Lesson: Curriculum Development Models and Processes

LEARNING OUTCOMES
LESSON 4 At the end of the lesson, you should be able to do the

following:
Curriculum Development develop a sequence chart indicating the processes involved

Models and Processes in developing a curriculum;
design a persuasion map reflecting one’s argument on the use

of curriculum models; and
create a diagram showing the strengths and weaknesses of

various curriculum development models.
Directions: Read carefully the following questions and encircle

CONTENTS
the letter of the correct answer.
Linear Models of
Curriculum 1. Also called the backward design, which of the following mod-
Development el puts emphasis on starting with the goals and objectives in
designing the curriculum?
Cyclical Models a. Rational-Linear c. Systematic Design
of Curriculum b. Understanding by Design d. Grassroots Rational
Development
2. Which of the following models stresses the inclusion of situa-
Dynamic Models tional analysis as a valuable principle in curriculum develop-
of Curriculum ment?
Development a. Nichols and Nichols Curriculum Development Model
b. Contextual Filters Model of Course Planning
Processes for c. Wheeler’s Curriculum Development Model
Developing a d. Walker’s Naturalistic Model
Curriculum 3. Which of the following processes involves the study of differ-
ent curriculum sources and careful examination of various
TIME ALLOTMENT influences that affect curriculum development?
3 hours a. implementation c. monitoring
b. evaluation d. situational analysis
4. Which of the following models identifies platform, delibera-
tion, and design as three phases of curriculum development?
a. Print’s Model c. Naturalistic Model
b. Systematic Design Model d. Rational-Linear Model
5. Which of the following ideas of Print that recognizes the im-
ASSESSING YOUR portant role and influence of various curriculum workers in-
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE volved in different curriculum activities?
a. instructional evaluation c. situational analysis
b. curriculum presage d. learning activities
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Curriculum development models are based on a clear and consistent
understanding of various scholars of the nature of curriculum as a
discipline and as a field of study. Different models are de- scribed based on
the different views and processes of curriculum development they offer. In
this context, well-known models that are found in major curriculum books
are analyzed. These models have been recognized and accepted by
curriculum scholars as effective and appropriate for developing curriculum
in any level. In this lesson, the analysis points out various strengths and
GETTIN weaknesses of different models. A brief background and description of
G the processes involved in each model are presented. The models are
treated as in- imitable since each represents various ideas or theories on
STARTE how to develop curriculum.
D
Curriculum planning is the first phase of the curriculum development process which considers
the school vision, mission, and goals. It also includes the philosophy or strong educational belief of the
school. All of these will eventually be translated to classroom desired learning outcomes for the learners.
Linear Models of Curriculum Development
The linear models of curriculum development prescribe a rational step-by-step procedure for curriculum
development starting with objectives.
A. Tyler’s Rational-Linear Model
Society Students Subject Matter
Philosophy of Education Psychology of Learning

Selecting Objectives
Selecting Learning Experiences
Organizing Learning Experiences
Evaluation
Figure 1. Tyler’s Rational-Linear Model
Ralph Tyler, at the University of Chicago, developed the first model of

curriculum development. This model was presented in his book Principles of
Curriculum and Instruction published in 1949. Tyler ar-
gued that curriculum development should be logical and systematic. FOCUSIN
G
35 CONTEN
T
His model, as shown in Figure 1, presents a process of curricu-

lum development that follows a sequential pattern starting from select-
ing objectives to selecting learning experiences, organizing learning
experiences, and evaluation.
Tyler argued that to develop any curriculum, curriculum work-
FOCUSING ers should respond to four basic questions:
CONTENT 1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
2. What educational experiences are likely to attain these objectives?
3. How can these experiences be organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
Aside from these four questions, Tyler also identified three curriculum sources: society,
students, and subject matter. Accordingly, curriculum workers need to study these sources care-
fully in order to develop a curriculum. He also pointed out the importance of philosophy of educa-
tion and psychology of learning to screen the objectives that are included in the curriculum.
B. Taba’s Grassroots Rational Model
A follower of Tyler is another curriculum scholar, Hilda Taba. Taba presented her model
in her book Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice in 1962. Her model is a modified
version of Tyler’s model. Taba argued that curriculum development should follow a sequential
and logical process, and she suggested for more information input in all phases of curriculum
development. She also claimed that all curricula are composed of fundamental elements.
In her model, Taba outlined seven steps that should be followed when developing a curric-
ulum:
1. Diagnosis of needs;
2. Formulation of objectives;
3. Selection of content;
4. Organization of content;
5. Selection of learning experiences;
6. Organization of learning experiences; and
7. Determination of what to evaluate and ways and means of doing it.
Curriculum designing is the way curriculum is conceptualized to include the selection and
organization of content, the selection and organization of learning experiences or activities and the
selection of the assessment procedures and tools to measure desired learning outcomes.
36
Taba also suggested that curriculum development could be made

successful if there was a diagnosis of needs. This would help curriculum
workers in understanding the needs of the learners. It would also help in
the selection of the goals and objectives, and in the selection of contents.
She pointed out that the nature of the objectives determines what learn-
ing is to follow.
FOCUSING
C. Standards-Based Curriculum Development Model CONTENT
The standards-based curriculum development model was developed by Allan

Glatthorn. The model was intended for developing curriculum standards for any discipline from
basic education to higher education. As shown in Table 1, Glatthorn identified three phases to
be followed in developing standards-based curriculum.
Table 1 is an example of a linear model. It includes a prescribed sequence of
curriculum development activities to develop standards.
Table 1. Standards-Based Curriculum Development Model
Phase I. Develop standards.

1. Develop a comprehensive set of content standards using multiple sources.
2. Refine the comprehensive list by eliminating and combining.
3. Secure teacher input to identify teacher priorities.
4. Use data to develop final draft of standards divided into Essential Standards and En-
richment Standards.
Phase II. Develop benchmarks.
1. Review decisions about content emphases.
2. Identify standards for continuing development (standards that will not be bench-
marked).
3. Decide how benchmarks will be identified—by taskforce or by teachers.
4. Develop initial draft of benchmarks, evaluating with criteria provided, and secure
teacher review; revise benchmarks if needed.
Phase III. Develop final products.
1. Use standards and benchmarks to produce the scope and sequence chart.
2. Decide on curriculum guide content.
3. Analyze benchmarks into learning objectives.
Curriculum implementing is putting into action the plan which is based on the curriculum
design in the classroom setting or the learning environment. Implementing the curriculum is where
the action takes place. It involves activities that transpire in every teacher’s classroom where learn-
ing becomes an active process.
37
Glatthorn’s model is an example of a linear and rational curriculum development model.

