WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH, VOL. 37, NO.

5, PAGES 1221-1229, MAY 2001

Monitoring pumping test responsein a fractured aquifer

using ground-penetrating radar
GeorgiosP. Tsoflias,• Todd Halihan,2 and John M. SharpJr.
Departmentof GeologicalSciences,
The Universityof Texasat Austin,Austin,Texas

Abstract. Fracturedaquiferspresenta numberof problemswhen attemptingto

characterizeflow on the well scale(lessthan 100 m). Standardhydraulictestingmethods
are expensivebecauseof the need for installationof monitoringwells.Geophysical
methodsmay sufferfrom a lack of resolutionand nonuniquesolutionsto data
interpretation.We usedground-penetrating radar (GPR) surveying
duringa pumpingtest
in a well-characterized,
fractured,carbonateaquiferto monitorthe responseof a
permeablesubhorizontal fractureplane.We observedradar signalamplitudeand
waveformvariationsalonga fracturereflectorand correlatedthe radar signalresponseto
changesin the water saturationof the fracture.Combininghydraulicmeasurements with
GPR data and electromagnetic modeling,we identifiedan asymmetricfracture drainage
pattern,providedaccuratespatialinformationaboutthe saturationof the fracture,and
detectedthe presenceof hydraulicboundaries.This studydemonstratesthat GPR
surveyingcan be usedsuccessfully for real-time monitoringof pumpingtestsin fractured
carbonateaquifers.

1. Introduction awayfrom the borehole.Thusthe responsemaymeasuresome

networkproperty,insteadof that of a singlefractureor zone
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is a remotesensing,non- [Geieret al., 1995].Recentwork in monitoringpumpingtestsin
invasive,high-frequency electromagnetic methodthat hasbeen unconfined,clasticaquifersusingGPR successfully identified
successfully employedto investigatethe near surfacefor a the transitionzone betweenthe residuallysaturatedportion of
varietyof applications[DavisandAnnan, 1989;Mellett,1995]. the aquiferand the water-saturatedcapillaryfringe [Endreset
In clasticaquifers,GPR has been usedto characterizenear- al., 1997,2000].We are not awareof any previousmonitoring
surfacehydrogeologic properties[Beresand Haeni, 1991], to of pumpingtestsin fracturedaquifersusingGPR.
monitor migration of contaminants[Brewsterand Annan, In the investigationdescribedin this paper, we acquired
1994],to identifywatercontentvariations[Greaves et al., 1996] GPR reflectiondata during a pumping test in a fractured
and fluid flow paths[Birkenand Versteeg, 1998],and to locate carbonateaquiferto determineif changesin fracturesatura-
the water table [van Overmeeren,1998]. In low-electrical- tion could be observedremotely and in real time. We em-
conductivityenvironments,GPR provideshigh-resolutionim- ployedforwardelectromagnetic modelingof thin layersto in-
agingof the subsurface of the order of centimetersto decime- vestigateradar waveform changesproducedby changesin
ters and depth of investigationof several meters. Under fracture saturation.We correlatedthe modeledresponsesof
appropriateconditionsthesecapabilities makeGPR a suitable thin layersto the GPR dataandinterpretedthe fracturedrain-
techniquefor the studyof fracturedcarbonateaquifersandthe age patternproducedby the pumpingtest. Our resultsshow
identificationof groundwaterflowpaths[Dubois,1995;Tsofiias that GPR surveyingcan overcomesomeof the limitationsof
and Sharp,1998]. conventionalhydraulictestingof fracturedaquifers.
Flow and transportin fracturedrock aquifersis dominated
by the heterogeneous nature of theseaquifers.Standardhy-
draulictestingis limited by assumptions that mustbe made to 2. Site Description
interprettest data. Even with rigoroustestingprograms,it is GPR surveyswere conductedat the BissenQuarry hydro-
difficult to characterizefractured aquifers adequately.Al- geologictest site, located approximately7 km (4.5 miles)
thoughpackertestscan be usefulfor determiningsmall-scale southwestof SturgeonBay,Wisconsin,United Statesof Amer-
hydraulicproperties,interpretationcan be complicatedby ica (Figure1). The testsiteconsists
of the fracturedSilurian
multiplefracturesin a singletestinterval,nonconductive frac- Byron Dolomite, which has been quarried exposinga clean
tures,or variationsin the fractureplane [Geieret al., 1995]. horizontalsurveysurface.The site is part of a regionalaquifer
Since measurement is limited to one location, no information alongthe westernflank of the MichiganBasin.Rechargeoc-
is providedabout how the testedfracturesmay interconnect curs throughvertical fractures,and rapid lateral flow occurs
through regionallycontinuoushorizontal high-permeability
•Now at MineralsManagement Service,U.S. Departmentof the zones [Bradburyand Muldoon, 1992;Muldoon and Bradbury,
Interior, New Orleans, Louisiana. 1996;Tsofiiasand Sharp,1998].
2Nowat Schoolof Geology, Oklahoma StateUniversity,
Stillwater, At BissenQuarry the WisconsinGeologicaland Natural
Oklahoma.
HistorySurvey(WGNHS) hasconductedintensivehydrogeo-
Copyright2001 by the AmericanGeophysicalUnion. logic studieson an approximately40 m x 25 m surfaceof
Paper number2000WR900297. exposeddolomiteto characterizeand modelflow throughthe
0043-1397/01/2000WR900297509.00 fracturedaquifer.Nineteenwellswere installedat an approx-
1221
1222 TSOFLIAS ET AL.: MONITORING PUMPING TEST RESPONSE IN FRACTURED AQUIFER

