĝ and Iˆ1 i ĥ.
6. If ĝ ≥ 0̂, then |ĝ| = ĝ and the inequality |ĝ| < ĥ is equivalent of the inequality
ĝ < ĥ. Since every positive iso-real number is greater than every negative iso-
real number, we have that the inequality |ĝ| < ĥ is equivalent to the inequality
−ĥ < ĝ < ĥ. If ĝ ≤ 0̂, then |ĝ| = −ĝ and the inequality |ĝ| < ĥ is equivalent to
the inequality −ĝ < ĥ. From here,
(−Iˆ1 )×(−
ˆ ĝ) > (−Iˆ1 )×
ˆ ĥ
or ĝ > −ĥ. Also, using that ĝ is a negative iso-real number, it is less than ĥ, i.e.
the considered inequality is equivalent to the inequality
−ĥ < ĝ < ĥ.
Example 6.4. Let T̂1 = 2. We will solve the following inequality
3̂x̂ − 4̂ > 5̂.
We have
3̂x̂ − 4̂ > 5̂ ⇐⇒
3x 4 5
− > ⇐⇒
22 2 2
3
x−4 > 5 ⇐⇒
2
3
x>9 ⇐⇒
2
x>6 ⇐⇒
1 6
x > 6· ⇐⇒
2 2
x̂ > 6̂.
Example 6.5. Let T̂1 = 4. We will solve the inequality
ˆ x̂ − 3̂ < 2̂.
5̂×
We have
5 x 3 2
·4· − < ⇐⇒
4 4 4 4
5x − 3 < 2 ⇐⇒
5x < 5 ⇐⇒
x<1 ⇐⇒
1 1
x < ⇐⇒
4 4
x̂ < 1̂.
Exercise 6.2. Let T̂1 = 5. Solve the inequality
3̂x̂ − 2̂ < 4.
Solution. The given inequality is equivalent to the inequality

3 x 2
· − < 4.
5 5 5
Hence,
3x − 10 < 100 ⇐⇒
3x < 110 ⇐⇒
110
x< ⇐⇒
3
1 110 1
x· < · ⇐⇒
5 3 5
110
d
x̂ < .
3
Exercise 6.3. Let T̂1 = 3. Solve the inequality
ˆ x̂ − 2̂×x
3̂× ˆ − 4 > 5̂.
Exercise 6.4. Let T̂1 = 4. Solve the equation
|x̂| − 3̂x̂ = 5̂.
Solution. The given equation is equivalent to the equation

x 3 x 5
− · = ,

4 4 4 4
from where
3
|x| − x = 5 ⇐⇒
4
3 3
x − x = 5, −x − x = 5 =⇒
4 4
20
x = 20, x=− , =⇒
7
ˆ
d20
x̂ = 20, x̂ = − .
7
ˆ
Definition 6.11. For x̂ ∈ F̂RI1 we define
x̂2̂ = x̂×
ˆ x̂,
x̂3̂ = x̂×
ˆ x̂2̂
ˆ x̂×
= x̂× ˆ x̂,
···
x̂n̂ = x̂×
ˆ x̂n−1 ,
[
n ∈ N,
x̂2 = x̂x̂,
x̂3 = x̂x̂2
= x̂x̂x̂,
···
x̂n = x̂x̂n−1 , n ∈ N.
Example 6.6. Let T̂1 = 4. Then
3̂3̂ + 3̂2 + 2̂2̂ = 3̂×

ˆ 3̂×
ˆ 3̂ + 3̂3̂ + 2̂×
ˆ 2̂
3 3 3 3 3 2 2
= ·4 ·4· + · + ·4·
4 4 4 4 4 4 4
27 9
= + +1
4 16
133
=
16
133
d
= .
4
Exercise 6.5. Let T̂1 = 3. Solve the equation
x̂2̂ + 2̂×
ˆ x̂ − 3̂x̂ + 4 = 0.
Solution. We have
x̂2̂ = x̂×
ˆ x̂
x x
= ·3·
3 3
x2
= ,
3
6.2 Sets of Iso-Real Numbers 317
2 x
ˆ x̂ =
2̂× ·3·
3 3
2x
= ,
3
3 x
3̂x̂ = ·
3 3
x
= .
3
Then the given equation is equivalent to the equation
x2 2x x
+ − +4 = 0
3 3 3
or
x2 + x + 12 = 0,
which has not solutions in R. Therefore the considered equation has not any solution
1
in F̂R3 .
Exercise 6.6. Simplify
x̂2̂ ×
ˆ x̂3̂ x̂4 ×
ˆ x̂5̂ .
ˆ
Answer. x̂10 x̂4 .
6.2 Sets of Iso-Real Numbers
Definition 6.12. A nonempty set Â of iso-real numbers will be called bounded above
if there exists an iso-real number â such that
ĝ ≤ â
for every ĝ ∈ Â. In this case the iso-real number â is called upper bound of the set
Â.
Definition 6.13. A nonempty set Â of iso-real numbers will be called bounded be-
low if there exists an iso-real number b̂ such that
ĝ ≥ b̂.
In this case the iso-real number b̂ is called lower bound of the set Â.
Definition 6.14. A nonempty set Â of iso-real numbers will be called bounded if it

is bounded above and bounded below.
Definition 6.15. A nonempty set Â of iso-real numbers will be called non-bounded

if it is not bounded.
Definition 6.16. Supremum of a nonempty bounded above set Â is the least element
ˆ
α̂ in F̂RI1 that is greater than or equal to all elements of Â. We will write
supÂ = α̂.
The supremum of a set of iso-real numbers is characterized with the following

two properties.
1. ĝ ≤ α̂ for every ĝ ∈ Â.
2. for every ε̂ > 0̂ there exists ĥ ∈ Â so that α̂ − ε̂ < ĥ.
Definition 6.17. Infimum of a non-empty bounded below set Â of iso-real numbers

ˆ
is the greatest element β̂ ∈ F̂RI1 that is less than or equal to all elements of Â. We will
write
infÂ = β̂ .
The infimum of the set Â is characterized with the following properties
1. ĝ ≥ β̂ for every ĝ ∈ Â.
2. for every ε̂ > 0̂ there exists ĥ ∈ Â so that ĥ < β̂ + ε̂.
Theorem 6.3. Every bounded above nonempty set of iso-real numbers has supre-
mum.
Proof. Assume that the set Â is a bounded above set of iso-real numbers and has not
any supremum. Then for every α̂ > 0̂ there is an element x̂ ∈ Â such that
x̂ > α̂.
ˆ
Since Â is bounded above, there exists a positive element β̂ ∈ F̂RI1 such that x̂ ≤ β̂
for any x̂ ∈ Â. Hence, we get a contradiction when α̂ > β̂ . This completes the proof.
Theorem 6.4. Every bounded below nonempty set of iso-real numbers has infimum.
Proof. Let Ĥ be an arbitrary nonempty bounded below set of iso-real numbers. Then
ˆ
there exists lˆ ∈ F̂RI1 so that lˆ ≤ ĥ for every ĥ ∈ Ĥ. We set
M̂ = {−ĥ : ĥ ∈ Ĥ}.
Then M̂ is a nonempty set of iso-real numbers and m̂ ≤ −lˆ for every m̂ ∈ M̂, i.e., the
set M̂ is a bounded above set. From here and from Theorem 6.3, it follows that the
set M̂ has a supremum α̂. Consequently
1. for every −m̂ ∈ M̂ we have −m̂ ≤ α̂.

2. for every ε̂ > 0̂ there exists − p̂ ∈ M̂ such that − p̂ > α̂ − ε̂.
In other words, we have
1. for every m̂ ∈ Ĥ we have m̂ ≥ −α̂.
2. for every ε̂ > 0̂ there exists p̂ ∈ Ĥ such that p̂ < −α̂ + ε̂.
Therefore −α̂ is supremum of M̂. Hence, α̂ is infimum of Ĥ. This completes the
proof.
Definition 6.18. 1. Sets of iso-real numbers

ˆ
[â, b̂] = {x̂ ∈ F̂RI1 : â ≤ x̂ ≤ b̂} (6.2)
will be called closed intervals.

2. Sets of iso-real numbers
ˆ
(â, b̂) = {x̂ ∈ F̂RI1 : â < x̂ < b̂} (6.3)
will be called open intervals.

ˆ
[â, b̂) = {x̂ ∈ F̂RI1 : â ≤ x̂ < b̂} (6.4)
will be called semi-closed on the left intervals.

ˆ
(â, b̂] = {x̂ ∈ F̂RI1 : â < x̂ ≤ b̂} (6.5)
will be called semi-closed on the right intervals.

5. The intervals (6.2), (6.3), (6.4) and (6.5) will be called finite intervals.
Definition 6.19. Infinite intervals are defined as follows

ˆ
(−∞, â] = {x̂ ∈ F̂RI1 : x̂ ≤ â},
ˆ
(−∞, â) = {x̂ ∈ F̂RI1 : x̂ < â}.
Definition 6.20. Infinite intervals are defined as follows

ˆ
[â, ∞) = {x̂ ∈ F̂RI1 : x̂ ≥ â},
ˆ
(â, ∞) = {x̂ ∈ F̂RI1 : x̂ > â}.
We introduce the following rules.

ˆ
1. â + ∞ = ∞ + â = ∞ for every â ∈ F̂RI1 .
ˆ
2. â − ∞ = −∞ + â = −∞ for every â ∈ F̂RI1 .
3. ∞ + ∞ = ∞, ∞ − (−∞) = ∞, ∞×∞ ˆ = ∞, ∞×(−∞) ˆ = −∞.
4. ˆ = ∞, â×(−∞)
â×∞ ˆ = −∞ if â > 0̂.
5. ˆ
â×(−∞) ˆ = −∞ if â < 0̂.
= ∞, â×∞
ˆ
Definition 6.21. A maximal element of a subset Â of F̂RI1 is an element of Â that is
not smaller than any other element of Â.
ˆ
Definition 6.22. A minimal element of a subset Â of F̂RI1 is an element of Â that is
not greater than any other element of Â.
ˆ
Theorem 6.5. Every bounded below set of elements of FZI1 has a minimal element.
ˆ
Proof. Let Â be a bounded below set of elements of FZI1 . We suppose that there is
not minimal element in Â. Since Â is a bounded below set, then there exists
β̂ = infÂ.
For it we have
1. x̂ ≥ β̂ for every x̂ ∈ Â.
2. for every ε̂ > 0̂ there exists x̂ε̂ ∈ Â such that x̂ε̂ < β̂ + ε̂.
For ε̂ = Iˆ1 we have that there exists ŷε̂ ∈ Â such that ŷε̂ < β̂ + Iˆ1 . Since we suppose
that Â has not minimal element, then there exists ẑ ∈ Â such that
β̂ ≤ ẑ < ŷε̂ < β̂ + Iˆ1 .
From here, it follows that

0̂ < ŷε̂ − ẑ < Iˆ1 .
This is a contradiction, because we have
ŷε̂ − ẑ ≥ Iˆ1 .

