Loewe 3NF
The weight of an IC is very less as
An early attempt at combining several
components in one device (like modern ICs)
was the Loewe
3NF vacuum tube from the 1920s. Unlike
ICs, it was designed with the purpose of tax
avoidance, as in Germany, radio receivers
had a tax that was levied depending on how
many tube holders a radio receiver had.
Werner Jacobi
He filed a patent for an integrated-circuit-like
semiconductor amplifying device showing
five transistors on a common substrate in a
three-stage amplifier arrangement. Jacobi
disclosed small and cheap hearing aids as
typical industrial applications of his patent.
An immediate commercial use of his patent
has not been reported.
Hybrid Integrated Circuit
Jack Kilby's original hybrid integrated circuit
from 1958. This was the first integrated
circuit, and was made from germanium.
What are the two types of material that is
used for making Semiconductor?
● Silicon & Germanium
Intel
Intel was founded in Mountain View,
California, in 1968 by Gordon E. Moore, a
chemist, and Robert Noyce, a physicist and
co-inventor of the integrated circuit. Moore
and Noyce had left Fairchild Semiconductor
to found Intel.Intel's third employee was
Andy Grove, a chemical engineer, who later
ran the company through much of the 1980s
and the high-growth 1990s.
ADVANTAGES OF IC
1. The entire physical size of an IC is
extremely small than that of a
discrete circuit.
2.
compared to entire discrete circuits.
3. It's more reliable.
4. Because of their smaller size it has
lower power consumption.
5. It can easily be replaced but it can
hardly repair, in case of failure.
6. Because of an absence of parasitic
and capacitance effects it has
increased operating speed.
7. Temperature differences between
components of a circuit are small.
8. It is suitable for small signal
operation.is achieved due to small
size of IC.
9. The reduction in power consumption
extremely
DISADVANTAGES OF IC
1. Coils or indicators cannot be
fabricated.
2. It can handle only a limited amount
of power.
3. High grade P-N-P assembly is not
possible.
4. It is difficult to achieve a low
temperature coefficient.
5. The power dissipation is limited to
10 watts.
6. Low noise and high voltage
operation are not easily obtained.
7. Inductors and transformers are
needed connecting to the exterior of
the semiconductor chip as it is not
possible to fabricate inductors and
transformers on the semiconductor
chip surface.
8. Inductors cannot be fabricated
directly.
9. Low noise and high voltage
operation are not easily obtained.
IC FABRICATION
An Integrated Circuit (IC) is also called a
chip or microchip. It is a semiconductor
wafer in which millions of components are
fabricated. The active and passive
components such as resistors, diodes,
transistors etc and external connections are
usually fabricated on an extremely tiny
single chip of silicon.
All circuit components and interconnections
are formed on a single thin wafer (substrate)
called monolithic IC.
IC is very small in size. It requires a
microscope to see connections between
components. The steps to fabricate IC chips
are similar to the steps required to fabricate
transistors, diodes etc.
In IC chips, the fabrication of circuit
elements such as transistors, diodes,
capacitors etc. and their interconnections
are done at the same time.
It has so many advantages such as
extremely small size, small weight, low cost,
low power consumption, high processing
speed, easy replacement, etc. IC is the
principal component in all electronic
devices; IC can function as amplifier,
oscillator, timer, counter, computer memory
etc.
To be Continued in the PDF ....
DISCRETE AND IC MANUFACTURING
TECHNIQUE
A discrete circuit is constructed of
components which are manufactured
separately. Later, these components are
connected together by using conducted
wires on a circuit board or a printed circuit
board.
MONOLITHIC INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
How is IC made?
● To know the basics a sample circuit
must be considered to be converted
to its monolithic form. With basic
components like resistor, diode, and
transistor a basic circuit is first made
The basic structure of a monolithic IC
will have 4 layers of different materials
1. P-Type Silicon Layer
is named as the substrate layer. This
layer will have a typical thickness of
200 micrometers. Silicon is the
preferred semiconductor for the
P-type and N-type layer because of
its favorable characteristics for the
manufacturing ofan IC.
2. N-Type Layer
All the active and passive
components required for the circuit
are fabricated onto this layer. This
layer has a typical thickness of 25
micrometers. The N-type silicon
material is grown as a single crystal
extension of the P-layer and the
components required are fabricated
using a series of P-type and N-type
impurity diffusions. The N-type layer
becomes the collector for the
transistor or an element for a diode
or a capacitor.
3. Silicon Dioxide
The layer above N-type is made of
silicon dioxide (SiO2) material. Since
there is a selective P-type and
N-type impurity diffusion going on in
 the second layer, this layer acts as a
barrier in the process. This layer is
etched away from the region where
diffusion is desired to be permitted