Figure 1. Photo of BissenQuarry site and map of regional location in Door County, Wisconsin,United
Statesof America. Pumpingwell 13 shownwith PVC casingand PVC piping to surfacepump locatedaway
from ground-penetrating
radar (GPR) surveylocation.PVC wasusedto preventelectromagnetic interference
duringsurveying.
The water table is very shallowas indicatedby the floodedquarrypits at the top of Figure
1.

imate 3-m spacinggrid; most of the wells are 11 m in depth 3. Methods

(Figure 1). Site hydrogeology wascharacterizedusinga series
of hydraulictests,boreholelogs,stratigraphicanalysisof cores,
outcrop studies,surface mapping of vertical fractures, and
GPR surveys.These studiesidentified four major horizontal
beddingplane fractures(fl at 1.35m, f2 at 4.25 m, f3 at 6.4 m,
and f4 at 12 m below surface),two dissolutionzones (dl at
2.72 m and d2 at 7.45 m below surface),a diageneticzone (zl
at 3.35 m below surface),and an orthogonalset of subvertical
fractures (N75øE and N25øW). Hydraulic conductivitydata
showa bimodaldistributionrangingthrough7 ordersof mag-
nitude, indicating high-conductivity fractures and low-
conductivity rock matrix [Muldoon and Bradbury, 1996].
WGNHS studiesshowedthat lithologiesand horizontalstrati-
graphicdiscontinuities controlboth the aquiferstoragecapac-
ity and the distributionof preferentialflow paths.Preferential
flow zonesformed alongbeddingplanes,diageneticsurfaces,
and cyclesequenceboundaries.These flow zoneshave been
further enhancedby dissolution.
We selectedthe BissenQuarrysitefor thisstudybecause(1)
it is an importantfracturedaquiferfor the regionwith a low-
porosity,low-permeabilitymatrix and hydraulicallyconductive
discontinuities,(2) there is a large hydrogeologicdatabase
available from WGNHS studies, and (3) low-electrical-
conductivitygeologicformationsand low-electromagnetic am-
bient noiseenvironments allowthe acquisitionof goodquality,
high resolutionGPR data [Tsofiiasand Sharp,1998].
In order to test if GPR surveyingcould image real-time
water saturationchangesalongflow paths,we collectedradar
data and measuredhydraulicheadsboth before and during a
pumpingtest. Modeling of radar and hydraulicdata allowedus
to integrateand interpret the informationavailablefrom both
data sources.
3.1. Data Collection and Processing
Two GPR surveyswere conductedin this investigation.We
acquiredthe first radar surveyin August 1997, under undis-
turbed hydrologicconditions,as a pseudo-three-dimensional
(3-D) data volume (closelyspacedparallel two-dimensional
(2-D) profiles) coveringa 11 m x 10 m surfacearea on a
0.1-m-squaregrid. The secondsurvey,collectedin June 1998
duringa pumpingtest,consistedof four 2-D reflectionprofiles
acquiredin a radial pattern centeredabout the pumpingwell
(well 13) and a singleprofilesouthof the pumpingwell (Figure
2). We acquiredboth GPR surveysusinga PulseEKKO 100
system(Sensorsand Software,Inc., Mississauga, Ontario, Can-
ada), with a 400-V transmitter, 200-MHz center frequency
antennas, 0.1-m station (trace) spacing, 64 trace stacks, a
600-nsrecordlength,and a 0.8-nssamplinginterval.Transmit-
ter-receiverantennaseparation(offset) was 1.5 m for the 3-D
data and 0.5 m for the 2-D lines. We selected different antenna
offsetsbecauseof the different objectivesof the surveys.The
 TSOFLIAS ET AL.: MONITORING PUMPING TEST RESPONSE IN FRACTURED AQUIFER 1223

7
ß Tracenumber•)

19 9
.............
ill
%
121

•41

•91
8
........ •4........ 17
•...:101

0 Meters 5 6

Figure 2. Site map illustratingthe well locations(circles),two-dimensional(2-D) GPR lines (solidlines)

acquiredduring a pumpingtest at well 13, and three-dimensional (3-D) grid coverage(dashedoutline)
acquiredunder undisturbedhydrologicconditions.