ˆ
Theorem 6.6. The set F̂NI1 is not bounded above.
ˆ
Proof. Let us suppose that F̂NI1 is bounded above. Then there exists
α̂ = supF̂N .
For it we have
ˆ
1. x̂ ≤ α̂ for every x̂ ∈ F̂NI1 .
ˆ
2. for every ε̂ > 0̂ there exists x̂ε̂ ∈ F̂NI1 such that x̂ε̂ > α̂ − ε̂.
ˆ
When ε̂ = Iˆ1 we have that there exists ŷε̂ ∈ F̂NI1 such that
ŷε̂ > α̂ − Iˆ1 .
Hence, we obtain that

α̂ < ŷε̂ + Iˆ1 . (6.6)
ˆ ˆ
Since ŷε̂ ∈ F̂NI1 , we conclude that ŷε̂ + Iˆ1 ∈ F̂NI1 . From here and from the definition of
α̂, it follows that
ŷε̂ + Iˆ1 ≤ α̂.
This contradicts with (6.6), which completes the proof.
Theorem 6.7. Let

∆ˆ Iˆ1 ⊇∆ˆ 2̂ ⊇∆ˆ 3̂ ⊇ · · · ⊇∆ˆ n̂ ⊇
ˆ ···
be a system of closed finite intervals. Then there exists ŷ ∈ F̂R such that ŷ ∈ ∆ˆ k̂ for
ˆ
every k̂ ∈ F̂NI1 .
Proof. Let
∆ˆ n̂ = [ân̂ , b̂n̂ ].
ˆ
Let also, p̂, q̂ ∈ F̂NI1 . For p̂ and q̂ we have the following possibilities.
1. p̂ < q̂.
2. p̂ = q̂.
3. p̂ > q̂.
If p̂ < q̂, then we have
[â p̂ , b̂ p̂ ]⊃[âq̂ , b̂q̂ ].
From here, it follows that
â p̂ ≤ b̂q̂ .
If p̂ = q̂, then
â p̂ ≤ b̂q̂ .
If p̂ > q̂, then
[âq̂ , b̂q̂ ]⊆[â p̂ , b̂ p̂ ]
and
â p̂ ≤ b̂q̂ .
ˆ
Consequently for every p̂, q̂ ∈ F̂NI1 we have
â p̂ ≤ b̂q̂ . (6.7)
ˆ ˆ
Let q̂ ∈ F̂NI1 be fixed and p̂ runs the all set F̂NI1 . Then, from (6.7), it follows that the
set
Â = {âIˆ1 , â2̂ , . . . , â p̂ , . . .}
is bounded above. Therefore there exists
α̂ = supÂ.
ˆ
From here, it follows that for every p̂ ∈ F̂NI1 we have
â p̂ ≤ α̂.
Since b̂q̂ is an upper bound of the set Â, using the definition of α̂, we obtain
ˆ
α̂ ≤ b̂q̂ , ∀q̂ ∈ F̂NI1 .
ˆ
Since q̂ ∈ F̂NI1 was arbitrarily chosen, we have
â p̂ ≤ α̂ ≤ b̂q̂
ˆ ˆ
for every p̂, q̂ ∈ F̂NI1 . When p̂ = q̂ = n̂ ∈ F̂NI1 , we get
ân̂ ≤ α̂ ≤ b̂n̂ .
Problem 6.1. Let T̂1 = 3, Find x̂ such that

1. 2̂×ˆ x̂ + 2̂ = 4̂.
2. 2̂x̂ + 2̂ = 5̂.
Problem 6.2. Let T̂1 = 5. Solve the inequality
ˆ + 3×
2x̂ − 4̂×x ˆ x̂ < 2̂.
Problem 6.3. Let T̂1 = 5. Solve the equation
x̂2̂ − 4̂×
ˆ x̂ − c
12 = 0.
Problem 6.4. Simplify

ˆ
ˆ x̂10 ×
x̂× ˆ x̂2 x3 .
Problem 6.5. Simplify

ˆ x̂2̂ ×
3̂× ˆ x̂ + 4̂ ×ˆ x̂.
ˆ
Problem 6.6. Let T̂1 = 6. Solve the equation in F̂RI1
ˆ x̂ + 4̂) − x̂2̂ = 4.
3̂×(
ˆ
Problem 6.7. Let T̂1 = 4. Solve the equation in F̂RI1
ˆ x̂ + 5̂) − x̂2 = 70.

5̂×(
Chapter 7
Iso-Functions
7.1 Definitions of Iso-Functions of the First, Second, Third,

Fourth and Fifth Kind
Let T̂1 > 0 be a constant. Let also, D, Y , Z ⊆ R be given sets, f be a relation between
D and Z, defined on all D, and T̂ be a relation between D and Y , defined on all D,
T̂ (x) > 0 for every x ∈ D. For x ∈ D with x̂ we will denote
x ˆ = 1 ,
. Set I(x)
T̂ (x) T̂ (x)
x ∈ D.
Definition 7.1. We will say that in the set D is defined an iso-function of the first
kind or iso-map of the first kind, if
ŷ = fˆ∧∧ (x)
= fˆ∧ (x̂)
f (x)
= , x ∈ D,
T̂ (x)
is a function or map. We will use the notation fˆ∧∧ . The element x will be called iso-
argument of the iso-function of the first kind or iso-independent iso-variable, and
its iso-image ŷ = fˆ∧ (x̂) will be called iso-dependent iso-variable or iso-value of the
iso-function of the first kind. The set
{ fˆ∧ (x̂) : x ∈ D}
will be called iso-codomain of iso-values of the iso-function of the first kind. The
set D will be called iso-domain of the iso-function of the first kind.
Example 7.1. Let D = [0, 1], f (x) = x + 1, T̂ (x) = 2x + 1, x ∈ D. Then
325
326 7 Iso-Functions
f (x)
fˆ∧ (x̂) =
T̂ (x)
x+1
= , x ∈ D.
2x + 1
Example 7.2. Let D = R, T̂ (x) = x2 + 1, f (x) = x3 + 1, x ∈ D. Then
f (x)
fˆ∧ (x̂) =
T̂ (x)
x3 + 1
= , x ∈ D.
x2 + 1
Example 7.3. Let D = [−1, 1],
 2 
 x + 1 for x ∈ [−1, 0], 1 for x ∈ [−1, 0],
f (x) = T̂ (x) =
x + 2 for x ∈ [0, 1], 2 for x ∈ [0, 1].
 
We have  2
x +1
 for x ∈ [−1, 0],
fˆ∧ (x̂) =
 x+2

for x ∈ [0, 1],
2
and fˆ∧∧ : [−1, 1] → [0, 2].
Example 7.4. Let D = [−2, 2], f (x) = x3 + 1, and


 2 for x ∈ [−2, 0],
T̂ (x) =
3 for x ∈ [0, 1].

Then  3
x +1
for x ∈ [−2, 0],


 2

fˆ∧ (x̂) =
3
 x +1


for x ∈ [0, 2].

3
1
Exercise 7.1. Let D = R, f (x) = , T̂ (x) = x2 + 1, x ∈ D. Find
x2 + 1
fˆ∧ (x̂), x ∈ D.
Exercise 7.2. Let D = R and

7.1 Definitions of Iso-Functions of the First, Second, Third, Fourth and Fifth Kind 327

x+1
 for x ∈ (−∞, 0],  2
x +2 for x ∈ (−∞, 0],
f (x) = T̂ (x) =
 x+2

for x ∈ [0, ∞),

x4 + 5 for x ∈ [0, ∞).
2
Find
fˆ∧ (x̂), x ∈ D.
Exercise 7.3. Let D = [−1, 1] and
1


 x2 + 3 for x ∈ [−1, − ],




 2
x+1 for x ∈ [−1, 0],


1 1

f (x) = T̂ (x) = x2 + 4 for x ∈ [− , ],

x+2 for x ∈ [0, 1],


 2 2



 2
 1
 x + 6 for x ∈ [ , 1].
2
Find fˆ∧ (x̂), x ∈ D.
Exercise 7.4. Let D = [0, 3] and
x+1


 2 +2
for x ∈ [0, 1],


 x  2


 x +1
 for x ∈ [0, 1],
1

f (x) = − + x for x ∈ [1, 2], T̂ (x) =


 3  2 (x2 + 2) for

x ∈ [1, 3].

 3
 − 7 + x2 for x ∈ [2, 3],



3
Find fˆ∧ (x̂), x ∈ D.
Definition 7.2. We will say that in the set D is defined an iso-function of the second
kind or iso-map of the second kind if xT̂ (x) ∈ D for every x ∈ D and
ŷ = fˆ∧ (x)
f (xT̂ (x))
= , x ∈ D,
T̂ (x)
is a function or map. We will use the notation fˆ∧ . The element x will be called iso-
argument of the iso-function of the second kind or iso-independent iso-variable, and
its iso-image ŷ = fˆ∧ (x) will be called iso-dependent iso-variable or iso-value of the
iso-function of the second kind. The set
{ fˆ∧ (x) : x ∈ D}
328 7 Iso-Functions
will be called iso-codomain of iso-values of the iso-function of the second kind. The
set D will be called iso-domain of the iso-function of the second kind.
Example 7.5. Let D = [1, ∞), T̂ (x) = x, f (x) = x2 , x ∈ D. Then
xT̂ (x) = x2 ∈ [1, ∞) for x ∈ [1, ∞).
Also,

f xT̂ (x)
ˆ∧
f (x) =
T̂ (x)
f x2

=
T̂ (x)
x4
=
x
= x3 , x ∈ D.
Note that fˆ∧ : D → D.
Example 7.6. Let D = [1, +∞), T̂ (x) = x2 + 2, f (x) = x − 1, x ∈ D. Then
xT̂ (x) = x(x2 + 2)
= x3 + 2x ≥ 1 for ∀x ≥ 1,
i.e., xT̂ (x) ∈ D for every x ∈ D. Also,
f (xT̂ (x))
fˆ∧ (x) =
T̂ (x)
f (x(x2 + 2))
=
x2 + 2
f (x3 + 2x)
=
x2 + 2
x3 + 2x − 1
= , x ∈ D.
x2 + 2
Example 7.7. Let D = [1, ∞), f (x) = 2x, T̂ (x) = x2 + 1, x ∈ D. Then
xT̂ (x) = x3 + x
≥1 for x ≥ 1.
Also,

f xT̂ (x)
ˆ∧
f (x) =
T̂ (x)
f x x2 + 1

=
x2 + 1
2x x2 + 1

=
x2 + 1
= 2x, x ∈ D.
We have fˆ∧ : D → [2, ∞).
Exercise 7.5. Let D = [1, +∞), T̂ (x) = x + 1, f (x) = x2 , x ∈ D. Find fˆ∧ (x̂), fˆ∧ (x).
Solution. We have
xT̂ (x) = x2 + x ≥ 1 for x≥1
and
f (x)
fˆ∧ (x̂) =
T̂ (x)
x2
= ,
x+1
f (xT̂ (x))
fˆ∧ (x) =
T̂ (x)
f (x(x + 1))
=
x+1
f (x2 + x)
=
x+1
(x2 + x)2
=
x+1
x2 (x + 1)2
=
x+1
= (x + 1)x2 , x ∈ D.
Exercise 7.6. Let D = [2, +∞), T̂ (x) = x − 1, f (x) = x3 + x, x ∈ D. Find fˆ∧ (x̂),
fˆ∧ (x), x ∈ D.
330 7 Iso-Functions
Exercise 7.7. Let f (x) = ax, x ∈ D, a ∈ R, T̂ (x) be an arbitrary positive function on

D such that xT̂ (x) ∈ D for any x ∈ D. Prove that fˆ∧ (x) = f (x) for any x ∈ D.
Definition 7.3. We will say that in the set D is defined an iso-function of the third
x
kind or an iso-map of the third kind, if ∈ D for every x ∈ D and
T̂ (x)
ŷ = fˆˆ(x)
= fˆ(x̂)

x
f T̂ (x)
= , x ∈ D,
T̂ (x)
is a function or map. We will use the notation fˆˆ. The element x will be called iso-
argument of the iso-function of the third kind or iso-independent iso-variable, and
its iso-image ŷ = fˆ(x̂) will be called iso-dependent iso-variable or iso-value of the
iso-function of the third kind. The set
{ fˆ(x̂) : x ∈ D}
will be called iso-codomain of iso-values of the iso-function of the third kind. The
set D will be called iso-domain of the iso-function of the third kind.
Example 7.8. Let D = [1, ∞), f (x) = x2 , T̂ (x) = x, x ∈ D. Then
x
=1∈D for any x ∈ D.
T̂ (x)
Also,

x
f T̂ (x)
fˆ (x̂) =
T̂ (x)
1
=
T̂ (x)
1
= , x ∈ D.
x
Hence, fˆˆ : D → (0, 1].

