ET. Research & Work, Gombe.

Gombe State, 2021; 13th August

ORIENTALISM AND ITS IMPACT ON THE MUSLIM WORLD

Gbelekale Hassan
(ET. Research & Work, Gombe. Gombe State)
Tai Solarin University of Eduaction, Ijagun. Ijebu Ode. Ogun State.

Abstract

Westerners view Islam more sympathetically due to the increase in religious conversions.
Christianity's survival was threatened by Islam’s growing political power. Soon Islam
became a threat to Christianity's spiritual, political, and social self-satisfaction. This was
the genesis and use of Orientalism by Westerners for a long time to tarnish Islam's image
and Prophet Muhammed (SAW). This phenomenon was sustained for many centuries.
However, this phenomenon was soon dispelled by the 18th century when it became
apparent that Islamic studies could not be separated from other disciplines. This view may
help us to see the contribution of Orientalism to Islam. The 20th-century Orientalism was
dominated by the Islamic scientific works of the Orientalists. These had a profound impact
on Islamic studies in Muslim countries around the globe. Some Muslim scholars argue that
the purpose of studying Islam in Europe and Muslim cultures in Europe during medieval
times was to primarily apologize. This paper therefore examines orientalism’s impact on
the Muslims world. It reviews the history of Orientalism, its development and the impact
on the Muslim World. It was discovered that these false representations of Islam have been
deliberately produced historically, as Edward Said and other Western scholars have
demonstrated. This is to ensure that the West continues its cultural and political dominance
over Muslims.

Introduction

The study of languages and cultures in the so-called Orient was the origin of the term
"Orientalism", later referred to as "Oriental Studies". Although the initial focus was on the
ancient and contemporary Near East, the term "Orient" has been used to refer to all Asian
civilizations that Europeans encountered in their eastward colonial and imperial
expansions. The Latin orients refers to the direction in which the rising sun is directed or
the east. The purpose of studying Islam and Muslim cultures in Europe during the medieval
period was to mainly apologize. Universities began to teach Arabic and other Oriental
languages by the 17th Century. In 1632, Cambridge University established the Thomas
Adams Chair for Arabic. Orientalist scholars translated literary, historical, religious, and
religious texts from Arabic and Sanskrit. But most of these translations don't count as

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critical editions. Modern Orientalism is academically understood as beginning at the close

of the 18th Century. Napoleon's expeditionary force invaded Egypt in 1797. It included
scholars who documented the ancient Egyptian texts, monuments, and contemporary
Islamic architecture. British colonial presence in India led to a new field of study,
"Orientalism," which was based primarily on the work of William James (philologist). The
Societe Asiatique, a French academic society dedicated to the study and preservation of
the Orient, was established in 1821. This was followed by the Royal Asiatic Society of
Great Britain and Ireland (1823) and the American Oriental Society (1842). Paris hosted
the 1873 International Congress of Orientalists. Most Orientalist scholars, with a few
notable exceptions held negative views about Islam until the middle century. International
Congress of Orientalists discarded the term "Orientalist" by 1973. They recognized that
specialty disciplines were more important than the vague geographic notion of an "Orient."

Edward Said, a Palestinian American literary scholar, published Orientalism (1978). This
powerful polemic challenged the objectivity in academic discourse on an imaginary Orient.
Said's criticisms of Orientalism led to a continuing debate on Western observers' ability to
correctly analyze Islam and other cultures that were formerly called "Oriental." Although
most scholarship on "Oriental" has focused more on Muslim cultures than other groups, it
is important to note that Said's criticisms of Orientalism have sparked an ongoing debate.
This essay examines orientalism's impact on the Muslim World. The document analysis
method was used for the study.

