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Visual cultures Beyond Borders: South and Southeast Asia (to 1200 CE)

Topic: Discuss the historical circumstances that led to the spread of

Buddhism across Southeast Asia, with special reference to development of Avalokiteśvara

cult and iconography.

Submitted to: Prof. Parul Pandya Dhar

Name: Ansuman Parasar

Roll: 22/629

Enroll no: 19ZHCDBHHS000013

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Introduction

Many reasons aided Buddhism's spread over enormous distances following its beginnings in the

Gangetic area of northern India in the fifth century BCE. Firstly, the Buddha is credited with

encouraging missionary effort, which led to monks and nuns travelling through dangerous land and

sea routes into areas that were distant from the Buddhist heartland in South Asia. Second, the close

relationships that developed between merchants and Buddhist communities led to a symbiotic

association that not only aided in the long-distance dissemination of Buddhist ideas but also provided

a means for the quick supply of religious accoutrements to the developing centers of Buddhism.

Finally, by their sponsorship, monarchs and polities in different areas of Asia encouraged the spread

of Buddhism. However, some of the later polities in Southeast and East Asia found it useful to use

Buddhist doctrines to legitimize their political power and authority, leading to state support for

Buddhist activities and exchanges. King Asoka (c. 268-232 BCE) actions of the Mauryan Empire

(324/ 321-187 BCE) contributed to the rapid spread of Buddhism in South Asia in the third century

BCE.

The transmission of Buddhism is often described as a linear process, spreading from ancient India to

other parts of Asia. In reality, the process was more complex and the transmission was not necessarily

in one 1direction. In instance, South Asian Buddhist monks arrived in China to spread the religion's

teachings as well as to honour Buddhist deities who were said to reside in the country's mountains.

Similar to how Buddhist schools in China, which are thought to be the primary source of Buddhism in

Japan, appear to have been affected by concepts developed by Japanese monks. In some cases,

Buddhist doctrines might have evolved internally without any stimuli from foreign regions or monks.

It should also be noted that although the Buddha might have emphasized missionary activity, the

transmission of the doctrine outside South Asia was never undertaken in an organized way or through

forced conversion. Buddhist teachings, texts, and images spread in fragmented forms, frequently

along the major trade routes and often carried by itinerant monks and merchants. 2 As a result, multiple

schools and beliefs of Buddhism coexisted and mixed in various locations without the followers
1
Tansen sen, “The spread of Buddhism”,474
2
Tansen sen, “The spread of Buddhism”,478
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clearly distinguishing between the various traditions. Hence, there was no organised method for how

Buddhism propagated. Rather, from the middle of the first millennium BCE until the twentieth

century, a variety of Buddhist beliefs with roots in various places circulated in Asia.

The fifth and sixth centuries CE marked a significant turning point in Buddhism's lengthy history of

transmissions and evolutions. Previous to this time, Buddhism had significantly impacted Han and

post-Han China as well as the majority of the Indian subcontinent. Korea, Japan, and Sumatra were all

absorbed into the Buddhist world after the fifth century. These centres and the spheres they were

connected to created separate Buddhist universes, each of which often included a significant branch of

Buddhism.

The Spread of Buddhism

Gautama Siddhartha, who is known as the Buddha, lived during the fifth century BCE in a time when

cities were growing and thriving, and there was a lot of commercial activity going on. After

witnessing for the first time some of the negative aspects of urban life (old age, sickness, death, and

asceticism), he renounced his wealth and family and became a monk. He met Tapussa and Bhallika,

two merchants, and the story of their transformation into the first two lay disciples of the Buddha

underscores the close relationship between the Buddhist and merchant communities that would

develop over time. The Buddha lived until the age of eighty, and his death was important in the early

spread of Buddhist doctrines. Eight rulers in India vied for the body of the Buddha after he died, and it

was decided that the relics would be distributed equally among them. King Asoka is credited with

exhuming the relics and redistributing them throughout his empire and to foreign policies. Asoka was

portrayed in Buddhist literature as the ideal king with the laudatory title chakravartin or “Universal

Ruler3.” Sri Lanka (Ceylon) is particularly credited with playing a significant role in the early spread

of Buddhism.