Example 7.9. Let D = [0, 2], f (x) = 2x + 1, T̂ (x) = 2x + 3, x ∈ D. Then

x x 2
= ∈ 0, for any x ∈ [0, 2].
T̂ (x) 2x + 3 3
Also,

x
f T̂ (x)
fˆ (x̂) =
T̂ (x)
x

f 2x+3
=
2x + 3
2x
2x+3 +1
=
2x + 3
4x + 3
= , x ∈ D.
(2x + 3)2

3 11
We have fˆˆ : D → , .
49 9
Example 7.10. Let D = [0, 1], T̂ (x) = x2 + 1, f (x) = x3 − 1, x ∈ D. Then

x x
= 2 ∈ [0, 1] for any x ∈ [0, 1],
T̂ (x) x +1
and

x
f T̂ (x)
fˆ(x̂) =
T̂ (x)

x
f x2 +1
=
x2 + 1
3
x
x2 +1
−1
=
x2 + 1
x3 − (x2 + 1)3
=
(x2 + 1)4
−x6 − 3x4 + x3 − 3x2 − 1

= , x ∈ D.
(x2 + 1)4
Exercise 7.8. Let D = [1, +∞), T̂ (x) = x, f (x) = x + 1. Find fˆ(x̂).
Exercise 7.9. Let D = [0, 5], T̂ (x) = x + 2, f (x) = x2 + 2x, x ∈ D. Find fˆ(x̂).
Definition 7.4. We will say that in the set D is defined an iso-function of the fourth
kind or iso-map of the fourth kind f ∧ if xT̂ (x) ∈ D for every x ∈ D and
332 7 Iso-Functions
ŷ = f ∧ (x)

= f xT̂ (x) , x ∈ D,
is a function or map. We will use the notation f ∧ . The element x will be called iso-
argument of the iso-function of the fourth kind or iso-independent iso-variable, and
its iso-image ŷ = f ∧ (x) will be called iso-dependent iso-variable or iso-value of the
iso-function of the fourth kind. The set
{ f ∧ (x) : x ∈ D}
will be called iso-codomain of iso-values of the iso-function of the fourth kind. The
set D will be called iso-domain of the iso-function of the fourth kind.
Example 7.11. Let D = [1, +∞), f (x) = x, T̂ (x) = x2 , x ∈ D. Then
xT̂ (x) = x3
≥1 for ∀x ≥ 1,
and
f ∧ (x) = f (xT̂ (x))
= f (x3 )
= x3 , x ∈ D.
1
Example 7.12. Let D = [0, ∞), f (x) = x2 , T̂ (x) = , x ∈ D. Then
x+1
x
xT̂ (x) = ∈D for any x ∈ D.
x+1
Hence,
f ∧ (x) = f xT̂ (x)

x
= f
x+1
x2
= , x ∈ D.
(x + 1)2
Example 7.13. Let D = R, f (x) = 2x + 1, T̂ (x) = x2 + 1, x ∈ D. Then

xT̂ (x) = x x2 + 1 ∈ D

for any x ∈ D.
Hence,
f ∧ (x) = f xT̂ (x)

= f x3 + x

= 2x3 + 2x + 1, x ∈ D.
Exercise 7.10. Let D = [0, +∞), f (x) = x + 1, T̂ (x) = x + 2, x ∈ D. Find f ∧ (x),

x ∈ D.
Exercise 7.11. Let D = [0, ∞), f (x) = x−2, T̂ (x) = x2 +1, x ∈ D. Find f ∧ (x), x ∈ D.
1 x x
Exercise 7.12. Let D = [0, ∞), T̂ (x) = , f (x) = sin x + + , x ∈ D.
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 x+1
Find f ∧ (x), x ∈ D.
Definition 7.5. We will say that in the set D is defined an iso-function of the fifth
x
kind or iso-map of the fifth kind if ∈ D for every x ∈ D and
T̂ (x)
ŷ = f ∨ (x)
x
= f , x ∈ D,
T̂ (x)
is a function or map. We will use the notation f ∨ . The element x will be called iso-
argument of the iso-function of the fifth kind or iso-independent iso-variable, and
its iso-image ŷ = f ∨ (x) will be called iso-dependent iso-variable or iso-value of the
iso-function of the fifth kind. The set
{ f ∨ (x) : x ∈ D}
will be called iso-codomain of iso-values of the iso-function of the fifth kind. The
set D will be called iso-domain of the iso-function of the fifth kind.
Example 7.14. Let D = [0, ∞), f (x) = 2x + 1, T̂ (x) = 4x + 3, x ∈ D. Then

x x
= ∈D for any x ∈ D.
T̂ (x) 4x + 3
Hence,

∨ x
f (x) = f
T̂ (x)
334 7 Iso-Functions

x
= f
4x + 3
2x
= +1
4x + 3
3(2x + 1)
= , x ∈ D.
4x + 3
1
Example 7.15. Let D = [0, ∞), f (x) = x4 + 5x2 , T̂ (x) = √ , x ∈ D. Then
x+1
x √
= x x + 1 ∈ D for any x ∈ D.
T̂ (x)
Hence,

x
f ∨ (x) = f
T̂ (x)
√
= f x x+1
= x4 (x + 1)2 + 5x2 (x + 1)
= x4 x2 + 2x + 1 + 5x3 + 5x2

= x6 + 2x5 + x4 + 5x3 + 5x2 , x ∈ D.

1
Example 7.16. Let D = [0, ∞), f (x) = x2 , T̂ (x) = , x ∈ D. Then
x2 + 1
x
= x x2 + 1

T̂ (x)
= x3 + x ∈ D for any x ∈ D.
Hence,

∨ x
f (x) = f
T̂ (x)
= f x3 + x

2
= x3 + x
7.2 Iso-Bijection, Iso-Injection and Iso-Surjection 335
= x6 + 2x4 + x2 , x ∈ D.
1
Exercise 7.13. Let D = R, f (x) = x2 + x, T̂ (x) = , x ∈ D. Find f ∨ (x), x ∈ D.
x2 + 1
1
Exercise 7.14. Let D = [2, ∞), f (x) = x + 4, T̂ (x) = , x ∈ D. Find f ∨ (x), x ∈ D.
x+1
√ 1
Exercise 7.15. Let D = [0, ∞), f (x) = x + 2, T̂ (x) = , x ∈ D. Find f ∨ (x),
x+2
x ∈ D.
Remark 7.1. 1. Let a ∈ D, f (x) ≡ a for any x ∈ D, T̂ (a) is defined and T̂ (a) > 0.
Then
a
a. â∧∧ = .
T̂ (a)
a
b. â∧ = if aT̂ (a) ∈ D.
T̂ (a)
a a
c. âˆ = if ∈ D.
T̂ (a) T̂ (a)
∧
d. a = a if aT̂ (a) ∈ D.
a
e. a∨ = a if ∈ D.
T̂ (a)
a
2. If â ∈ F̂RT̂1 , then â = .
T̂1
Exercise 7.16. Let D = R, T̂1 = 4, T̂ (x) = x2 + 2. Find
1̂, 1̂∧∧ , 1̂∧ , ˆ

1̂, 1∧ , 1∨ .
Remark 7.2. Hereafter, if f : D → R is a given function, with fˆ we will denote an

iso-function of the first, second, third, fourth or fifth kind.
Remark 7.3. If T̂ ≡ 1 on D, then
fˆ∧∧ ≡ fˆ∧ ≡ fˆˆ ≡ f ∧ ≡ f ∨ ≡ f on D.
7.2 Iso-Bijection, Iso-Injection and Iso-Surjection
Definition 7.6. An iso-function ĥ : D → D1 of the first, second, third, fourth or fifth

kind will be called
1. iso-injection if for x1 , x2 ∈ D, x1 6= x2 , we have ĥ(x1 ) 6= ĥ(x2 ).
336 7 Iso-Functions
2. iso-surjection if for every y ∈ D1 there exists x ∈ D such that h̃(x) = y.

3. iso-bijection if it is iso-surjection and iso-injection.
Example 7.17. Let D = R, T̂1 = 2, f (x) = x + 1, T̂ (x) = 3, x ∈ D. Then f : R → R
is injection and
f (x)
fˆ∧ (x̂) =
T̂ (x)
x+1
= ,
3
f (xT̂ (x))
fˆ∧ (x) =
T̂ (x)
f (3x)
=
T̂ (x)
3x + 1
= ,
3

x
f T̂ (x)
fˆ(x̂) =
T̂ (x)

x
f 3
=
3
x
3 +1
=
3
x+3
= ,
9
f ∧ (x) = f (xT̂ (x))
= f (3x)
= 3x + 1,

x
f ∨ (x) = f
T̂ (x)
x
= + 1, x ∈ D.
3
Therefore fˆ∧∧ , fˆ∧ , fˆˆ, f ∧ and f ∨ are iso-injections.

1
Example 7.18. Let D = [0, ∞), T̂1 = 2, f (x) = 1, T̂ (x) = , x ∈ D. Then f is not
x+1
∧ ∧∧
injection, but fˆ (x̂) = x + 1, x ∈ D, fˆ : D → [1, ∞) is an iso-injection.
Definition 7.7. Suppose that fˆ : D → D1 , D1 ⊆ R, is an iso-bijection. Then the iso-

inverse denoted by
fˆ−1 : D1 → D
is the function defined by the rule
fˆ−1 (y) = x if and only if fˆ(x) = y, x ∈ D, y ∈ D1 .
Example 7.19. Let D = [0, ∞), f (x) = 2x + 3, T̂ (x) = 3x + 5, x ∈ D. Then
f (x)
fˆ∧∧ (x) =
T̂ (x)
2x + 3
= , x ∈ D.
3x + 5

3 2 3 2
We have fˆ∧∧ : [0, ∞) → , . If y ∈ , , then
5 3 5 3
2x + 3
=y or
3x + 5
2x + 3 = y(3x + 5), or
x(2 − 3y) = 5y − 3, or
5y − 3
x= ∈ [0, ∞),
2 − 3y
i.e., fˆ∧∧ is an iso-surjection. Let now, x1 , x2 ∈ [0, ∞). Then
fˆ∧∧ (x1 ) = fˆ∧∧ (x2 ) iff
2x1 + 3 2x2 + 3
= iff
3x1 + 5 3x2 + 5
(2x1 + 3) (3x2 + 5) = (3x1 + 5) (2x2 + 3) iff
6x1 x2 + 9x2 + 10x1 + 15 = 6x1 x2 + 9x1 + 10x2 + 15 iff
x1 = x2 .
338 7 Iso-Functions

3 2 3 2
Hence, fˆ∧∧ : [0, ∞) → , is an iso-injection. Therefore fˆ∧∧ : [0, ∞) → , is
5 3 5 3
an iso-bijection. Also,

5y − 3 3 2
fˆ∧∧−1 (y) = , y∈ , .
3 − 2y 5 3
Theorem 7.1. If an iso-function fˆ : D → D1 is an iso-bijection, then its inverse

fˆ−1 : D1 → D is also an iso-bijection.
Proof. 1. We will prove that fˆ−1 : D1 → D is an iso-surjection. Take x ∈ D arbitrar-
ily. Then there is y ∈ D1 so that fˆ(x) = y or fˆ−1 (y) = x.
2. We will prove that fˆ−1 : D1 → D is an iso-injection. Let y1 , y2 ∈ D1 be such that
y1 6= y2 . Since fˆ : D → D1 is an iso-bijection, there exist x1 , x2 ∈ D such that
x1 6= x2 and
fˆ(x1 ) = y1 , fˆ(x2 ) = y2 .
Hence, fˆ−1 (y1 ) 6= fˆ−1 (y2 ). This completes the proof.
Example 7.20. Let D = [0, ∞), f (x) = x, T̂ (x) = x + 3, x ∈ D. Consider f ∧ (x) for
x ∈ D. We have
xT̂ (x) = x(x + 3)
= x2 + 3x ∈ D for x ∈ D.
Then
f ∧ (x) = f xT̂ (x)

= f x2 + 3x

= x2 + 3x, x ∈ D,
√
∧ −3 + 9 + 4y
and f : D → D. Let y ∈ D. Then x = ∈ D and
2
√ 2 √
−3 + 9 + 4y −3 + 9 + 4y
f ∧ (x) = +3
2 2
√ √
9 − 6 9 + 4y + 9 + 4y −9 + 3 9 + 4y
= +
4 2
√ √
9 − 3 9 + 4y −9 + 3 9 + 4y
= +y+
2 2
= y.
Therefore f ∧ : D → D is an iso-surjection. Let now, x1 , x2 ∈ D. Then
f ∧ (x1 ) = f ∧ (x2 ) iff
x12 + 3x1 = x22 + 3x2 iff
x12 − x22 + 3 (x1 − x2 ) = 0

iff
(x1 − x2 ) (x1 + x2 ) + 3 (x1 − x2 ) = 0 iff
(x1 − x2 ) (x1 + x2 + 3) = 0 iff
x1 = x2 .
Therefore f ∧ : D → D is an iso-injection. Consequently f ∧ : D → D is an iso-

bijection. We have f ∧−1 : D → D and
√
−3 + 9 + 4y
f ∧−1 (y) = , y ∈ D.
2
Let x ∈ D. Then y = x2 + 3x ∈ D and

√
∧−1 2
−3 + 9 + 4x2 + 12x
f x + 3x =
2
−3 + 2x + 3
=
2
= x,
i.e., f ∧−1 : D → D is an iso-surjection. Let y1 , y2 ∈ D. Then
f ∧−1 (y1 ) = f ∧−1 (y2 ) iff

√ √
−3 + 9 + 4y1 −3 + 9 + 4y2
= iff
2 2
p p
9 + 4y1 = 9 + 4y2 iff
y1 = y2 .
Therefore f ∧−1 : D → D is an iso-injection. Hence, f ∧−1 : D → D is an iso-bijection.