1997 3-D datawere aimed at optimumimagingof shallowand installationof the deepwell. Water levelwasnot monitoredin
deepsectionsof the aquifer.The 19982-D datawere aimedat the pumpingwell during the surveybecauseno spacewas
shallowimagingof water table changesproducedby the pump- availablebetweenthe pump piping and the well casing.The
ing test at well 13. pumping
ratefor the testwas3.2 L s-• (50 gpm),measured
We appliedminimalprocessing to the GPR data in order to
usinga 20-gal.barrel and a stopwatch.
preservethe relative amplitude,frequency,and phaseof the The pumping test had been planned to coincidewith dry
signal.Processing of both 2-D and3-D surveysconsisted of (1)
weather and the rental of commercialGPR equipment.How-
debias,high-pass-frequency filtering designedby Sensorsand ever, intenseovernightthunderstormsinterrupted the pump-
Software to remove low-frequencynoise induced from one ing testand raisedwater levelsto the highesteverobservedfor
antennato another;(2) traceleveling(flattening)of the cor- the site. The GPR surveywas conductedthe following day
respondingconstantantenna offset direct airwave arrival to duringa rain-free period,when the drawdownwas at approx-
correct for instrumentationtime drifts; (3) trace bulk time imate steadystate conditionsand the surveyarea (exposed
shiftingto the corresponding dolomitequarryfloor) wasfree of pondedwater.During GPR
time zero, definedasthe time the
transmitterbegantransmitting;and (4) amplitudegaining,us- data acquisitionwe measuredlessthan 0.01-m changein head
inga [time]2 factorto compensate for the exponential
signal levels,with an averagechangeof 0.005 m, some of which is
amplitudedecaywhile preservingrelative amplitudeinforma- attributed to water level measurement errors.
tion (i.e., amplitudevariations) along horizontal reflectors
[Tsofiias,1999]. 3.2. Data Analysis and Modeling
The GPR surveysimagedcoherentreflectorsto 240-nstwo- In low-electrical-conductivity
media, suchas carbonatesand
way travel time (approximately12 m depth at an averageve- freshwater,the amplitudeof a radar reflection at a single
locityof 0.1 m ns-•). For comparison, twoGPR profilesare planar interface is controlledby the electromagneticvelocity
displayedover the same location near wells 12, 13, and 14 contrast(a functionof dielectricconstantcontrast)acrossthe
(Figure 3). The 2-D line 1 was acquiredin 1998 duringthe interface,the angle of incidence,and the polarizationof the
pumpingtest at well 13 with the water table near the survey wave field [Straton,1941].For a thin layer betweentwo inter-
floor (lessthat 0.5-m depth below surface,approximately10 faces,suchas a fracture or a dissolution-enhanced flow path,
ns).The 3-D inline53 wasacquiredin 1997underundisturbed the reflectionstrengthis alsoa functionof layer thicknessand
hydrologicconditionsat whichtime the water tablewasat 2-m signalfrequency.Figure5 showsa plot of reflectioncoefficient
depth (approximately40 ns). Depth to the water table was versuslayer thicknessfor an analyticalmodel with the dielec-
monitored at observation wells. tric propertiesof the Byron Dolomite and a 200-MHz radar
The pumpingtest for the studywas conductedas an open signal[Tsofiias,1999].
borehole test with observation wells. To minimize the intro- We employed2-D finite differencetime domainelectromag-
ductionof electromagneticnoiseto the GPR data, there was netic modeling [Poot, 1998] to simulatethe effectsof water
no metal piping in the borehole and the pump was placed saturationchangesin a horizontalthin layer (subresolution
approximately20 m away from the pumpingwell by laying thickness)to GPR signalresponse.Model parameterssimu-
PVC pipe on the quarryfloor (Figure 1). The well casingson lated a horizontallystratifieddolomite environmentwith ap-
the sitewere primarilyPVC, but a few wellsoutsidethe survey propriateelectromagnetic wavevelocityof propagation(v) and
area had metal casings.The head levelswere monitoredat 13 conductivity(or) for the field site and the same field data
piezometersand two openboreholesbefore and after the GPR acquisitiongeometry(antennaoffsetand fracturedepth).We
survey(Figure 4). Water level was continuouslymonitored determined unsaturatedand saturated dolomite electromag-
using a pressuretransducerand data logger (Hermit 2000, netic(EM) wavevelocities of 0.11m ns-• and0.08m ns-•,
In-Situ Corp.,Laramie,Wyoming)in the uppersectionof well respectively,usingvelocityanalysisof four multioffsetcommon
19, the only deepwell at the site (Figure 2). Well 19 had a midpoint(CMP) surveys[Tanerand Koehler,1969].Electrical
packerinstalledat a depth of 11 m to allow the pumpingtest conductivities were estimated to be 0.7 mS m -• for the unsat-
to be correlatedwith previousteststhat occurredprior to the uratedand1.0mSm- • for theshallow saturatedportionof the
1224 TSOFLIAS ET AL.: MONITORING PUMPING TEST RESPONSE IN FRACTURED AQUIFER