The model is rational and descriptive, stressing on the development of standards as the first activ-
ity in curriculum development. The model recognizes the importance of using multiple sources in
developing curriculum standards. This model also recognizes teacher’s input in the development
of standards, which are often neglected in curriculum projects in the Philippines because of the
top-down approach to curriculum development and implementation.
The use of benchmarks to improve, refine, and validate curriculum standards is an equally
good practice in curriculum development. The model extends itself up to the development of
scope and sequence, which is important for planning instruction and deciding on specific con-
tents and objectives. Another important feature of Glatthorn’s model is its relevance and applica-
bility in any educational institution in developing curriculum standards for various courses. This
model can e very useful in the development of curriculum standards that is one of the major pur-
poses of this book. The linear nature of Glatthorn’s model is also one of its weaknesses.
Roberts (2003) stressed that in curriculum studies, as in many other domains of human
activity, one of the few constants is change. Roberts further explained his idea that as a field
of inquiry, curriculum should allow new theories to emerge and new insights to flourish to make
the curriculum field more vibrant and dynamic.
In Glatthorn’s model, developing curriculum standards is a separate activity from the over-
all curriculum developmental process. This makes the model incomplete. The model should rec-
ognize that developing curriculum standards is an integral part of the curriculum development
process. This model does not include situational analysis or needs analysis. Unlike in other curric-
ulum development models, situational analysis or diagnosis of needs is included as an important
process. While the model specified the development of standards using multiple sources, it can-
not replace the important function of situational analysis in the curriculum development process.
Situational analysis is helpful in understanding the context in which the curriculum is developed.
Analyzing the different curriculum sources and influences will lead to the development of curricu-
lum standards that are not just focused on a specific discipline, but will also consider the im-
portant role of the learners and society in curriculum development.
D. Understanding by Design Model (UbD)

The Understanding by Design model was developed by
Wiggins and McTighe (2002). It has become a byword in the
Philippine educational system because it was used to design the
current basic education curriculum. As of School Year 2010-2011, first
year and second year high school are using UbD.
FOCUSING
CONTENT
Curriculum evaluating determines the extent to which the desired outcomes have been
achieved. This procedure is on-going as in finding out the progress of learning (formative) or mas-
tery of learning (summative). Along the way, evaluation will determine the factors that have hin-
dered or supported the implementation.
38
The model is also called backward design for putting emphasis on starting with the
goals and objectives in designing curriculum. The model puts emphasis on designing curriculum
to engage students in exploring and deepening their understanding of important ideas and the
design of assessments (Wiggins & McTighe, 2002). Figure 1 shows the three stages in the
backward design process.
Stage 1: Identify
desired results.
Stage 2: Determine
acceptable evidence. Stage 3: Plan the
learning experiences
and instruction.
Figure 1. Stages in the Backward Design Process
Stage 1 includes what students should know, understand, and be able to do. It also asks the
questions about what is worthy of understanding and what enduring understandings are desired
for the learners. This calls for examining current curriculum goals and established
curriculum standards, and reviewing curriculum expectations. Stage 2 calls for designing
assessment evidence ford documenting or validating whether the desired learning has been
achieved. This model encourages the use of authentic assessment for assessing and evaluating
students’ learning. Stage 3 includes planning learning experiences that are useful in
implementing the curriculum. In this stage, teachers decide on the type of activities that the
students will do and the materials that will be needed for the planned activities.
The UbD model is prescriptive and rational, focusing on the development of goals as
the starting point of the curriculum development process. The model is currently popular in the
Phil- ippines because of its advocacy in focusing on enduring understandings or central ideas
(Wiggins & McTighe, 2002) as the central goal of the curriculum.
The model stresses on the six facets of understanding as a frame-
work for identifying the results or goals of learning. If this model is used
in the Philippines, it can help the CHED, particularly various teacher
education institutions, to revise their existing curricula to focus on
higher understanding rather than just prescribing subjects and course
descriptions. The UbD calls for the development of higher and more
relevant curriculum standards in the country.
UbD’s advocacy of planning for authentic assessment before
planning learning experiences is essential in connecting the assessment FOCUSING
CONTENT
The “backward design” puts greater emphasis on starting with the formulation of school
goals and objectives in designing the curriculum.
39
with the goals and learning experiences of the curriculum. Analyzing

what the learners should know and understand is an important feature
of the model. This principle will make the content of the teacher educa-
tion curriculum more learner-centered. Like Glatthorn’s model, it also
recognizes the important role of teachers in curriculum development
process, which is a good practice in curriculum development.
While the UbD model puts emphasis on analyzing what the
FOCUSING learners need to know and understand in formulating curriculum goals,
CONTENT the school authority or the government already fixes the standards. The
model is fixed at accepting what standards are prescribed by the govern-
ment agency on education. Consequently, the goals are most likely to
follow the prescribed content standards set by the government.
E. Systematic Design Model

Robert Diamond originally developed the Systematic Design model in the early
1960s. Since then, it has undergone major revisions but its structure is unchanged (Diamond,
1998). The model, as shown in Figure 2, has two basic phases: (1) project selection and design;
and (2) production, implementation, and evaluation. Like some of the previous models, it
follows a linear process of curriculum development. Diamond (1998) explained that ideally,
some actions must precede others, and certain decisions should not be made until all relevant
facts are known. It is imperative that all data must be complete before proceeding to the next
step.
Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/CHcPWVXAiR3Cugo17
Figure 2. Systematic Design Model
Project Selection and Design, and Production, Implementation, and Evaluation are the
two basic phases of Systematic Design Model.
40
The Systematic Design model is prescriptive and rational. It pre-

sents a systematic and linear view of curriculum development. The use
of diagrams is an excellent way of helping curriculum workers to visu-
alize the entire curriculum development process. As shown in its first
phase, some curriculum influences and sources are also acknowledged
in the process of curriculum development. These curriculum sources
and influences are used to determine the objectives of the curriculum. FOCUSING
The model relies heavily on data; therefore, it is important to CONTENT
gather necessary information before proceeding to each of the process-
es. This curriculum practice allows research to influence curriculum processes and encourages a
team approach to curriculum development.
The second phase of the model allows curriculum workers to design for the production and
implementation of the curriculum and on the importance of the evaluation of instructional mate-
rials to ensure the smooth implementation of the curriculum. The model involves a series of tasks,
which, if carefully followed, may result in a relevant and effective curriculum.
Similar to the weaknesses of linear models presented earlier, Diamond’s model ends in
Phase II. It assumes that the product, which is the curriculum, is final and good as planned. There
is no provision where curriculum workers can review their actions and decisions in relation to the
factors identified in Phase I. Probably, the data gathered were assumed to support the curriculum
and are sufficient to ensure that the curriculum is relevant and effective. Evaluation and revision
are only done in Phase II but in the level of instruction or the implemented curriculum.
The model, if applied in the Philippines, will probably be difficult to adapt because of the
lack of research culture in our education institutions. Having a research culture among
faculty members can improve the way higher education curricula are planned. The results of
these researches can serve as basis for developing curricula and in proposing necessary
changes in the curriculum. Print (1993) and Doll (1992) considered curriculum development
as a decision- making process, emphasizing for faculty members to conduct researches as a
basis for making curricular decisions.
F. Murray Print Model for Curriculum Development