History of Orientalism

The birth of Orientalism1 can't be separated from Islam history's greatness, especially when
it was compared with Christianity and other religious communities. Gustave Le Bon in his
“The World of Islamic Civilization” notes that while the Islamic Arabs enjoyed supremacy
of creative civilization, their influence on other nations was unaffected.2 When Islamic

1 Rodinson In: Fauzi, Ihsan Ali (1992) “Orientalisme di Mata Orientalis: Maxime Rodinson tentang Citra dan Studi Barat atas
Islam [Orientalism in the Eyes of Orientalists: Maxime Rodinson on Image and Western Study of Islam]”, Jurnal Ulumul
Qur’an, Vol. 3(2). pp. 4 - 22.
2 Le Bon, Gustave (1974). The World of Islamic Civilization, p. 138.

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hegemony was at its highest point of eminence in Spain, the intellectual centers in the West
were only built by quasi-barbarian nobility. They were proud of their inability to read.3
Only a handful of Christians believed in the Church in Egypt and Syria. In Northern Africa,
St. Augustine's homeland, the Churches were totally destroyed.

Islam was spread and caused many conflicts with other religions. Christianity is one of
them. Islam's growing political power threatened Christianity's existence. Politically and
sociologically, the more Islam expanded its political territories, the worse the conditions
for Christians were. Christians must confront the increasing power of Islam. They created
an "image" of Islam and Muslims which was both clear, but definitely inaccurate4. Since
then many myths about Islam and Muslims have spread among Christians and Jewish
communities. These myths were later mixed with some reasonable impressions resulting
from direct contact with Muslims.5

This image creation was a key factor in the emergence and success of Orientalism. In the
eleventh century, the Western view of the Islamic World was clear. Christianity grew in
Europe while doing more than just protecting itself. It was willing to fight and go to war.
Crusades was the key event in the Muslim/Christian conflict. Their long dispute reached
its climax in the two hundred-year war (1096-1291). Rodinson said that the Crusades "had
created an enormous market for the complete and integral, passionate, and satisfying image
formation a foe’s ideology".6

This was because Crusades had been the main gate through which more information about
Islam, the Middle East, and the Middle East reached Europe. The Christian Byzantine
Kingdom was the only way to receive information prior to the Crusades. This information
contained negative stories and blasphemies about Islam and Muhammad. These negative
descriptions were prepared to serve as psychological tools for welcoming and supporting
Crusades7.

The Crusades saw the end of false descriptions and defamation of Islam. Between 1100-
1300, Europe standardized its views on Islam. Daniel claims that suspicions and
misunderstandings which were formed during this period are still prevalent for most
Europeans. He stated that the early Christian responses to Islam were much the same as the
ones of the recent years. This tradition has been in existence for many centuries. While

3 Le Bon, Gustave (1974). p. 139.

4 Rodinson in Fauzi, (1992) p. 5
5 Rodinson in Fauzi, (1992) p. 6
6 Ibid.
7 Hasbullah, Moeflich. (2005). Assessment on Orientalist Contributions to the Islamic World. HARMONI, Jurnal Multikultural &

Multireligius, Vol. 4(13).

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there are many variations within the larger unity of tradition, they have not been
insurmountable. For a long time, however, the West (both American and European) has
held its own view. It was established around 1100 and has not seen much change since.8

Even though there were still some suspicions and misunderstandings, there was some
improvement in perceptions. Some Western scholars developed a better understanding of
Islam and Muslims between 1120 and 1291. The Enlightenment was a time in human
history that saw the rise of humanism and rationalism, which later became the foundations
for modern science. The European view of Islam slowly improved with this trend,
especially in the 18th Century, when it was supported by curiosity to view Eastern Islam
from an unbiased perspective. European curiosity led to the discovery in 19th-century
Europe of romantic exoticism and the Orient. This appeal was great for Westerners. The
changes in the West/East relationship and the internal transformations of Western society
made it more open to all things strange9.

Oriental Studies was encouraged by the growth of Oriental romantic exuberance. Rodinson
reports that anyone who wanted to learn more about Near Eastern languages or civilizations
in Europe had to visit the "Ecole des langues orientales vivantes" in Paris. Rodinson says
that this was the most outstanding Oriental Studies center of its time. It was established in
1795 by Louis Mathieu Langles (1758-1838)10.