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Figure 3. GPR profilesdisplayingthe samesectionthroughwells12, 13, and 14. Trace numbers(TRC) and
well surfacelocations(circles)are identifiedon eachprofile. Caliper and resistivitylog curvesare displayed
alongthe well bores.On the left is the 19982-D line 1 collectedduringa pumpingtest at well 13. On the right
is the 19973-D inline 53 collectedunder undisturbedhydrologicconditions.Continuousstrongradar reflec-
tors correspondto knownflow paths(horizontaldiscontinuities fl, f2, and f3 and dissolutionzone zl).

aquifer basedon publishedrangesfor carbonates[Davisand rated with an upper air-filled layer and a lower water-filled
Annan, 1989] and the low permeability of the rock matrix. layer.The EM parametersof air andfreshwaterare (1) air rr =
Electrical conductivityvariation of 1 order of magnitudedid 0 mS m- • and •, - 0.3 m ns- •' and freshwater rr = 1.0 mS m- •
not yield significantchangesin the modelingof shallowinter- and • = 0.033m ns-• [DavisandAnnan,1989].The model
faces; thus the values selected for the model are considered employeda 1-cm grid size in two dimensions,a 0.01-ns time
adequate.The horizontalfracturewasunder three conditions: step,a 200-MHz Gaussiansourcepulse(wavelet),and a thin
(1) air filled; (2) freshwatersaturated;and (3) partially satu- horizontal layer thicknessof 2 cm.

31:
13 WeftNo. 7 5 a 6 ....... 19'" 8 ......2....
-0

Fracture f 1

dl
zl ............

o 25'
f2 . •, ...... -o

• f3 6o
d2 ......................

8 e•
,, • •.•.Monitodng
Intervals

19 10
0 10 20 30

RadialDistancefrom Well t3 (m)

Figure 4. Hydraulicheadmonitoringpointsat the Bissenquarryincludingopenboreholesandpiezometers.

No observationdata are availablefrom piezometersmonitoringfracture fl and dissolutionzone dl.
 TSOFLIAS ET AL.: MONITORING PUMPING TEST RESPONSE IN FRACTURED AQUIFER 1225

from the pumpingwell, were used[Thiem,1906;Fetter,1994,p.

215]. We combinedthese modelswith head observationsto
Saturated determine(1) whichhorizontalfractureplanesat the sitewere
0.8 drainedduringthe testand (2) the radiusof fracturedraining.

4. Results

First, the 2-D GPR pumpingtest surveywas comparedwith

the 3-D undisturbedwater table surveyfor reflectorsimilarities
and differences.We then examinedthe predicted signal re-
sponsesfrom forward EM modelingand usedthem to inter-
pret the 2-D lines.Finally,we usedthe hydraulic-testanalysis
0.2 to determinethe validity of the GPR interpretation.
4.1. GPR

,
GPR profilesacquiredover the samelocationprior to and
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 duringthe pumpingtest are shownin Figure 3. Both radar
Layer
Thickness
(m) profiles
display
thesame
subsurface
features
consisting
ofhor-
izontallylayeredcarbonatefaciesand horizontaldiscontinui-
ties (fracturesand a diageneticzone). Caliper log maximum
and resistivitylog minimum deflectionsdisplayedalong the
wells identify the locationsof known horizontal fracturesfl
(1.35-m depth), f2 (4.25 m), and f3 (6.4 m) [Muldoonand
Bradbury,1996].Well coresidentifieddiageneticzonezl (3.35
Figure 5. Plot of reflectioncoefficientversuslayer thickness m) [Muldoon and Bradbury, 1996]. These high-hydraulic-
for a 200-MHz normal incidentplane wave to a saturatedand conductivityflow paths correlateto increasedamplitudecon-
unsaturatedthin layer of varyingthicknesscontainedwithin a tinuous radar reflectorsat 24-, 75-, 92-, and 137-ns two-way
rock matrix with the dielectricpropertiesof the Byron Dolo- traveltime (Figure3). Below35 ns,the two profilesare nearly
mite [Tsofiias,1999]. identicaland exhibit small amplitudedifferencesthat are at-
tributed to different antennaoffset, different electromagnetic
wavefield orientation,differentwater table depth,and the use
The pumping test analysisused the Neuman [1975] type- of differentradar systems (althoughof the samemodel). Small
curvemethodfor an unconfinedaquifer to obtain an estimate vertical time shifts of horizontal reflectors between the two
of transmissivity.Becauseof possible well borestorageeffects, profiles(up to 3-ns delayobservedin the shallowsectionon
variationsin pump speed,and thunderstormsin the early por- 3-D inline 53) are causedby the differentantennaoffsetsand
tion of the pumpingtest,the recoverysegment(1375-2660min associatedreflectiontravel pathsnot compensatedfor in pro-
on Figure 6) of the testwasusedfor analysisof the drawdown cessing.These effectsdecreasewith depth as travel pathsap-
data. Using thesedata, two steadystate modelsfor the ob- proachnormalincidenceto reflectinginterfaces.Additionally,
servedwater levelelevationsin the system(at about1300min small velocity differencesproducedby different water table
on Figure 6) were utilizedto determinewhichhorizontalfrac- depthscontributeto minor reflectortime shiftingat this low-
turesdrainedduringthe GPR survey.A confinedinfinite aqui- porositysite.Note that the top of the saturatedzone doesnot
fer model and an unconfined model, which assumed that the yield a radar reflection, although velocity analysisof CMP
drainageditch at the site acted as a hydraulicboundary22 m surveys indicated
velocities of 0.11m ns-• and0.08m ns-• for
the shallow(unsaturated)and deeper(saturated)sectionsof
the aquifer,respectively.The lack of a reflectoris due to the
29.00 lack of a sharpdielectricconstantcontrastat the unsaturated-
saturatedinterface in the low-porositydolomite matrix. It is
GPR Survey
the secondaryporosityfeatures(fracturesand the diagenetic
zone) that give rise to strongreflectors.At the level of the