340 7 Iso-Functions
7.3 Operations with Iso-Functions
Definition 7.8. Let â ∈ F̂RT̂1 and fˆ, ĝ be an iso-function of the first, second, third,
fourth or fifth kind. Then we define
1
1. â× ˆ fˆ = a T̂1 fˆ = a fˆ,
T̂1
a ˆ
2. â fˆ = f.
T̂1
Example 7.21. Let D = R, T̂1 = 3, f (x) = x, g(x) = 2x + 1, T̂ (x) = x2 + 2, x ∈ D.
Then
xT̂ (x) = x x2 + 2

= x3 + 2x ∈ D,
x x
= 2 ∈D for any x ∈ D.
T̂ (x) x +2
Hence,
f ∧ (x) = f xT̂ (x)

= f x3 + 2x

= x3 + 2x,

∨ x
g (x) = g
T̂ (x)

x
=g 2
x +2
2x
= + 1,
x2 + 2
ˆ f ∧ (x) = 2 f ∧ (x)
2̂×
= 2 x3 + 2x

7.3 Operations with Iso-Functions 341
= 2x3 + 4x,
4 ∨
4̂g∨ (x) = g (x)
3

4 2x
= + 1
3 x2 + 2
8x 4
= + ,
3x2 + 6 3
4 8x
ˆ f ∧ (x) + 4̂g∨ (x) = 2x3 + 4x +
2̂× + , x ∈ D.
3 3x2 + 6
Example 7.22. Let D = [3, ∞), T̂1 = 4, f (x) = x2 , g(x) = x3 , T̂ (x) = x, x ∈ D. Then
xT̂ (x) = x2 ∈ D for any x ∈ D.
Hence,

f xT̂ (x)
fˆ∧ (x) =
T̂ (x)
f x2

=
T̂ (x)
x4
=
x
= x3 ,
ˆ fˆ∧ (x) = 7 fˆ∧ (x)

7̂×
= 7x3 ,
3g(x) = 3x3 ,
ˆ fˆ∧ (x) + 3g(x) = 7x3 + 3x3

7̂×
= 10x3 , x ∈ D.
Example 7.23. Let D = [0, 1], T̂1 = 5, f (x) = x, g(x) = x2 , T̂ (x) = x + 1, x ∈ D. Then
x x
= ∈D for any x ∈ D.
T̂ (x) x + 1
342 7 Iso-Functions
Hence,
f (x)
fˆ∧ (x̂) =
T̂ (x)
x
= ,
x+1

x
g T̂ (x)
ĝ (x̂) =
T̂ (x)
x

g x+1
=
x+1
x2
(x+1)2
=
x+1
x2
= ,
(x + 1)3
2x
2̂ fˆ∧ (x̂) = ,
5(x + 1)
2x x2
2̂ fˆ∧ (x̂) + ĝ (x̂) = +
5(x + 1) (x + 1)3
2x(x + 1)2 + 5x2

=
5(x + 1)3
2x x2 + 2x + 1 + 5x2

=
5(x + 1)3
2x3 + 9x2 + 2x
= , x ∈ D.
5(x + 1)3
Exercise 7.17. Let D = R, f (x) = x − 1, g(x) = x + 1, x ∈ D, T̂1 = 3, T̂ (x) = x2 + 1,

x ∈ D. Find
1. fˆ∧ (x̂), x ∈ D.
2. ĝ∧ (x̂), x ∈ D.
3. 2̂×ˆ fˆ∧ (x̂), x ∈ D.
4. 3̂ĝ∧ (x̂), x ∈ D.
5. 2̂×ˆ fˆ∧ (x̂) − 3̂ĝ∧ (x̂), x ∈ D.
Solution. 1. We have
f (x)
fˆ∧ (x̂) =
T̂ (x)
x−1
= , x ∈ D.
x2 + 1
2. We have
g(x)
ĝ∧ (x̂) =
T̂ (x)
x+1
= , x ∈ D.
x2 + 1
3. We have
x−1
ˆ fˆ∧ (x̂) = 2
2̂× , x ∈ D.
x2 + 1
4. We have
1 g(x)
3̂ĝ∧ (x̂) = 3
3 T̂ (x)
x+1
= , x ∈ D.
x2 + 1
5. We have
x−1 x+1
ˆ fˆ∧ (x̂) − 3̂ĝ∧ (x̂) = 2
2̂× − 2
2
x +1 x +1
2x − 2 − x − 1
=
x2 + 1
x−3
= , x ∈ D.
x2 + 1
Exercise 7.18. Let D = R, f (x) = x2 − 1, g(x) = x + 1, T̂ (x) = x2 + 1, T̂1 = 4, x ∈ D.

Find out
1. f ∧ (x), ĝ∧ (x̂), x ∈ D.
ˆ ĝ(x̂) − fˆ∧ (x), x ∈ D.
2. 3̂×
∧
3. g (x) − 2̂ fˆ(x̂), x ∈ D.
Let â, b̂ ∈ F̂RT̂1 , fˆ, ĝ and ĥ be iso-functions of the first, second, third, fourth or fifth
kind, defined on the same set D. Then we have the following properties.
1. fˆ + ĝ = ĝ + ˆ
f.
ˆf + ĝ + ĥ = fˆ + ĝ + ĥ.

2.
ˆ fˆ = â×ˆ fˆ + b̂× ˆ fˆ.

3. â + b̂ ×
â + b̂ fˆ = â fˆ + b̂ fˆ.

4.
344 7 Iso-Functions
ˆ fˆ + ĝ = â× ˆ fˆ + â×

5. â× ˆ ĝ.
6. â fˆ + ĝ = â fˆ + âĝ.

Definition 7.9. Let fˆ and ĝ be iso-functions of the first, second, third, fourth or fifth
kind, defined on the same set D. Then we define iso-multiplication as follows
fˆ×
ˆ ĝ = f˜T̂ g̃.
In particular,
fˆ2 = fˆ fˆ,
fˆ3 = fˆ2 fˆ
= fˆ fˆ fˆ,
..
.
fˆ2̂ = fˆ×
ˆ fˆ,
fˆ3̂ = fˆ×
ˆ fˆ2̂
= fˆ×
ˆ fˆ×
ˆ fˆ,
..
. .
Example 7.24. Let D = R, T̂1 = 3, f (x) = x2 − x, g(x) = x − 3, T̂ (x) = x2 + 1, x ∈ D.

Then
f (x)g(x)
fˆ∧ (x̂)×
ˆ ĝ∧ (x̂) =
T̂ (x)
(x2 − x)(x − 3)
=
x2 + 1
x3 − 4x2 + 3x
= ,
x2 + 1
f (x)g(x)
fˆ∧ (x̂)ĝ∧ (x̂) =
(T̂ (x))2
(x2 − x)(x − 3)
=
(x2 + 1)2
x3 − 4x2 + 3x
= ,
(x2 + 1)2
( f (x))2
fˆ2 (x̂) =
(T̂ (x))2
(x2 − x)2
= ,
(x2 + 1)2
( f (x))2
fˆ2̂ (x̂) =
T̂ (x)
(x2 − x)2
= , x ∈ D.
x2 + 1
Exercise 7.19. Let D = R, T̂1 = 2, f (x) = x − 2, g(x) = 2x + 1, T̂ (x) = e−x , x ∈ D.

Find
1. fˆ∧ (x̂), x ∈ D.
2. ĝ∧ (x̂), x ∈ D.
ˆ ĝ∧ (x̂) + 3̂ĝ∧ (x̂) + fˆ∧ (x̂) 2 + 2̂ fˆ∧ (x̂)×
ˆ ĝ∧ (x̂) − fˆ∧ (x̂)ĝ∧ (x̂) + ĝ∧ (x̂) 2̂ , x ∈

3. A = 2̂×
D.
Solution. 1. We have
f (x)
fˆ∧ (x̂) =
ˆ
T (x)
= (x − 2)ex , x ∈ D.
2. We have
g(x)
ĝ∧ (x̂) =
T̂ (x)
= (2x + 1)ex , x ∈ D.
3. We have
f (x)
ˆ fˆ∧ (x̂) = 2
2̂×
T̂ (x)
= 2(x − 2)ex
346 7 Iso-Functions
= (2x − 4)ex , x ∈ D,
3 g(x)
3̂ĝ∧ (x̂) =
2 T̂ (x)
3
= (2x + 1)ex
2

3 x
= 3x + e,
2
2 ( f (x))2
fˆ∧ (x̂) =
(T̂ (x))2
= (x − 2)2 e2x
= x2 − 4x + 4 e2x ,

1 f (x)g(x)
2̂ fˆ∧ (x̂)×
ˆ ĝ∧ (x̂) = 2
2 T̂ (x)
= (x − 2)(2x + 1)ex
= 2x2 − 3x − 2 ex ,

f (x)g(x)
fˆ∧ (x̂)ĝ∧ (x̂) =
(T̂ (x))2
= (x − 2)(2x + 1)e2x
= 2x2 − 3x − 2 e2x ,

2̂ (g(x))2
ĝ∧ (x̂) =
T̂ (x)
= (2x + 1)2 ex
= 4x2 + 4x + 1 ex ,

x ∈ D.
Then

3 x
A = (2x − 4) ex + 3x + e + x2 − 4x + 4 e2x + 2x2 − 3x − 2 ex

2
− 2x2 − 3x − 2 e2x + 4x2 + 4x + 1 ex

2 7 x
e + −x2 − x + 6 e2x ,

= 6x + 6x − x ∈ D.
2
Exercise 7.20. Let D = R, T̂1 = 3, f (x) = x, g(x) = x + 1, T̂ (x) = ex , x ∈ D. Find

2
1. A = fˆ∧ (x̂) − fˆ∧ (x̂)ĝ∧ (x̂), x ∈ D.
2. B = fˆ∧ (x̂)×
ˆ ĝ∧ (x̂), x ∈ D.
ˆ fˆ∧ (x̂) + 2̂ fˆ∧ (x̂) 2 , x ∈ D.
∧
2̂
3. C = ĝ (x̂) − 3̂×
4. D = fˆ∧ (x̂)× ˆ fˆ∧ (x̂) − 4̂ĝ∧ (x̂) , x ∈ D.

ˆ 2̂×
Exercise 7.21. Let D = R, T̂1 = 3, f (x) = 3 − x, g(x) = x + 1, T̂ (x) = 1 + sin2 x,

x ∈ D. Find
1. A = fˆ∧ (x̂) − 2̂×
ˆ ĝ∧ (x̂), x ∈ D.
2̂
2. B = fˆ∧ (x̂) − ĝ∧ (x̂), x ∈ D.

3. C = fˆ∧ (x̂) − ĝ∧ (x̂), x ∈ D.
Let fˆ, ĝ and ĥ be iso-functions of the first, second, third, fourth or fifth kind with
the same domain D. Then
1. fˆ× ˆ ĝ = ĝ× ˆ fˆ.
2. ˆf ĝ = ĝ fˆ.
fˆ× ˆ ĥ = fˆ×

3. ˆ ĝ× ˆ ĝ × ˆ ĥ.
fˆ× ˆ ĝĥ = fˆ×

4. ˆ ĝ ĥ.
fˆ ĝĥ = fˆĝ ĥ.

5.
fˆ ĝ× ˆ ĥ = fˆĝ ×

6. ˆ ĥ.
ˆf ×ˆ ĝ + ĥ = fˆ× ˆ ĝ + fˆ×

7. ˆ ĥ.
ˆf ĝ + ĥ = fˆĝ + fˆĥ.

8.
Definition 7.10. Let fˆ and ĝ be iso-functions of the first, second, third, fourth or
fifth kind on D. Then iso-division of fˆ and ĝ we define as follows
1 f˜(x)
fˆ % ĝ(x) = , x ∈ D, g̃(x) 6= 0.
T̂ (x) g̃(x)
Remark 7.4. For x ∈ D, f˜(x), g̃(x) 6= 0, we have

1 f˜(x) 1 g̃(x)
ˆ g % f (x) =
f % g(x) × T̂ (x)
T̂ (x) g̃(x) T̂ (x) f˜(x)
348 7 Iso-Functions
1
=
T̂ (x)
ˆ
= I(x), x ∈ D.
Example 7.25. Let D = R, T̂1 = 3, f (x) = x, g(x) = 2x − 1, T̂ (x) = x2 + 1, x ∈ D.

