REVIEW: Microelectronics & Computer

Principles
Microelectronics is a subfield of electronics.
Microelectronics, as the name suggests, is
related to the study and manufacture, or
microfabrication, of electronic components which
are very small (usually micrometre-scale or
smaller, but not always). These devices are
made from semiconductors. Many components of
normal electronic design are available in
microelectronic equivalent: transistors,
capacitors, inductors, resistors, diodes and of
course insulators and conductors can all be found
in microelectronic devices. Unique wiring
techniques such as wire bonding are also often
used in microelectronics because of the unusually
small size of the components, leads and pads.
This technique requires specialized equipment.
Digital integrated circuits (ICs) consist mostly of
transistors. Analog circuits commonly contain
resistors and capacitors as well. Inductors are
used in some high frequency analog circuits, but
tend to occupy large chip area if used at low
frequencies; gyrators can replace them in many
applications.
As techniques improve, the scale of microelectronic
components continues to decrease. At smaller
scales, the relative impact of intrinsic circuit
properties such as interconnections may become
more significant. These are called parasitic
effects, and the goal of the microelectronics
design engineer is to find ways to compensate
for or to minimize these effects, while always
delivering smaller, faster, and cheaper devices
1. Monolithic integrated circuits
are usually referred to as
_____.
a. Silicon chips
b. Selenium rectifiers
c. Germanium chips
d. Hybrids
2. Which type of component is
generally not practical for
fabrication in an IC?
a. Resistors
b. Inductors
c. Diodes
d. Capacitors
3. Which type of IC is used to
determine whether voltage
levels are the same or not?
a. An op amp
b. A timer
c. A comparator
d. A multiplexer/demultiplexer
4. Which of the following statements is
true?
a. Each LED in a common-anode display
requires an active +V input to light
b. Each LED in a common-cathode display
requires an active ground input to light
c. An LCD requires less power to operate
than a typical LED multisegment display
d. All of the above
5. An electronic device that can
be turned on and turned off by a
gate pulse is called a _____.
a. Bipolar junction transistor
b. Silicon-controlled switch
c. Silicon-controlled rectifier
d. Shockley diode
Advantages of IC technology
* Compactness
An obvious asset of IC design is economy of space;
ICs are far more compact than equivalent circuits
made from individual transistors, diodes,
capacitors, and resistors.
A corollary to this is the fact that far more complex
circuits can be built, and kept down to a
reasonable size, using ICs as compared with
discrete components. Thus, you see notebook
computers, also known as laptops, with
capabilities more advanced than early computers
that took up whole rooms.
* High speed
Another corollary to the compactness of ICs is
the fact that the interconnections among
components are physically tiny, making high
switching speeds possible. Electric currents
travel fast, but not instantaneously. The less
time charge carriers need to get from
component X to component Y, in general, the
more computations are possible within a
given span of time, and the less time is
needed for complex operations.
* Low power requirement
Another advantage of ICs is that they use less
power than equivalent discrete-component
circuits. This is especially important if
batteries are to be used for operation.
Because ICs use so little current, they
produce less heat than their discrete
component equivalents. This translates into
better efficiency. It also minimizes the
problems that plague equipment that gets
hot with use, such as frequency drift and
generation of internal noise.
* Reliability
Integrated circuits fail less often, per
component-hour of use, than appliances
that make use of discrete components.
This is mainly a result of the fact that all
interconnections are sealed within the IC
case, preventing corrosion or the intrusion
of dust. The reduced failure rate
translates into less downtime, or time
during which the equipment is out of
service for repairs.
* Ease of maintenance
Integrated-circuit technology lowers
maintenance costs, mainly because repair
procedures are simplified when failures do
occur. Many appliances use sockets for
ICs, and replacement is simply a matter
of finding the faulty IC, unplugging it, and
plugging in a new one. Special desoldering
equipment is used with appliances having
ICs soldered directly to the circuit boards.
* Modular construction
Modern IC appliances use modular construction. In
this scheme, individual ICs perform defined
functions within a circuit board; the circuit board
or card, in turn, fits into a socket and has a
specific purpose. Computers, programmed with
customized software, are used by repair
technicians to locate the faulty card in an
appliance. The whole card can be pulled and
replaced, getting the appliance back to the
consumer in the shortest possible time. Then the
computer can be used to troubleshoot the faulty
card, getting the card ready for use in the next
appliance that happens to come along with a
failure in the same card.
Modular construction can theoretically be
used with discrete-component design. But
this is rarely done. When a device is
sophisticated enough to need modular
construction, IC design is usually needed
to keep the size within reason.
