Preparing for AP English Language?

This is a list of main rhetorical device terms that you should

know for the exam (as well as some much less important terms marked with an asterisk *) and
definitions & examples for each. These terms will mostly show up on the multiple–choice section,
so it’s important to be able to identify them in a work of writing, but you won’t actually have to use
the device in your own writing.

In your essays, you will need to identify which devices are used and their effect on the work as a
whole. Sometimes, a writer will use a device (for example: alliteration), but it doesn’t have a huge
effect on the work or the writer’s argument. In that case, don't spend an entire paragraph talking
about alliteration. You need to focus on what matters most, and you need to specifically
show how these choices make the work effective, and why they are so important. Yes, the
rhetorical analysis essay is an argument essay just like the other two.

You must have something important to say about how an author makes choices to create an effect
on the reader, not just identify devices (or later, argumentation strategies).

You aren't required to use rhetorical vocabulary in your essays at all. If you force the vocabulary
into your essay, you risk sounding clunky. Instead, just describe what is happening! This method
also ensures that you are showing how the device is contributing to the work, rather than simply
identifying it.

The bigger rhetorical choices, like how the speaker achieves a purpose with an audience through
description or comparison/contrast or giving examples, etc., are more important than the smaller
terms, but the smaller terms smaller terms might establish a tone (like in connotation) or establish a
connection with audience (like in colloquialism) or establish emphasis (like in anaphora).

Adapted from Fiveable,

https://library.fiveable.me/ap-lang/exam-skills/rhetorical-devices-list-w
examples/blog/vjoihhSDsBgL3LMwsLM5

*--less important

abstract – Not related to the concrete properties of an object; pertaining to ideas, concepts, or
qualities, as opposed to physical attributes

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academic argument – writing that is addressed to an audience well informed about the topic, that
aims toconvey a clear and compelling point in a somewhat formal style, and that follows agreed-
upon conventions of usage, punctuation, and formats.

accidental condition – in a definition, an element that helps to explain what’s being defined but
isn’t essential to it. An accidental condition in defining a bird might be “ability to fly” because
most, but not all, birds can fly. (See also essential condition and sufficient condition.)

active voice – The subject of the sentence performs the action. This is a more direct and
preferred style of writing in most cases. “Anthony drove while Toni searched for the house.”
The opposite is passive voice – when the subject of the sentence receives the action. “The car
was driven by Anthony.” Passive voice is often overused, resulting in lifeless writing. When
possible, try to use active voice.

ad populum (bandwagon appeal) – This fallacy occurs when evidence boils down to “everybody’s
doing it, so it must be a good thing to do.” You should vote to elect Rachel Johnson — she has a
strong lead in the polls! Polling higher does not necessarily make Senator Johnson the “best”
candidate, only the most popular.

adage – A folk saying with a lesson. “A rolling stone gathers no moss.” Similar to aphorism
and colloquialism.

aesthetic – Pertaining to the value of art for its own sake or for form

aesthetic – this rhetorical device references to artistic elements or expressions within a textual work

“The Flapper” by Dorothy Parker (1922)

The Playful flapper here we see,
The fairest of the fair.She's not what Grandma used to be, —
You might say, au contraire.
Her girlish ways may make a stir,
Her manners cause a scene,
But there is no more harm in her
Than in a submarine.
She nightly knocks for many a goal
The usual dancing men.
Her speed is great, but her control
Is something else again.
All spotlights focus on her pranks.
All tongues her prowess herald.
For which she well may render thanks
To God and Scott Fitzgerald.
Her golden rule is plain enough —
Just get them young and treat them rough.

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Analysis: Parker describes the aesthetic of flapper culture in her poem in order to support women
who defied social norms and who adopted more liberal attitudes towards makeup, drinking,
smoking, and sex.

Note: aesthetic is not necessarily a specific device; it is the bigger picture. An author would use a
rhetorical device (e.g. imagery, allusions, etc.) to achieve a certain aesthetic.

allegory – A narrative in which character, action, and setting represent abstract concepts apart from
the literal meaning of a story. The underlying meaning usually has a moral, social, religious, or
political significance
allegory – A story, fictional or non fictional, in which characters, things, and events represent
qualities or concepts. The interaction of these characters, things, and events is meant to reveal
an abstraction or a truth. Animal Farm, by George Orwell, is an allegory.

allegory – Narrative form in which characters and actions have meanings outside themselves;
characters are usually personifications of abstract qualities

allegory – The device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an
abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may intend
the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The allegorical meaning usually
deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence.

alliteration – The repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more
neighboring words (as in she sells seashells). Although the term is not frequently in the multiple
choice section, you can look for alliteration in any essay passage. The repetition can reinforce
meaning, unify ideas, supply a musical sound, and/or echo the sense of the passage.

alliteration – The repetition of the same consonant sound at the beginning of words. “Sally
sells sea shells by the sea shore.”

alliteration – The repetition of initial consonant sounds within a formal grouping, such as a
poetic line or stanza, or in close proximity in prose.

allusion – A brief, usually indirect reference to a person, place, or event– – real or fictional.
allusion – a brief reference to a person, event, or place - real or fictitious - or to a work of art.

allusion – A direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such
as an event, book, myth, place, or work of art. Allusions can be historical, literary, religious,
topical, or mythical. There are many more possibilities, and a work may simultaneously use
multiple layers of allusion.

allusion – A figure of speech which makes brief, even casual reference to a historical or literary
figure, event, or object to create a resonance in the reader or to apply a symbolic meaning to
the character or object of which the allusion consists. For example, in John Steinbeck’s Of

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Mice and Men, the surname of the protagonist, George Milton, is an allusion to John Milton,
author of Paradise Lost, since by the end of the novel, George has lost the dream of having a
little ranch of his own to share with his friend Lennie.

allusion - An indirect reference to something (usually a literary text, although it can be other
things commonly known, such as plays, songs, historical events) with which the reader is
supposed to be familiar.

