ELECTRONICS III
They cannot
MODULE 1
INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
 a set of electronic circuits on one small flat
piece (or "chip") of semiconductor material
that is normally silicon
 The integration of large numbers of tiny MOS
transistors into a small chip result in circuits
that are orders of magnitude smaller, faster,
and less expensive than those constructed of
discrete electronic components.
 Widely used in computers, cell phones, and
other digital home appliances are now
inextricable parts of the structure of modern
societies
 These advances, roughly following Moore's
law, make computer chips of today possess
millions of times the capacity and thousands
of times the speed of the computer chips of
the early 1970s
THE PEOPLE BEHIND THE CREATION OF IC:
 It was proposed by Geoffrey W. A. Dummer
in the year 1952
 Followed by Jack Kilby. He produced an idea
to create small ceramic wafers wired
together to create a compact circuit which
failed, but led to the creation of IC with the
semiconductors made from germanium and
won him the Nobel prize for physics in the
year 2000
 Lastly, Robert Noyce developed his own
prototype of an IC, using silicon as a
semiconductor material. This invention
helped in resolving many practical problems
that Jack Kilby’s IC had
WHY DISCRETE CIRCUITS ARE REPLACED BY
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS:
 Space consumption
 Soldered components will show less reliability
due to the used of many components
ADVANTAGES OF USING IC:
 Miniature in size
 Weight of the IC also reduces
 Cost of production will be very low and less
time consuming
 Fewer interconnections, and thus highly
reliable.
 Lesser power consumption and lesser power
loss.
 Maintenance is easy and at a low cost.
 Less heat is produced.
 All ICs are tested for operating ranges in very
low and very high temperatures
DISADVANTAGES OF USING IC:
 Some complex ICs maybe costly.
be repaired as the individual components
inside the IC are too small.
 The power rating for most of the IC’s does not
exceed more than 10 watts. Thus, it is not
possible to manufacture high power IC’s.
 Some components like transformers and
inductors cannot be integrated into an IC.
 The IC will not work properly if wrongly
handled or exposed to excessive heat.
 It is difficult to achieve low temperature
coefficient.
 It is difficult to fabricate an IC with low noise.
 High value capacitors are to be connected
externally to the IC.
INTEGRATED CIRCUIT CLASSIFICATIONS:
 All the IC’s have interconnected discreet
devices inside the chip and the corresponding
external connecting terminals outside. Each
pin may have each function and may vary
according to the manufacturer’s design
CLASSIFICATION OF IC BASED ON THE FABRICATION
TECHNIQUES:
MONOLITHIC INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
 The word ‘monolithic’ comes from the Greek
words' ‘monos’ and ‘lithos’ which means
‘single’ and ’stone’
 As the name suggests, monolithic ICs refer to
a single stone or a single crystal
 This is the best mode of manufacturing IC’ as
they can be made identical and produces high
reliability.
 The cost factor is also low and can be
manufactured in bulk in very less time
 AM radio, voltage regulator, amplifiers
LIMITATIONS:
 Monolithic ICs have low power rating. They
mainly used for low power applications as
they cannot have a power rating of more than
1 watt.
 Design complexity: Designing a monolithic IC
can be a complex and timeconsuming
process, requiring specialized knowledge and
tools.
 Components like inductor cannot be
fabricated to the IC.
 Limited input/output (I/O) capabilities:
Monolithic ICs typically have a limited
number of I/O pins, which can limit their
ability to interface with external devices.
 It is difficult to make a circuit flexible for any
kind of variation; a new set of masks is
required
THIN AND THICK FILM INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
 They are also commonly called as printed thin
film circuits.
 The desired circuit pattern is obtained on a
ceramic substance by using a manufacturing
process called silk-screen printing technique.
 are larger than monolithic IC’s and smaller
than discrete circuits.
 are suitable for low-power applications and
simple circuits
 though it is a little large, these ICs cannot be
integrated with transistors and diodes.
 They have the advantage of better tolerance,
better isolation between components, and
greater flexibility in circuit design that further
helps in providing high frequency
performance
LIMITATIONS:
 Costly in making.
 Has higher dimensions than monolithic IC’s.
 Limited frequency range: Thin and thick film
ICs have a limited frequency range and are
not suitable for high-frequency applications.
 Limited precision: Thin and thick film ICs have
limited precision compared to other types of