6. The channel of JFET is between
the _____.
a. Input and output
b. Drain and source
c. Gate and drain
d. Gate and source
7. To produce tin film resistors,
which of the following materials
is the most widely used?
a. Titanium
b. Tantalum
c. Nichrome
d. Chromium cermets
8. As the input voltage varies within
specified limits, the zener diode
maintains a nearly constant output
voltage across its terminal. This is
called _____.
a. Auto regulation
b. Specific regulation
c. Line regulation
d. Load regulation
9. The BEST choice electronic
device to turn a device at a
particular voltage is a/an _____.
a. SCR
b. SCS
c. DIAC
d. PUT
10. _____ is a kind of oscilloscope
which consist of narrowband if filter
and a local oscillator (receiver)
capable of showing transmitter
carriers, spacing, harmonics and
sidebands.
a. Polygraph
b. Harmonics analyzer
c. Spectrum analyzer
d. Computerized tomography
Limitations of IC technology
* Inductors impractical
While some components are easy to fabricate
onto chips, other components defy the IC
manufacturing process. Inductances, except
for extremely low values, are one such
bugaboo. Devices using ICs must generally
be designed to work without inductors.
Fortunately, resistance-capacitance (RC)
circuits are capable of doing most things that
inductance- capacitance (LC) circuits can do.
* Mega-power impossible
The small size and low current consumption of ICs
comes with a “flip side.” This is the fact that
high-power amplifiers cannot, in general, be
fabricated onto semiconductor chips. High power
necessitates a certain minimum physical bulk,
because such amplifiers always generate large
amounts of heat. This isn’t a serious drawback.
Power transistors and vacuum tubes are
available to perform high-power tasks.
Integrated circuits are no different than anything
else: they’re good at some things, and not so
good at others.
11. Which of the following are UJT
terminals?
a. Emitter
b. Base
c. Base2
d. Gate
i. B, C and D only
ii. A, B, and C only
iii. A, B and D only
iv. All of the above
12. Type of semiconductor diode
varies its internal capacitance as
the voltage applied to its
terminals varies.
a. A zener diode
b. A varactor diode
c. A silicon-controlled rectifier
d. A tunnel diode
13. Alkaline cells are:
a. Are cheaper than zinc-carbon
cells
b. Are generally better in radios
than zinc-carbon cells
c. Have higher voltages than
zinc-carbon cells
d. Have shorter shelf lives than
zinc-carbon cells
14. Which type of digital IC is
least susceptible to noise?
a. Transistor-transistor logic
b. Base-coupled logic
c. Emitter-coupled logic
d. N-channel-coupled logic
15. In magnetic video tape:
a. The video tracks are parallel
to the edges
b. The video tracks are diagonal
c. The video tracks are
perpendicular to the edges
d. The video tracks can be
oriented at any angle
Component density
The number of elements per chip in an IC is
called the component density. There has
been a steady increase in the number of
components that can be fabricated on a
single chip. Of course there is an absolute
limit on the component density that can be
attained; it is imposed by the atomic
structure of the semiconductor material. A
logic gate will never be devised that is
smaller than an individual atom. Technology
hasn’t bumped up against that barrier yet.
* MSI
In medium-scale integration (MSI), there
are 10 to 100 gates per chip. This allows
for considerable miniaturization, but it is
not a high level of component density,
relatively speaking. An advantage of MSI
(in a few applications) is that fairly large
currents can be carried by the individual
gates. Both bipolar and MOS technologies
can be adapted to MSI.
* LSI
In large-scale integration (LSI), there are
100 to 1000 gates per semiconductor
chip. This is an order of magnitude (a
factor of 10) more dense than MSI.
Electronic wristwatches, single-chip
calculators, and small microcomputers are
examples of devices using LSI ICs. They
can be 10 times more sophisticated than
MSI devices.
* VLSI
Very-large-scale integration (VLSI) devices
have from 1,000 to 10,000 components
per chip. This is an order of magnitude
more dense than LSI. Complex
microcomputers, and peripheral circuits
such as memory storage ICs, are made
using VLSI.
16. Compact disks (CDs) are
not generally used for
recording:
a. Voices
b. Music
c. In digital form
d. Via magnetic fields
17. In which of the following places
would you most likely choose a
lithium battery?
a. A microcomputer memory backup
b. A two-way portable radio
c. A portable audio cassette player
d. A rechargeable flashlight device
18. A hot-carrier diode is a diode that
____.
a. Emits light when forward biased
b. Switches very fast
c. Varies resistance with
temperature
d. Changes its capacitance with
voltage
19. Which of the following is not
an advantage of CMOS?
a. Relative immunity to noise
pulses
b. Low-current requirements
c. Ability to work at high speed
d. Ability to handle high power
levels
IC memory
* RAM
A random-access memory (RAM) stores
binary data in arrays. The data can be
addressed (selected) from anywhere in
the matrix. Data is easily changed and
stored back in RAM, in whole or in any
part. A RAM is sometimes called a
read/write memory.
There are two kinds of RAM: dynamic RAM
(DRAM) and static RAM (SRAM). A DRAM
employs IC transistors and capacitors, and
data is stored as charges on the capacitors.
The charge must be replenished frequently,
or it will be lost via discharge. Replenishing is
done automatically several hundred times
per second. An SRAM uses a circuit called a
flip-flop to store the data. This gets rid of the
need for constant replenishing of charge, but
the tradeoff is that SRAM ICs require more
elements to store a given amount of data.