King Asoka played an important role in the spread of Buddhism within his empire and surrounding

regions, but the process was more complicated than simply a state-sponsored propagation. By the

third century BCE, an intimate relationship between the monastic community and trading networks
3
Tansen sen, “The spread of buddhism”,450
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had developed in South Asia, which continued after the king's death. The two succeeding empires, the

Śātavāhanas (c. first century BCE-c. third century CE) in the Deccan region of India and the Kusānas

(c. 30 CE-c. 230) ruling in northern India, were instrumental in this regard, and also played a

significant role in the diffusion of Buddhism outside South Asia. Trade routes connecting the oasis

states of Central Asia with the maritime world of Bay of Bengal became more extensive and

integrated during the Kusāna period. Similarly, the Kusāna kings supported Buddhist institutions

through donations and sponsorships. Taxila, for example, consolidated its position as a leading centre

for Buddhist learning in southern Asia under the Kusānas. More importantly, the itinerant merchant

communities from Central Asia expanded their trading networks into Southeast and East Asia, some

of which (the Sogdians in particular) played a leading role in introducing Buddhist teachings and

images to Han China, which also was witnessing a period of urbanization and commercial expansion.

The doctrinal changes that Buddhism underwent in China during the Han Dynasty led to the

emergence of the Mahayana (Great Vehicle) school of Buddhism. This allowed laypeople to pursue

the Buddhist path without needing to renounce society and join a monastic community. Some

Mahayana Buddhists became bodhisattvas and delayed entering Nirvana in order to help others. The

Theravada (the orthodox school of Buddhism) became the dominant form of Buddhism in Sri Lanka,

Myanmar (Burma), and Thailand, but Buddhists in these regions practiced multiple forms of

Buddhism, including the later Tantric/esoteric and Vajrayana (Thunderbolt Vehicle) traditions. Local

beliefs were also incorporated into Buddhist teachings and practices. During the fifth and sixth

centuries, Buddhism spread to various parts of Asia, most notably Korea and Japan. However,

maritime polities in Southeast Asia also played a significant role in the spread of the religion. For

example, trade networks between South Asia and China helped to spread Buddhism to Central and

Southeast Asia. Additionally, many of these regions developed their own unique Buddhist traditions,

which further interacted and transformed Buddhism into a pan-Asian religion 4.

The Nalanda Mahavihara in present-day Bihar played an important role in the spread of Buddhism in

the second half of the first millennium. This monastery attracted students from across Asia, and it also

4
Tansen sen, “The spread of buddhism”,454
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actively sent monks to spread the doctrine. Local and foreign rulers donated money to the institution,

which helped to support the spread of Buddhism to legitimize their political authority 5. In addition,

the establishment of new dynasties and political entities in China, Japan, and Korea, as well as in

Central and Southeast Asia, helped to promote the spread of Buddhism. Finally, the intensification of

long-distance commercial activity in the fifth and sixth centuries helped to connect Buddhist

communities with merchants from different parts of the world.

The fifth and sixth centuries were important for the spread of Buddhism to the maritime regions of

Southeast Asia. In areas such as Myanmar and Thailand, Buddhist doctrines might have entered into

the region prior to the fourth century. Some scholars have pointed to the architectural influences of

Nāgārjunakonda and Amaravati on the design of stupas (mound-like structures containing sacred

relics) in the Pyu (in present-day Myanmar) and Mon (in present-day Thailand) areas, as well as the

discovery of Mauryan-style Buddhist inscriptions (known as dharma chakra ye dharma) in these

regions, to suggest the transmission of Buddhism to mainland Southeast Asia by the second century

CE. In inland Southeast Asia, the Pyu site Śrīsetra (in the lower Irrawaddy River) and the Mon site

Dvāravatī (in the Chao Phraya basin) revealed the earliest Pali inscriptions in the fifth to seventh

centuries and sixth to eighth centuries, respectively, indicating the presence of Theravada doctrines.

According to the evidence suggests that Buddhism began to spread in maritime Southeast Asia around

the fourth or fifth century. One example is a fifth-century Sanskrit inscription found in Kedah in

present-day Malaysia. This inscription, which was commissioned by a sea captain named

Buddhagupta, features an engraved image of a stupa. Buddhist statues and sculptures from this period

were also found in Kedah and its vicinity. Additionally, Buddhist objects dating from the fifth to the

seventh centuries have been discovered on the east coast of the Malay peninsula. This evidence

suggests that Buddhism was being used as a means of legitimizing authority among the rulers of new

policies that were forming in Maritime Southeast Asia at this time. The rise of the Srivijaya polity,

which was cantered in Sumatra around the seventh century, may have further stimulated the spread of

Buddhism in this region.