ambiguity – The presence of two or more possible meanings in any passage.

ambiguity – The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence,
or passage.

ambiguity – Use of language in which multiple meanings are possible. Ambiguity can be
unintentional through insufficient focus on the part of the writer; in good writing, ambiguity is
frequently intentional in the form of multiple connotative meanings, or situations in which
either the connotative or the denotative meaning can be valid in a reading.

appositive – A word or group of words placed beside a noun or noun substitute to supplement its
meaning. “Bob, the lumber yard worker, spoke with Judy, an accountant from the city.”

anachronism – Use of historically inaccurate details in a text; for example, depicting a 19th-
century character using a computer. Some authors employ anachronisms for humorous effect,
and some genres, such as science fiction or fantasy, make extensive use of anachronism.

anacoluthon* an-uh-kuh-loo-thon – lack of grammatical sequence; a change in the grammatical

construction within the same sentence. A construction involving a break in grammatical sequence,
as in It makes me so—I just get angry. *Agreements entered into when one state of facts exists –
are they to be maintained regardless of changing conditions? J. Diefenbaker

anadiplosis* ˌa-nə-də-ˈplō-səs – Repetition of the last word of one clause at the beginning of
the next clause. For example, "The crime was common, common be the pain." (Alexander
Pope)

anadiplosis* – ("doubling back") the rhetorical repetition of one or several words; specifically,
repetition of a word that ends one clause at the beginning of the next. *Men in great place are thrice
servants: servants of the sovereign or state; servants of fame; and servants of business. Francis
Bacon

analogy – A comparison between two seemingly dissimilar things. Often, an analogy uses
something simple or familiar to explain something unfamiliar or complex. As birds have flight, our
special gift is reason. – Bill McKibben If I have unjustly wrested a plank from a drowning man, I
must restore it to him though I drown myself. . . . But he that would save his life, in such a case,
shall lose it. This people must cease to hold slaves and to make war on Mexico, though it cost them
their existence as a people. – Henry David Thoreau

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analogy – A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between
them. An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its
similarity to something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, or
intellectually engaging.

analogy – An analogy is a comparison of one pair of variables to a parallel set of variables.

When a writer uses an analogy, he or she argues that the relationship between the first pair of
variables is the same as the relationship between the second pair of variables. “America is to
the world as the hippo is to the jungle.” Similes and metaphors are sometimes also analogies.

analogy – an extended comparison between something unfamiliar and something more familiar
forthe purpose of illuminating or dramatizing the unfamiliar. An analogy might, say, compare
nuclear fission (less familiar) to a pool player’s opening break (more familiar).

analogy – comparison of two things that are alike in some respects. Metaphors and similes are
both types of analogy.

analogy

Definition: This rhetorical device references an extended comparison between two

things/instances/people etc. that share some similarity to make a point

Analogy Example:

“What True Education Should Do” by Sydney J. Harris (1994)

Pupils are more like oysters than sausages. The job of teaching is not to stuff them and then seal
them up, but to help them open and reveal the riches within. There are pearls in each of us, if only
we knew how to cultivate them with ardor and persistence.

Analysis: Harris compares students to oysters whom we should help “open and reveal the riches
within.” Through her analogy, Harris establishes a basis on which readers can shift their
perspective. Rather than simply listing specific traits of students, Harris helps her readers change
their perception of how students should be treated, and gives readers a concrete and memorable
lense through which readers should view the classroom.

anaphora ə-ˈna-f(ə-)rə – A sub-type of parallelism, when the exact repetition of words or phrases
happens at the beginning of successive lines or sentences. MLK used anaphora in his famous “I
Have a Dream” speech (1963).

anaphora – Regular repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of successive
phrases or clauses. For example, "We shall fight in the trenches. We shall fight on the oceans.
We shall fight in the sky."

anaphora – Repetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of two or more sentences
or clauses in a row. This is a deliberate form of repetition and helps make the writer's point
more coherent. “I came, I saw, I conquered.”

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anaphora – the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses or
lines. *We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight
on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we
shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on
the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills. We
shall never surrender. Churchill.

anaphora – the same expression is repeated at the beginning of 2 or more consecutive lines

anastrophe – any variation of the normal word order

anastrophe* ə-ˈna-strə-(ˌ)fē – transposition of normal word order; most often found in Latin in the
case of prepositions and the words they control. Anastrophe is a form of hyperbaton. *The
helmsman steered; the ship moved on; yet never a breeze up blew. Coleridge, “The Rime of the
Ancient Mariner”

anecdote - A brief recounting of a relevant episode.

anecdote – A short account of an interesting or humorous incident, intended to illustrate or support

a point.

antecedent – the word to which a pronoun refers

antecedent - The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP language exam
occasionally asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a
group of sentences. “If I could command the wealth of all the world by lifting my finger, I
would not pay such a price for it.” An AP question might read: "What is the antecedent for
"it"?

antecedent – The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP language exam
occasionally asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of
sentences. A question from the 2001 AP test as an example follows: But it is the grandeur of all
truth which can occupy a very high place in human interests that it is never absolutely novel to the
meanest of minds; it exists eternally, by way of germ of latent principle, in the lowest as in the
highest, needing to be developed but never to be planted. The antecedent of it (boldfaced) is...?
[answer: "truth"]

anticipating audience response – The rhetorical technique of anticipating counterarguments and

offering a refutation.

antistrophe* an-ˈti-strə-(ˌ)fē – repetition of the same word or phrase at the end of successive
clauses. *In 1931, ten years ago, Japan invaded Manchukuo –– without warning. In 1935, Italy
invaded Ethiopia –– without warning. In 1938, Hitler occupied Austria –– without warning. In
1939, Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia –– without warning. Later in 1939, Hitler invaded Poland ––
without warning. And now Japan has attacked Malaya and Thailand –– and the United States ––
without warning. Franklin D. Roosevelt

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antithesis – A contrast in language to bring out a contrast in ideas.