Then
1 fˆ∧ (x̂)
fˆ∧ (x̂) % ĝ∧ (x̂) =
T̂ (x) ĝ∧ (x̂)
f (x)
1 T̂ (x)
= g(x)
T̂ (x)
T̂ (x)
1 f (x)
=
T̂ (x) g(x)
1 x
=
x2 + 1 2x − 1
x 1
= , x 6= , x ∈ D,
(x2 + 1)(2x − 1) 2
1 fˆ∧ (x̂)
fˆ∧ (x̂) % ĝ∧ (x) =
T̂ (x) ĝ∧ (x)
f (x)
1 T̂ (x)
=
T̂ (x) g(xT̂ (x))
T̂ (x)
1 f (x)
=
T̂ (x) g(xT̂ (x))
1 x
=
x2 + 1 g((x2 + 1)x)
x
=
(x2 + 1)g(x3 + x)
x
= , 2x3 + x − 1 6= 0, x ∈ D.
(x2 + 1)(2x3 + 2x − 1)
Exercise 7.22. Let f , g, T̂ : D → R, T̂ (x) > 0, g(x) 6= 0 for every x ∈ D. Prove
1 f (x)
fˆ∧ (x̂) % ĝ∧ (x̂) = for any x ∈ D.
T̂ (x) g(x)
Solution. For x ∈ D we have

1 fˆ∧ (x̂)
fˆ∧ (x̂) % ĝ∧ (x̂) =
T̂ (x) ĝ∧ (x̂)
f (x)
1 T̂ (x)
= g(x)
T̂ (x)
T̂ (x)
1 f (x)
= .
T̂ (x) g(x)
Exercise 7.23. Let f , g, T̂ : D → R, T̂ (x) > 0, xT̂ (x) ∈ D, g(x) 6= 0 for every x ∈ D.
Prove
1 f (x)
fˆ∧ (x̂) % ĝ∧ (x) = for any x ∈ D.
T̂ (x) g(xT̂ (x))
x
Exercise 7.24. Let f , g, T̂ : D → R, T̂ (x) > 0, ∈ D, g(x) 6= 0 for every x ∈ D.
T̂ (x)
Prove
1 f (x)
fˆ∧ (x̂) % ĝ(x̂) = for any x ∈ D.
T̂ (x) g x
T̂ (x)
Prove
1 f (x)
fˆ∧ (x̂) % g∧ (x) = 2 for any x ∈ D.
T̂ (x) g(xT̂ (x))
Prove
1 f (xT̂ (x))
fˆ∧ (x) % ĝ∧ (x̂) = for any x ∈ D.
T̂ (x) g(x)
Prove
1 f (xT̂ (x))
fˆ∧ (x) % ĝ∧ (x) = for any x ∈ D.
T̂ (x) g(xT̂ (x))
x
Exercise 7.28. Let f , g, T̂ : D → R, T̂ (x) > 0, xT̂ (x) ∈ D, ∈ D, g(x) 6= 0 for
T̂ (x)
every x ∈ D. Prove
1 f (xT̂ (x))
fˆ∧ (x) % ĝ(x̂) = for any x ∈ D.
T̂ (x) g x
T̂ (x)
Prove
1 f (xT̂ (x))
fˆ∧ (x) % g∧ (x) = 2
for any x ∈ D.
(T̂ (x)) g(xT̂ (x))
350 7 Iso-Functions
x
T̂ (x)
Prove
x
1 f T̂ (x)
fˆ(x̂) % ĝ∧ (x̂) = for any x ∈ D.
T̂ (x) g(x)
x
Exercise 7.31. Let f , g, T̂ : D → R, T̂ (x) > 0, ∈ D, xT̂ (x) ∈ D, g(x) 6= 0 for
T̂ (x)

x
1 f T̂ (x)
fˆ(x̂) % ĝ∧ (x) = for any x ∈ D.
T̂ (x) g(xT̂ (x))
x
T̂ (x)
Prove
x
1 f T̂ (x)
fˆ(x̂) % ĝ(x̂) = for any x ∈ D.
T̂ (x) g x
T̂ (x)
x
T̂ (x)

x
1 f T̂ (x)
fˆ(x̂) % g∧ (x) = for any x ∈ D.
(T̂ (x))2 g(xT̂ (x))
Prove
f (xT̂ (x))
f ∧ (x) % ĝ∧ (x̂) = for any x ∈ D.
g(x)
Prove
f (xT̂ (x))
f ∧ (x) % ĝ∧ (x) = for any x ∈ D.
g(xT̂ (x))
x
T̂ (x)
f (xT̂ (x))
f ∧ (x) % ĝ(x̂) = for any x ∈ D.
x
g T̂ (x)
Prove
1 f (xT̂ (x))
f ∧ (x) % g∧ (x) = for any x ∈ D.
T̂ (x) g(xT̂ (x))
x
T̂ (x)
Prove
x
f T̂ (x)
f ∨ (x) % ĝ∧ (x̂) = for any x ∈ D.
g(x)
x
Exercise 7.39. Let f , g, T̂ : D → R, T̂ (x) > 0, , xT̂ (x) ∈ D, g(x) 6= 0 for every
T̂ (x)
x ∈ D. Prove

x
f T̂ (x)
f ∨ (x) % ĝ∧ (x) = for any x ∈ D.
g xT̂ (x)
x
T̂ (x)
Prove
x
f T̂ (x)
f ∨ (x) % ĝ(x)
ˆ = for any x ∈ D.
x
g T̂ (x)
x
Exercise 7.41. Let f , g, T̂ : D → R, T̂ (x) > 0, , xT̂ (x) ∈ D, g(x) 6= 0 for every
T̂ (x)
x ∈ D. Prove

x
1 f T̂ (x)
f ∨ (x) % g∧ (x) = for any x ∈ D.
T̂ (x) g xT̂ (x)
x
T̂ (x)
Prove
x
1 T̂ (x)
f
∨ ∨
f (x) % g (x) = for any x ∈ D.
T̂ (x) g x
T̂ (x)
Exercise 7.43. Let D = R, T̂1 = 2, f (x) = x, x ∈ D. Find T̂ (x), x ∈ D, so that
fˆ∧ (x̂) + 1̂ = x̂.
f (x) 1 x
+ = , x ∈ D,
T̂ (x) 2 T̂ (x)
or
352 7 Iso-Functions
x 1 x
+ = , x ∈ D.
T̂ (x) 2 T̂ (x)
1
From here, = 0, which is impossible. Consequently there is not such isotopic
2
element T̂ (x).
Exercise 7.44. Let D = R, T̂1 = 2, f (x) = x, x ∈ D. Find T̂ (x), x ∈ D, such that
2̂
fˆ∧ (x̂) = x2 (x2 + 1).
( f (x))2
= x2 (x2 + 1), x ∈ D,
T̂ (x)
or
x2
= x2 (x2 + 1), x ∈ D.
T̂ (x)
Hence,
1
T̂ (x) = , x ∈ D.
x2 + 1
Exercise 7.45. Let D = R, T̂1 = 3, f (x) = x, x ∈ D. Find T̂ (x), x ∈ D, so that
fˆ∧ (x) = x.
f (T̂ (x)x)
= x, x ∈ D,
T̂ (x)
or
T̂ (x)x
= x, x ∈ D,
T̂ (x)
or
x = x, x ∈ D.
Consequently every positive function T̂ on D will satisfy the given equation.
Exercise 7.46. Let D = R, T̂1 = 8, f (x) = x2 , x ∈ D. Find T̂ (x), x ∈ D, so that
fˆ∧ (x) = x2 (x6 + x3 + 1).
Solution. The given equation is equivalent to the following equation
f (T̂ (x)x)
= x2 (x6 + x3 + 1), x ∈ D,
T̂ (x)
or
7.4 Composition of Iso-Functions 353
(T̂ (x))2 x2
= x2 (x6 + x3 + x), x ∈ D,
T̂ (x)
or
T̂ (x)x2 = x2 (x6 + x3 + 1), x ∈ D.
Therefore
T̂ (x) = x6 + x3 + 1, x ∈ D.
7.4 Composition of Iso-Functions
Definition 7.11. Let fˆ and ĝ be iso-functions of the first, second, third, fourth or
fifth kind. Suppose that ĝ : D1 → R and fˆ : D2 → R.
1. If T̂ ĝ : D1 → D2 , we define iso-composition of the first kind of fˆ and ĝ in the
following manner.
∧
fˆ (ĝ) (x) = fˆ T̂ (x)ĝ(x) ,

x ∈ D1 .
1
2. If ĝ : D1 → D2 , we define iso-composition of the second kind of fˆ and ĝ in the
T̂
following manner.

∨ 1
fˆ (ĝ) (x) = fˆ ĝ(x) , x ∈ D1 .
T̂ (x)
3. If ĝ : D1 → D2 , we define iso-composition of the first kind of fˆ and ĝ in the

following manner.
fˆ (ĝ) (x) = fˆ (ĝ(x)) , x ∈ D1 .

Example 7.26. Let D = R, T̂1 = 5, f (x) = x + 1, g(x) = x, T̂ (x) = x2 + 1, x ∈ D.

Then

ˆf (x) = f (x),
T̂

g
ĝ(x) = (x),
T̂
and
∧
fˆ∧∧ ĝ∧∧ (x) = fˆ∧∧ T̂ (x)g̃(x)

354 7 Iso-Functions
= fˆ∧∧ (g(x))
f (g(x))
=
T̂ (g(x))
f (x)
=
T̂ (x)
x+1
= , x ∈ D.
x2 + 1
Example 7.27. Let D = [0, ∞), T̂1 = 2, T̂ (x) = x + 1, f (x) = x2 , g(x) = x − 1, x ∈ D.

Then
fˆ(x) = f xT̂ (x) ,

x
g T̂ (x)
ˆ
ĝ(x) = ,
T̂ (x)

∧ ∨ 1 ˆ
ĝˆ (x) = f ∧

f ĝ(x)
T̂ (x)
 
x
1 g T̂ (x)
= f∧ 
T̂ (x) T̂ (x)
 
x
g T̂ (x)
= f∧ 2 
T̂ (x)
  
x x
g T̂ (x) g T̂ (x)
= f 2 T̂  2 
T̂ (x) T̂ (x)
x x
x+1 − 1 x+1 − 1

= f T̂
(x + 1)2 (x + 1)3

1 1
= f − T̂ −
(x + 1)3 (x + 1)3

1 1
= f − − +1
(x + 1)3 (x + 1)3
1 − (x + 1)3

= f
(x + 1)6
7.4 Composition of Iso-Functions 355
2
1 − (x + 1)3
= , x ∈ D.
(x + 1)12
2 3
D = [0, ∞), T̂1 = 2, T̂ (x) = x + 2, f (x) = x , g(x) = x , x ∈ D.
Let
Example 7.28.
ˆ
We will find fˆ g∨ (x). We have

x
f
fˆˆ(x) =
T̂ (x)
T̂ (x)
x

f x+2
=
x+2
x2
= ,
(x + 2)3

x
g∨ (x) = g
T̂ (x)

x
=g
x+2
x3
= , x ∈ D.
(x + 2)3
Hence,

fˆˆ g∨ (x) = fˆˆ g∨ (x)

x3

= fˆ
(x + 2)3
x6
(x+2)6
= 3
x3
(x+2)3
+2
x6
(x+2)6
= 3
(x3 +2(x+2)3 )
(x+2)9
x6 (x + 2)3
=
(x3 + 2 (x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8))3
356 7 Iso-Functions
x6 x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8

=
(x3 + 2x3 + 12x2 + 24x + 16)3
x9 + 6x8 + 12x7 + 8x6
= , x ∈ D.
(3x3 + 12x2 + 24x + 16)3
Exercise 7.47. Let D = [0, ∞), T̂1 = 3, T̂ (x) = x + 1, f (x) = 2x, g(x) = 3x, x ∈ D.
1. fˆˆ(x), x ∈ D.
2. g∨ (x), x ∈ D.
3. 4̂× ˆ fˆˆ(x) + 3g∨ (x), x ∈ D.
∨ ∨
4. f∧ g (x), x ∈ D.
7.5 Bounded and Unbounded Iso-Functions
Definition 7.12. An iso-function fˆ : D → R of the first, second, third, fourth or fifth

kind will be called bounded below if there is a constant a ∈ R so that
fˆ(x) ≥ a, x ∈ D.
Example 7.29. Let D = R, T̂1 = 2, f (x) = x2 + 1, g(x) = x10 + 1, T̂ (x) = x4 + 1,

x ∈ D. Then
f (x)
fˆ∧ (x̂) =
T̂ (x)
x2 + 1
= ,
x4 + 1
g(x)
ĝ∧ (x̂) =
T̂ (x)
x10 + 1
= , x ∈ D.
x4 + 1
The iso-function fˆ∧∧ is a bounded below iso-function on D and ĝ∧∧ is not a

bounded below iso-function on D. The function f is an unbounded below function.

kind will be called bounded above if there exists a constant b ∈ R such that
fˆ(x) ≤ b, x ∈ D.
7.5 Bounded and Unbounded Iso-Functions 357
2 2 2
Example 7.30. Let D = R, T̂1 = 3, f (x) = e−x , g(x) = e2x , T̂ (x) = ex , x ∈ D. Then
f (x)
fˆ∧ (x̂) =
T̂ (x)
2
e−x
= 2
ex
2
= e−2x ,
g(x)
ĝ∧ (x̂) =
T̂ (x)
2
e2x
= 2
ex
2
= ex , x ∈ D.
Then fˆ∧∧ is a bounded above iso-function on D and ĝ∧∧ is an unbounded above

iso-function.
Definition 7.14. An iso-function of the first, second, third, fourth or fifth kind will
be called bounded iso-function if it is bounded above and bounded below.
Example 7.31. Let D = R, T̂1 = 4, f (x) = x, g(x) = x7 + x, T̂ (x) = x6 + 1, x ∈ D.