This tendency toward objectivity was reflected in scientific research and specialization.
There was also an increase in the number of institutions of Oriental studies over the 19th
Century. The term Orientalism was then coined. The term Orientalist appeared for the first
time in English in 1799. The Orient was now a distinct discipline in learning. William &
Chrisman say that the study was "focused upon what could be called colonial discourse;
the variety of texts in which West produced and codified information about non-
metropolitan regions and cultures, especially those under colonial rule."11

Daniel pointed out that there was still suspicion and misunderstanding of the Orient.
Orientalism, which is more than a study about an object, was developed as a Western
project to help maintain hegemony in the Orient, specifically the Islamic world12. Globally
speaking, the West's concern about Islam and Muslims was not only motivated by science,

8 Daniel, Norman (1993). Islam and the West, p. 11. In: Islam and the West: The Making of an Image. Oneworld Publications
Ltd, Third Edition.
9 Fauzi, Ihsan Ali (1992). Orientalisme... p. 12.
10 Ibid. p. 13.
11 William, Patrick and Chrisman, Laura (1993). Colonial Discourse and Post-colonial Theory, (ed.) A Reader, Prentice

Hall/Harverster Wheatsheaf, p. 5.
12 Edward Said, (1995) Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient, Penguin Books, p. 4 - 9.

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scholarship and curiosity about exotic oriental stories, but also religious, economic and
political reasons.

Effect of Orientalism on the Muslim World

• Islamophobia

The rhetoric of dualism between Islam and the West is based on the fear of Islamic culture
disrupting the Judeo-Christian values maintained in European societies. This fear has led
to Islamophobia13, one of the most serious effects of Orientalism upon the Muslim World.
Muslims have taken to hiding, transformation and "reformation" of their core Islamic
values in response to the Islamophobia fears. Barack Obama, former president of the
United States, had to repeatedly affirm his loyalty to Western Christianity despite the fact
that his father was Muslim as America would not tolerate a Muslim president14.

Lucy K. Pick15 in her paper titled “Orientalism and Religion”, stated that anyone who has
followed American Orientalizing discourses for at least ten years would have noticed that
Orientalism at American highest levels have been religious. She recalls President George
W. Bush's description of September 16, 2001 as a ‘crusade’ against the terrorists. Many
were stunned when the Spanish army joined the "coalition for the willing" in Spain wearing
the cross from Santiago, an emblem of the Medieval military religious orders dedicated to
the extermination of Muslims on the Iberian Peninsula. Bush's "crusade", though, is not the
same as the one of Pope Urban II in 11th-century Rome. And the Spanish military is not
just the Order of Santiago, reborn. Lucy16 believes that there are ways to make sense of this
phenomenon.

She17 furthers that the Danish anti-Islamic Cartoons published by Jyllands-Posten on

September 30, 2005 foregrounds the meaning of the representations of Muhammad,
Muslims and other religions. She added that although the Western world has seen them as
being racist and intolerant, they have also been seen as an example of valuable post-

13 Marranci, G. (2004). Multiculturalism, Islam and the clash of civilizations theory: rethinking Islamophobia. Culture and
Religion, 5(1), 105–117.
14 Samiei, M. (2010). Neo-orientalism? the relationship between the west and Islam in our globalized world. Third World

Quarterly, 31(7), 1145–1160.

15 Lucy K. Pick (2012). Orientalism and Religion. MEI@75. Web. Posted: April 20, 2012. Accessed: 13th Aug. 2021. Retrieved

from: https://www.mei.edu/publications/orientalism-and-religion
16 Lucy K. Pick (2012). Orientalism and Religion…
17 Lucy K. Pick (2012). Orientalism and Religion…

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Enlightenment principles of free speech. However, limiting the historical context to the
Enlightenment obscures the extent to the which the cartoons aren't a bold defense of
Western values. Instead, they are the latest expression of a long-standing medieval
European tradition of seeking martyrdom through intentionally insulting Islam in general,
and Muhammad in particular. An example is that of the Cordoba Christians from 9th
century who cursed Muhammad and inflicted Islam before the qadi knowing that they
would be martyred. Ramon Llull and the 13th century Franciscans also engaged in similar
activities. They pondered their fates, deciding whether to convert Muslims or become
martyrs. The title of "Muhammeds asigt [Muhammad’s face]" in the Jyllands-Posten piece
shows that the cartoons were intended to provoke an outcry by breaking taboos. Indeed,
without the title it would be difficult to determine that the cartoons were intended to portray
Muhammad18.