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Tansen sen, “The spread of buddhism”455
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Buddhism and Trade Links

Studies on the spread of Buddhism have often focused on whether it spread through land or sea

routes, but there is some disagreement among scholars like Liang Qichao- Paul Pelliot and Tang

Yongtong - Rong Xinjiang about which route the doctrines first travelled. Some argue that Buddhism

was initially spread through sea routes from Central Asia to China, while others disagree and maintain

that it was transmitted through land routes from India to China and Southeast Asia. 6 For example,

several Buddhist missionaries and pilgrims used both maritime and overland routes to travel between

Southern Asia and China. Similarly, the creation of Mahayana-dominated networks on the Central

Asian overland routes and the emergence of maritime networks that featured the spread of Theravada

doctrines exemplified the complementary nature of the two routes. The competitive aspects of the two

routes, especially with respect to the role of various merchant communities in these Buddhist

exchanges, is less studied. Merchant groups involved in long-distance commercial networks included

those who supported the Buddhist cause and others who adhered to Brahmanism or Islam. Even

within mercantile groups that supported the Buddhist cause, the lucrative trade in Buddhist texts and

ritual items may have triggered competition and rivalries.

Scholars such as James Heitzman have demonstrated that the initial spread of Buddhism within South

Asia was closely linked to the expansion of commercial networks, with Buddhist monastic institutions

existing near major commercial towns or long-distance trading routes and forming a relationship of

mutual support with the merchant communities.7 Traders who provided passage to preachers and

transmitted ritual items from one region to another perhaps sometimes did so due to their own

sectarian prejudices and preferences. There may have been other such antagonistic encounters

between Buddhist monks and merchants along both the overland and maritime routes, especially

when the traders in question adhered strongly to other religions. For example, rivalries are known to

have existed between the Buddhists and Brahmanists in South and Southeast Asia, which must have

affected the relationship between certain merchant communities and the Buddhist sangha 8. Often

6
Tansen Sen,” Buddhism and the Maritime Crossings”,41
7
Tansen Sen,” Buddhism and the Maritime Crossings,42
8
Tansen Sen,” Buddhism and the Maritime Crossings,42
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overlooked in discussions of the Buddhist-merchant relationship, however, are instances of

antagonism between Buddhist monasteries and merchant communities. Traders usually specialized in

marketing specific commodities and focused on a particular segment of the larger trading networks.

Sometimes they owed allegiance to a particular political or economic patron, or they believed in a

specific religious tradition. Thus, the relationship between the Buddhist community and itinerant

traders must have been more complex than is usually recognized.9

Maritime Buddhism (Maritime “Silk Route)

The German geographer Ferdinand von Richthofen coined the term “Silk Roads” in 1877 for the

overland routes that linked China to Europe through Central Asia. Later, all other conduits that

connected ancient China to the outside world (especially regions to the west of China) were called

“Silk Roads” or “Silk Routes.”10 Although the use of these terms draws the attention of general

readers and non-specialists, it does not accurately reflect the true importance of silk trade on these

routes. In the case of maritime routes, silk from China was neither the earliest nor the most commonly

traded commodity. Instead, early maritime trade indicated the prevalence of beads, precious stones,

and pearls as the main merchandise; during later periods, bulk goods, such as incense, pepper, spices,

and porcelain, dominated the trading activity. So, the label “maritime Silk Road” used in many

publications is not pertinent for the sea routes that linked the coastal regions of China to the Indian

subcontinent and the Persian Gulf.

The term "Silk Road" is often used to refer to the extensive trading networks that were in use during

the Middle Ages. However, the term is not limited to China - ports, traders, and ships from Southeast

Asia, the Indian subcontinent, and the Middle East were also very important in sustaining these

networks. It was only after the 10th century that Chinese ships began to participate in these maritime

exchanges11. Additionally, the rise of Southeast Asia as an important economic, political, and religious

centre was vital for the development of these networks. Metal technology and farming knowledge

were among the things that were spread through these networks in the first millennium BCE, and they

9
Tansen Sen,” Buddhism and the Maritime Crossings,42
10
Tansen Sen,” Buddhism and the Maritime Crossings,41
11
Tansen Sen,” Buddhism and the Maritime Crossings,41
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continued to be used into the second millennium BCE. Southeast Asia was able to export tin, gold,

and other goods to other parts of the world during this time. The spread of Buddhism via maritime

routes was a diverse and complex process, involving the involvement of monks and merchants from

various parts of Asia. There were also several segments of Buddhist exchanges within the vast

maritime networks that extended from Iran to the coastal regions of Korea and Japan. In addition to

the South Asia-China maritime networks of Buddhist exchanges, there were networks that linked Sri

Lanka to Myanmar (Burma), and Japan to China. Each of these networks had its own characteristics,

with different doctrinal, linguistic, political, and economic linkages.

