Unit 5: Curriculum Process Models and Practices in PNG
Marsh provides the distinction that models deal with conceptualisations
while algorithms is concerned with procedures (1986, p. 35).
• Deschamp (1983) suggest that models are only concerned with
highlighting key elements and principles whereas algorithms provide
the step-by- step procedures.
• Print (1987, p. 18) adds that in curriculum development models are
used to examine the elements of a curriculum (the variables) and how
these elements interrelate.
• An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or
accomplishing some end.
• Curriculum Theory refers to documents containing the opinions and
values of others, especially people who have been practicing
curriculum implementations.
•According to Print a theory is a plausible or scientifically acceptable
general principle or body of principles offered to explain phenomena.
• In summary it can be realised that models reflect conceptualisations
while algorithms concerns step-by-step procedures in accomplishing a
task.
• A theory attempts to provide systematic propositions, explanations or
generalisations about the nature and purpose of curriculum.
Classification of Curriculum Development Models
• According to Print (1987:17-21), models may be classified according
to a continuum that ranges from Rational through Cyclical to Dynamic
approaches of curriculum development.
• All different curriculum models can be classified under these 3 major
categories.
Curriculum Development Models
1: Rational/ Objective models
This type of curriculum development models follow a logical, sequential
approach.
In these models, the statement of objectives is very important, and the
other curriculum elements follow in a fixed order (Bobitt, 1918; Tyler)
Tyler’s Curriculum Model
• The most common model in the field of curriculum development is the
Tyler’s (1949) model, commonly known as the objectives model.
To develop any curriculum using the Tyler model, one had to pose
upon four fundamental questions, which reflect the curriculum
elements:
1.OBJECTIVES ……..stating objectives
2. (SELECTING LEARNING EXPERIENCES) ..... (content)
3. (ORGANISING LEARNING EXPERIENCES) ……..method
4. (EVALUATION) …….. evaluation
Taba Model
• The Taba model, which is classified under the rational or objectives
model, has identified seven elements of the curriculum process. The
order is as follows:
• Step 1: Diagnosis of needs
• Step 2 Formulation of objectives
• Step 3: Selection of content
• Step 4; Organisation of content
• Step 5: Selection of learning experiences
• Step 6: Organisation of learning experiences
• Step 7: Determination of what to evaluate and of the ways and
means of doing it (Taba 1962:12).
• Much of the curriculum materials in PNG primary and secondary
levels were very much influenced by the Rational/Objectives model.
Strengths of the Rational/Objectives Models
1. The model, particularly stating the objectives upfront, provides a
clear direction to guide the curriculum developers.
2. The model provides a blueprint for the development of curriculum. It
is a fixed guide which simplify the process. In the face of uncertainty
about the process of curriculum development, developers may regard
the model with fixed sequence of steps as a helpful aid.
3. The sequence of curriculum elements in the model does have
apparent logical framework or structure in developing a curriculum.
4. The rational model is simple to follow and this is important where
implementers (teachers) work under constantly changing pressures
and demands for the time available.
5. By emphasising forward planning the model forces teachers to
consider their priorities and objectives carefully and explicitly.
6. Objectives force curriculum developers to consider student needs.
Weaknesses of the Rational/Objectives Models
1. Curriculum development in practice is rarely a fixed/linear process.
2. The model and the Tyler rationale do not adequately explain where
the curriculum objectives will come from.
3. The model cannot account for the many& complex outcomes of
learning.
4. If the model insists on the developer starting by predicting specific
objectives, what student can learn may be limited or constrained.
5. Planning by objectives treats ends and means separately.
6. The structure of knowledge is such that it cannot be expressed in
terms of pre-specified performance.
7. Not all learning experiences are amenable to being measured,
which the model assumes.
8. Educational objectives need not precede the selection and
organisation of learning experiences.
9. The model does not take into account the differing relationships that
exist between the subject matter or content being taught and the
degree to which objectives can be specified.