p.•?
On • •Recharge
Event
28.75

shallowesthorizontalfracture (24 ns), significantdifferences

are observedin the two profiles(Figure 3). The 3-D profile
28.50
showsno substantiallateral variationalongthe lengthof frac-
Recharge\
ture fl. The 2-D profile showsamplitudevariationsalongthe
Events \ , lengthof the fracturereflector(24-30 ns), with the strongest
28.25
amplitudesto the southof the profile and the weakestampli-

28.00
Fracture
f1•.f••'-•-•
Pump
Off ,
tudesat the pumpingwell. Althoughreflectoramplitudevalues
cannotbe compareddirectlybetweenthe 2-D and 3-D profiles,
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 the reflectorvariabilityin eachprofile can be usedto identify
Time (minutes) differencesbetweenthe two profiles.The differencebetween
Figure 6. Water levelsin open borehole19 duringpumping the shallowsectionsof the two profiles(pumpingtest versus
test. The water level early in the pumpingtest drainedbelow undisturbed)showsthat the pumpingtest introducedchanges
fracture 1, but subsequentprecipitationcausedthe water level in the electromagneticpropertiesof the aquifer at the 24-ns
to rise above fracture 1 in well 19. region.We interpretthesechangesas the resultof changesin
1226 TSOFLIAS ET AL.: MONITORING PUMPING TEST RESPONSE IN FRACTURED AQUIFER

2D Line 1
S 13 N
TRC 1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0

lO o

20

0.)30 ß
E '5'

Figure 7. The 2-D line 1 duringpumpingtest at well 13. Singletrace insertsof the modeledwaveformsfor
saturated,unsaturated(alsoreferredaspartiallysaturated),anddrainedfracturemodelsare shownalongwith
the correspondingrecordedwaveformsoutlinedby open boxes.Refer to text for detailedanalysis.