antithesis – opposition, or contrast of ideas or words in a balanced or parallel construction. Example

1: Extremism in defense of liberty is no vice, moderation in the pursuit of justice is no virtue. Barry
Goldwater Example 2: Brutus: Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more. Shakespeare, Julius
Caesar Example 3: “The vases of the classical period are but the reflection of classical beauty; the vases of
the archaic period are beauty itself.” Sir John Beazley

antithesis – The juxtaposition of sharply contrasting ideas in balanced or parallel words or

phrases.

antithesis – The opposition or contrast of ideas; the direct opposite.

antithesis – Two opposite or contrasting words, phrases, or clauses, or even ideas, with parallel
structure. “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times”

antonomasia* ˌan-tə-nō-ˈmā-zh(ē-)ə – use of a title, epithet, or description in place of a name, as

in Your Honor for Judge or the Bard for Shakespeare. Also the use of a proper name to designate a
member of a class (such as a Solomon for a wise ruler)

aphorism – A concise or tersely phrased statement in principle, truth, or opinion. Often found in
fields like law, politics, and art

aphorism – A concise statement designed to make a point or illustrate a commonly held belief.
The writings of Benjamin Franklin contain many aphorisms, such as “Early to bed and early to
rise/Make a man healthy, wealthy, and wise.”

aphorism – A terse statement which expresses a general truth or moral principle. An aphorism
can be a memorable summation of the author's point. Ben Franklin wrote many of these in
Poor Richard's Almanac, such as “God helps them that help themselves,” and “A watched pot
never boils.”

apophasis* ə-ˈpä-fə-səs – the raising of an issue by claiming not to mention it (as in "we won't
discuss his past crimes") paralipsis – a logical fallacy in which speakers or writers raise a point
by saying they will not mention it, thus doing the very thing they say they’re not going to do.

aporia* ə-ˈpȯr-ē-ə – expression of doubt (often feigned) by which a speaker appears uncertain as
to what he should think, say, or do.

aposiopesis* ˌa-pə-ˌsī-ə-ˈpē-səs – a form of ellipse by which a speaker comes to an abrupt halt,

seemingly overcome by passion (fear, excitement, etc.) or modesty.

apostrophe – A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a

personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. It is an address to someone or something that cannot
answer. The effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity. William Wordsworth addresses John

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Milton as he writes, “Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: / England hath need of thee.”
Another example is Keats' “Ode on a Grecian Urn” in which Keats addresses the urn itself: “Thou
still unravished bride of quietness.” Many apostrophes imply a personification of the object
addressed.

apostrophe – a sudden turn from the general audience to address a specific group or person or
personified abstraction absent or present. *For Brutus, as you know, was Caesar's angel.
Judge, O you gods, how dearly Caesar loved him. Shakespeare, Julius Caesar

apostrophe – A figure of speech in which a person, thing, or abstract quality is addressed as if

present; for example, the invocation to the muses usually found in epic poetry.

appeals – logos – appealing to logical reasoning and sound evidence ethos – appealing to the
audience's shared values pathos – evoking and manipulating emotions

appeals to authority, emotion, logic – Rhetorical arguments in which the speaker: either
claims to be an expert or relies on information provided by experts (appeal to authority),
attempts to affect the listener's personal feelings (appeal to emotion), or attempts to persuade
the listener through use of deductive reasoning (appeal to logic).

appositive – A word or group of words placed beside a noun or noun substitute to supplement its

archaism*: use of an older or obsolete form. *Pipit sate upright in her chair / Some distance from
where I was sitting; T. S. Eliot, “A Cooking Egg”

argument – A course of reasoning aimed at demonstrating truth or falsehood.

argument – (1) a spoken, written, or visual text that expresses a point of view; (2) the use of
evidence and reason to discover some version of the truth, as distinct from persuasion, the attempt
to change someone else’s point of view.

argument – An argument is a piece of reasoning with one or more premises and a conclusion.
Essentially, every essay is an argument that begins with the conclusion (the thesis) and then sets up
the premises. An argument (or thesis to an argument) is also sometimes called a claim, a position,
or a stance.

Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle – The relationships, in any piece of writing, between the writer,
the audience, and the subject. All analysis of writing is essentially an analysis of the relationships
between the points on the triangle.

artistic appeal – support for an argument that a writer creates based on principles of reason and
shared knowledge rather than on facts and evidence. (See also inartistic appeal.)

assonance – The identity or similarity in sound between internal vowels in neighboring words.
assonance – The repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds, usually in successive or

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proximate words.

assonance – The repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds. “From the molten-golden
notes”

assumption – a belief regarded as true, upon which other claims are based.

assumption – See warrant.

assumption, cultural –a belief regarded as true or commonsensical within a particular culture, such
as the belief in individual freedom in American culture.

asyndeton ə-ˈsin-də-ˌtän – the practice of omitting conjunctions (and, or, but, for, nor, so, yet)
between words, phrases, or clauses. In a list, it gives a more extemporaneous effect and
suggests the list may be incomplete. For example, "He was brave, fearless, afraid of nothing."

asyndeton – The omission of conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses (opposite of

polysyndeton).

asyndeton – lack of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or words. *We shall pay any
price, bear any burden, meet any hardships, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the
survival and the success of liberty. J. F. Kennedy, Inaugural *But, in a larger sense, we cannot
dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground. Lincoln, Gettysburg Address

asyndeton – Omission of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or words. [W]e shall
pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure
the survival and the success of liberty.

audience – any people—real or imagined, contemporary or historical—designated by the rhetor as

hearers or readers of his/her text.
audience – The person(s) reached by a piece of writing.

authority – the quality conveyed by a writer who is knowledgeable about his/her subject and
confident in that knowledge.

background – the information a writer provides to create the context for an argument.

backing – In the Toulmin model, backing consists of further assurances or data without which the
assumption lacks authority. For an example, see Toulmin model.

backing – in Toulmin argument, the evidence provided to support a warrant.

begging the question – A fallacy in which a claim is based on evidence or support that is in doubt.
It “begs” a question whether the support itself is sound. Giving students easy access to a wealth of
facts and resources online allows them to develop critical thinking skills.