Then
f (x)
fˆ∧ (x̂) =
T̂ (x)
x
= ,
x6 + 1
g(x)
ĝ∧ (x̂) =
T̂ (x)
x7 + x
=
x6 + 1
= x, x ∈ D.
Then fˆ∧∧ is a bounded iso-function on D and ĝ∧∧ is an unbounded iso-function on

D.
358 7 Iso-Functions
Theorem 7.2. Let f : D → Y be a bounded below function, T̂ : D → Y be a bounded

above positive function. Then there exists a constant M such that
fˆ∧ (x̂) ≥ M for ∀x ∈ D.
Proof. Since f : D → Y is a bounded below function, there exists a ∈ R such that
f (x) ≥ a for ∀x ∈ D.
Because T̂ : D → Y is a bounded above positive function, there is a b ∈ R, b > 0,

such that
T̂ (x) ≤ b for ∀x ∈ D.
Therefore
f (x)
fˆ∧ (x̂) =
T̂ (x)
a
≥
T̂ (x)
a
≥
b
=M
for any x ∈ D. This completes the proof.

above positive function, xT̂ (x) ∈ D for every x ∈ D. Then there exists a constant M
such that
fˆ∧ (x) ≥ M for ∀x ∈ D.
Proof. Since f : D → Y is a bounded below function, there exists a constant a ∈ R

such that
f (x) ≥ a
for any x ∈ D. Hence, using that xT̂ (x) ∈ D for any x ∈ D, we conclude that

f xT̂ (x) ≥ a (7.1)
for any x ∈ D. Because T̂ : D → Y is a bounded above positive function, there is a

b > 0 so that
T̂ (x) ≤ b
for any x ∈ D. From here and from (7.1), we conclude that

f xT̂ (x)
fˆ∧ (x) =
T̂ (x)
a
≥
b
=M

x
above positive function, ∈ D for every x ∈ D. Then there exists a constant M
T̂ (x)
such that
fˆ(x̂) ≥ M for ∀x ∈ D.

such that
f (x) ≥ a
x
for any x ∈ D. Hence, using that ∈ D for any x ∈ D, we conclude that
T̂ (x)

x
f ≥a (7.2)
T̂ (x)
for any x ∈ D. Because T̂ : D → Y is a bounded above positive function, there is a

b > 0 so that
T̂ (x) ≤ b

x
f T̂ (x)
fˆˆ(x) =
T̂ (x)
a
≥
b
=M

Theorem 7.5. Let f : D → Y be a bounded below function, T̂ : D → Y be a positive
function, xT̂ (x) ∈ D for every x ∈ D. Then there exists a constant M such that
f ∧ (x) ≥ M for ∀x ∈ D.

such that
f (x) ≥ a
for any x ∈ D. Because xT̂ (x) ∈ D for any x ∈ D, we obtain that
360 7 Iso-Functions
f ∧ (x) = f xT̂ (x)

≥a
=M
Theorem 7.6. Let f : D → Y be a bounded below function, T̂ : D → Y be a positive

x
function, ∈ D for every x ∈ D. Then there exists a constant M such that
T̂ (x)
f ∨ (x) ≥ M for ∀x ∈ D.
Proof. Since f : D → Y is a bounded7 below function, there exists a constant a ∈ R

such that
f (x) ≥ a
x
for any x ∈ D. Because ∈ D for any x ∈ D, we obtain that
T̂ (x)

∨ x
f (x) = f
T̂ (x)
≥a
=M
Theorem 7.7. Let f : D → Y be a bounded above function, T̂ : D −→ Y be a bounded

below positive function. Then there exists a constant M such that
fˆ∧ (x̂) ≤ M for ∀x ∈ D.
Proof. Since f : D → Y is a bounded above function, there exists a ∈ R such that
f (x) ≤ a for ∀x ∈ D.
Because T̂ : D → Y is a bounded below positive function, there is a b ∈ R, b > 0,

such that
T̂ (x) ≥ b for ∀x ∈ D.
Therefore
f (x)
fˆ∧ (x̂) =
T̂ (x)
a
≤
T̂ (x)
a
≤
b
=M
Theorem 7.8. Let f : D → Y be a bounded above function, T̂ : D → Y be a bounded

below positive function, xT̂ (x) ∈ D for every x ∈ D. Then there exists a constant M
such that
fˆ∧ (x) ≤ M for ∀x ∈ D.
Proof. Since f : D → Y is a bounded above function, there exists a constant a ∈ R

such that
f (x) ≤ a

f xT̂ (x) ≤ a (7.3)
for any x ∈ D. Because T̂ : D → Y is a bounded below positive function, there is a

b > 0 so that
T̂ (x) ≥ b

∧ f xT̂ (x)
fˆ (x) =
T̂ (x)
a
≤
b
=M
Theorem 7.9. Let f : D → Y be a bounded above function, T̂ : D → Y be a bounded

x
below positive function, ∈ D for every x ∈ D. Then there exists a constant M
T̂ (x)
such that
fˆˆ(x) ≤ M for ∀x ∈ D.

such that
f (x) ≤ a
x
T̂ (x)
362 7 Iso-Functions

x
f ≤a (7.4)
T̂ (x)

b > 0 so that
T̂ (x) ≥ b

x
f T̂ (x)
fˆˆ(x) =
T̂ (x)
a
≤
b
=M
Theorem 7.10. Let f : D → Y be a bounded above function, T̂ : D → Y be a positive

function, xT̂ (x) ∈ D for every x ∈ D. Then there exists a constant M such that
f ∧ (x) ≤ M for ∀x ∈ D.

such that
f (x) ≤ a
for any x ∈ D. Because xT̂ (x) ∈ D for any x ∈ D, we obtain that
f ∧ (x) = f xT̂ (x)

≤a
=M
Theorem 7.11. Let f : D → Y be a bounded above function, T̂ : D → Y be a positive

x
function, ∈ D for every x ∈ D. Then there exists a constant M such that
T̂ (x)
f ∨ (x) ≤ M for ∀x ∈ D.

such that
f (x) ≤ a
x
for any x ∈ D. Because ∈ D for any x ∈ D, we obtain that
T̂ (x)

x
f ∨ (x) = f
T̂ (x)
≤a
=M
Theorem 7.12. Let f : D → Y be a bounded function and T̂ : D → Y be a bounded

below positive function. Then fˆ∧∧ is a bounded iso-function of the first kind.
Proof. Since f : D → Y is a bounded function, there exists a positive constant a such

that
| f (x)| ≤ a
b > 0 so that
T̂ (x) ≥ b
for any x ∈ D. Hence,
∧ | f (x)|
fˆ (x̂) =
T̂ (x)
a
≤
b

below positive function such that xT̂ (x) ∈ D for any x ∈ D. Then fˆ∧ is a bounded
iso-function of the second kind.

that
| f (x)| ≤ a

f xT̂ (x) ≤ a

b > 0 so that
T̂ (x) ≥ b
364 7 Iso-Functions

∧ f xT̂ (x)
fˆ (x) =
T̂ (x)
a
≤
b

x
below positive function such that ∈ D for any x ∈ D. Then fˆˆ is a bounded
T̂ (x)
iso-function of the third kind.

that
| f (x)| ≤ a
x
T̂ (x)

f x
≤a
T̂ (x)

b > 0 so that
T̂ (x) ≥ b

x
f T̂ (x)

∧
fˆ (x) =
T̂ (x)
a
≤
b
Theorem 7.15. Let f : D → Y be a bounded function and T̂ : D → R be a positive

function such that xT̂ (x) ∈ D for any x ∈ D. Then f ∧ is a bounded iso-function of
the fourth kind.

that
| f (x)| ≤ a
for any x ∈ D. Since xT̂ (x) ∈ D for any x ∈ D, we conclude that
∧
f (x) = f xT̂ (x)
≤a
7.6 Even and Odd Iso-Functions 365

Theorem 7.16. Let f : D → Y be a bounded function and T̂ : D → R be a positive
x
function such that ∈ D for any x ∈ D. Then f ∨ is a bounded iso-function of
T̂ (x)
the fifth kind.
that
| f (x)| ≤ a
x
for any x ∈ D. Since ∈ D for any x ∈ D, we conclude that
T̂ (x)

∨
f (x) = f x

T̂ (x)
≤a
7.6 Even and Odd Iso-Functions

kind will be called even(odd) if
fˆ(x) = fˆ(−x) ( fˆ(x) = − fˆ(−x)), x ∈ D.
Example 7.32. Let D = R, T̂1 = 4, f (x) = x2 , T̂ (x) = x4 + 1, x ∈ D. Then
f (x)
fˆ∧ (x̂) =
T̂ (x)
x2
= , x ∈ D,
x4 + 1
and since
x2 (−x)2
= , x ∈ D,
x4 + 1 (−x)4 + 1
we conclude that the considered iso-function of the first kind is an even iso-function
on D. Also, we have that f is an even function on D.
Example 7.33. Let D = R, T̂1 = 2, f (x) = x4 , T̂ (x) = 2 + sin x, x ∈ D. Then
f (−x) = (−x)4
366 7 Iso-Functions
= x4 for ∀x ∈ D,
i.e., f is an even function on D. On the other hand,
f (x)
fˆ∧ (x̂) =
T̂ (x)
x2
= , x ∈ D.
2 + sin x
From here,
f (−x)
fˆ(−x̂) =
T̂ (−x)
x4
=
2 − sin x
6= fˆ∧ (x̂) for ∀x ∈ D\{0}.
Consequently the considered iso-function of the first kind is not an even iso-function
on D.
Exercise 7.48. Let D = R, T̂1 = 4, f (x) = x, T̂ (x) = 4 + cos x, x ∈ D. Check if the
corresponding iso-function of the first kind is an even iso-function on D.
Theorem 7.17. Let f , T̂ : D → Y be even functions. Then the corresponding iso-
functions of the first, second, third, fourth and fifth kind are even iso-functions.
Proof. Since f , T̂ : D → Y are even functions, we have
f (x) = f (−x),
T̂ (x) = T̂ (−x) for ∀x ∈ D.
Hence,
f (−x)
fˆ∧∧ (−x) =
T̂ (−x)
f (x)
= ,
T̂ (x)

f −xT̂ (−x)
fˆ∧ (−x) =
T̂ (−x)

f −xT̂ (x)
=
T̂ (x)

f xT̂ (x)
=
T̂ (x)
= fˆ∧ (x),

−x
f
fˆˆ(−x) =
T̂ (−x)
T̂ (−x)

x
f − T̂ (x)
=
T̂ (x)

x
f T̂ (x)
=
T̂ (x)
= fˆˆ(x),
f ∧ (−x) = f −xT̂ (−x)

= f −xT̂ (x)

= f xT̂ (x)
= f ∧ (x),

∨ −x
f (−x) = f
T̂ (−x)

x
= f −
T̂ (x)

x
= f
T̂ (x)
= f ∨ (x), x ∈ D.

Theorem 7.18. Let f , T̂ : D −→ Y be odd functions. Then the corresponding iso-
functions of the first, fourth and fifth kind are even iso-functions and the corre-
sponding iso-functions of the second and third kind are odd iso-functions.
Proof. Since f , T̂ : D → Y are odd functions, we have
368 7 Iso-Functions
f (x) = − f (−x),
T̂ (x) = −T̂ (−x) for ∀x ∈ D.
Hence,
f (−x)
fˆ∧∧ (−x) =
T̂ (−x)
f (x)
= ,
T̂ (x)

f −xT̂ (−x)
fˆ∧ (−x) =
T̂ (−x)

f xT̂ (x)
=−
T̂ (x)
= − fˆ∧ (x),

−x
f
fˆˆ(−x) =
T̂ (−x)
T̂ (−x)

x
f T̂ (x)
=−
T̂ (x)
= − fˆˆ(x),
f ∧ (−x) = f −xT̂ (−x)

= f xT̂ (x)
= f ∧ (x),

−x
f ∨ (−x) = f
T̂ (−x)

x
= f
T̂ (x)
= f ∨ (x), x ∈ D.