Islamophobia can be described as a progression from medieval crusades, the Ottoman

Empire and Imperial Colonialism to modern-day fear mongering of Muslims in western
minds and misrepresentation. Islamophobia should not be viewed as a new phenomenon
of the 19th century19. It is the result a perceived incompatibility among Islamic and
European values that is fueled by pervasive Oriental speech. 9/11 was another pivotal
moment in the radicalization of the Muslim image and its bastardization in the West.

Marranci20 related the funny story of an Algerian Muslim who was hospitalized in the same
room with four other Italian men. He was visited by his friend who waited on the corridor
before seeing him. While waiting, one of Djamal’s roommates approached his friend and
whispered in his ears “Take care, there is a Muslim here…we do not know where he is and
who he is”. Djamal’s friend was surprised but could guess the man was referring to his
friend. Upon entering the room to see Djamal, the Italian went to Djamal and his friend
again, smiling and saying “you know, we have to be careful, we have a Muslim in this
ward, I think an Algerian man’”. Djamal looked at his friend and laughed. The Italian
asked if Djamal’s friend really knew Djamal, then he had the following to say: ‘He
(Djamal) is a very kind person. When I need things, he helps me a lot. He is the kindest
person here”21.

18 Lucy K. Pick (2012). Orientalism and Religion…

19
Meer, N. (2014). Islamophobia and postcolonialism: Continuity, orientalism and Muslim consciousness. Patterns of Prejudice,
48(5), 500–515.
20 Marranci, G. (2004). Multiculturalism, Islam and the clash of civilizations theory: rethinking Islamophobia. Culture and

Religion, 5(1), 105–117.

21 Marranci, G. (2004). Multiculturalism, Islam and the clash of civilizations theory: rethinking Islamophobia. Culture and

Religion, 5(1), 105–117.

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This is a story that shows how many Muslima feel about the West. The Westerner is awash
with religious and racial bigotry, making Muslims and Islam distant concepts. Even though
they interact with Muslims daily, often unknowingly, this narrative is formed by
Postcolonial Orientalism, along with the inequalities of power and social inequalities, that
exists between the East and West22.

• Misrepresentation

It is obvious that Orientalism has portrayed Islam in the worst possible light. The
Orientalists may portray Muslims as liberals or progressives in some cases. This is to
further their ulterior motives. Bush said the following praise to the Bahraini leader: "Your
Majesty. It's a great thing that you are able to provide hope for people through democracy,"
even though the regime was not democratic. Bush said these remarks because Bahrain had
recently welcomed the US Navy to their territory as a home for their Fifth Fleet23.

Cesari24 related another example of the parody of Muslims by the influential Italian
journalist who said: “They will feel authorized to kill you and your children because you
drink wine or beer, because you don’t wear a long beard or a chador, because you go to
the theatre and cinemas, because you listen to music and sing songs”25

Interestingly, Islam frowns on drinking (amongst other things), just like published
scientific literature26 but there is not one Qur'an verse or prophetic narration supporting this
barbaric claim. Unfortunately, such rhetoric resonates well with the ignorant, innocent
Western mind, and creates an atmosphere of hatred towards Islamic ideas.

Misrepresentation remains a major theme and consequence of the Orientalist response

against the spread Islam. The West uses mass media and publication houses as a tool to
portray Islam's true nature. To the average Western citizen, images of "cutting throats",
oppressing woman and stoning to die are all that are shown27. This kind of representation
is a recipe for hatred towards a transnational enemy: Muslims. Thus, Islamophobia is born
naturally and Orientalists are able to see the intended consequences.