2: Cyclical models
• This type of curriculum development models are logical and
sequential in approach, however they see the curriculum process as a
continuous activity that is constantly updating itself
• Basically, these models are an extension of the rational models, in
that they are essentially logical and sequential in approach.
• However, differences do exist.
• Most importantly, cyclical models see the curriculum process as a
continuing activity, constantly in a state of change as new information
becomes available.
• Also, cyclical models view elements of the curriculum as
interdependent, so that the distinctions between the elements, as in
the rational model, are less clear.
• The common cyclical models are ones initiated by Wheeler and
Nicholls.
Wheelers phases of curriculum development.
1. Selection of aims, goals and objectives,
2. Selection of learning experiences to help achieve these aims, goals
and objectives,
3. Selection of content through which certain types of experience may
be offered,
4. Organisation and integration of learning experiences and content
with respect to the teaching-learning process,
Wheeler’s Model of curriculum development process
Nicholls and Nicholls Model of Curriculum development process
• 1. Situation analysis
• 2. Selection of objectives
• 3. Selection and organisation of content
• 4. Selection and organisation of methods
• 5. Evaluation (Nicholls & Nicholls 1978:21).
Nicholls’ Model of Curriculum Process

Strengths of the Dynamic Models

Model used in PNG
• The curriculum development model used in Papua New Guinea at
Curriculum Development Division (CDD) is cyclical in nature.
• The peculiar distinction between Wheelers and Nicholls and Nicholls
and CDD models is that the former models highly reflect content and
methods organization whilst the later shows the overall curriculum
production process.
Strengths of the Cyclical Models
1. Cyclical models overcome many of disadvantages of the
rational/objective models.
2. Cyclical models provide a logical framework and sequential structure
upon which curricula may be devised.
3. By employing situation analysis as a starting point, cyclical models
provide baseline date upon which effective objectives may be devised.
4. The various elements of the curriculum are in continuous motion,
able to cope with new situations
Weaknesses of the Cyclical Models
• Although the cyclical models possess many strengths the two major
weaknesses are:
1. Once the cycle has been established it is possible that the stimulus
for change may be originated from any curriculum element affecting
the other elements.
2. To undertake effective situational analysis time may be required.
• The strengths and weaknesses inherent in the cyclical models needs
to be carefully examined prior to selecting a model for developing
curricular.
3. Dynamic/Interaction Models
• The interactive or dynamic models of curriculum offer an alternative
view of the process of curriculum development.
• The first characteristic of the dynamic interaction models is that
curriculum development can commence with any element and proceed
in any order. • Secondly, the needs of the learners are seen to be more
important than the pre-determined set of information required. • The
third characteristic is that dynamic or interaction models are a result of
observation of teachers/students at work, and translating their practice
into a coherent whole.
Figure 5 shows the Skilbeck model of the curriculum process
1. Curriculum developers are free to be more creative, avoiding the
writing of behavioural objectives.
2. The interactive models are more realistic and possesses feasible
procedures taking into consideration teacher overloads in schools. •
3. Offers curriculum developers considerable flexibility when
approaching the development tasks. •
4. Allows for flexible movement within the curriculum process. •
5. Interaction models reflect the reality of curriculum development,
given the complex circumstances.
Weaknesses of the Dynamic Models
1. Dynamic models appear confusing and lacking in direction.
2. Some dynamic models offer little direction leading inefficiency.
3. Lack of emphasis placed upon construction and use of objectives.
4. Lack of logical sequence leading to waste of significant time
Unit 6: The Saber-tooth Curriculum
• The story of the titled curriculum comes from a famous satire on
curriculum published in the US in 1939
Brief of Saber-tooth curriculum
• Founder of the curriculum – New Fist Hammer Maker
• Before the development of the systematic curriculum, people of New
Fist’s Tribe lived a Nomadic life style. As a community they had
common needs, fears, etc. for survival.
• Looking at the needs of the tribe New-Fist initiated the first curriculum
called ‘The Saber-Tooth Curriculum’.