Example 7.34. Let D = R, T̂1 = 2, f (x) = x, T̂ (x) = x2 + 1, x ∈ D. Then
f (x)
fˆ∧∧ (x) =
T̂ (x)
x
= , x ∈ D.
x2 + 1
From here, the corresponding iso-function of the first kind is an odd iso-function.
Exercise 7.49. Let D = R, T̂1 = 2, f (x) = x2 + x + 1, T̂ (x) = x4 + 1, x ∈ D. Check if

the corresponding iso-function of the first kind is an odd or even iso-function on D.
Solution. For fˆ∧∧ we have the following representation
f (x)
fˆ∧ (x̂) =
T̂ (x)
x2 + x + 1
= , x ∈ D.
x4 + 1
From here,
(−x)2 − x + 1 x2 − x + 1
= , x ∈ D.
(−x)4 + 1 x4 + 1
Therefore the corresponding iso-function of the first kind is not an even iso-function
on D and it is not an odd iso-function on D.
Exercise 7.50. Let D = R, T̂1 = 4, f (x) = x, g(x) = x2 , T̂ (x) = x6 + 1, x ∈ D. Check

if the corresponding iso-functions of the first kind of fˆ∧∧ and ĝ∧∧ are even or odd
iso-functions on D.
Answer. The corresponding iso-function of the first kind of f is an odd iso-function

on D. The corresponding iso-function of the first kind of g is an even iso-function
on D.
Theorem 7.19. Let f : D → Y be an odd function, T̂ : D → Y be an even positive
function. Then the corresponding iso-functions of the first, second, third, fourth and
fifth kind are odd iso-functions
Proof. We have
f (x) = − f (−x),
T̂ (x) = T̂ (−x) for ∀x ∈ D.
Hence,
f (−x)
fˆ∧∧ (−x) =
T̂ (−x)
370 7 Iso-Functions
f (x)
=−
T̂ (x)
= − fˆ∧∧ (x),

f −xT̂ (−x)
fˆ∧ (−x) =
T̂ (−x)

f −xT̂ (x)
=
T̂ (x)

f xT̂ (x)
=−
(x)
= − fˆ∧ (x),

−x
f
fˆˆ(−x) =
T̂ (−x)
T̂ (−x)

x
f − T̂ (x)
=
T̂ (x)

x
f T̂ (x)
=−
T̂ (x)
= − fˆˆ(x),
f ∧ (−x) = f −xT̂ (−x)

= f −xT̂ (x)

= − f xT̂ (x)
= − f ∧ (x),

∨ −x
f (−x) = f
T̂ (−x)

x
= f −
T̂ (x)

x
= −f
T̂ (x)
= − f ∨ (x), x ∈ D.

Theorem 7.20. Let f : D → Y be an even function, T̂ : D → Y be an odd positive
function. Then the corresponding iso-functions of the first, second and third kind are
odd iso-functions, and the corresponding iso-functions of the fourth and fifth kind
are even iso-functions.
Proof. We have
f (x) = f (−x),
T̂ (x) = −T̂ (−x) for ∀x ∈ D.
Hence,
f (−x)
fˆ∧∧ (−x) =
T̂ (−x)
f (x)
=− ,
T̂ (x)

f −xT̂ (−x)
fˆ∧ (−x) =
T̂ (−x)

f xT̂ (x)
=−
T̂ (x)
= − fˆ∧ (x),

−x
f
fˆˆ(−x) =
T̂ (−x)
T̂ (−x)

x
f T̂ (x)
=−
T̂ (x)
= − fˆˆ(x),
f ∧ (−x) = f −xT̂ (−x)

372 7 Iso-Functions

= f xT̂ (x)
= f ∧ (x),

∨ −x
f (−x) = f
T̂ (−x)

x
= f
T̂ (x)
= f ∨ (x), x ∈ D.
Example 7.35. Let D = R, T̂1 = 2, f (x) = x2 + 1, T̂ (x) = x4 + 1, x ∈ D. Then for

x ∈ D we have
f (T̂ (x)x)
fˆ∧ (x) =
T̂ (x)
(xT̂ (x))2 + 1
=
T̂ (x)
1
= x2 T̂ (x) +
T̂ (x)
1
= x2 (x4 + 1) + .
x4 + 1
Therefore the corresponding iso-function of the second kind is an even iso- function.
Example 7.36. Let D = R, T̂1 = 3, f (x) =, T̂ (x) = x2 + 1, x ∈ D. Then for x ∈ D we

have
f (xT̂ (x))
fˆ∧ (x) =
T̂ (x)
xT̂ (x)
=
T̂ (x)
= x.
Consequently the considered iso-function of the second kind is an odd iso-function.
Example 7.37. Let D = R, T̂1 = 4, f (x) = x + 1, T̂ (x) = ex , x ∈ D. Then for x ∈ D

we have
7.7 Periodic Iso-Functions 373
f (xT̂ (x))
fˆ∧ (x) =
T̂ (x)
xT̂ (x) + 1
=
T̂ (x)
1
= x+
T̂ (x)
= x + e−x ,
f (−xT̂ (−x)) −xT̂ (−x) + 1

=
T̂ (−x) T̂ (−x)
1
= −x +
T̂ (−x)
= −x + ex .
From here, we conclude that the considered iso-function of the second kind is not
an even iso-function and it is not an odd iso-function.
Exercise 7.51. Let D = R, T̂1 = 2, f (x) = −x, g(x) = x2 , T̂ (x) = x4 + 1, x ∈ D.

Check if the corresponding iso-functions of the second kind of f and g are odd or
even iso-functions.
Answer. The corresponding iso-function of the second kind of f is an odd iso-

function, the corresponding iso-function of the second kind of g is an even iso-
function.
7.7 Periodic Iso-Functions
Definition 7.16. Let w ∈ R, w > 0. An iso-function fˆ : D → R of the first, second,

third, fourth and fifth kind will be called w-periodic iso-function if
fˆ(x + w) = fˆ(x), x ∈ D.
Example 7.38. Let D = R, T̂1 = 3, f (x) = sin x, T̂ (x) = 2 + sin2 x, x ∈ D. Then
f (x + 2π)
fˆ∧ (x\
+ 2π) =
T̂ (x + 2π)
sin(x + 2π)
=
2 + sin2 (x + 2π)
374 7 Iso-Functions
sin x
=
2 + sin2 x
= fˆ∧ (x̂)
for every x ∈ D. Consequently the considered iso-function of the first kind is a 2π-
periodic iso-function.
Example 7.39. Let D = R, T̂1 = 4, f (x) = 1, T̂ (x) = 2 + x2 , x ∈ D. Then if we sup-

pose that there exists w ∈ R, w > 0 so that
fˆ∧ (x[
+ w) = fˆ∧ (x̂),
we get
f (x + w) f (x)
= for ∀x ∈ D
T̂ (x + w) T̂ (x)
or
1 1
= for ∀x ∈ D.
2 + (x + w)2 2 + x2
From here,
(x + w)2 = x2 for ∀x ∈ D,
which is impossible. Therefore the considered iso-function of the first kind is not a
Exercise 7.52. Let D = R, T̂1 = 2, f (x) = 1 + cos2 x, T̂ (x) = 1 + cos2 x, T̂ (x) =

3 + sin2 x, x ∈ D. Check if the corresponding iso-function of the first kind is a π -
Exercise 7.53. Let D = R, T̂1 = 5, f (x) = 2 + sin2 x, T̂ (x) = 7 + 2 sin2 x, x ∈ D.

Check if the corresponding iso-function of the first kind is a periodic iso-function.
Theorem 7.21. Let f : R → R be a w1 - periodic function, w1 > 0, T̂ : D → Y be a

positive w2 - periodic function, w2 > 0. If there exist k, l ∈ N such that
p = w1 k = w2 l
then the corresponding iso-function of the first kind is a p -periodic iso-function.
Proof. Because f is w1 - periodic function we have that
f (x + p) = f (x + wl l)
= f (x + w1 )
= f (x) for ∀x ∈ R.
7.7 Periodic Iso-Functions 375
Since T̂ is w2 - periodic function we get
T̂ (x + p) = T̂ (x + w2 l)
= T̂ (x + w2 )
= T̂ (x) for ∀x ∈ R.
From here,
f (x + p) f (x)
= for ∀x ∈ R.
T̂ (x + p) T̂ (x)
Consequently the considered iso-function of the first kind is a p - periodic iso-
function. This completes the proof.
Theorem 7.22. Let f : R → R be a w1 - periodic function, w1 > 0, g : R → R be a
w2 -periodic function, w2 > 0, and T̂ : R → R be a positive w3 - periodic function,
w3 > 0. If there exist k, l, m ∈ N such that
p = w1 k = w2 l = w3 m,
then
fˆ∧∧ ± ĝ∧∧ , fˆ∧∧ ×
ˆ ĝ∧∧ , fˆ∧∧ ĝ∧∧ , fˆ∧∧ % ĝ∧∧
are p-periodic iso-functions.
Proof. Since f , g, T̂ : R → R are w1 , w2 and w3 - periodic functions, respectively,
then
f (x) = f (x + w1 )
= f (x + kw1 )
= f (x + p),
g(x) = g(x + w2 )
= g(x + lw2 )
= g(x + p),
T̂ (x) = T̂ (x + w3 )
= T̂ (x + mw3 )
376 7 Iso-Functions
= T̂ (x + p)
for every x ∈ R. From here,
f (x) g(x)
fˆ∧∧ (x) ± ĝ∧∧ (x) = ±
T̂ (x) T̂ (x)
f (x + p) g(x + p)
= ±
T̂ (x + p) T̂ (x + p)
= fˆ∧∧ (x + p) ± ĝ∧∧ (x + p),
f (x)g(x)
fˆ∧∧ (x)×
ˆ ĝ∧∧ (x) =
T̂ (x)
f (x + p)g(x + p)
=
T̂ (x + p)
= fˆ∧∧ (x + p)×
ˆ ĝ∧∧ (x + p),
f (x)g(x)
fˆ∧∧ (x)ĝ∧∧ (x) =
T̂ 2 (x)
f (x + p)g(x + p)
=
T̂ 2 (x + p)
= fˆ∧∧ (x + p)ĝ∧∧ (x + p),
f (x)g(x)
fˆ∧∧ (x) % ĝ∧∧ (x) =
T̂ 3 (x)
f (x + p)g(x + p)
=
T̂ 3 (x + p)
= fˆ∧∧ (x + p) % ĝ∧∧ (x + p)
for every x ∈ R. This completes the proof.
7.8 Monotonic Iso-Functions

7.8 Monotonic Iso-Functions 377
Definition 7.17. We will say that an iso-function fˆ : D → R of the first, second,

third, fourth or fifth kind is (strictly)increasing(decreasing) if
fˆ(x1 )(>) ≥ fˆ(x2 ) ( fˆ(x1 )(<) ≤ fˆ(x2 )), x1 , x2 ∈ D.
Definition 7.18. We will say that an iso-function of the first, second, third, fourth or
fifth kind is monotonic if it is either entirely increasing or decreasing.
1
Example 7.40. Let D = [0, ∞), T̂1 = 2, T̂ (x) = x2 + 1, f (x) = , x ∈ D. Let also,
x+1
x1 , x2 ∈ D, x1 ≥ x2 . Then
f (x1 )
fˆ∧ (x̂1 ) =
T̂ (x1 )
1
=
(x1 + 1) x12 + 1
1
≤
(x2 + 1) x22 + 1
f (x2 )
=
T̂ (x2 )
= fˆ∧ (x̂2 ).
Therefore fˆ∧∧ is a decreasing iso-function.

Theorem 7.23. Let f : D → Y be an increasing function, T̂ : D → Y be a positive
decreasing function. Then fˆ∧∧ is an increasing iso-function.
Proof. Let x1 , x2 ∈ D, x1 ≤ x2 . Then
f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 ) and T̂ (x1 ) ≥ T̂ (x2 ).
Hence,
f (x1 )
fˆ∧∧ (x1 ) =
T̂ (x1 )
f (x2 )
≤
T̂ (x2 )
= fˆ∧∧ (x2 ).
Therefore fˆ∧∧ is an increasing iso-function. This completes the proof.

Theorem 7.24. Let f : D → Y be a decreasing function, T̂ : D → Y be a positive
increasing function. Then fˆ∧∧ is a decreasing iso-function.
378 7 Iso-Functions
f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 ) and T̂ (x1 ) ≤ T̂ (x2 ).
Hence,
f (x1 )
fˆ∧∧ (x1 ) =
T̂ (x1 )
f (x2 )
≥
T̂ (x2 )
= fˆ∧∧ (x2 ).
Therefore fˆ∧∧ is a decreasing iso-function. This completes the proof.

increasing function and xT̂ (x) ∈ D for any x ∈ D. Then fˆ∧ is a decreasing iso-
function.
T̂ (x1 ) ≤ T̂ (x2 ) and x1 T̂ (x1 ) ≤ x2 T̂ (x2 ).
Hence,
1 1
≥ and f x1 T̂ (x1 ) ≥ f x2 T̂ (x2 ) .
T̂ (x1 ) T̂ (x2 )
Therefore

f x1 T̂ (x1 )
fˆ∧ (x1 ) =
T̂ (x1 )

f x2 T̂ (x2 )
≥ .
T̂ (x2 )
Consequently fˆ∧ is a decreasing iso-function. This completes the proof.