Murray Print published his model in his book Curriculum Development and Design
in 1993. His model, as shown in Figure 3, prescribes a sequential and logical approach to
curriculum development to provide a useful and easy-to-understand process in developing
curriculum.
The first phase of Print’s model recognizes the nature of the curriculum workers involved
in the development of the curriculum. Accordingly, in this phase, it is important to pose the fol-
lowing questions that may influence curriculum development:
Curriculum development is a decision-making process which emphasizes that

faculty members must conduct researches as a basis for making curricular decisions (Print,
1993; Doll, 1992).
41
Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/Af8vz2MC1hmqKeUH9
Figure 3. Print’s Curriculum Development Model
1. Who are involved in this curriculum development, and what, if anything, do they repre-
sent?
2. What conceptions of curriculum do they bring with them?
3. What underlying forces or foundations have influenced the developers’ thinking?
The answers to these questions will bring useful insights into the type of curriculum that
will be developed.
The second phase in this model is the task of developing the curriculum. The procedure is
cyclical, which begins with a situational analysis, and continues with the aims, goals, and objec-
tives, content, learning activities, and instructional evaluation, and then continuing to situational
analysis again.
The third phase includes the actual application that incorporates
three major activities: (1) implementation of the curriculum, (2)
monitoring of and feedback from the curriculum, and (3) the
provision of feedback data to the presage group.
Print’s model is also prescriptive and rational. The model starts
with identifying the aims, goals, and objectives of the curriculum. It also
embraces the principles of cyclical and dynamic models in its proce-
dures. Curriculum workers can examine their functions as they go
through the process of curriculum development. Print’s idea of curricu-
FOCUSING lum presage recognizes the important role and influence of various cur-
CONTENT riculum workers involved in different curricular activities. It also recog-
Curriculum presage acknow ledges the important role and influence of various
curriculum workers in different curricular activities (Print, 1993).
42
nizes the myriad of curriculum conceptions and ideas that various curriculum workers bring to
the curriculum development process which may influence them in making important curricular
decisions.
The inclusion of instructional evaluation in the development process makes this model
unique. Evaluation provides necessary data regarding the implementation of the curriculum. The
result of the evaluation is valuable in examining whether the curriculum is applicable to the stu-
dents or whether the goals of the curriculum have been achieved. The inclusion of a monitoring
and feedback system in curriculum development is also useful when there is a need to do some
revisions. Lastly, this model can be used in any level of curriculum development—local, college-
wide, or national. Hence, it is very practical to apply this model in the Philippines.
Print’s model describes the process of curriculum development on a macro level; however,
it is not clear where the philosophy of the institution and philosophy of the curriculum will come
into play. Philosophy is very influential in curriculum processes. The philosophy of the school and
of the curriculum embodies or reflects the kind of curriculum offered in a particular situation.
Philosophy should precede selection of objectives.
Furthermore, Print’s model should establish a stronger link between the curriculum pres-
age and the situational analysis. The model gives an impression that curriculum presage has no
direct effect or relationship with situational analysis. Curriculum presage is part of situational
analysis since the various curriculum workers are also part of the context or environment of the
curriculum.
Curriculum development is a cyclical or continuous process (Nicholls & Nicholls, 1978).
Cyclical Models of Curriculum Development
The cyclical models prescribe a cyclical or continuous process of curriculum development. Cyclical models
usually start with situational analysis that serves as the basis for all the succeeding process.
A. Audrey Nicholls and Howard Nicholls Model for Curricu- lum Development
An example of a cyclical model for curriculum development was developed by Nicholls and Nicholls
(1978). The model emphasizes the cyclical nature of curriculum development. According to Nicholls
and Nicholls (1978), curriculum development is a continuous process.
As shown in Figure 4, the model prescribes five logical and interdependent stages that are continuous
curriculum development process. The model starts with a situational analysis in which curricular decisions
FOCUSIN
are made, followed by the selection of objectives and succeeding phases.
G
CONTEN
43 T
Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/Y96Yr4SmGNfB2zrh7
Figure 4. Nicholls and Nicholls Curriculum Development Model
The model is highly prescriptive and dynamic. The inclusion of situational analysis as part
of the model is a valuable principle in curriculum development. It enables the curriculum workers
to understand better the context in which curriculum is developed. By starting with situational
analysis, curriculum workers will be able to collect data and the needed information from various
curriculum sources and influences that are prerequisites in formulating curriculum goals and ob-
jectives. Thus, if applied in college setting, faculty members need to conduct situational analysis
before planning their syllabi and curriculum plans. This will make it possible for the curriculum
to be more relevant and responsive to the needs of the students and the school.
Nicholls and Nicholls model also recognizes the influence and importance of contributing
disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology in developing the curriculum.
These disciplines are useful in selecting the curriculum goals and objectives, content, learning
experiences, and evaluation. The importance of these three disciplines in developing
curriculum is also recognized in the model of Tyler (1949).
Moreover, this model has the potential to be used in any educational setting, either school-
based or on a national level. The cyclical nature of the model also enables curriculum workers in
making the necessary changes and adjustments in the total curriculum. This attribute of the mod-
el is helpful for teachers, administrators, and education boards to ad-
dress curricular issues and propose innovations and changes whenever
needed. The model of Nicholls and Nicholls advocates a curriculum
development activity that involves continuous improvement.
However, there is little weakness found in this model. The possi-
ble problem that may occur is that many curriculum workers are used
to develop curricula following a linear model. In the Philippines, for
example, curriculum development follows a top-down approach where
many curricular decisions are made in the national level. The goals and FOCUSING
contents of the curriculum are set by the state.
CONTENT
The inclusion of situational analysis is a valuable principle in curriculum development. It

enables the curriculum workers to understand better the context in which the school curriculum is
developed.
44
B. Wheeler’s Curriculum Development Model
Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/Z44LSC9yAm3TvAhG8
Figure 5. Wheeler’s Curriculum Development Model
In his influential book Curriculum Process, Wheeler (1967) presented a cyclical process
in which each element of the curriculum is related and interdependent (see Figure 5). Although
this model is also rational in nature, each phase is a logical development of the preceding one.
One cannot proceed to the next phase unless the preceding phase is done. Wheeler also
emphasized the importance of starting from the development of aims, goals, and objectives.
C. The Contextual Filters Model of Course Planning