the water saturation of horizontal fracture fl. Furthermore,
the observedwaveformchangesare not symmetricabout the
pumpingwell 13. This suggests that the drainagearea of this
shallowhorizontalflowpath is not concentricaboutthe pump-
ing well. Similar amplitudepatterns(i.e., high amplitudesto
the south,lowestamplitudesat the pumpingwell, and inter-
mediateamplitudesto the north)wereobservedin all four 2-D
radial linescollectedduringthe pumpingtest.
Analytical computationsof the magnitudeof reflectionco-
efficients,for saturatedand dry layers of varyingthickness
enclosedin dolomitematrix,indicatethat significantly stronger
amplitudereflectionsresultfrom a water-saturated layer(Fig-
ure 5) [Tsoflias,1999].Two-dimensional finite differencemod-
eling of radar signalresponseshowsthat the strongestampli-
tude corresponds to a fully saturated fracture and an
intermediate amplitude responsecorrespondsto a partially
saturatedfracture(Figure7 inserts).A drainedfractureyields
the lowestamplituderesponseand an apparentdelayin time
and stretchingof the waveform,as a result of the reversalof
reflectivityand the decreasedsharpness of the reflectiveinter-
face comparedto the saturatedmodel. Note that becauseof
uncertaintyin the modelparameters(rockmatrixand intersti-
tial water electrical conductivities,complex dielectric con-
stants,velocitiesof propagation,time-variantfrequencycon-
tent, roughnessof the interfaces,and fracture aperture), the
modeling is used to assistinterpretationrather than for a
precisesimulationof field conditions.
Inspectionof 2-D line 1 (Figure 7) in the 24- to 28-nstime
interval(trough-peak)alongthe fracturereflectionshowsthe
strongestamplitudesto the southof the section(traces1-20).
Intermediate amplitudesare observedsouth of the pumping
well (traces21-33) decreasing to minimumamplitudesaround
the pumpingwell (traces42-48). Small-amplitudelevelsand
stretchedwaveformsare observednorth of well 13. According
to modelingresultsthe strongamplitudesto the southof the
radar line (traces1-20) indicatefully saturatedsectionsalong
the fracture.The intermediateamplitudesshowinga decreas-
ing trend toward the pumpingwell (traces21-33) indicate
partially saturatedareas along the fracture with decreasing
water saturationwhen approachingwell 13. Closestto the
pumpingwell 13 (traces42-48), wherethe fractureis expected
to be drained, the observed radar waveform has the lowest
amplitudeand is stretchedand delayedin time, similarto the
waveformpredictedby modeling.North of the pumpingwell,
signalamplitudesremain at low levels,and waveformsappear
delayedin time and stretchedcomparedto saturatedand par-
tially saturatedwaveforms.These are also interpreted as re-
sponsesfrom nearly drained sectionsof the fracture. Similar
amplitudeandwaveformvariationsare presentin all four 2-D
radial lines.
When the aboveobservations are correlatedalongall of the
2-D surveylines, an interpreteddrainagepattern for the hor-
izontalfracturefl canbe developed.The 2-D (pumpingtest)
data showsignificantamplitudevariation(0-430 •V) at the
28-nspeak reflectorfor all 2-D linesaroundthe pumpingwell,
comparedto the clearlysmaller-amplitude variation(80-160
/xV) along 3-D inline 53 (undisturbed)(Plate 1). High and
intermediateamplitudesare consistently southof the pumping
well, andlow amplitudesare centeredon well 13 and extendto
the north. Waveform interpretation yields the contoured
drainagepattern for the fracture(Plate 1). The low to inter-
mediateamplitudetransitionat the northwesternend of line 2
is used as the northernmostcontrol point of the drainedarea
contour.Note that drainageof the horizontalfracture is not
symmetricabout the pumpingwell and indicatesa recharge
boundaryfrom the south.This drainagepattern agreeswith
the settingof the field site where a drainageditch, locatedto
the southof the pumpingwell, providedrapid rechargeof the
shallow horizontal fracture.
4.2. Hydraulic Data
The monitoringdata at well 19 (Figure6) indicatedthat the
hydraulicheadat the sitewasbelowthe level of the uppermost
fracture during the early portion of the pumpingtest. Subse-
quentrechargeraisedwater levelsat well 19 abovethe level of
the fracture.Examiningall availablehead data indicatedthat
the head distributionon the sitewasvery complex,asexpected
in a heterogeneousfracturedaquifer.
The pumpingtesttransmissivity
of 2.5 x 10-3 m2 s-• is in
close agreement with tests conducted on the site at other
 TSOFLIAS ET AL.: MONITORING PUMPING TEST RESPONSE IN FRACTURED AQUIFER 1227

i] llJl [ l}_ll ..........

2D
ßOverburden Amplitude
Quarry
Wall --- -50

100
-
150
•
3
__200•
250 •
SATURATED -- 300 c3

- 350•
_ 400 •
6

N
I I I I il•i[i
ll I
[
•,•
"ill)
0
II I
Meters
I
5
'½--
• • •mmmmlimmmmmlmm
• llll lli i i i m I Iiiiiiii i i lllli iii m I i ll!l• •i
lllll I III
'-o,,I //•/I,F•
III I I
ooded
I iii i i mI i Drainage
I lllllll illIll lllll
Ditch
i i i iii I illiii Iill!i Im
I
I I Illll
I
,,,,,... ,,,-- -IIII....
Illll III ill I I I Illllll llll I I I [

Plate 1. Amplitude of the 28-ns peak alongthe 2-D GPR data during the pumpingtest at well 13 and the
3-D inline 53 prior to the pumping test. Contour lines indicate drainage pattern interpretation for the
shallowestfracture reflector. Well locationsare given to comparewith Figure 2. Amplitude legend corre-
spondsto 2-D profilescollectedunder pumpingconditions.The 3-D inline 53 is givento illustratethe lack of
amplitudevariabilityin the prepumpingtest data.

boreholes [Muldoon and Bradbury, 1998]. The steady state tures than in a low-porosityrock matrix. Porous rock matrix
models indicate that fracture fl is drained to a maximum would require prolongedpumpingin order to drain sufficient
radius of 16 m and a minimum radius of 6 m (Figure 8). moisturefrom the pore spaceto generatedielectricconstant
Without head data closer to the borehole in the individual
contrastsdetectableby surfaceGPR systems. At BissenQuarry
fracture the radius of fracture draining cannotbe determined the lack of a water table reflector under undisturbedhydro-
with greater accuracy. logic conditionssuggeststhat even prolongedpumping might
not generate detectable dielectric constant contrastsin the
5. Discussion dolomite matrix.