Theorem 7.26. Let f : D → R be an increasing function, T̂ : D → R be a positive
x
decreasing function and ∈ D for any x ∈ D. Then fˆˆ is an increasing iso-
T̂ (x)
function.
x1 x2
T̂ (x1 ) ≥ T̂ (x2 ) and ≤ .
T̂ (x1 ) T̂ (x2 )
Hence,
7.8 Monotonic Iso-Functions 379

x1
f
fˆˆ(x1 ) =
T̂ (x1 )
T̂ (x1 )

x2
f T̂ (x2 )
≤
T̂ (x2 )
= fˆˆ(x2 ).
Therefore fˆˆ is an increasing iso-function. This completes the proof.

increasing function and xT̂ (x) ∈ D for any x ∈ D. Then f ∧ is an increasing iso-
function.
T̂ (x1 ) ≤ T̂ (x2 ) and x1 T̂ (x1 ) ≤ x2 T̂ (x2 ).
Hence,
f ∧ (x1 ) = f x1 T̂ (x1 )

≤ f x2 T̂ (x2 )
= f ∧ (x2 ).
Consequently f ∧ is an increasing iso-function. This completes the proof.

increasing function and xT̂ (x) ∈ D for any x ∈ D. Then f ∧ is a decreasing iso-
function.
T̂ (x1 ) ≤ T̂ (x2 ) and x1 T̂ (x1 ) ≤ x2 T̂ (x2 ).
Hence,
f ∧ (x1 ) = f x1 T̂ (x1 )

≥ f x2 T̂ (x2 )
= f ∧ (x2 ).
Consequently f ∧ is a decreasing iso-function. This completes the proof.

380 7 Iso-Functions

decreasing function and xT̂ (x) ∈ D for any x ∈ D. Then f ∨ is an increasing iso-
function.

x1 x2
T̂ (x1 ) ≥ T̂ (x2 ) and ≤ .
T̂ (x1 ) T̂ (x2 )
Hence,

∨ x1
f (x1 ) = f
T̂ (x1 )

x2
≤ f
T̂ (x2 )
= f ∨ (x2 ).
Consequently f ∨ is an increasing iso-function. This completes the proof.

decreasing function and xT̂ (x) ∈ D for any x ∈ D. Then f ∨ is a decreasing iso-
function.

x1 x2
T̂ (x1 ) ≥ T̂ (x2 ) and ≤ .
T̂ (x1 ) T̂ (x2 )
Hence,

x1
f ∨ (x1 ) = f
T̂ (x1 )

x2
≥ f
T̂ (x2 )
= f ∨ (x2 ).
Consequently f ∨ is a decreasing iso-function. This completes the proof.
Problem 7.1. Let D = R, T̂ (x) = x2 + 1, f (x) = 3x − 2, x ∈ D. Find

1. fˆ∧∧ .
2. fˆ∧ .
3. fˆˆ.
4. f ∧.
5. f ∨.
Problem 7.2. Let D = R, T̂ (x) = ex , f (x) = x, x ∈ D. Find

1. fˆ∧∧ .
2. fˆˆ.
3. f ∨.
4. f ∧.
Problem 7.3. Find fˆ∧∧ , if

1. T̂ (x) = x2 + 1, f (x) = sin x, D = R.
2. T̂ (x) = x2 + 5, f (x) = cos x, D = R.
3. T̂ (x) = x2 + x + 1, f (x) = tan x, D = R.
4. T̂ (x) = x2 + 2, f (x) = sin x + 2 cos x, D = R.
5. T̂ (x) = x2 − x + 1, f (x) = x2 + 2x, D = R.
6. T̂ (x) = x2 − x + 5, f (x) = x3 + ex , D = R.
7. T̂ (x) = ex , f (x) = e2x , D = R.
8. T̂ (x) = ex + e2x + 2, f (x) = x3 − 1, D = R.
9. T̂ (x) = ex + e−x , f (x) = sin x, D = R.
10. T̂ (x) = 10 + ln2 (x2 + x + 1), f (x) = ex , D = R.
x+1
Problem 7.4. Let D̂ = [−1, 1], fˆ∧ (x̂) = 4 , f (x) = x + 1, x ∈ D. Find T̂ (x), x ∈
x +5
D.
sin x + ex
Problem 7.5. Let D = R, fˆ∧∧ (x) = 2 , T̂ (x) = x2 + 1, x ∈ D. Find f (x),
x +1
x ∈ D.
Problem 7.6. Let D = R, f (x) = x2 − 1, g(x) = x − 1, T̂ (x) = x2 + 1, x ∈ D, T̂1 = 5.

Find
1. fˆ∧ (x̂), x ∈ D.
2. ĝ∧∧ (x), x ∈ D.
3. ˆ 3̂ fˆ∧∧ (x) − ĝ∧∧ (x)) + 4̂×
2̂×( ˆ ĝ∧∧ (x), x ∈ D.
Problem 7.7. Let D = R, T̂1 = 8, f (x) = x3 , x ∈ D. Find T̂ (x), x ∈ D, such that

2̂
fˆ∧∧ (x) = −x2 , x ∈ D.
Problem 7.8. Let D = R, T̂1 = 2, f (x) = x3 , T̂ (x) = 4 − sin x, x ∈ D. Check if fˆ∧∧

is an even iso-function on D.
Problem 7.9. Let D = R, T̂1 = 3, f (x) = x4 , T̂ (x) = x10 + 2x2 + 1, x ∈ D. Check if

fˆ∧∧ is an even iso-function on D.
382 7 Iso-Functions
Problem 7.10. Let D = R, T̂1 = 3, f (x) = x4 + x2 , g(x) = x3 + x, T̂ (x) = x4 + 1, x ∈

D. Check if fˆ∧∧ , ĝ∧∧ are odd or even iso-functions on D.
Problem 7.11. Let D = R, T̂1 = 3, f (x) = x3 , g(x) = x4 , T̂ (x) = x6 +1, x ∈ D. Check

if fˆ∧∧ and ĝ∧∧ are odd or even iso-functions on D.
Problem 7.12. Let D = R, T̂1 = 3, f (x) = 3 + sin x + cos2 x, T̂1 (x) = 4 + cos2 (3x),
x ∈ D. Check if fˆ∧∧ is a periodic iso-function.
Problem 7.13. Let D = R, T̂1 = 3, f (x) = 3 + x + sin x, T̂ (x) = 4 + sin2 x, x ∈ D.

Check if fˆ∧∧ is a periodic iso-function.
Index
A\B,
\
20 Bounded Set of Iso-Real Numbers, 317
A B, 14
[
A B, 10 Complement of a Set, 27
A4B, 14, 29 Complex Conjugate of a Complex Number, 99
A,k , 283 Complex Number, 65
A j, , 283 Complex Vector Space, 136
CA, 27 Composition of Two Functions, 39
P(S), 8 Containment, 6
ℑz, 97
ℜz, 97 Decreasing Iso-Functions, 376
0,
/ 1 Degree of a Polynomial, 169
ker T , 242 Difference of Two Sets, 20
C, 65 Direct Sum, 148
F, 121 Division on C, 74
Fn , 122 Domain of Function, 37
Fm,n , 268
L (U,V ), 225 Empty Set, 1
P(F), 161 Even Iso-Function, 365
Pm (F, 169
z, 99 Finite-Dimensional Vector Space, 161
f : M → N, 37 Function, 37
jth Coordinate, 122 Fundamental Theorem of Linear Maps, 245
n-Tuple, 121
zm , 79 Identity Linear Map, 235
Image of a Set, 37
Absolute Value of a Complex Number, 99 Image of an Element, 37
Addition in Fn , 122 Imaginary Part of a Complex Number, 97
Addition of Iso-Functions, 340 Inclusion, 6
Addition on a Set, 135 Increasing Iso-Function, 376
Infimum of a Set of Iso-Real Numbers, 318
Basic Iso-Unit, 295 Infinite Intervals, 319
Bijective Map, 42 Infinite-Dimensional Vector Space, 169
Bounded Above Iso-Function, 356 Injective Map, 42
Bounded Above Set of Iso-Real Numbers, 317 Intersection of Sets, 14
Bounded Below Iso-Function, 356 Iso-Bijection, 335
Bounded Below Set of Iso-Real Numbers, 317 Iso-Composition of the First Kind, 353
Bounded Iso-Function, 357 Iso-Composition of the Second Kind, 353
383
384 Index
Iso-Composition of the Third Kind, 353 Pairwise Disjoint Sets, 14

Iso-Division of Iso-Functions, 347 Partition of a Set, 7
Iso-Function of the Fifth Kind, 333 Periodic Iso-Function, 373
Iso-Function of the First Kind, 325 Polynomial, 161
Iso-Function of the Fourth Kind, 331 Positive Iso-Real Number, 306
Iso-Function of the Second Kind, 327 Power of a Complex Number, 79
Iso-Function of the Third Kind, 330 Power of a Matrix, 282
Iso-Injection, 335 Power of Iso-Real Number, 315
Iso-Inverse of Iso-Map, 337 Power Set, 8
Iso-Multiplication of Iso-Functions, 344 Preimage of a Set, 37
Iso-Multiplication of Iso-Real Number and Preimage of an Element, 37
Iso-Function, 340 Product of Linear Maps, 237
Iso-Power of Iso-Real Number, 315 Proper Subset, 6
Iso-Real Iso-Field, 296 Proper Superset, 6
Iso-Surjection, 335
Quadratic Matrix, 281
Kernel of a Linear Map, 242
Length of a List, 121 Range of a Functions, 37

Linear Combination of Vectors, 157 Real Part of a Complex Number, 97
Linear Map, 225 Real Vector Space, 136
Linearly Dependent List, 170
Linearly Independent List, 170 Scalar Multiplication in Fn , 122
List, 121 Scalar Multiplication on a Set, 135
Lower Bound of a Set of Iso-Real Numbers, Set, 1
317 Set of Iso-Real Numbers, 295
Span of Vectors, 159
Mapping, 37 Spans, 161
Matrix of a Linear Map, 258 Subset, 6
Maximal Element, 320 Subspace, 143
Minimal Element, 320 Subtract of Iso-Functions, 340
Minkowski Inequality, 110 Subtraction on C, 73
Modulus of Iso-Real Number, 310 Sum of Sets, 145
Monotonic Iso-Function, 377 Superset, 6
Multiplication of Iso-Functions, 344 Supremum of Set of Iso-Real Numbers, 318
Multiplication of Iso-Real Number and Surjective Map, 42
Iso-Function, 340 Symmetric Difference of Two Sets, 14, 29
Multiplication of Matrices, 274
Negative Iso-Real Number, 306 Union of Two Sets, 10

Non-Bounded Set of Iso-Real Numbers, 318 Upper Bound of a Set of Iso-Real Numbers ,
Nonempty Set, 1 317
Odd Iso-Function, 365 Zero Linear Map, 235

One-to-One Map, 42 Zero Matrix, 268

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1

This book first published 2022

Cambridge University Press

Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Copyright © 2022 by Svetlin G. Georgiev

ISBN (10): 1-5275-8997-8

ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-8997-1

The Set Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Finite-Dimensional Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

4.5 Finite-Dimensional Vector Subspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

Linear Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

Iso-Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

Paris, September 2022 Svetlin G. Georgiev

Paris, September 2022 Svetlin G. Georgiev

1.1 Definition. Describing Sets

Sets are conventionally denoted with capital letters: A, B, C, . . ..

There are two ways for describing sets.

Example 1.2. B is the set of the colors of the French flag.

Example 1.4. D = {blue, white, red}.

E = {colors of the French flag}

F = {n2 − 2 : n is an integer; and 0 ≤ n ≤ 29}.

Example 1.10. Let

B = {x ∈ R : (2x − 3)(5x + 2) ≤ 12}.

(2x − 3)(5x + 2) ≤ 12. (1.1)

This inequality is equivalent to the system

64 − 16x + x2 > x2 − 3x − 10,

13x < 74,

Exercise 1.2. Determine if 5 is a membership of the following sets.

Definition 1.4. If every member of a set A is also a member of a set B, then A is

Example 1.14. We have

{1, 3} ⊂ {1, 2, 3, 4},

{1, 2, 3, 4} ⊆ {1, 2, 3, 4}.

Fig. 1.1 A is a subset of B and B is a superset of A.

By the above definitions, it follows that A = B if and only if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.

Example 1.15. Let

Example 1.16. Let

This is not a partition of S because

−1 ∈ {−1, 2}, −1 ∈ {−1, 2}

Exercise 1.4. Find P(S), where

Example 1.19. |0|

Exercise 1.5. Find |S|, where

1.3 Some Special Sets

2. Z, denoting the set of all integers,

Z = {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . .}.

1.4 Basic Operations

Example 1.20. Let

Example 1.21. Let

Example 1.22. Let

Example 1.23. Let A be as in Example 1.9 and C be as in Example 1.11. Then

(x + 3)2 x(2x − 3) (3x − 1)2

Below, we will prove some important properties of the union of sets.

By the last relation and the relation (1.8), we obtain (1.7).

the sets in F are said to be pairwise disjoint.

Example 1.27. Let A be as in Example 1.9, B be as in Example 1.10 and C be as in

By the definition for intersection of sets, it follows that

Theorem 1.5. For any two sets A and B, we have

By the last relation and (1.11), we obtain (1.13). \

Theorem 1.8. Let [

Theorem 1.9. We have

Exercise 1.11. Prove that

Theorem 1.10. We have