22 Meer, N. (2014). Islamophobia and postcolonialism. pp. 507

23 Samiei, M. (2010). Neo-orientalism? the relationship between the west and Islam in our globalized world. Third World
Quarterly, 31(7), 1145–1160.
24 Cesari, J. (2015). The Oxford Handbook of European Islam. Oxford University Press.
25 Cesari, J. (2015). The Oxford Handbook of European Islam. Oxford University Press.
26 Griswold, M. G., Fullman, N., Hawley, C., Arian, N., M Zimsen, S. R., Tymeson, H. D., Venkateswaran, V., Douglas Tapp,

A., Forouzanfar, M., Salama, J., Hassen, K., Abate, D., Abay, S. M., Abbafati, C., Suliankatchi Abdulkader, R., Abebe, Z.,
Aboyans, V., Mehdi. Abrar, M., Acharya, P., … Collaborators, A. (2018). Alcohol use and burden for 195 countries and
territories, 1990-2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. The Lancet, 392, 1015–1035.
27 Marranci, G. (2004). Multiculturalism, Islam and the… .pp. 109

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• Attack on Islamic legal Theory

Attack upon Islamic Legal theory using a case in Awqaf (Algeria, Egypt, and India)
highlights one of history's effects of Orientalism for the Muslim world. The British and
French faced a similar experience in Muslim Egypt and India respectively regarding the
purchase lands in these territories, which were considered to belong to the Awqaf. Awqaf
family donations cannot be sold or used for personal gain. In reality, some of these
donations are given to the Ulama. The colonial powers found it difficult to buy the lands
that were designated as belonging to the Awqaf. They had to find a way to reverse this
status quo. With the assistance of colonial Orientalists, they used legislative enactments to
re-interpret Islamic law and achieve their goals: access to Muslim land28.

These reforms were presented under the guise of "economic progress". In 1860, French,
Muslim jurists in Algeria published tons of materials on Islamic Law. This included a
demonstration of their awareness of colonial strategy. This combination of Oriental
literatures on doctrine and enactments was used to establish a new system law that
combined the best of both French legal systems with Islamic ones in Algeria. The majority
of the system was developed by Frenchmen in Algeria. However, there were a few
Algerians who created it, including scholars, lawyers, judges and administrators 29. Lasisi
Ahmad30 says this is a systematic redefining of Islamic law to make it compatible with
colonial legal conceptions. It is one example from many others in the Muslim World as we
see. This kind of rewriting Islam would be impossible without Orientalism.

Conclusion

This paper discussed the effect of orientalism in the Muslim world. The paper concludes
that Muslims have for a long period viewed Orientalism negatively. This is due in part to
the way Muslims view Western scholars. Since hundreds of years Islam has been
misrepresented and even compared with actual Muslim conditions, Qur’anic teachings, and
Prophet Muhammad's own life.

The false representations of Islam have been deliberately produced historically, as Edward
Said and other Western scholars have demonstrated. This is to ensure that the West
continues its cultural and political dominance over Muslims. This phenomenon has had

28 Powers, D. S. (1989). Orientalism, Colonialism, and Legal History: The Attack on Muslim Family Endowments in Algeria and
India. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 31(3), 535–571.
29 Powers, D. S. (1989). Orientalism, Colonialism, and Legal History: The Attack on Muslim Family Endowments in Algeria and

India. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 31(3), 535–571.

30 Ahmad, Lasisi (2020). Methodology of Orientalism and its Effects on the Muslim World. International Open University

(IOU). Accessed: 13th Aug. 2021

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serious consequences for Islamic civilization, safety of Muslim nations and individuals.
While some effects of Orientalism can be quite obvious, others can be subtle and nuanced.
To help free oneself from the traps of divisive rhetoric, misrepresentations and intellectual
dominance, as well as the Orientalist discourse, it is incumbent upon the conscious mind
to be aware of these machinations.

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Meer, N. (2014). Islamophobia and postcolonialism: Continuity, orientalism and Muslim

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Samiei, M. (2010). Neo-orientalism? the relationship between the west and Islam in our
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William, Patrick; and Chrisman, Laura. (1993). Colonial Discourse and Post-colonial
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