Avalokiteśvara cult and Iconography

Although Saivism was the predominant religion in ancient Campa, historical sources reveal that

Campa was also an important participant in an Asian Buddhist culture, with Mahayana (with some

Tantric elements) ultimately being the principal form of Buddhism practised there. The worship of

Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara (also known as Lokeśvara or Lokanātha) had gained importance, as his

compassionate nature and his propensity to alleviate the sufferings of others even of those dwelling in

hell were ideally suited to offer a parallel for the king as ‘god on earth,’ who could alleviate the

sufferings of his subjects12. There are clear references to this in the Ðông Duong stele inscription10

(Saka 797/ 875 CE) and also in the inscription from An Thai (Saka 834/ 902 CE),11 which is located

near Ðông Duong and is also part of the Quang Nam Province.

The role of the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara as the protector of mariners and the maritime trade in the

Indian Ocean is a well-known tradition. Although the vast majority of scholarship assumes that

ancient Sri Lanka was the home of Theravada Buddhism, the evidence of materials shows that by the

6th century, Mahayana Buddhism had gained a decisive victory over the orthodox tendencies of

Theravada Buddhism. The healing power of Avalokitesvara is mentioned in the Saddharmapundarika

sutra (24,19): ‘Birth decrepitude, and disease will come to an end for those who are in the wretched

states of existence, in hell, in brute creation, in the kingdom of Yama, for all beings (in general) 13.

12
Buddhism, Art, and Ritual Practice,Chapter:Ðồng Dương at the Intersection of Asian Cultures,116
13
Sri Lanka and Maritime Trade Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara as the Protector of Mariners,163
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The Mahayana pictures of Avalokitesvara in his capacity as the protector of seafarers who faced the

unavoidable dangers of long voyages are those that are found in temples constructed near the mouths

of rivers or bays facing the sea or inland along the navigable rivers (de Mallmann 1948, 28 -30 and 33

-34). 'If one happens to fall into the awful ocean, the home of Nagas Sea monsters, and demons, he

has only to think about Avalokitesvara, and he shall never go down in the king of waters,' states the

Saddharmapundarika sutra (24. 614). In the Saddharmapundarika sutra (24. I), it is also said that "if a

young man of excellent family, [or] creatures, carried off by the stream of rivers, should petition the

bodhisattva Mahasattva Avalokitesvara, all rivers will provide them a ford." A youthful mariner's fate

is described as "travelling in a ship on the ocean, should witness bullion, gold, diamonds, pearls, lapis

lazuli, conch shells, stones, corals, emeralds, and other commodities destroyed, and the ship by a

fierce, untimely wind flung on the island of giantesses... " This Mahayana sutra emphasises once more

that "all will be spared from that island of giantesses" if "on that ship [even] a single being implores

Avalokitesvara."15

Salutations are made to Lokesvara, the benevolent person who had the impressive temple and

monastery complex dedicated to him, at the beginning of the Dông Duong inscription. This

inscription describes Lokesvara as a being whose intellect is constantly focused on relieving the pain

of all beings. The largest massive complex in Campa, Dông Duong was exceptional in that it

represented Buddhism as the official religion of a significant sovereign government. 16 The location

also served as a turning point for state support of Buddhism at a period when it had temporarily

declined in other regions of Southeast Asia. The core compassionate quality of Avalokitevara is the

focus of the Kārandavyūha-sūtra .By highlighting its similarities to (non-Buddhist) Puranic literature,

Studholme has shown how it illustrates the close linkages that existed between Buddhist and Saiva

activities in the first century AD. The Kārandavyūha-sūtra would have been particularly appealing and

well-suited to the politico-religious environment that predominated at Indrapura-Camp given that the