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begging the question – a fallacy of argument in which a claim is based on the very grounds that are
in doubt or dispute: Rita can’t be the bicycle thief; she’s never stolen anything.

begging the question – To sidestep or evade the real problem.

bias – a predisposition or subjective opinion

cacophony – harsh joining of sounds. *We want no parlay with you and your grisly gang who
work your wicked will. W. Churchill

call to action – Writing that urges readers to action or promote a change.

caricature – a verbal description, the purpose of which is to exaggerate or distort, for comic effect,
a person's distinctive physical features or other characteristics.
causal argument – an argument that seeks to explain the effect(s) of a cause, the cause(s) of an
effect, or acausal chain in which A causes B, B causes C, C causes D, and so on.

ceremonial argument – an argument that deals with current values and addresses questions of
praise and blame. Also called epideictic epə¦dīktik, ceremonial arguments include eulogies and
graduation speeches.

character, appeal based on also known as an ethical appeal; a strategy in which a writer presents
an authoritative, credible self-image in order to gain the trust of an audience.

chiasmus kī-ˈaz-məs – A verbal pattern in which the second half of an expression is balanced
against the first but with the parts reversed.
chiasmus – two corresponding pairs arranged not in parallels (a–b–a–b) but in inverted order (a–b–
b–a. *Those gallant men will remain often in my thoughts and in my prayers always. MacArthur
*Renown'd for conquest, and in council skill'd. Addison

chiasmus – figure of speech by which the order of the terms in the first of parallel clauses is
reversed in the second. “Has the Church failed mankind, or has mankind failed the Church?”

chiasmus – second half of an expression is balanced against the first, but with the parts reversed

chiasmus – When the same words are used twice in succession, but the second time, the order
of the words is reversed. “Fair is foul and foul is fair.” “When the going gets tough, the tough
get going.” Also called antimetabole.

circular reasoning – A fallacy in which the writer repeats the claim as a way to provide evidence.
You can’t give me a C; I’m an A student!

circumstantial evidence in legal cases, evidence from which conclusions cannot be drawn directly
but have to be inferred.

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claim – An arguable statement; claim of value/judgment – claims involving opinions, attitudes,
and subjective evaluation; claim of policy – claims advocating courses of action that should or
should not be undertaken; claim of definition – claims exploring what something means or what
something is made up of

claim – a statement that asserts a belief or truth. In arguments, most claims require supporting
evidence. The claim is a key component in Toulmin argument.

claim – Also called an assertion or a proposition, a claim states the argument’s main idea or
position. A claim differs from a topic or subject in that a claim has to be arguable.

classical oration – a highly structured form of an argument developed in ancient Greece and Rome
to defend or refute a thesis. The oration evolved to include six parts—exordium, narratio, partitio,
confirmatio, refutatio, and peroratio.
clause – A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main, clause
expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate clause,
cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause. The point that
you want to consider is the question of what or why the author subordinates one element. You should
also become aware of making effective use of subordination in your own writing. subordinate clause
– Like all clauses, this word group contains both a subject and a verb (plus any accompanying phrases
or modifiers), but unlike the independent clause, the subordinate clause cannot stand alone; it does not
express a complete thought. Also called a dependent clause, the subordinate clause depends on a main
clause (or independent clause) to complete its meaning. Easily recognized key words and phrases
usually begin these clauses. For example: although, because, unless, if, even though, since, as soon as,
while, who, when, where, how and that. Example: Yellowstone is a national park in the West that is
known for its geysers.

clause – A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent clause
expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate
clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause.

cliche – A timeworn expression that through overuse has lost its power to evoke concrete images.

cliche thinking – Using as evidence a well-known saying, as if it is proven, or as if it has no

exceptions. "I say: 'America: love it or leave it.' Anyone who disagrees with anything our country does
must hate America. So maybe they should just move somewhere else."
climax – Mounting by degrees through words or sentences of increasing weight and in parallel
construction with an emphasis on the high point or culmination of a series of events.
climax – arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses in an order of ascending power. Often the last
emphatic word in one phrase or clause is repeated as the first emphatic word of the next. *One
equal temper of heroic hearts, / Made weak by time and fate, but strong in will
To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield. Tennyson, Ulysses

colloquial – Ordinary language; the vernacular. For example, depending on where in the
United States you live, a sandwich is called a sub, a grinder, or a hero.

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colloquial - Ordinary or familiar type of conversation. A “colloquialism” is a common or
familiar type of saying, similar to an adage or an aphorism.

colloquial/colloquialism – The use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not generally

acceptable for formal writing, colloquialisms give a work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial
expressions in writing include local or regional dialects.

comparison/contrast – A rhetorical strategy in which a writer examines similarities and/or

differences between two people, places, ideas, or objects.

conceit – A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy
between seemingly dissimilar objects. A conceit displays intellectual cleverness as a result of the
unusual comparison being made.

concession – An argumentative strategy by which a speaker or writer acknowledges the validity of

an opponent’s point.

concession – Accepting at least part or all of an opposing viewpoint. Often used to make one’s own
argument stronger by demonstrating that one is willing to accept what is obviously true and
reasonable, even if it is presented by the opposition. Sometimes also called multiple perspectives
because the author is accepting more than one position as true. Sometimes a concession is
immediately followed by a rebuttal of the concession.

concession – An acknowledgment that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable. In a strong

argument, a concession is usually accompanied by a refutation challenging the validity of the
opposing argument. Lou Gehrig concedes what some of his listeners may think — that his bad
break is a cause for discouragement or despair.

conditional statement – A conditional statement is an if-then statement and consists of two parts,
an antecedent and a consequent. “If you studied hard, then you will pass the test.” Conditional
statements are often used as premises in an argument: Premise: If I eat Spam, then I will throw up.
(conditional) Premise: I have eaten Spam. Conclusion: Ergo, I will throw up.

confirmatio – the fourth part of a classical oration, in which a speaker or writer offers evidence for
the claim.

confirmation – The main part of a text in which logical arguments in support of a position are
elaborated.

conjunction – The part of speech (or word class) that serves to connect words, phrases, clauses, or
sentences.
connotation - Rather than the dictionary definition (denotation), the associations suggested by
a word. Implied meaning rather than literal meaning. (For example, “policeman,” “cop,” and
“The Man” all denote the same literal meaning of police officer, but each has a different
connotation.)