GPR surveyingidentified real-time drainageof a horizontal ReflectedGPR signalamplitudevariationsof up to 70% can

fracture during a pumping test, even though the hydrologic be introducedby changesin the aperture of a fracture (0-2
conditionswere not satisfactoryfor traditional test analysis. cm), as shownin Figure 5 [Tsofiias,1999]. Thus, in order to
We infer that with higher pumping rates and no concurrent correlate radar signal amplitude and waveform variations to
recharge,we could have monitored drainage of deeper hori- water saturation changesdue to a pumping test, radar data
zontal fractureswith GPR surveying.Use of the real-time and must be obtained prior to the test and used as a baselinefor
three-dimensionalcapabilitiesof GPR along with pumping comparison.It should be noted that, in this study, a direct
and packer testscan improve our understandingof fractured comparisonof amplitudesbetweenthe two surveysis not valid
aquifer flow properties at the well scale. This technique has (i.e., subtractingone data set from the other to identify the
better chancesof monitoringwater saturationchangesin frac- differences)becausedifferentantennaoffsetsaffectboth am-
1228 TSOFLIAS ET AL.: MONITORING PUMPING TEST RESPONSE IN FRACTURED AQUIFER

are a functionof the reflectivityof media, layer thickness,and

... 28.6
WaterLevelinFlooded
Ditch
0.4
0.8,-.,
signalfrequency.Finite differencemodelingof the response
a 100-MHz signalto a 1-cmlayerproducedsimilarbehaviorto
the 200-MHz and 2-cm layer model of Figure 7 but with re-
of

ducedmagnitudeof amplitudechangesbecauseof reduction

• 28.2
•.2q: of layerthicknessand signalfrequency.Closeinspectionof the
200-MHz modeltracesof Figure7 showthat the apparenttime
c 27.8
Model 1.6
.• delayof the drainedwaveformis actuallya verysmallpositive
amplitudedeflection,whereasthe saturatedmodeltraceonset
27.4 }nilned is a largenegativedeflection.The reversepolarityof the sat-