with a photolithographic process.
The rest of the wafer remains
protected against diffusion. This
layer also protects the silicon layer
from contamination
. required for the circuit are built on
4. Aluminum
The up-most layer is made of
aluminum. This metallic layer is used
to provide interconnections between
the different components used in the
IC.
Monolithic IC Manufacturing Process
1. P-layer Substrate Manufacture
Being the base layer of the IC, the
P-type silicon is first built for the IC.
A silicon crystal of P-type is grown in
dimensions of 250 mm length and
25mm diameter. The silicon is then
cut into thin slices with high
precision using a diamond saw.
Each wafer will precisely have a
thickness of 200 micrometer and a
diameter of 25 mm. These thin slices
are termed wafers. These wafers
may be circular or rectangular in
shape with respect to the shape of
the IC. After cutting hundreds of
them each wafer is polished and
cleaned to form a P-type substrate
layer.
2. N-type Epitaxial Growth
The epitaxial growth process of a
low resistive N-type over a high
resistive P-type is to be carried out.
This is done by placing the n-type
layer on top of the P-type and
heating it inside a diffusion furnace
at very high temperature (nearly
1200C). After heating, a gas mixture
of Silicon atoms and pentavalent
atoms are also passed over the
layer. This forms the epitaxial layer
on the substrate. All the components
top of this layer. The layer is then
cooled down, polished and cleaned.
3. The Silicon Dioxide Insulation
Layer
As explained above, this layer
requires contamination of the
N-layer epitaxy. This layer is only 1
micrometer thin and is grown by
exposing the epitaxial layer to
oxygen atmosphere at 1000C.
4. Photolithographic Process for
SiO2
Photolithography is the process of
transferring geometric shapes on a
mask to the surface of a silicon
wafer.
5. Isolation Diffusion
After the photolithographic process
the remaining SiO2 layer serves as
a mask for the diffusion of acceptor
impurities. To get a proper time
period for allowing a P-type impurity
to penetrate into the N-type epitaxial
layer, isolation diffusion is to be
carried out. The main use if this is to
allow electrical isolation between the
different components inside the IC.
 Each electrical element is later on
formed in a separate isolation island.
6. Base Diffusion
The working of base diffusion
process is shown in the figure below.
This process is done to create a new
layer of SiO2 over the wafer.
P-regions are formed under
regulated environments by diffusing
P-type impurities like boron. This
forms the base region of an N-P-N
transistor or as well as resistors, the
anode of diode, and junction
capacitor. In this case, the diffusion
time is so controlled that the P-type
impurities do not reach the
substrate. The resistivity of the base
layer is usually much higher than
that of the isolation regions.
7. Emitter diffusion
Masking and etching process is
again carried out to form a layer of
silicon dioxide over the entire
surface and opening of the p-type
region. The transistor emitters, the
cathode regions for diodes, and
junction capacitors are grown by
diffusion using n-type impurities like
phosphorus through the windows
created through the process under
controlled environmental process.
8. Scribing and mounting
This is the final stage of the ic
manufacturing process. After the
metallization process, the silicon
wafer is then scribed with a diamond
tipped tool and separated into
individual chips. Each chip is then
mounted on a ceramic wafer and is
attached to a suitable header. Next
the package leads are connected to
the ic chip by bonding of aluminum
or gold wire from the terminal pad on
the ic chip to the package lead. Thus
the manufacturing process is
complete. Thus, hundreds of ic's are
manufactured simultaneously on a
single silicon wafer.
THIN & THICK FILM IC
These devices are larger than monolithic
IC, but smaller than discrete circuit
These can be used when power
requirement is comparatively higher with a
thin or thick film IC , the passive
components like resistor and capacitors are
integrated, but the transistors and diodes
are connected as discrete components to
form a complete circuit .
Thin and thick film circuits are a
combination of INTEGRATED and
DISCRETE COMPONENTS .
They have the advantage of better isolation
between components , and greater flexibility
in circuit design that further helps in
providing high frequency performance.
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
THICK AND THIN FILM COMPARED TO
MONOLITHIC?
It is not their thickness but the disposition of
the film.
Thick and thin filmIcs are comparatively
larger than monolithic Ic's and smaller than
discrete circuits . They find their use in
high-power applications . Though it is a little
large in size , these Ics cannot be integrated
with transistors and diodes; such devices
have to be externally connected to their
corresponding pins; passive components
like resistors and capaci can be integrated.
THIN FILM INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
wire mesh. The films are fused to the
substrate after printing by placing them in
hot high - temperature furnaces.
Classification of IC in Terms of their
Function