The Contextual Filters Model of Course Planning was developed by Stark, Lowther, Bent-
ley, Ryan, Martens, Genthon, Wren, and Shaw in 1990 as part of their study conducted at the Uni-
versity of Michigan National Center for Research to Improve Post-Secondary Teaching and
Learning. This model appeared in the book Shaping the College Curriculum written by Stark
and Lattuca, published in 1997.
Content influences encompass faculty members’ background
and associated disciplinary and educational beliefs. Contextual
influences refer to the influences outside of the instructor’s immediate
control that causes adjustments in the course plans such as student
characteristics or instructional resources. Course decisions include the
processes that are followed when designing a course (Stark & Latucca,
1997).
The Contextual Filters model presents a cyclical view of curricu-
lum development. After making course decisions, the planners can check
with content considerations and contextual filters. It describes the reali-
FOCUSING ty on how college faculty members design their courses. Hence it is very
much applicable for designing higher education courses.
CONTENT
Content influences include faculty members’ background and associated disciplinary and
educational beliefs.
45
Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/47kC3ww4dd1rzJPZ6
Figure 6. The Contextual Filters Model of Course Planning
This model is based on a research on how faculty members in several higher education in-
stitutions in the United States plan their curriculum (Stark & Latucca, 1997). Several curriculum
influences such as faculty background and educational beliefs are recognized in the model.
The influence and the special role of faculty members in curriculum planning and
development are recognized as a main factor in curriculum development in higher education.
The Contextual Filters model is very teacher-centered. Given the influence of academic
freedom, faculty members may plan the curriculum based on their own convenience. This model
can be improved by putting students as part of the content influences. In many curriculum mod-
els, students are viewed as a significant source of curriculum. Considering the fact that most col-
lege faculty members do not pedagogical training, this model failed to
elaborate how contents and process are arranged. This could have been
very useful for faculty members, especially neophyte instructors, who
do not have background knowledge on education.
FOCUSING
CONTENT
The influence and the special role of faculty members in curriculum planning and develop-
ment are recognized as a main factor in curriculum development in higher education.
46
Dynamic Models of Curriculum Development
The dynamic models describe how curriculum workers develop

curriculum in various educational contexts. The dynamic curriculum
development models are usually used in school-based settings.
A. Walker’s Model of Curriculum Development

Decker Walker developed a model for curriculum development FOCUSING
and first published it in 1971. Walker contended that curriculum devel- CONTENT
opers do not follow the prescriptive approach of the rationale-
linear sequence of curriculum elements when they develop curricula
(Walker,
1971; Marsh & Willis, 2007; Print, 1993). In his model, Walker was particularly interested on how
curriculum workers actually do their tasks in curriculum development. As shown in Figure
7, Walker was able to identify three phases, which he termed platform, deliberation, and design.
Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/8oNPDdsnE2WkXuTW8
Figure 7. Walker’s Naturalistic Model
In the Platform phase, Walker suggested that curriculum workers bring with them
their individual beliefs, knowledge, and values. They have their own ideas about how to do their
tasks and they are prepared to discuss and argue about them. The first phase is similar to the
idea of Print (1993) of a curriculum presage. The Deliberations phase, on the other hand,
involves identifying which facts are needed for means and ends, generating alternatives and
considering the con- sequences of these alternatives. This phase is also used in weighing
alternative costs and conse- quences, and choosing the best alternative for the curriculum tasks
they are about to do. The third phase, which is Curriculum Design, involves planning, decision-
making, and the actual development of the curriculum.
Walker’s model is a dynamic and descriptive model of curriculum development. It reflects
the realities of how curriculum workers plan and develop a curriculum. It recognizes the role and
influence of curriculum workers in any curriculum development tasks.
The Platform phase in Walker’s Naturalistic Model is similar to the idea of Print (1993) of a
curriculum presage.
47
In addition, it avoids the obsession of starting with

objectives. This practice is also observed in the model of Print
(1993). Since the model is dynamic, the curriculum workers may
commence at any point in the curriculum process depending on
their needs. This allows more flexibility among curriculum workers in
developing curriculum. Curric- ulum workers may review their previous
FOCUSING
decisions and actions to correct some mistakes. According to Walker
CONTENT (1971), this model can be used for a school-based curriculum
development.
The model, being dynamic, can be confusing to other curriculum work-
ers who are not aware of the necessary processes of curriculum development. If this model is ap-
plied in the Philippines, where most teachers are mere implementers of curriculum developed by
other educators, it may not have value to them.
Another weakness of Walker’s model is a strong tendency of the curriculum
development to be stuck in Phase II. According to Print (1993), too much discussion may
lead to analysis- paralysis syndrome that could penalize or prolong the process of
curriculum development. Probably, this model can be elaborated more on the design process
involved in Phase III to help teachers and neophyte curriculum workers to their tasks.
B. Skilbeck’s Curriculum Development Model

In 1976, Malcolm Skilbeck came up with a model for developing a school-based curriculum
in Australia. His model presents a dynamic view of curriculum development. When using
this model, curriculum workers may start from any phase. However, as shown in Figure 8, each
phase is interrelated and follows a systematic sequence. Skilbeck’s model includes a situational
analysis that involves gathering data from the school, society, and the learners. The results of
the situational analysis provide strong bases for making curricular decisions for all the
succeeding phases of curriculum development.
Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/8G1mjWtaYrk6Zmnh6
Figure 8. Skilbeck’s Curriculum Development Model
According to Print (1993), too much discussion made on specific phase may lead to analysis
-paralysis syndrome that could penalize or prolong the process of curriculum development.
48
C. Eisner’s Artistic Approach to Curriculum Development

Elliot W. Eisner was a famous curriculum scholar. In 1979, he published the book The
Edu- cational Imagination where he presented his idea on how curriculum development
should be done. Eisner (1979) believed that there is a need to develop a new theory that
recognizes the artistry of teaching which is useful in helping teachers develop those arts. In
his book, Eisner outlined how this artistic approach can also be used in curriculum
development.
Table 1. Eisner’s Artistic Model of Curriculum Development
1. Goals and their priorities

 The need to consider less, well-defined objectives as well as explicit ones
 The need for deliberation in talking through priorities
2. Content of curriculum
 Options to consider in selecting curriculum
 Caveats about the null curriculum
3. Types of learning activities
 Emphasis on transforming goals and content into learning events that will be of signifi-
cance to students
4. Organization of learning opportunities
 Emphasis on a nonlinear approach in order to encourage diverse student outcomes
5. Organization of content areas
 Emphasis on cross-curricula organization of content
6. Mode of presentation and mode of response
 Use of a number of modes of communication to widen educational opportunities for stu-
dents
7. Types of evaluation procedure
 Use of a comprehensive range of procedures at different stages of the process of curricu-
In selecting the goals and objectives of the curriculum,