2.0
•e
Model
uratedversusdrainedwaveformsis what is expectedfrom the
dielectricconstantcontrasts betweendolomite(8), water(80),
10 20 and air (1). Also, the stretchedwaveformof the drainedfrac-
Radiusfrom Well 13 (m) ture is a resultof the low-reflectiveinterfacecomparedto the
Figure 8. Water elevationsduringGPR surveyingandsteady saturatedfractureinterface.Althoughdetailedreview,model-
state models for confined and unconfined conditions. The di- ing,andanalysisof thin layertheoryis beyondthe scopeof this
amondsrepresentwater levelsobtainedfrom the piezometers study,we havedemonstratedthat subresolution thicknesslayer
shownin Figure 4. The elevationof fracturefl is depictedby responsecan be correlatedto physicalpropertiesand inter-
a horizontalline. The water levelin the floodeddrainageditch preted with confidencein GPR data. Suchanalysesare well
shown in Plate 1 is provided to illustrate the interpreted suitedto hydrologicstudiesbecausethe large dielectriccon-
boundarycondition.The curvesdesignatesteadystate solu-
stantof water introducesdetectabledielectriccontrastsin geo-
tions expectedfor fully penetratingwells under confinedand
unconfinedconditions.Sincethe majorityof monitoringloca- logic formations.
tionsare not fully penetratingand this is not a homogeneous Hydrogeologicdata supportingthe GPR interpretationare
porousaquifer,it is not expectedthat the curvesshouldfit the not ideal,asexpectedfor a fracturedaquifer.In suchaquifers,
data. The water level data suggesta drainedradiusfor fracture piezometersshouldideallymonitorisolatedfracturesor high-
fl of between 6 and 16 m. permeabilityzonesto determine their response.However, in
general,water level data supportthe interpretationfrom the
GPR data. The pumpingtest data, not unexpectedly, do not
plitude strengthand reflectorarrival times.Furthermore,dif- yield a simplesteadystateresponsethat is preciselycorrelated
ferencesin weather(precipitationandtemperature),different to the changein GPR amplitude.An alternativeapproachto
GPR systems,and different wave field orientationresult in providesupportfor the GPR interpretationwouldbe to mon-
additionalsourcesof amplitudedifferencesbetweenour 2-D itor fracturefl by installingseveralpiezometersin fracturefl
and 3-D surveys.Thus we comparethe relativechanges(or aroundthe pumpingwell at varyingorientationsanddistances.
lack of changes)observedalong each horizontal reflector This would require installationof three or more additional
within a survey.GPR surveysacquiredunder identicalcondi- piezometersif a priori knowledgeaboutthe drainingradiusof
the fracture were available. We do not consider this method
tions (acquisitionparameters,weather,shorttime lapse,and
equipment)shouldallowmorequantitativecomparison of sur- practical.The degreeof hydrologicmonitoringrequiredto
veysconductedbefore and duringpumpingtests. obtainthe equivalentinformationthat wasobtainedby nonin-
In analyzingshallowGPR reflectors,cautionmustbe usedin vasive GPR techniquesdemonstratesthe strengthof this
distinguishing the direct groundwave energy(transmitterto method.GPR is not proposedas a stand-alonetool for char-
receiver)and possiblesystemringingthat may be superim- acterizingthe hydraulicpropertiesof fractures,but GPR data,
posedon the reflectedenergy.In the 0.5-m offset2-D data the combinedwith hydrologicaldata, can yield insightsnot avail-
directgroundwaveis receivedat 4.5 ns,and in the 1.5-moffset able from other methods.The ability to observehydraulic
3-D data the directgroundwaveis receivedat 13.5ns,whereas boundariesand partiallysaturatedconditionswith a noninva-
the reflector of interest is in the range of 24-30 ns. System sivetechniqueare the major strengthsof this method.
ringingcanbe identifiedby comparingdatacollectedat varying
antennaoffsetsand/or correlatingreflectiondata to CMP re- 6. Conclusions
flectorswith hyperbolicmoveout.At BissenQuarryboth tech-
niqueswere employed,and no ringingwas observedin the Ground-penetratingradar was successfully employedfor
GPR data even at the small 0.5-m antenna offset. three-dimensional,
real-timemonitoringof a pumpingtestin a
The vertical resolution of radar data must be examined when fracturedmedium. Forward modelingof radar responseto
determiningthe GPR signalresponsefor thin layers.Radar varying fracture saturationidentified distinct differencesin
surveyscollectedin geologicformationswith depth-imaging signalwaveformbetweensaturatedand unsaturatedconditions
objectivesof the order of meterscommonlyemployfrequen- in fractures.GPR surveys takenbeforeand duringa pumping
ciesof 50-200 MHz with a corresponding verticalresolutionof testrecordedthe signalexpectedfor theseconditions,and the
approximately1 m to 25 cm. Fracture aperturesare highly GPR surveysare confirmedwith head measurements in pi-
variable,and for mostgeologicenvironments, exceptperhaps ezometers.In addition, GPR profiles providedinformation
karst, the aperturesare ordersof magnitudelessthan radar abouthydrologicboundaries,despiteadverseweathercondi-
resolution.EM theorypredictsthat thin layers(subresolution tions that limited the usefulness of pumpingtest data. This
thickness)are capableof introducingdetectablechangesin study demonstratesthat GPR surveyingcombinedwith hy-
radar data [Straton,1941; Tsofiias,1999]. For the simplified draulicdata can provideimprovedunderstanding of fractured
caseof a planewavenormalincidentto a layer,signalchanges formationfluid flow propertieson the well scale.
 TSOFLIAS ET AL.: MONITORING PUMPING TEST RESPONSE IN FRACTURED AQUIFER 1229

Acknowledgments. We would like to thank Maureen Muldoon, variationsand water contentestimatedfrom multi-offset,ground
KennethBradbury,the staff at WGNHS, the PeninsularAgricultural penetratingradar, Geophysics, 61, 683-695, 1996.
Research Station, and Ivan Bissen.We would also like to thank Wil- Mellett, J. S., Groundpenetratingradar applications
in engineering,
liam Clement and anonymousreviewersfor their commentswhich environmentalmanagement,and geology,J. Appl. Geophys.,33,
improvedthe manuscript.Computingsupportwas providedby The 157-166, 1995.
Universityof TexasInstitutefor Geophysics. This work wasfundedby Muldoon,M. A., and K. R. Bradbury,Hydrogeology of the fractured
a GeologicalSocietyof America StudentResearchAward, the W.R. Siluriandolomiteaquifer,Door County,Wisconsinin The Silurian
MuehlbergerField GeologyScholarship Fund, the Gulf CoastAsso- DolomiteAquiferof the Door Peninsula: Facies,Sequence Stratigra-
ciationof GeologicalSocieties,the Owen-CoatesFundof the Geology phy, Porosityand Hydrogeology: Fieldtrip Guidebookfor 1996 Fall
Foundation of the University of Texas at Austin, and a National FieldConference of theGreatLakesSectionof theSEPM,pp. 26-124,
ScienceFoundationTraineeshipin Hydrology (NSF grant GER- Soc. for Sediment Geol., Tulsa, Okla., 1996.
9454098). Muldoon,M. A., andK. R. Bradbury,Tracerstudyfor characterization
of groundwatermovementand contaminanttransportin fractured
dolomite,Final Rep., WOFR 98-2, Wis. Geol. Nat. Hist. Surv.,Mad-
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