• The curriculum was specifically designed to meet particular survival
needs in the local environment.
• It included 3 subjects; 1. saber-tooth-tiger-scaring with fire, 2. fish
grabbing with bare hands and 3. woolly horse clubbing.
Characteristics of New Fist Hammer Maker
• The success of the new curriculum was the consequent of New-Fist’s
intelligence, hence he was labelled with the following;
• the first great educational statesman,
• theorist and practitioner,
• a thinker and a doer.
• Having developed a curriculum, New-Fist took his children with him
as he went about his activities.
• He gave them an opportunity to practice these three subjects.
.
Reform of Saber-tooth Curriculum and the System of Education
• There were certain more conservative members of the tribe who
resisted the new, formal education.
• This is because conditions changed, and life which had once been so
safe and happy in the cave-realm valley became insecure and
disturbing.
• Hence, it’s clear that the past education was the foundation but the
skills were improved to meet the later needs. The teaching and
learning approaches were the same.
What can we learn from this story?
• "The moral of this story is that our present public education system
was designed for another age!
• We must change what, when, and how tribes people are taught if we
are going to close the gap between what schools now provide and
what our students need.
Summary
• However, as time went by things changes and that means there is
need for change in practice. Thus adjustments were made to the old
ways of doing things and new and better approaches were engaged.
Unit 7: The introduction of curriculum from the West
and Curriculum Practices in Papua New Guinea
Traditional curriculum in PNG
• In the past our curriculum was embedded in our traditions/customs
(way of life) that involves our cultural norms, beliefs, values andm
attitudes.
• Western formal education was first brought to Papua New Guinea
By the missionaries and it was they who first defined the curriculum.
• The first missionaries to establish a permanent school in the country
were the London Mission Society (LMS). They settled near Port
Moresby in 1873.
• In 1814, the German and English missionaries established
primary schools to teach Western concepts of morality, the
German and English languages, Arithmetic and Christian Doctrine.
• The British government encouraged missionaries to develop
vocational education programs in PNG to produce better farmers,
crafts people and skilled labourers.
• In 1914, Australia took control of the German colony in North-Eastern
New Guinea. With PNG under her reign, Australia established English
as the official language of instruction and laid the foundation for
modern education in PNG.
The Introduction of West (European) Oriented Curriculum and
PNG Curriculum
• Their aim was to first to educate pupils to read, understand and
interpret the Bible and to spread the word of God.
• Secondary to that purpose is that to enable natives to learn technical
and agricultural skills for them to be self-reliant in running/managing
mission stations and schools.
• The Catholic mission established schools in 1916 after the Anglican
mission who was the 2nd to establish schools in 1911 and the LMS
being the 1st in 1937.
However, they (Catholic mission) were the first to develop a more
structured curriculum.
• All curriculums developed for mission schools include subjects of the
3Rs (Reading, writing and Arithmetic).
• Religious Instruction was the first subject in the schools amongst
other subjects to ensure that the Bible is being understood and church
doctrines are taught.
The Dual Curriculum in Dual Schools
• As the population of expatriates increases the need to educate their
own children also immerged. Thus the expatriates brought curriculum
from their country to teach their own children that reflected their way of
life. This resulted in dual (two) curriculums in PNG and so as the
schools. One for the Native (practical curriculum) and the other for the
expatriates (academic curriculum).
The natives learn technical (practical) skills in ‘Primary T’ schools and
the expatriates learn academic in ‘Primary A schools
• Traditionally in Papua New Guinea all cultures had education, both
formal and informal.
• It is through education that all societies pass their knowledge, skills,
beliefs and traditions from one generation to the next.
• The teachers were the older adults who had spent a life time
acquiring the knowledge and skills which they were teaching the
children.
• The classroom was the rainforest, the ocean, beside their
grandparents and elders.
• Their library knowledge was stored in the oral tradition of the tribe.
• The village was the school, and the culture was the curriculum.