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connotation – The non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning.
Connotations may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes. Slender and skinny have similar meanings,
for example, but carry different connotations, the former more positive than the latter.
consonance – The repetition of the same consonant sound at the end of words or within words.
“Some late visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door."

consonance – The repetition of two or more consonants with a change in the intervening
vowels, such as pitter-patter, splish-splash, and click-clack.

constraints – the limitations within which the rhetor must work; these limitations can be related to
the genre, medium, register, audience, or the situation itself, among other things.

context – The circumstances, atmosphere, attitudes, and events surrounding a text. The context for
Lou Gehrig’s speech is the recent announcement of his illness and his subsequent retirement, but
also the poignant contrast between his potent career and his debilitating disease.

context – the entire situation in which a piece of writing takes place, including the writer’s
purpose(s) for writing; the intended audience; the time and place of writing; the institutional, social,
personal, and other influences on the piece of writing; the material conditions of writing (whether
it’s, for instance, online or on paper, in handwriting or in print); and the writer’s attitude toward the
subject and the audience.

conviction – the belief that a claim or course of action is true or reasonable. In a proposal
argument, a writer must move an audience beyond conviction to action.

coordination – The grammatical connection of two or more ideas to give them equal emphasis and
importance. Contrast with subordination.

counterargument – An opposing argument to the one a writer is putting forward. Rather than
ignoring a counterargument, a strong writer will usually address it through the process of
concession and refutation. Some of Lou Gehrig’s listeners might have argued that his bad break
was a cause for discouragement or despair.

counterexample – A counterexample is an example that runs counter to (opposes) a generalization,

thus falsifying it. Premise: Jane argued that all whales are endangered. Premise: Belugas are a type
of whale. Premise: Belugas are not endangered. Conclusion: Therefore, Jane’s argument is
unsound.

criterion (plural criteria) – in evaluative arguments, a standard by which something is measured to

determine its quality or value.

cumulative sentence – Sentence that completes the main idea at the beginning of the sentence and
then builds and adds on. Ex: "He doubted whether he could ever again appear before an audience,
his confidence broken, his limbs shaking, his collar wet with perspiration."

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cumulative sentence – Sentence that completes the main idea at the beginning of the sentence and
then builds and adds on. “But neither can two great and powerful groups of nations take comfort
from our present course — both sides overburdened by the cost of modern weapons, both rightly
alarmed by the steady spread of the deadly atom, yet both racing to alter that uncertain balance of
terror that stays the hand of mankind's final war.” BEGINS WITH MAIN CLAUSE

deduction – A method of reasoning in which a conclusion follows necessarily from the stated
premises.
deductive – The reasoning process by which a conclusion is drawn from set of premises and
contains no more facts than these premises.

deductive reasoning – method of reasoning that moves from a general premise to a specific
conclusion.

definition, argument of – an argument in which the claim specifies that something does or doesn’t
meet the conditions or features set forth in a definition: Pluto is not a major planet.

delayed sentence – A sentence that withholds its main idea until the end. For example: Just as
he bent to tie his shoe, a car hit him.

deliberative argument – an argument that deals with action to be taken in the future, focusing on
matters of policy. Deliberative arguments include parliamentary debates and campaign platforms.

denotation - The literal, explicit meaning of a word, without its connotations.

denotation – The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or
color.

diction – An author's choice of words to convey a tone or effect

diction – choice of words in a work and an important element of style; abstract language –
language describing ideas and qualities; concrete language – language describing observable,
specific things; colloquialism – words characteristic to familiar conversation; denotation –
specific, exact meaning of a word as defined; connotation – The emotional implications that a
word may carry; jargon - The specialized language of a professional, occupational, or other group,
often meaningless to outsiders.

diction – Related to style, diction refers to the writer's word choices, especially with regard to their
correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. For the AP exam, you should be able to describe an author's
diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain) and understand the ways in which diction
can complement the author's purpose. Diction, combined with syntax, figurative language, literary
devices, etc., creates an author's style.

diction - Word choice, particularly as an element of style. Different types of words have
significant effects on meaning. An essay written in academic diction would be much less
colorful, but perhaps more precise than street slang. You should be able to describe an author's

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diction. You SHOULD NOT write in your thesis, "The author uses diction...". This is
essentially saying, "The author uses words to write." (Duh.) Instead, describe the type of
diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain).

diction

Definition: a writer's choice of words, phrases, sentence structures, and figurative language,
which combine to help create meaning

Example: “On Dumpster Diving” by Lars Eighner (1992)

Canned goods are among the safest foods to be found in Dumpsters but are not utterly foolproof.
Although very rare with modern canning methods, botulism is a possibility. Most other forms of
food poisoning seldom do lasting harm to a healthy person, but botulism is almost certainly fatal
and often the first symptom is death. Except for carbonated beverages, all canned goods should
contain a slight vacuum and suck air when first punctured. Bulging, rusty, and dented cans and cans
that spew when punctured should be avoided, especially when the contents are not very
acidic or syrupy.