"Buddhist interaction with Saivism is one of the star’s frequent concerns". 17

14
Sri Lanka and Maritime Trade Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara as the Protector of Mariners,163
15
Sri Lanka and Maritime Trade Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara as the Protector of Mariners,163
16
Buddhism, Art, and Ritual Practice,Chapter:Ðồng Dương at the Intersection of Asian Cultures,112
17
Buddhism, Art, and Ritual Practice,Chapter:Ðồng Dương at the Intersection of Asian Cultures,113
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First off, the deification of the female form meshes well with the fact that Tantric or Vajrayana

Buddhism was practised in Camp by the ninth century. Second, honouring the divinity in female form

might have been a result of Indravarman II's wish to recognise and respect the native matriarchal

society.18 Finally, there is a chance that the king may have wanted to honour a royal lady based on the

Nhan Bieu inscription (911CE) and the evidence of a similar practise at a later time in Cambodia

(period of Jayavarman VII, c. 1181-1219). These arguments are nonetheless unclear because there

isn't any solid proof that a female Lokesvara cult exists in Camp.

The Ðông Duong inscription refers to those languishing in hell (naraka) who constantly long

to see (darśanam) the lord. The effect of quenching their thirst is likened to cool (śītala) water

in the heat of summer. Woodward (2011, 33–42) has shown that this passage from the

inscription compares well with a section from the Kārandavyūha sutra, which speaks of cool

water flowing from the fingers of the compassionate Avalokiteśvara to satiate the thirst of

those suffering in hell19. The compassionate act of Avalokiteśvara in which water flows from

his fingers is represented visually by the gesture of pretasamtarpita (the satiated hungry

ghosts) and is also known in early 10th century Khmer Avalokiteśvara iconography.

According to Woodward, the conch placed in the hands of the female bodhisattva at Ðông Duong

relates well with the idea of an endless supply of water. This interpretation concurs with her

identification as Tārā and also as female Avalokiteśvara. The author also points to a striking Hindu

Buddhist analogy: as Śiva to Ganga, so Avalokiteśvara to Tārā.20 The iconographic attributes in the

hands of the female bodhisattva the lotus and conch are usually associated with Vishnu, whose

consort is Laksmi. Laksmi has been depicted more than once at this site.21

Conclusion

Many historical, cultural, and economic factors contributed to the spread of Buddhism

throughout Southeast Asia. From the third century BCE, commercial networks connecting
18
Buddhism, Art, and Ritual Practice,Chapter:Ðồng Dương at the Intersection of Asian Cultures,123
19
Sri Lanka and Maritime Trade Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara as the Protector of Mariners,164
20
Sri Lanka and Maritime Trade Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara as the Protector of Mariners,170
21
Buddhism, Art, and Ritual Practice, Chapter: Dong Dương at the Intersection of Asian Cultures,128
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India and Southeast Asia brought Buddhism to the region for the first time. The influence of

Indian culture and religion was one of the main elements that contributed to the growth of

Buddhism in Southeast Asia. Indian traders and merchants brought not only commodities but

also their intellectual and religious beliefs. The locals, who already held their own indigenous

beliefs, were open to these ideas. The assistance of kings and elites was another factor in the

development of Buddhism in Southeast Asia. Rulers who regarded Buddhism as a way to

legitimise their reign and forge relations with strong Buddhist kingdoms in India frequently

helped the religion flourish. In addition, Buddhism's expansion was also aided by Southeast

Asia's booming economy. Due to increased trade and commerce, affluent merchant groups

emerged that were eager to fund religious institutions and construct monuments and temples.

Buddhism was gradually incorporated into Southeast Asia's cultural and religious landscape.

A variety of Buddhist practises and beliefs can be found throughout the area as a result of

Buddhism's expansion and adaptation to local traditions and customs. With millions of

adherents around the area, Buddhism continues to have a large religious and cultural

influence in Southeast Asia.

Bibliography

 Sri Lanka and Maritime Trade Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara as the Protector of

Mariners by Osmund Bopearachchi

 Buddhism, Art, and Ritual Practice Ðồng Duong at the Intersection of Asian Cultures
by Parul Pandya Dhar

 The spread of Buddhism by Tansen Sen

 Esoteric Buddhism in Southeast Asia in the Light of Recent Scholarship by Hiram

Woodward

 Buddhism and the Maritime Crossings by Tansen Sen

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