Eisner (1979) stressed an artful process of arriving at a consensus
about curricular priorities by involving the participants. Engaging
the participants is similar to Walker’s (1971) idea of platform or
Schwab’s (1971) idea of deliberation. In selecting the content of the
curriculum, Eisner (2002) considered the three sources of curriculum:
individual, society, and subject matter as identified by Tyler (1949).
In selecting learning opportunities, Eisner strongly favored providing
students with a wide variety of learning opportunities. Accordingly, FOCUSING
educational imagination CONTENT
In selecting the goals and objectives of the curriculum, Eisner (1979) stressed an artful
process of arriving at a consensus about curricular priorities by involving the participants. Engaging
49
the participants is similar to Walker’s (1971) idea of platform or Schwab’s (1971) idea of deliberation.
41
0
must transform goals and contents into high-quality experiences for students (Eisner, 2002).
Eisner also emphasized on providing a variety of learning opportunities to different types
of students using varied resources and activities. He contended that curriculum content should be
organized and integrated in different ways. Eisner suggested using different strategies and meth-
ods to engage the students in meaningful learning. Lastly, for Eisner, evaluation is not the final
step of curriculum development, but rather it is something that pervades the entire
curriculum development process (Eisner, 1985).
This model can be applied in designing school-based curriculum development or in nation-
al curriculum projects. Eisner’s model is an open-ended process of a form of a dynamic model. It
is descriptive in offering a general approach that can be followed by curriculum workers, yet the
model is also prescriptive in offering suggestions about what should happen when developing a
curriculum.
Eisner’s model recognizes the influence of various curriculum workers in developing a cur-
riculum. The model emphasizes the importance of having well-defined goals and objectives in
curriculum. It recognizes the varied activities that teachers do in the school to attain the goals of
the curriculum.
This model may be effective in the context of developing and designing courses for higher
education. The influence of academic freedom and the changing nature of the disciplines in high-
er education require a curriculum model that is less prescriptive but logical enough to embrace
the artistic or creative ways in which faculty members develop their courses.
Since the processes are not procedural, curriculum workers can always modify and im-
prove their curricula to address certain problems and needs. This model calls for more relevant
and responsive ways of selecting and organizing contents and learning experiences in order to
respond to the diverse needs of students.
D. Pawilen’s Model for Developing Curriculum

Pawilen (2011) developed this model as one of the major outputs
of his doctoral dissertation in the University of the Philippines, Diliman.
This model was developed to help curriculum workers in developing
a curriculum that is relevant and appropriate to the Philippine
context (Pawilen, 2011).
Curriculum sources are general factors that influence or
affect curriculum development and decision-making in the macro-level.
Posner (1995) suggested two levels of curriculum development:
macro level, which includes the general or overall process of
curriculum develop-
FOCUSING ment; and the micro level, which focuses on specific phase/s or on spe-
CONTENT cific context/s like school-based curriculum development.
Curriculum sources are general factors that influence or affect curriculum development
and decision-making in the macro-level.
50
There are three curriculum sources in the model: learners, socie-

ty, and disciplines. These curriculum sources are based on the model of
Ralph Tyler (1949). The learners as a curriculum source is very
important. Knowing their interests, needs, learning styles, thinking
styles, culture, socio-economic status, gender, and other variables are
significant data for developing a curriculum. Understanding the
nature of the learners is helpful for curriculum workers to make FOCUSING
appropriate choices in curriculum decision-making (Print, 1993). CONTENT
Society is also considered as a source of curriculum. Knowledge
about society provides better understanding of the context in which the curriculum will be imple-
mented. Cultural values, beliefs, attitudes, political and economic systems, and the physical envi-
ronment directly or indirectly affect curriculum development because the learners are an integral
part of the society. Understanding the nature of the discipline is also essential in curriculum de-
velopment. It can provide data for making decisions as to what contents should be included in the
curriculum and how to organize the contents of the curriculum.
1. Situational Analysis
Curriculum Sources
 Learners 2. Selection of Goals and Objectives
 Society 3. Development of Curriculum Standards
 Discipline a. Developing a comprehensive set of standards

b. Aligning standards with several criteria
c. Securing teachers’ input
d. Validating of standards by experts
e. Developing final curriculum standards
Curriculum Influences 4. Selection of Contents or Subject Areas

 External 5. Selection and Organization of Learning Experiences
 Internal
6. Implementation
 Organizational
7. Evaluation
Figure 9. Pawilen’s Model for Developing Curriculum

As shown in Figure 9, the curriculum sources are considered vital in conducting situational
analysis. Curriculum sources provide the necessary data in determining the goals and objectives of
the curriculum. These curriculum sources are also available in making decisions on the develop-
ment of curriculum standards. In the revised model, an arrow connects the curriculum sources to
Phase III.
The learners as a curriculum source is very important. Knowing their interests, needs, learning
styles, and other variables are vital data for developing a curriculum. Understanding learners’ nature is
helpful for curriculum workers to make appropriate choices in curriculum decision-making (Print, 1993).
51
Curriculum influences are specific factors that affect the

development of the curriculum and decision-making in the micro-
level. The idea of curriculum influences was adapted from the model of
Stark and Lattuca (1997). Accordingly, these curriculum
influences can be grouped into three: external, internal, and
organizational.
FOCUSING
CONTENT External influences are social factors that directly influence
curriculum decision-making. These factors are society, market demand,
government, disciplinary associations, and alumni. Internal influences
are those that are related to the school like faculty members, students,
disciplines, and program mission. Organizational influences are school factors but they are
more concerned with the governance of the program and support system like school resources,
leadership, governance, and program relationship (Stark & Lattuca, 1997). These curriculum
influences provide important data for conducting situational analysis.
In the revised proposed model, the various curriculum influences are integral, as shown in
the arrow connecting the curriculum influences and the development of curriculum standards. In
all phases of curriculum development, these curriculum influences are always considered. For
example, new government policies, in most cases, need to be implemented immediately. Change
in school leadership and programs also need immediate action. Consequently, at any point, the
curriculum influences may have direct or indirect effect on curriculum development. The broken
arrows connecting the curriculum influences with the different phases of curriculum development
show this. This influence makes the model dynamic. It always considers the changing nature,
needs, and demands of its context.
By nature, curriculum sources and influences serve as bases for selecting and making deci-
sions about the various elements of curriculum: intent, content, learning experiences, and evalua-
tion.
Curriculum influences are specific factors that affect the development of the curriculum
and decision-making in the micro-level.
Processes for Developing a Curriculum
Situational Analysis - the first phase. It starts with analyzing the context in which the curriculum is developed. The
situational analysis includes a study of the different curriculum sources (students, society, and disciplines or subject
matter), and careful examination of the different curriculum influences (internal, external, and organizational) that
affect curriculum development.
Selection of Goals and Objectives - results from situational analysis. In some cases, if the government or the
university prescribes the curriculum goals and objectives, such features will be considered as part of the internal or
external influences that will be studied in the situational analysis.
52
Processes for Developing a Curriculum
3. Development of Curriculum Standards— takes place after the situational analysis and selec-
tion of goals and objectives. The first phase of Glatthorn’s (1998) model was modified to sim-
plify the task for developing curriculum standards: (a) develop a comprehensive set of content
standards by examining various curriculum sources and influences; (b) align the standards
with several criteria; (c) secure teachers’ input to revise and improve the standards; (d) ask
experts to validate the standards; and (e) develop the final draft of standards, divided into con-
tent standards, skill standards, and values standards.
4. Selection of Content or Subject Areas—phase where the developed curriculum standards are
used to select subjects or courses to be included in the curriculum.
5. Selection and Organization of Learning Experiences— includes selecting learning activities,
organizing instructional plans, and selecting instructional materials to be used in implement-
ing the curriculum.
6. Implementation— involves the actual implementation of the curriculum by faculty members.
It is where the actual teaching and learning take place.
7. Evaluation— the final phase; phase where the goals and objectives of the curriculum, including
the design and selection of all the curriculum elements, are evaluated. After the result of the
evaluation, the curriculum development process will go back to situational analysis to reex-
amine the needs and include necessary changes and demands from curriculum sources and
influences.
FOCUSING
CONTENT
After the evaluation results, the curriculum development process will go back to situational analysis
to reexamine the needs and include necessary changes and demands from curriculum sources and influences.
53
Activity 4.1 Sequencing Curricular Processes
Directions: Create a chart showing the sequence of the processes in-