• Children learn as they do today through listening, observing,
emulating and practicing.
• This continued till the introduction of the formal education system that
carries a structured curriculum for learning.
• However, despite this change some parts of the country still learn the
old way.
Introduction of education from the West and Establishment of
school
The Beginning of a Fair Curriculum for PNG
• In 1946 a Department of Education was established. In 1952 through
the Education Ordinance a law for education in PNG was defined and
so as for curriculum.
From then on PNG was given some form of Australian curriculum
(Jacaranda Minenda curriculum) but still under ‘Primary T’ and
‘Primary A’ schools
• The Department of Education then created a small curriculum branch
in 1970 to work on specific projects. Until 1974 a Curriculum Unit was
created
• Further, in 1985 yet another curriculum was developed for PNG and
that was the Melanesian Series.
Additional Series of curriculum materials for Social Science were
developed for PNG and these includes; Families, the Story of Our
Past, Government in PNG and the Resources of PNG.
• These series of curriculum developed for PNG lasted for some time
until 1992 when Papua New Guinea began work on the first education
reform and that became a reality in 2002. This reform gave birth to the
introduction of Outcomes Based Curriculum (OBC). In 2014 selected
institutions in the country were experimented with the new curriculum
as pilot projects. The Standards Based Curriculum is the product of
this reform hence, now as we speak we are using the Standards
Based Curriculum in schools.
Progressive stages of change in the educatioal practices of PNG
• Conversion stage - PNG converted to Christianity from their
traditional lifestyles.
• Dualism stage - the colonial government established and operated
schools alongside the missions.
• Expansion stage - many schools were built with the main purpose of
manpower preparation before the country got independence in 1975.
• Nationalism stage - when the church and government established
partnership to run the schools that they had built.
• Decentralisation period was the time when certain functions of the
central National Department of Education (NDOE) was transferred to
provinces.
• Education reformation stage was initiated with the main purpose of
establishing relevant education for all Papua New Guineans based on
the Philosophy of Education for Papua New Guinea
Topic 8: Education Reforms and Curriculum Practices
in Contemporary PNG
Brief Introduction
• Papua New Guinea, among many other nations in the world is going
through dramatic changes in education and curriculum to
accommodate a vast array of changes in the society periodically.
Traditional System of Education
Before the European colonization and the introduction of formal
(Western system of education) with a structured curriculum,
traditionally in Papua New Guinea all cultures had education with a
curriculum that was embedded in the traditions/customs (way of life).
Education in PNG since Colonization
The Western formal concept of Education was introduced during
colonization, first by the Mission and later the government. Subjects
such as Reading, Writing and Mathematics with later added English,
Language, Health and Hygiene and Social Studies were common in all
Mission schools.
missions, having their curriculum based on the philosophy of the
mission.
The key philosophy of the education at that time was to provide
basic education through training in technical or agriculture to
enable the natives to be self-reliant after leaving school (Smith,
1978).
Papua New Guineans had come to realize that they needed a
curriculum relevant for the kind of living as the expatriates, which
would give their children the ‘best’ foreign academic education that
carries prestige and value in society.
1969 when the colonial Administration appointed a three-man
advisory committee known as the Weeden Committee to look into
the problems of education at that time and make recommendation to
the colonial Administration.
Brief on Educational Reforms
In 1992 Papua New Guinea began work on the first education reform
and that became a reality in 2002. This education reform was in two
fold; that includes both curriculum and the structure. The
Outcomes Based Education (OBE) with an Outcomes Based
Curriculum (OBC) was introduced and that took the place of the
Rational/Objectives Education/Curriculum. This change was a
consequence of The Education Reform (1992) and the National
Education Plan 2005-2014, that have been developed to produce an
education system that meets Papua New Guinea’s needs, in today’s
challenging world and in the future.
The foundation of the reform is the promotion of culture, values,
attitudes, knowledge and a range of skills appropriate for Papua
New Guinean society along with the need for international
competitiveness (National Curriculum Statement, 2002:3).