Analysis: Eighner employs empirical diction to describe the process of dumpster diving, which is
generally considered a dishonorable and crude practice. Eighner details the “fatal” effects of
“botulism,” and provides a practical assessment of “modern canning methods,” instructing readers
to avoid “bulging, rusty, and dented cans” and to look for a “slight vacuum” in canned goods. By
analyzing the process of dumpster diving through a scientific lens, Eighner emphasizes that those
who dumpster dive are not inferior to their store going counterparts, and he suggests that dumpster
diving can be a practical hobby for anyone, even if it is not done out of necessity.

didactic – Intended or inclined to teach or instruct, often excessively.

didactic – A term used to describe fiction, nonfiction or poetry that teaches a specific lesson or
moral or provides a model of correct behavior or thinking.

didactic – From the Greek, didactic literally means “teaching.” Didactic words have the primary
aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles.

didactic – Intended for teaching or to teach a moral lesson

didactic

Definition: tone; instructional, designed to teach an ethical, moral, or religious lesson

Example: “Advice to Youth” by Mark Twain (1882)

First, then. I will say to you my young friends — and I say it beseechingly, urgently — Always
obey your parents, when they are present. This is the best policy in the long run because if you
don’t, they will make you. Most parents think they know better than you do, and you can generally
make more by humoring that superstition than you can by acting on your own better judgment.

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Analysis: In his satire “Advice to Youth,” Twain adopts a didactic tone that mimics that of many
parents chastising their children. He instructs youth to “always obey [their] parents” because “most
parents think they know better than” their children. By using a familiar instructional tone while
mocking parental attitude, Twain appeals to his credibility by establishing that he too has faced
criticism from his parents. By recognizing a common experience, Twain builds a rapport with his
young audience, making them more receptive to his message.

Note: Generally, essays with a very didactic tone are ineffective, so they don’t have much rhetorical
merit. Twain’s speech is instead a satire of the didactic tone many parents adopt, which allows him
to connect with his audience in their mutual scorn for some parents’ sanctimonious attitude

dogmatism – a fallacy of argument in which a claim is supported on the grounds that it’s the only
conclusion acceptable within a given community.

either/or choice – a fallacy of argument in which a complicated issue is misrepresented as offering

only two possible alternatives, one of which is often made to seem vastly preferable to the other.
ellipsis – The deliberate omission of a word or phrase from prose done for effect by the author.
“The whole day, rain, torrents of rain.” The term ellipsis is related to ellipse, which is the
three periods used to show omitted text in a quotation.

elegiac

Definition: a tone involving mourning or expressing sorrow for that which is irrecoverably
past

Example: Ronald Reagan’s address following the explosion of the Challenger Space Shuttle (1986)
Today is a day for mourning and remembering. Nancy and I are pained to the core by the tragedy of
the shuttle Challenger. We know we share this pain with all of the people of our country. This is
truly a national loss. For the families of the seven, we cannot bear, as you do, the full impact of this
tragedy. But we feel the loss, and we're thinking about you so very much.

Analysis: At the beginning of his address, Reagan adopts an elegiac tone, declaring that “today is a
day for mourning and remembering.” He describes the deaths of the astronauts as a “national loss”
that pains “all of the people” in the United States. By taking the time to recognize the tragic loss of
the astronauts and by empathizing with the American people’s shock at the explosion, Reagan
appeals to his audience’s grief and establishes an emotional connection with them before he begins
speaking about the future of the United States space exploration program.

enthymeme – a rhetorical syllogism; a means of “logical” proof or argument whereby the rhetor
provides a tenable premise and expects the audience to fill in” or arrive at the desired conclusion;
short‐hand logical appeals.

enthymeme – in Toulmin argument, a statement that links a claim to a supporting reason: The bank
will fail (claim) because it has lost the support of its largest investors (reason). In classical rhetoric,
an enthymeme is a syllogism with one term understood but not stated: Socrates is mortal because he
is a human being. (The understood term is All human beings aremortal.) (See also syllogism.)
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epistrophe i-ˈpi-strə-(ˌ)fē – repetition of a word or expression at the end of successive phrases,
clauses, sentences, or verses especially for rhetorical or poetic effect (such as Lincoln's "of the
people, by the people, for the people") epiphora i-ˈpif-ə-rə – The repetition of a word or phrase at
the end of several clauses. (Also known as epistrophe.)

epistrophe

Definition: ending a series of lines, phrases, clauses, or sentences with the same word or words

Example: Madelynn Albright’s commencement speech for Mount Holyoke College (1997)
As you go along your own road in life, you will, if you aim high enough, also meet resistance, for
as Robert Kennedy once said, “if there’s nobody in your way, it’s because you’re not going
anywhere.” But no matter how tough the opposition may seem, have courage still—and persevere.
There is no doubt, if you aim high enough, that you will be confronted by those who say that your
efforts to change the world or improve the lot of those around you do not mean much in the grand
scheme of things. But no matter how impotent you may sometimes feel, have courage still — and
persevere.

It is certain, if you aim high enough, that you will find your strongest beliefs ridiculed and
challenged; principles that you cherish may be derisively dismissed by those claiming to be more
practical or realistic than you. But no matter how weary you may become in persuading others to
see the value in what you value, have courage still—and persevere.

Inevitably, if you aim high enough, you will be buffeted by demands of family, friends, and
employment that will conspire to distract you from your course. But no matter how difficult it may
be to meet the commitments you have made, have courage still—and persevere.

Analysis: In her commencement speech, Albright encourages women to stand firm and to “aim
high,” despite the prevalence of gender inequality. Albright recognizes that women face opposition
and glass ceilings, but she urges them to “have courage still— and persevere,” repeating the phrase
after each challenge she discusses. Like her attitude towards success, Albright’s speech always
returns to the idea that women must “have courage still — and persevere,” regardless of the
obstacles presented to her. Albright’s motto to “have courage still—and persevere” is the most
prominent part of her speech, and remains consistent even when the rest of her speech shifts, which
mirrors the outlook that Albright endorses.

epitaph – (1) A short inscription in prose or verse on a tombstone or monument. (2) A statement or
speech commemorating someone who has died: a funeral oration.
epitaph – A piece of writing in praise of a deceased person

epithet – Name calling or harsh invective

equivocation – a fallacy of argument in which a lie is given the appearance of truth, or in which
the truth is misrepresented in deceptive language.