Thin film ICs are fabricated by depositing

films of conducting materials on the surface
of a glass or ceramic base . By controlling
the width and thickness of the films and by
using different materials selected for their
resistivity, resistors and conductors are
fabricated. Inductors are made depositing a
spiral information of film. Transistors and
diodes can be produced by thin - film
technology, usually tiny discrete
components are connected into the circuit.

TWO METHODS OF PRODUCING THIN

FILMS

VACUUM EVAPORATION Digital IC

vaporized material is deposited on a
substrate contains in a vacuum .
CATHODE SPUTTERING
atoms forms a cathode made of the desired
film material are deposited on a substrate
located between a cathode and an anode .
THICK FILM INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
The desired circuit pattern is obtained on a
ceramic substrate by using a manufacturing
process called the silk - screen printing
technique .
The inks used for printing are usually
materials that have resistive conductive, or
dielectric properties . They are selected
accordingly by the manufacturer . The
screens are actually made of fine stainless
If the integrated circuits operate only at a
few predefined levels instead of operating
for an entire range of continuous values of
the signal amplitude, then those are called
as Digital Integrated Circuits.
A standard logic IC is a single, small,
integrated package carrying basic
components and common functionalities for
a logic circuit. These ICs are core
components of logic circuits. Today's
session on digital ICs will focus on this type
of IC.
There are roughly 600 types of standard
logic ICs, from basic chips to highly
functional arithmetic-and-logic units. There
are two different types of implementation:
TTL and CMOS.
Foundation of Digital Circuitry

TTL ICs
Transistor-transistor logic ICs: The main
Linear IC
circuitry is built with bipolar transistors.
An analog IC is said to be Linear, if there
These chips run on 5-V power.
exists a linear relation between its voltage
and current. IC 741, an 8-pin Dual In-line
Package (DIP)op-amp, is an example of
Linear IC.

A linear integrated circuit (linear IC) is a

solid-state analog device characterized by a
theoretically infinite number of possible
operating states. It operates over a
continuous range of input levels.

Within a certain input range, the

CMOS ICS amplification curve of a linear IC is a straight
Complementary metal oxide semiconductor line; the input and output voltages are
ICs: The main circuitry is built from pairs of directly proportional. The best known, and
p-type and n-type metal oxide most common, linear IC is the operational
semiconductor field-effect transistors amplifier or op amp. which consists of
(MOSFETs). Voltages used to drive these resistors, diodes, and transistors in a
chips extend over a wide range. conventional analog circuit.

Linear ICs are available in most large

electronics stores. Some devices contain
several amplifiers within a single housing