Dr. Michael Tapo stated that the Department of education has
embarked on improving the standards of education from 2015
onwards. This means that standards in the school curriculum, teacher
preparation and professional development, examinations, inspections,
school governance and restructuring of the school system and
structuring are some of the many components of education which will
be improved by a standard based curriculum (SBC).
The key reason underlying the move for education reform as it is
made explicit from the two reform initiatives in PNG is to have an
improved and relevant curriculum for the society. Fullan justifies this by
stressing that;
marked by rapid and dramatic changes in all walks of life and that
educational structures, policy and practice require change. Everything
must change at one time or another or else a static society will evolve”
(Fullan, 2001:3
Papua New Guinea began with the Objectives curriculum, moved away
to Outcomes and now to Standards. Standards Based Curriculum is
what PNG supposed to implement in 2015 but due to some reason it
was delayed until now.
The Rational/Objective Education/Curriculum
Objectives, outcomes and standards were the names adopted in PNG
Education system. Generally, objectives, outcomes, and standards
are tools and concepts used in educational settings. There is much
confusion among teachers about objectives, outcomes and standards,
and there are many who feel that all are same to be used
interchangeably.
learning standards.
learning objectives are outlined in terms of the
subject matter that the teacher intends to teach in a term or the
duration of the course while learning outcomes are defined in terms of
what students must be able to do or be able to perform at the end of
the course.
Learning Standards are similar to learning outcomes since both can
be defined by what students are able to do or perform at the end of a
grade/level or course.
Slight difference between the two is that learning standard defines the
quality or level of achievement and performance of the learners
measured against the set national standards.
Objective Curriculum model was introduced by Ralph Tyler
in 1949. The objective oriented curriculum used was more
contentbased and it promoted the development of knowledge. The
objectives were created and managed by the teachers for specific
course/subjects within a class. If a teacher covers the content of the
lesson then the objective has been met regardless of whether the
students learned anything or not. With objectives time is considered an
important instrument for the coverage of the content.
Performances are measured
against each other’s in the level/grade.
All objectives are desired ones, which mean, they reflect what students
should be able to achieve by the end of the course.
Outcome Based Education/Curriculum
William Spady started the theory and philosophy of OBE in 1982 in the
United States. By the early 1990s many States in the USA rejected
OBE as it failed to educate children in the way many parents wanted.
The philosophy of OBE was also planted in Australia, New Zealand,
South Africa and PNG (2000), Fiji (1999) and Solomon Island (2002).
But lately OBE has become a focal point for critics of educational
reform in PNG.
Outcome-based education means focusing and organizing a
school’s entire programs and instructional efforts around the clearly
defined outcomes we want all students to demonstrate when they
leave school.” (Spady 1993 :?)
In OBE, whether students understand a task and perform it to a
high standard is more important than how long it takes them to
complete it. The biggest single factor accounting for differences in
OBE approaches involves the concept of ‘culminating demonstration’.
The focus is therefore on competence as well as content.
concentrated on the learners.
important is for students to master/ acquire the outcomes before
moving on to the next level.
The assessments in here are criterion. Students’ performances are
measured against set standards/outcomes and not against anyone.
-based curriculum identifies the knowledge, skills,
attitudes and values that all students should achieve or demonstrate
at a particular grade in a particular subject.”
students are expected to achieve. Each outcome is accompanied by a
list of indicators that identify examples of the knowledge, skills,
attitudes and values that students will need to demonstrate in order to
achieve the learning outcome.”
Many researchers including the public have argued that the failure in
education system in PNG was due to OBE. Many have claimed that
OBE has negative impact on the overall education system
Education/Curriculum is being used.