volved in developing a school curriculum. Provide descriptions for
TAKING each process as well as the vital roles played by teachers in each of the
processes. Be guided by the sample given below.
ACTION
Activity 4.2 Mapping Personal Arguments
Directions: Select a curriculum development model that you think would be effectively imple-
mented in the Philippines. Then devise a persuasion map that reflects your personal arguments in
using such curriculum development model. Be guided by the sample map presented below.
54
Activity 4.3 Drawing Out Curriculum Models’
Strengths and Weaknesses
Directions: Review the different curriculum development models. De-

TAKING termine the possible strengths and weaknesses of each curriculum de-
velopment model when it is applied in the Philippine context. Be guid-
ACTION ed by the sample diagram presented below.
Part A. True or False
ASSESSING
Directions: Write your nickname if the statement is factual.
If the statement is false, write your instructor’s first name. THINGS
Write your answers on the blanks. LEARNED
1. Curriculum development should be logical and systematic.
2. Curriculum development should follow a sequential and illogical process.

3. Standards-based curriculum development model recognizes teachers’ input in de-
veloping standards.
4. The UbD model is descriptive and rational, focusing on the development of goals as
starting point of the curriculum development process.
5. The use of diagrams is an excellent way of helping learners to visualize the entire curric-
ulum development process.
6. Evaluation provides necessary data regarding the implementation of the curriculum.
7. The inclusion of situational analysis is a valuable principle in curriculum development.
8. The Contextual Filters model presents a cynical view of curriculum development.
9. Walker’s model is a dynamic and prescriptive model of curriculum development.
10. Curriculum influences are specific factors that affect curriculum development and deci-
sion-making processes.
Part B. Matching Type
Directions: Match the follow ing curriculum development models listed in Column A with their
corresponding descriptions/advocacies given in Column B. Write your answers on the blanks pro-
vided before each number.
Column A Column B
1. Tyler’s Rational-Linear Model a. Inclusion of ideal and operational sequences

2. Taba’s Grassroots Rational Model b. Use of authentic assessment
3. Standards-based Model c. Development of aims, goals, and objectives
4. Understanding by Design Model d. Inclusion of curriculum presage
5. Systematic Design Model e. Introduction of program building
6. Murray Print’s Model f. Identification of curriculum sources and influences
7. Nicholls and Nicholls’ Model g. Determination of school purposes
8. Wheeler’s Model h. Influence of faculty background
9. Contextual Filters Model i. Inclusion of situational analysis
10. Walker’s Model j. Introduction of the artistry of teaching theory
11. Skilbeck’s Model k. Diagnosis of needs
12. Eisner’s Artistic Approach l. Introduction of platform and deliberation phases
13. Pawilen’s Model m. Use of benchmarking
56
Part C. Essay
ASSESSING
Directions: Select one curriculum model from the three
THINGS LEARNED
clusters of curriculum development models
presented in this lesson. Then write a 300-
word essay indicating your personal argu-
ments in choosing this particular curriculum development model. Be guided by the
rubric provided below.
Levels of Performance
Criteria 4 3 2 1
Exemplary Accomplished Developing Basic
Content (40%) Thesis statement is Thesis statement is Thesis statement is No established thesis
very well-established. established and the fairly developed. Writ- statement; lacks clarity
Writer takes a clear writer takes somewhat er’s position, while of focus.
position in response to clear position in re- stated in some ways,
the articles’ argument. sponse to the article’s lacks clarity.
argument.
Organization (40%) Very clearly and effec- Effectively structured. Somewhat organized. No attempt at organiza-
tively structured. Transitions are some- Transitions may not tion; no transitions used
Transitions are what smooth and be smooth and there and/or frequent errors
smoothly and effec- there are some errors are some errors in in usage.
tively used. in usage. usage.
Mechanics (20%) All sentences are well- Mot sentences are well Mot sentences are well Sentences sound awk-
constructed and have -constructed and have -constructed but they ward, are distractingly
varied structures and varied structures and have similar structures repetitive, or are diffi-
lengths; no errors in lengths; few errors in and lengths; several cult to understand nu-
spelling, punctuation, spelling, punctuation, errors in spelling, merous errors in
capitalization, gram- capitalization, gram- punctuation, capitali- spelling, punctuation,
mar, etc. mar, etc., but they do zation, grammar, etc., capitalization, grammar,
not interfere with un- that interfere with etc., that interfere with
derstanding. understanding. understanding.
RUBRIC
57
REFERENCES Alexander, W. M. & Saylor, J. G. (1981). Curriculum planning for
better teaching and learning (4th ed.). New York, NY: Holt, Rine-
hart, & Winston.
Beauchamp, G. A. (1968). Curriculum theory. Wilmette, IL: The Kagg Press.
Bestor, A. E. (1953). Educational wastelands. Champaign, Illinois: University of Illinois Press.
Bloom, B. S. (Ed.), Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy
of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook 1:
Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay.
Brubacher, S. (1965). Basis for policy in higher education. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Caswell, H. L., & Campbell, D. S. (1935). Curriculum development. New York: American Book.
Cornbleth, C. (1988). Curriculum in and out of context. Journal of Curriculum and Supervision,
3 (2), 85–96.
Cortes, C.E. (1981). The societal curriculum: Implications for multiethnic educations. In Banks,
J.A (ed.) Educations in the 80’s: Multiethnic education. National Education Association.
Cunningham, G. K. (1998). Assessment in the classroom: Constructing and interpreting tests.