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essential condition – in a definition, an element that must be part of the definition but, by itself,
isn’t enough to define the term. An essential condition in defining a bird might be “winged”: all
birds have wings, yet wings alone don’t define a bird since some insects and mammals also have
wings. (See also accidental condition and sufficient condition.)

eulogy – A speech or writing in praise of a person or thing; an oration in honor of a deceased

person.

euphemism – A more agreeable or less offensive substitute for generally unpleasant words or
concepts. Sometimes they are used for political correctness. “Physically challenged,” in place
of “crippled.” Sometimes a euphemism is used to exaggerate correctness to add humor.
“Vertically challenged” in place of “short.”

euphemism – The substitution of an inoffensive term for one considered offensively explicit.

euphemism – From the Greek for “good speech,” euphemisms are a more agreeable or less
offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept. The euphemism may be used to
adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement.
Saying "earthly remains" rather than "corpse" is an example of euphemism.

euphemism – Substitution of a milder or less direct expression for one that is harsh or blunt.
For example, using "passed away" for "dead."

evaluation, argument of – an argument in which the claim specifies that something does or
doesn’t meet established criteria: The Nikon D4s is the most sophisticated digital SLR camera
currently available.

evidence – material offered to support an argument. (See also artistic appeal and inartistic
appeal.)

example, definition by – a definition that operates by identifying individual examples of what’s

being defined: sports car—Corvette, Viper, Miata, Cayman.

exigence – the event or occurrence that prompts rhetorical discourse; the exigence is that which
begins the “cycle” of rhetorical discourse about a particular issue.

exigence – typically the moment or event that motivates someone to write or to speak about a
specific issue, problem, or situation. “Exigence has to do with what prompts the author to write in
the first place, a sense of urgency, a problem that requires attention right now, a need that must be
met, a concept that must be understood before the audience can move to a next step.”

exordium – the first part of a classical oration, in which a speaker or writer tries to win the
attention and goodwill of an audience while introducing a subject.

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experimental evidence – evidence gathered through experimentation; often evidence that can be
quantified (for example, a survey of students before and after an election might yield statistical
evidence about changes in their attitudes toward the candidates). Experimental evidence is
frequently crucial to scientific arguments.

exposition – A statement or type of composition intended to give information about (or an

explanation of) an issue, subject, method, or idea.

extended metaphor – A comparison between two unlike things that continues throughout a series
of sentences in a paragraph or lines in a poem.

extended metaphor – A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout

a work.

extended metaphor

Definition: differs from a regular metaphor in that several comparisons similar in theme are
being made

Example: “Is Google Making Us Stupid?” by Nicholas Carr (2008)

Over the past few years I’ve had an uncomfortable sense that someone, or something, has been
tinkering with my brain, remapping the neural circuitry, reprogramming the memory. My mind isn’t
going—so far as I can tell—but it’s changing. I’m not thinking the way I used to think. I can feel it
most strongly when I’m reading. Immersing myself in a book or a lengthy article used to be easy.
My mind would get caught up in the narrative or the turns of the argument, and I’d spend hours
strolling through long stretches of prose.

Analysis: Carr employs an extended metaphor to liken his brain to a machine, suggesting that
something “has been tinkering” with his brain, “remapping” and “reprogramming” his “neural
circuitry.” By comparing his brain to a machine, Carr conveys his feeling that he is a slave to his
computer and his sense of disconnectedness from his brain. Rather than being in harmony with his
mind, he describes his brain as a separate entity. Carr’s metaphor also highlights the increasing
influence of technology in modern life — so much so that our brains themselves have become
computers.

fact, argument of – an argument in which the claim can be proved or disproved with specific
evidence o rtestimony: The winter of 2016 was the warmest on record for the United States.

false authority – a fallacy of argument in which a claim is based the expertise of someone who
lacks appropriate credentials.

faulty analogy – a fallacy of argument in which a comparison between two objects or concepts is
inaccurate or inconsequential.

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faulty causality – a fallacy of argument making the unwarranted assumption that because one
event follows another, the first event causes the second. Also called post hoc, ergo propter hoc,
faulty causality forms the basis of many superstitions.

figurative language – Language in which figures of speech (such as metaphors, similes, and
hyperbole) freely occur; figures of speech – The various uses of language that depart from
customary construction, order, or significance.
figurative language – “Figurative language” is the opposite of literal language.” Literal
language is writing that makes complete sense when you take it at face value. “Figurative
language” is the opposite: writing that is not meant to be taken literally.

figurative language – Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually
meant to be imaginative and vivid.

figure of speech – A device used to produce figurative language. Many compare dissimilar things.
Figures of speech include apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, oxymoron, paradox,
personification, simile, synecdoche, and understatement.

firsthand evidence – data—including surveys, observations, personal interviews, and so on—

collected and personally examined by the writer. (See also secondhand evidence.)

first-hand evidence – Evidence based on something the writer knows, whether it's from personal
experience, observations, or general knowledge of events.

foil – A person or thing that makes another seem better by contrast

forensic argument – an argument that deals with actions that have occurred in the past. Sometimes
called judicial arguments, forensic arguments include legal cases involving judgments of guilt or
innocence.

formal definition – a definition that identifies something first by the general class to which it
belongs (see genus) and then by the characteristics that distinguish it from other members of that
class (see species): Baseball is a game (genus) played on a diamond by opposing teams of nine
players who score runs by circling bases after striking a ball with a bat (species).
formal language – Language that is lofty, dignified, or impersonal

freight train sentence – 3 or more very short independent clauses joined by conjunctions
generalization – When a writer bases a claim upon an isolated example or asserts that a claim is
certain rather than probable.