Differences of Objectives and Outcomes
Objectives
❖ Focus on what the teacher will do, or is able to teach
❖ Describe the intent of learning
❖ Focus on opportunities provided for learning
❖ Involves estimating the amount that can be learned in a given
period of time
❖ Focus on content using narrow source of materials
❖ Feedback at the end of term, semester
❖ Norm-referenced assessment Standard Based
Outcomes
❖ Focus on what the student can do, or needs to learn
❖ Describe the results of learning
❖ Feedback at end of performance
❖ Requires flexible allocation of time.
❖ Focus on outcomes using variety of resources and contexts
❖ Criterion-referenced assessment
❖ Focus on the application of learning
Standard Based Education/Curriculum
Where does Standards Come from?
Standards-Based Education became prominent in the late 1980s and
1990s. The standards movement can be traced to the efforts of Marc
Tucker who adapted aspects of William Spady's OBE movement into
a system based on creating standards and assessments for a
Certificate of Initial Mastery in the US. Hence, Standards are an
evolution of the earlier OBE
What is SBE?
The term standards-based refers to systems of instruction,
assessment, grading, and academic reporting that are based on
students demonstrating understanding or mastery of the knowledge
and skills they are expected to learn as they progress through their
education. A standards-based system measures each student against
the concrete standard. Curriculum, assessments, and professional
development are aligned to the standards.
at each level. The Standards can be used as a reference point for
planning teaching and learning programs, and for assessing student
progress. Standards should help teachers set targets and monitor
achievement and develop programs that support and improve student
learning.
with disabilities, students with limited English proficiency) can achieve
to higher levels if:
s designed and provided to support the achievement of all
students
-based education has assessment as a key part of the
movement
to be expected of EVERY
student
A criterion is set up for what EVERY student is expected to know and
a score is set compared to those benchmarks
Thus curriculum must be aligned with the new standards
Students must then be assessed based on what is expected of
EVERY student
tudents, learning standards and
performance assessments must become an integral part of the
instructional process at the classroom level.”
Differences Between Standards-Based and Norm-Reference
Norm Referenced
know
o objective criteria to distribute resources so students who need the
most often get the least
Standards Based
matter is the same for all groups of students
standards so students who need more get more
uction so all
students meet standards
Structural Reforms
Educational Structure at the time of Objective Based Curriculum
6-4-2 structure. This structure consists of 6 years Community/Primary
education, 4 years High school education and 2 years National High
School education. Link
Educational Structure at the Time of Outcomes Based Curriculum
a 3-6-2-2 structure. In this
new structure, the first three years consist of a new elementary
programme. Primary schools extended to grade 8 but have passed
grades 1 to 2 to elementary schools. High schools have passed grades
7 and 8 to primary schools and either doubled their intake of grade 9
and 10 students or extended to allow for grade 10 and 12 levels. Link
Educational Structure now for Standards Based Curriculum
A new curriculum (Standard Based Curriculum) as well as a new
Education Structure (Two-Six-six) has come in effect, starting at
elementary. Eventually Papua New Guineans will have 14 years of
Elementary to Secondary education, instead of 12 years like in the 2-6-
4 structure. The new education reform structure (2-6-6) is
fragmented into different levels as follows:
Two years of Early Childhood Education;
— Grade 1, Grade 2, Grade 3, Grade 4
and Grade 5 and Grade 6 and;
— Grade 7, Grade 8,
Grade 9, Grade 10, Grade 11 and Grade 12 .
-Up Schools are now converted to Junior
High Schools.

Unit 9: Standards Based Education
• What is Standards Based Education?
Standards Based Education is a philosophical concept that is centred
on the process of planning, developing, delivering, monitoring, and
improving education programs.
A standard is a level of quality or achievement, especially a level that is
thought to be acceptable. It is something used to measure or estimate
the quality or degree of something, for example, how good a piece of
work is.
Standards in Education provide a description of what will be known
and done and an indication of how well it should be known and done.
What is foundation for the change of Outcomes Based Education
to Standards Based Education?
• The foundations for the change of OBE curriculum model to SBC is
embedded in students lowering literacy and numeracy standard.