With any RAM, the data is erased when the
appliance is switched off, unless some
provision is made for memory backup. The
most common means of memory backup is
the use of a cell or battery. Modern IC
memories need so little current to store their
data that a backup battery lasts as long in
the circuit as it would on the shelf. A memory
that disappears when power is removed is
called a volatile memory. If memory is
retained when power is removed, it is
nonvolatile.
* ROM
By contrast to RAM, read-only memory
(ROM) can be accessed, in whole or in any
part, but not written over. A standard
ROM is programmed at the factory. This
permanent programming is known as
firmware. But there are also ROMs that
you can program and reprogram yourself.
* EPROM
An erasable programmable ROM (EPROM) is an IC
whose memory is of the read-only type, but that
can be reprogrammed by a certain procedure. It
is more difficult to rewrite data in an EPROM than
in a RAM; the usual process for erasure involves
exposure to ultraviolet. An EPROM IC can be
recognized by the presence of a transparent
window with a removable cover, through which
the ultraviolet is focused to erase the data. The
IC must be taken from the circuit in which it is
used, exposed to the ultraviolet for several
minutes, and then reprogrammed via a special
process.
There are EPROMs that can be erased by
electrical means. Such an IC is called an
EEPROM, for electrically erasable
programmable read-only memory. These
do not have to be removed from the
circuit for reprogramming.
20. In a ROM:
a. It’s easy to get data out and put it
in
b. It’s hard to get data out, but easy
to put it in
c. It’s easy to get data out, but hard
to put it in
d. It’s hard to get data out or put it
in
21. As the computer industry
doubled the density of
components every year, it
became known as
a. Kulinowski’s Theory
b. Paul’s Suggestion
c. Moore’s Law
d. Bardeen’s Hypothesis
22. The person responsible for
the researend(as is) design and
development of a complete
information system.
a. PROGRAMMER
b. PEOPLE WARE
c. SYSTEM ANALYST
d. COMPUTER OPERATOR
23. An English scientist who drew
up plans for the first
programmable computer in 1830
a. Vannevar Bush
b. William Oughtred
c. Charles Babbage
d. Herman Hollerith
24. What do you call a concept which
describes the relationship of all
functional components of a computer
such as CPU and input./output
devices?
a. Engineering development
b. Architecture
c. Prototyping
d. Pre-production modeling
25. Large centralized data-processing
complexes like multi-national
companies, departments and
corporations use which type of
general-purpose computer that
operates programs simultaneously?
a. Mini-computer
b. Microcomputer
c. Main-frame computer
d. Super-computer
COMPUTER – An electronic device
designed to accept data, perform
prescribed computational and logical
operations at high speed and output
the result of this operation.
Classification of Computers:
* According to purpose
General Purpose
Special Purpose
* According to the type of technology
Mechanical
Electromechanical
Electronics
* MECHANICAL COMPUTERS
Mechanical or analog computers are
devices used for the computation of
mathematical problems.
Made up of components such as
integrators, sliding racks, cams, gears,
springs and driveshafts.
Their physical size depends on the
number of functions the computer has to
perform.
* ELECTROMECHANICAL COMPUTERS
They use electrical components to
perform some of the calculations and to
increase accuracy.
The size of the computer was reduced
The components used to perform the
calculations are devices such as synchros,
servos, resolvers, amplifiers, servo
amplifiers.
They are special purpose computers
* ELECTRONIC COMPUTERS
Mathematical process were solved by
using electrical voltages only, applied to
elements such as amplifiers, summing
networks, differentiating and integrating
circuits.
DIGITAL COMPUTER GENERATION
1st GENERATION
Uses vacuum tubes
Uses machine language
2nd GENERATION
Uses transistors
Uses symbolic machine languages or
assembly languages
3rd GENERATION
Miniaturized circuits
4th GENERATION
Uses LSI and VLSI
Programming Languages Types:
MACHINE LANGUAGE
The program is represented by 1’s and 0’s
ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE
Uses abbreviation (OP codes) to represent
instructions
HIGH-LEVEL LANGUAGE
Uses English-like language to write
instructions
SOFTWARES

CATEGORIES:
SYSTEM SOFTWARE (Operating System)
Collection of programs which are needed
in the creation, preparation and execution
of the programs.

USER SOFTWARE (Application Software)

26. The method of assigning
more sectors to the outer disk
tracks is referred to as _____
recording.
a. Random
b. Zone
c. Sector
d. System
27. What is the generic term for
utilities and programs needed to
operate a computer system?
a. Hardware
b. Software
c. People ware
d. Tupper ware
28. The abbreviation FTP stands
for:
a. Fast Text Packet
b. File Transfer Protocol
c. Frequency/Time Processing
d. Federal Trade Program
29. The computer worm that infected
computer systems world-wide in 10
minutes, making it the fastest
computer virus ever known is called
_____.
a. Claw Hammer
b. Sledge Hammer
c. SQL Hammer
d. SARS Virus
30. The bit storage capacity of a Read
Only Memory(ROM) with a 512 x 8
organization is _____ bits.
a. 1024
b. 8192
c. 4096
d. 2048
END OF REVIEW