Lon- don: Falmer Press.
Dewey, J. (1956). The child and the curriculum: And the school and society. Chicago, IL: Universi-
ty of Chicago Press.
Diamond, R. M. (1998). Designing courses and curricula. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Eisner, E. W. (1979, 1994, 2002). The educational imagination: On design and evaluation of
school programs. (3rd. ed) New York: Macmillan.
Glatthorn, A. (2000). The principal as curriculum leader. 2 nd Edition. Corwin Press, Goodlad, J. I.
(1984). A place called school. McGraw Hill.
Goodlad, J. I., & Su, Z. (1992). Organization of the curriculum. In P. W. Jackson (Ed.), Handbook
of research on curriculum (pp. 327-344). New York: Macmillan.
Grundy, S. (1987) Curriculum: product or praxis. Lewes: Falmer Press
Hutchins, R. M., ed. (1952). Great books of the western world. 54 vol. Chicago: William Benton.
Mager, R. F. (1962). Preparing instructional objectives. Palo Alto, CA: Fearon.
Marsh, C. J. & Willis, G. (2003). Curriculum: Alternative approaches. Ongoing Issues, 3rd Ed. Co-
lumbus, OH: Merrill.
Nicholls, A. & Nicholls H. (1978). Developing a curriculum: a practical guide.
Ornstein, A. & Hunkins, F. (2004). Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and theory. United States
of America: The Library of Congress.
Othanel, S. B., Stanley, W. W., & Shores, J. H. (1950). Fundamentals of curriculum development.
Yonkers, New York: World Book Company.
58
Pawilen, G. T. (2011). A model for developing curriculum standards for preschool teacher educa-
tion. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. College of Education, University of the
Philip- pines, Diliman.
Phenix, P. H. (1977). Education and the common good: A moral philosophy of the curriculum.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, Inc.
Posner, G. (1995). Analyzing the curriculum. 2nd Ed. New York: McGrawHill, Inc.
Pratt, D. (1980). Curriculum, design, and development. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Print, M. (1993). Curriculum development and design. 2 nd Ed. New South Wales: Allen and Unwin.
Scheffler, I. (1970). Philosophy and the curriculum. In: I Scheffler (ed.) Reason and Teaching. Lon-
don: Routledge.
Schubert, W. H. (1987). Educationally recovering Dewey in curriculum. Education and Culture, 7

(1), 2.
Schwab, J. J. (1978). The practical: A language for curriculum. In I. Westbury & N. J.

Wilkof (Eds.), Science, curriculum, and liberal education: Selected essays (pp. 287–321).
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. (Original work published 1969).
Simpson E. J. (1972). The classification of educational objectives in the psychomotor domain.

Washington, DC: Gryphon House.
Skilbeck, M. (1976). School-based curriculum development process and teacher education. Mimeo-
graph, OECD.
Stark, J. & Latucca, L. (1997). Shaping the college curriculum: Academic plans in content.
San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass.
Stark, J.S., Lowther, M.A., Bentley, R.J., Ryan, M.P., Genthon, M.L., Martens, G.G. & Wren, P.A.
(1990). Planning Introductory College Courses: Influences on Faculty. Ann Arbor, MI:
Uni- versity of Michigan, National Center for Research to Improve Postsecondary
Teaching and Learning.
Stotsky, S. (2012). The death and resurrection of a coherent literature curriculum: What secondary
English teachers can do. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.
Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum development: Theory and practice. New York: Harcourt Brace.
Tanner, D. (1980). Curriculum development: Theory into practice. University of Michigan:
Mac-
millan.
Tyler, R. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago: University of

Chicago Press.
Walker, D. F. (1971). A naturalistic model of curriculum development. School Review, 80(1), 51-
65. Wheeler, D.K. (1978). Curriculum process. London: Hodder &Stoughton.
Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2002). The Understanding by Design

guide to creating high quality units. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
REFERENCES Wilson, L. O. (2006). What are the types of curriculum.

59
www.uwsp.edu/education
/Lwilson/currhc/curtyp.h
tm.
51
0
Directions: Read carefully the following questions and encircle the
letter of the correct answer.
1. According to Joseph Schwab, what is considered the sole source of
curriculum?
SUMMING
a. lesson plan c. knowledge UP THINGS
b. discipline d. syllabus LEARNED
2. The following curricularists view curriculum as a science EXCEPT
.
a. Hollis Caswell c. Ralph Tyler
b. Franklin Bobbit d. Werret Charters
3. Which of the following is considered the core or the heart of the curriculum?
a. aims, goals, and objectives c. experiences
b. content or subject matter d. evaluation
4. Also called the backward design, which of the following model puts emphasis on starting with
the goals and objectives in designing the curriculum?
a. Rational-Linear c. Systematic Design
b. Understanding by Design d. Grassroots Rational
5. The word curriculum derives its origin from the Latin word “curere” which means
.
a. garden c. classroom
b. plot d. oval track
6. Who assumes that the child is an active agent in his or her educational process?
a. Ivan Pavlov c. Jean Piaget
b. Edward Thorndike d. Lev Vygostsky
7. The fund of knowledge represents the repository of accumulated discoveries and inventions of
man down the centuries due to man’s exploration of his world. This notion reflects the
view of the curriculum.
a. subject-centered c. child-centered
b. learner-centered d. problem-centered
8. Which of the following models stresses the inclusion of situational analysis as a valuable princi-
ple in curriculum development?
a. Nichols and Nichols Curriculum Development Model
b. Contextual Filters Model of Course Planning
c. Wheeler’s Curriculum Development Model
d. Walker’s Naturalistic Model
9. Curriculum is defined as “the total learning experiences of the individual”. This definition ad-
heres to the point of view of the curriculum.
a. traditional c. progressive
b. orthodox d. conservative
10. Teacher Ben believes that all teachers must act as agents of change and reforms in the society.
Considering his viewpoint, Teacher Ben is a/an .
a. perennialist c. progressivist
b. reconstructionist d. essentialist
60
11. What form of assessment that can be viewed as an extension of self-assessment and pre-
supposes trust and mutual respect?
a. teacher assessment c. formative assessment
b. summative assessment d. peer assessment
12. Which of the following processes involves the study of different curriculum sources and careful
examination of various influences that affect curriculum development?
a. implementation c. monitoring
b. evaluation d. situational analysis
13. Philip Phenix asserts that curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge which comes from
various disciplines. Based on his viewpoint, Philip Phenix adheres to the point of
view of the curriculum.
a. traditional c. neoteric
b. progressive d. liberal
14. Who suggests the use of home schooling as a delivery mode in which parents, having the re-
sources, could teach the prescribed curriculum from home as a result of technology?
a. John Dewey c. Alvin Toffler
b. Carl Rogers d. Abraham Maslow
15. Peer influence, physical condition, teacher-learner interaction, mood of the teachers, and other
factors that transpire in schools make up the curriculum.
a. taught c. recommended
b. hidden d. support
16. Which of the following models identifies platform, deliberation, and design as three phases of
curriculum development?
a. Print’s Model c. Naturalistic Model
b. Systematic Design Model d. Rational-Linear Model
17. Who view curriculum as “all the experiences in the classroom which are planned and enacted
by the teacher and also learned by the students?”
a. Colin Marsh and Hollis Caswell c. Colin Marsh and George Willis
b. George Willis and William Stanley d. George Willis and Ken Campbell
18. Daniel Goleman strongly asserts that emotion contains the power to affect action. He calls this
as .
a. emotional stability c. emotional equilibrium
b. emotional quotient d. emotional maturity
19. Ideas offered by policymakers, school officials, and politicians, as well as those from profes-
sionals involved in concept formation and content changes comprise the curricu-
lum.
a. concomitant c. rhetorical
b. phantom d. null
20. Which of the following ideas of Print that recognizes the im-
portant role and influence of various curriculum workers involved
in different curriculum activities? SUMMING
a. instructional evaluation c. situational analysis UP THINGS
b. curriculum presage d. learning activities LEARNED
61
ANSWERS
ASSESSING YOUR PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
Lesson 1 Lesson 2 Lesson 3 Lesson 4
1. b 1. a 1. c 1. b
2. d 2. d 2. a 2. a
3. c 3. b 3. d 3. d
4. a 4. c 4. b 4. c
5. c 5. b 5. c 5. b
ASSESSING THINGS LEARNED
Lesson 1 Part A Part B