• The main justification of having a Standards Based Education in PNG
is to raise PNG’s performance competencies in all aspects of
education; curriculum development, teacher training, student and
teacher performance and leadership.
What is Standards Based Curriculum?
Standards Based curriculum is referred to as a cumulative body of
knowledge and set of competencies that forms the basis for quality
education.
It is built around the principles and perspectives of different curriculum
subjects, processes, the attitudes towards those subjects and the view
of teaching and learning.
It defines what students should know, understand and be able to do
and creating the accompanying teaching content.
SBC includes not only goals, objectives, and standards, but everything
that is done to enable attainment of those outcomes and, at the same
time, foster reflection and revision of the curriculum to ensure students'
continued growth.
What is the focus of standards based curriculum?
SBC focuses on essential content and relevant context in which they
are being taught which reflects a high level of achievement.
It sets National content standards and bench marks for grade-specifics
and allows wide range of participation including special need students.
In a standards-based curriculum, assessment is viewed not only as a
final product (summative), but also as a continual process (formative)
that provides pupil performance data to teachers and students
regarding their progress towards achieving the standards.
What is the purpose of adapting a Standards Based Curriculum in
PNG?
The introduction of Standards Based Education in PNG is an important
Government directive and often referred to as the OBE Task Force or
the Czuba Report (2013).
"The idea behind standards-based curriculum is to set clear standards
for what we want students to learn and to use those academic
standards to drive other changes in the system and for life -long
learning and living."
PNG chose Standards Based Curriculum because we want to improve
the standard of learning. The teachers would have a clear purpose and
focus on what will be taught and assessed. On the other hand,
students know what they have to know and be able to do.
Both the teacher and the students understand the purpose and focus
of the curriculum.
What are National Curriculum Standards?
Statements set to find out what students should know at different levels
of their schooling or education. The national curriculum standards
establish a common reference and vision of education, they help
educators reach a common understanding of what students will learn.
The examinations given can measure student progress towards
attaining the standards.
Setting national curriculum standards allows for the following:
✔ Equal opportunity for the students. All the students are compared to
the same standards.
✔ it is clear what pupils should know at different levels of their
education
✔ Expresses clear expectations of what all pupils should know and be
able to do
✔ Reflects a high level of achievement, while being realistic and
relevant to the context in which they are being taught.
What is a Content Standard (CS)?
• Content standards describe what all students should know and be
able to do in each of the subject areas such as English, Mathematics,
Science, Personal Development, Business Studies, Social Science,
etc.
• The statement comprises of a set of facts, concepts, principles and
ideas that are important or the knowledge and skills students should
attain.
• For example: Social Science
• Content Standard:
• By the end of Grade 8; students should examine and be able to
discuss the impact of over -population on rural environment and
geography
• Note! That for specific lessons the outcomes are still used: For
example: Mathematics • Lesson Outcome: • By the end of the lesson
students can calculate the area of given shapes using the given
formulas.
What is a performance standard?
These are the “explicit definitions of what students must do to
demonstrate proficiency at a specific level on the content standards”.
Sometimes, performance standards are referred to as ‘performance
descriptors’.
These are the judgments that indicate how well students need to
perform. Performance standards/descriptors make content standards
operational.
They transform inert (passive) statements of content into active
expectations for performance.
They take the content standards an essential step further by giving
meaning to the idea of meeting the standard and a level of proficiency
that must be demonstrated to indicate that the knowledge and skills in
the content standard have been attained.
Unit 10: Curriculum Evaluation
• • Curriculum evaluation is the rendering of value judgment to a set of
experiences selected for educational purposes.
• It is a process that involves gathering information about the
effectiveness of Curricular and measurement is done in terms of levels
of achievement of the pre-set objectives/outcomes.
Curriculum evaluation involves judgment about both student
performance and the curriculum itself.
• Thus, most of the evaluation can be identified under the two major
categories:
• 1. the evaluation of student performance and
• 2. curriculum evaluation.
1. Evaluation of Student Performance
• Student evaluation is known as product evaluation.