ICs. This can result in reduced accuracy and
reliability in some applications
HYBRID OR MULTI-CHIP INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
 As the name suggests, the circuit is fabricated
by interconnecting several individual chips.
 are mostly used for high power audio
amplifier applications from 5 Watts to more
than 50 Watts.
 Interconnection between the individual chips
is made by wiring process or a metallized
pattern.
 Used in complex circuits and high-
performance applications such as aerospace,
defense, and telecommunications.
 ACTIVE: diffused transistor or diode
 PASSIVE: diffused resistor or capacitor
TRANSISTOR
- amplifies and switch electronic devices
RESISTOR
- regulates the flow of current
CAPACITOR
- stores electrical signal
INDUCTOR
- stores energy in a form of electromagnetic field
DIODE
- two way terminal that allows the flow of current in
one direction and blocks other direction
IC'S CLASSIFIED BY CHIP SIZE
SMALL-SCALE INTEGRATION (SSI)
• SSI circuits were crucial to early aerospace projects,
and aerospace projects helped inspire development
of the technology. Both the Minuteman missile and
Apollo program.
• 1-10 transistors.
• 3 to 30 gates/chip.
• A typical application was FM inter-carrier sound
processing in television receivers.
• The first application MOS (metal-oxide
semiconductor) chips were small-scale integration
(SSI) chips. The first practical application of MOS SSI
chips was for NASA satellites.
• gates, op-amps, linear application, flip-flops
MEDIUM-SCALE INTEGRATION (MSI)
• The next step in the development of integrated
circuits introduced devices which contained
hundreds of transistors on each chip, called "medium-
scale integration" (MSI).
• 10-500 transistors.
• 30 to 300 gates/chip.
• MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect
Transistor) scaling technology made it
possible to build high-density chips. By 1964, MOS
chips had reached higher transistor density
• perform specific complementary digital functions
such as decoders, counters, multiplexers, adders, and
registers
LARGE -SCALE INTEGRATION (LSI)
• Further development, driven by the same MOSFET
scaling technology and economic factors, led to "large
-scale integration" (LSI) by the mid -1970s, with tens
of thousands of transistors per chip .
• 500 -20 ,000 transistors
• 300 to 3,000 gates/chip
• RUBYLITH - TAPE used for IC for it not to
besensitive to UV light
• Integrated circuits such as calculator chips, and the
first microprocessors, that began to be manufactured
in moderate quantities in the early 1970s, had under
4 ,000 transistors .
• Some SSI and MSI chips, like discrete transistors, are
still mass - produced, both to maintain old equipment
and build new devices that require only a few gates .
• include digital system such as processors and
memory chip and programmable module RAM/ ROM
VERY-LARGE-SCALE INTEGRATION (VLSI)
• The final step in the development process, starting
in the 1980s and continuing through the present.
• 20,000-1,000,000 transistors
• more than 3,000 gates/chip
• transistor counts continue to grow beyond ten
billion transistors per chip.
• Multiple developments were required to achieve
this increased density.Manufacturers moved to
smaller MOSFET design rules and cleaner abrication
facilities.
• In 1986 the first one-megabit random-access
memory (RAM)chips were introduced.
ULTRA-LARGE-SCALE INTEGRATION (ULSI)
• also known as Wafer-scale integration, System on a
chip, and Three-dimensional integrated circuit (WSI,
SoC and 3D-IC).
• 1,000,000 and more transistors
• which are discrete and binary in nature, typically
• is a means of building very large integrated circuits
that uses an entire silicon wafer to produce a single
"super-chip".
• power consumption is much lower than in
equivalent separate circuits
MODULE 2
1 LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUIT/ANALOG IC
• a linear integrated circuit or analog chip is a set of
miniature electronic analog circuits formed on a
single piece of semiconductor material.
• in Linear IC the input signal is Analogue signal.
Analog chips may also contain digital logic elements
to replace some analog functions.
• this is known as mixed signal processing and allows
a designer to incorporate more functions in the chip.
• continuous
SINE WAVE OUTPUT=INPUT
BENEFITS OF USING LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUIT:
• load protection
• reduced parts count
• higher reliability
USAGE OF ANALOG CHIPS:
• wideband signals
• high-power applications
• transducer interfaces
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
• the op-amp type integrated circuit is used heavily
for general purpose signal amplification due to it
having special features; mainly high input and low
output resistance. These are widely used linear
integrated circuits that amplify the difference
between two input voltages.