1. Traditional 6. Traditional 1. Disagree 6. Disagree
2. Progressive 7. Traditional 2. Agree 7. Agree
3. Traditional 8. Progressive 3. Disagree 8. Agree
4. Traditional 9. Traditional 4. Disagree 9. Disagree
5. Progressive 10. Traditional 5. Agree 10. Agree

1. child 6. home schooling 1. i 6. h
2. Perennialism 7. Progressivism 2. e 7. d
3. project 8. accommodation 3. g 8. a
4. assimilation 9. John Dewey 4. j 9. c
5. Essentialism 10. Reconstructionism 5. b 10. f

1. educational objectives 6. content 1. h 6. o 11. g
2. hidden curriculum 7. taught curriculum 2. m 7. d 12. f
3. learning outcomes 8. rhetorical curriculum 3. a 8. k 13. i
4. received curriculum 9. curriculum experiences 4. j 9. e 14. l
5. schools 10. peer assessment 5. c 10. n 15. b

1. student’s nickname 6. student’s nickname 1. g 6. d 11. e
2. instructor’s first name 7. student’s nickname 2. k 7. i 12. j
3. student’s nickname 8. instructor’s first name 3. m 8. c 13. f
4. instructor’s first name 9. instructor’s first name 4. b 9. h
5. instructor’s first name 10. student’s nickname 5. a 10. l
SUMMING UP THINGS LEARNED
1. b 6. d 11. d 16. c
2. a 7. a 12. d 17. c
3. c 8. a 13. a 18. b
4. b 9. c 14. c 19. c
5. d 10. b 15. b 20. b
62

Lesson: Curriculum Development Models and Processes

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LEARNING OUTCOMES

LESSON 4 At the end of the lesson, you should be able to do the

Curriculum Development develop a sequence chart indicating the processes involved

design a persuasion map reflecting one’s argument on the use

create a diagram showing the strengths and weaknesses of

Directions: Read carefully the following questions and encircle

Linear Models of Curriculum Development

A. Tyler’s Rational-Linear Model

Society Students Subject Matter

Philosophy of Education Psychology of Learning

Selecting Learning Experiences

Organizing Learning Experiences

Figure 1. Tyler’s Rational-Linear Model

Ralph Tyler, at the University of Chicago, developed the first model of

His model, as shown in Figure 1, presents a process of curricu-

B. Taba’s Grassroots Rational Model

Taba also suggested that curriculum development could be made

The standards-based curriculum development model was developed by Allan

Table 1. Standards-Based Curriculum Development Model

Phase I. Develop standards.

Glatthorn’s model is an example of a linear and rational curriculum development model.

D. Understanding by Design Model (UbD)

Figure 1. Stages in the Backward Design Process

with the goals and learning experiences of the curriculum. Analyzing

E. Systematic Design Model

Figure 2. Systematic Design Model

The Systematic Design model is prescriptive and rational. It pre-

F. Murray Print Model for Curriculum Development

Curriculum development is a decision-making process which emphasizes that

Figure 3. Print’s Curriculum Development Model

Curriculum development is a cyclical or continuous process (Nicholls & Nicholls, 1978).

Cyclical Models of Curriculum Development

Figure 4. Nicholls and Nicholls Curriculum Development Model

The inclusion of situational analysis is a valuable principle in curriculum development. It

B. Wheeler’s Curriculum Development Model

Figure 5. Wheeler’s Curriculum Development Model

C. The Contextual Filters Model of Course Planning

Figure 6. The Contextual Filters Model of Course Planning

The dynamic models describe how curriculum workers develop

A. Walker’s Model of Curriculum Development

Figure 7. Walker’s Naturalistic Model

In addition, it avoids the obsession of starting with

B. Skilbeck’s Curriculum Development Model

Figure 8. Skilbeck’s Curriculum Development Model

C. Eisner’s Artistic Approach to Curriculum Development

Table 1. Eisner’s Artistic Model of Curriculum Development

1. Goals and their priorities

In selecting the goals and objectives of the curriculum,

D. Pawilen’s Model for Developing Curriculum

There are three curriculum sources in the model: learners, socie-

 Learners 2. Selection of Goals and Objectives

 Society 3. Development of Curriculum Standards

 Discipline a. Developing a comprehensive set of standards

Curriculum Influences 4. Selection of Contents or Subject Areas

Figure 9. Pawilen’s Model for Developing Curriculum

Curriculum influences are specific factors that affect the

Processes for Developing a Curriculum

Directions: Create a chart showing the sequence of the processes in-

Activity 4.2 Mapping Personal Arguments

Directions: Review the different curriculum development models. De-

2. Curriculum development should follow a sequential and illogical process.

Part B. Matching Type

1. Tyler’s Rational-Linear Model a. Inclusion of ideal and operational sequences