• It seeks to determine how well the student has achieved the stated
objectives of the learning situation (Print 1987:142).
• The information can be used to change both curriculum and teaching.
2. Curriculum Evaluation 7. The employers require evidence to show that an individual has
• Curriculum evaluation is known as process evaluation or teacher acquired a minimum level of education.
evaluation. Function of Curriculum Evaluation
• Curriculum evaluation is the process of delineating, obtaining and • The following four major functions of evaluation have been identified
providing information useful for making decisions and judgments about by Print. They are:
curricula. It examines the experiences and activities involved in the • Evaluation is essential in determining how well the learners have
teaching-learning situation (Print 1987:142). achieved the stated objectives. This is a prime function of employing
• Curriculum evaluation focuses upon how teachers and students evaluative technique sin any learning situation. Where objectives are
interact over a particular curriculum or syllabus … curriculum not stated specifically as such, evaluation is concerned with
evaluation involves an examination of the goals, rationale and structure determining the nature of student outcomes.
of a teacher’s curriculum; and study of the context in which the • Evaluation provides information to improve curricula. Evaluation
interactions with students occur (including parent and community data, collected during a unit of study, will provide the basis for changes
inputs) and an analysis of the interests, motivations and achievements that will make the curriculum more effective in meeting objectives.
of the students experiencing a particular curriculum. Marsh (1986:137) Effective educators constantly seek to improve their curricula.
• Information from evaluation is employed in student decision-making.
• Two major types of Evaluation Brady (1987: 139) In particular, future courses of action concerning studies, employment,
1. Formative evaluation a career and the like are based on evaluative data given as a feedback
2. Summative evaluation. to students from their participation in a curriculum.
• Formative evaluation is used throughout both the development and • Evaluation helps clarify that stated objectives. Feedback obtained
the teaching of a curriculum, so that appropriate revisions can be made through evaluative procedures indicates how realistic and effective the
to it. original objectives were and were change is required (Print 1987:143).
• Summative evaluation is used at the end of a course, year or Procedures for Evaluation
specified duration to give a final indication of a student’s progress or • Brady (1987:175-176) provides the steps or procedures in evaluation
program success. It involves a judgment about the student, program which could be used as a guide to evaluate student performance or
or course of even the effectiveness of the curriculum. It is an appraisal curricula. The steps are as follows:
of the extent to which the outcomes of a course or program have been • 1. Focusing
achieved. • 2. Preparing
• The third type is called the diagnostic evaluation and often directed • 3. Implementing
towards two purposes, either • 4. Analyzing
1. to place the student properly at the outset of instruction, or • 5. Reporting
2. to discover the underlying causes of deficiencies in student learning • Note! What happens in each of the steps above you can read from
as instruction unfolds (Print 1987:154). Diagnostic evaluation can be the course guide.
applied during the process of formative or summative evaluation. The End!
Why Evaluate Curriculum?
• Among the many reasons for undertaking Curriculum evaluation we
have the following:
1. To allow the curriculum developers and implementers be certain
about the functions of the curriculum put in place (feedback)
2. It also gives information on the relevancy of the curriculum in the
society.
3. Information on the effectiveness of the instructional materials is
obtained through evaluation.
What do we Evaluate at Classroom Level?
• At the classroom level we evaluate the following:
1. Content/Subject matter
2. Teachers’ performance, this can be in terms of content delivery
methods or classroom control methods.
3. Pupils/Learners performance in terms of acquisition of knowledge
and skills.
4. The abilities of the learners to learn.
5. The teachers’ ability to pass on knowledge, etc.
Why do we Evaluate in Teaching and Learning?
1. To gather information for parents and guardians about the
performance of their children.
2. To create a basis for promotion from one level to another in the
school system 3. To motivate learners through the feedback in form
report cards.
4. To gather information for guidance and counseling. 5. To provide
information about the various teaching methods used in school system.
6. To provide basis for employers to make decisions in the recruitment
processes