• a very popular type of the already common op-
amps would be the 555 timer.
ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUIT DESIGN
Analog integrated circuits were primarily designed
using hand calculations and process kit parts before
the invention of microprocessors and other software
dependent design tools.
ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUIT DESIGN IS USED FOR:
• operational amplifiers
• linear
• regulators
• oscillators
• active filters
DIGITALINTEGRATED CIRCUITS
• digital ICs are integrated circuits that contain
integrated set of digital circuitry such as logic gates. It
is designed to process and manipulate digital signals,
represented as "0" or "1".
• input signal are digital signals.
• usually used in computers, microprocessors, digital
signal processors and computer networks.
CLASSIFICATION OF DIGITAL ICS:
• small-scale integration (SSI)
• medium-scale integration (MSI)
• large-scale integration (LSI)
• very-large-scale integration (VLSI)
• ultra-large-scale integration (ULSI)
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LINEAR IC AND DIGITAL IC
LINEAR IC
• Linear ICs (Linear Integrated Circuits) are called as
analog IC.
• Linear integrated circuits inputs and outputs can
take on a continuous range of values and the outputs
are generally proportional to the inputs
• It is used in aircraft, space, vehicles, radars, PLL,
Oscilloscopes etc.
• The design requirements are more drastic as
compared to digital ICs.
• It is commercially available as operational
amplifiers, voltage multipliers, voltage comparator,
regulators, microwave amplifiers etc.
• Its consist of very less number of transistor as
compared to digital ICs.
DIGITAL IC
• Digital ICs (Digital Integrated Circuits) are also called
as nonlinear IC.
Digitals ICs contain circuits whose inputs and outputs
voltage are limited to two possible levels low or high.
• It’s used in microprocessor, computers, clocks,
digital watches, calculator etc
• The design requirement as less drastic as compare
to linear ICs.
• Its commercially available as microprocessor chips,
memory chips, analog to digital chips, digitals to
analog chips, logic gates, flip flops, counters, registers
etc.
• It consists of a greater number of transistors as
compared to linear ICs.
MODULE 3
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
• An operational amplifier are one of the basic
building blocks of Analogue Electronic Circuits. It is an
integrated circuit that can amplify weak electric
signals.
• An operational amplifier has two input pins and one
output pin. Its basic role is to amplify and output the
voltage difference between the two input pins.
• Used extensively in signal conditioning, filtering or
to perform mathematical operations such as add,
subtract, integration and differentiation.
• An Operational Amplifier is basically a three-
terminal device which consists of two high impedance
inputs. One of the inputs is called the Inverting Input,
marked with a negative or “minus” sign, ( – ). The
other input is called the Non-inverting Input, marked
with a positive or “plus” sign ( + ). A third terminal
represents the operational amplifiers output port
which can both sink and source either a voltage or a
current.
NON-INVERTING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
In this configuration, the input voltage signal,
( VIN ) is applied directly to the non-inverting ( + )
input terminal which means that the output gain of
the amplifier becomes “Positive” in value in contrast
to the “Inverting Amplifier”. The result of this is that
the output signal is “in-phase” with the input signal
VOLTAGE FOLLOWER (UNITY GAIN BUFFER)
If we made the feedback resistor, Rƒ equal to
zero, (Rƒ = 0), and resistor R2 equal to infinity, (R2 =
∞), then the circuit would have a fixed gain of “1” as
all the output voltage would be present on the
inverting input terminal (negative feedback). This
would then produce a special type of the non-
inverting amplifier circuit called a Voltage Follower or
also called a “unity gain buffer”.

FOUR DIFFERENT CLASSIFICATIONS OF OP AMP

GAINS:
1.VOLTAGE AMPLIFIERS – Voltage “in” and Voltage
“out”
2.CURRENT AMPLIFIERS– Current “in” and Current
“out”
3.TRANSCONDUCTANCE AMPLIFIERS– Voltage “in”
and Current “out”
4.TRANSRESISTANCE AMPLIFIERS – Current “in” and
Voltage “out”

TYPES OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

In this Inverting Amplifier circuit, the
operational amplifier is connected with feedback to
produce a closed loop operation that produces
inverted output. The inverting operational amplifier is
basically a constant or fixed-gain amplifier producing
a negative output voltage as its gain is always
negative.

THERE ARE TWO VERY IMPORTANT RULES TO

REMEMBER ABOUT INVERTING AMPLIFIERS, THESE
ARE:
1. “No current flows into the input
terminal”
2. and that “V1 always equals V2”