genre – The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are
prose, poetry, and drama. However, genres can be subdivided as well (poetry can be classified
into lyric, dramatic, narrative, etc.). The AP Language exam deals primarily with the following
genres: autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political,
scientific, and nature writing. generic conventions – This term describes traditions for each

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genre. These conventions help to define each genre; for example, they differentiate an essay
and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing. On the AP language
exam, try to distinguish the unique features of a writer's work from those dictated by
convention.

genre – the specific type or kind of rhetorical discourse. Classically – judicial (accusing &
defending); deliberative (persuading & dissuading), and demonstrative (ceremonial oratory).
Contemporary categories – movie review, op‐ed, advertisement, resume, scientific research report,
etc.

genus – in a definition, the general class to which an object or a concept belongs: baseball is a
sport; green is a color.

grounds – in Toulmin argument, the evidence provided to support a claim and reason—that is, an
enthymeme.

grounds – the evidence offered in support of a claim

hard evidence – support for an argument using facts, statistics, testimony, or other evidence the
writer finds.

hasty generalization – a fallacy of argument in which an inference is drawn from insufficient data.

homily – This term literally means "sermon," but more informally, it can include any serious talk,
speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.

hortative sentence – Sentence that exhorts, urges, entreats, implores, or calls to action. Let both
sides explore what problems unite us instead of belaboring those problems which divide us.

hyperbaton hīˈpərbəˌtän – separation of words which belong together, often to emphasize the first
of the separated words or to create a certain image.
hyperbole hī-ˈpər-bə-(ˌ)lē – A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement.
(The literal Greek meaning is "overshoot") Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a
serious effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony. The opposite of hyperbole is
understatement.

hyperbole – exaggeration for emphasis or for rhetorical effect. *My vegetable love should grow /
Vaster than empires, and more slow; / An hundred years should got to praise / Thine eyes and on
thine forehead gaze; / Two hundred to adore each breast, / But thirty thousand to the rest. Andrew
Marvell, "To His Coy Mistress"

hyperbole – An overstatement characterized by exaggerated language

hyperbole – Exaggeration. “My mother will kill me if I am late.”

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hypothesis – a well-informed guess at what the conclusion of one’s research will reveal.
Hypotheses must be tested against evidence, opposing arguments, and so on.

identification – a rhetorical situation in which an audience feels “close” with the rhetor; the
audience’s sense of “identifying with” the rhetor (shared values, experiences, desires, goals, etc.); a
“bridging” between the rhetor and audience.

idiom – A common, often used expression that doesn’t make sense if you take it literally. “I
got chewed out by my coach.”
idiom – An expression that means something other than the literal meanings of its individual words.

imagery – Sensory details in a work; the use of figurative language to evoke a feeling, call to
mind an idea, or describe an object. Imagery involves any or all of the five senses

imagery – The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent
abstractions. On a physical level, imagery uses terms related to the five senses: visual, auditory,
tactile, gustatory, and olfactory. On a broader and deeper level, however, one image can represent
more than one thing. For example, a rose may present visual imagery while also representing the
color in a woman's cheeks and/or symbolizing some degree of perfection. An author may use
complex imagery while simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially metaphor and
simile. In addition, this term can apply to the total of all the images in a work. On the AP language
exam, pay attention to how an author creates imagery and to the effect of this imagery.

imagery - Word or words that create a picture in the reader’s mind. Usually this involves the
five senses. Authors often use imagery in conjunction with metaphors, similes, or figures of
speech.

immediate reason – the cause that leads directly to an effect, such as an automobile accident that
results in an injury to the driver. (See also necessary reason and sufficient reason.)

imperative sentence – Sentence used to command or enjoin. My fellow citizens of the world: ask
not what America will do for you, but what together we can do for the freedom of man.

inartistic appeal – support for an argument using facts, statistics, eyewitness testimony, or other
evidence the writer finds rather than creates. (See also artistic appeal.)

induction – A method of reasoning by which a rhetor collects a number of instances and forms a
generalization that is meant to apply to all instances.

induction – From the Latin inducere, “to lead into”; a logical process whereby the writer reasons
from particulars to universals, using specific cases in order to draw a conclusion, which is also
called a generalization. Regular exercise promotes weight loss. Exercise lowers stress levels.
Exercise improves mood and outlook. Generalization: Exercise contributes to better health.

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inductive – conclusion or type of reasoning whereby observation or information about a part of
a class is applied to the class as a whole. Contrast with deductive.

inductive reasoning – Method of reasoning that moves from specific evidence to a general
conclusion based on this evidence.

inference/infer – To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. When a

multiple choice question asks for an inference to be drawn from a passage, the most direct, most
reasonable inference is the safest answer choice. If an inference is implausible, it's unlikely to be the
correct answer. Note that if the answer choice is directly stated, it is not inferred and it is wrong.
You must be careful to note the connotation -- negative or positive -- of the choices.

intended readers – the actual, real-life people whom a writer consciously wants to address in a
piece of writing.

invective – A long, emotionally violent, attack using strong, abusive language.

invective – an emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language.
(For example, in Henry IV, Part I, Prince Hal calls the large character of Falstaff "this sanguine
coward, this bedpresser, this horseback breaker, this huge hill of flesh.")

invective – The use of angry and insulting language in satirical writing

invention – the process of finding and creating arguments to support a claim.

inversion – Inverted order of words in a sentence (variation of the subject-verb object): "united
there is little we cannot do in a host of cooperative ventures. Divided there is little we can do.

inverted word order – moving grammatical elements of a sentence out of their usual order
(subject-verb-object/complement) for special effect, as in Tired I was; sleepy I was not.

invoked readers – the readers implied in a text, which may include some whom the writer didn’t
consciously intend to reach. An argument that refers to those who have experienced a major trauma,
for example, invokes all readers who have undergone this experience.

irony – Language which states the opposite of intended meaning.

irony – A situation or statement characterized by significant difference between what is

expected or understood and what actually happens or is meant. Irony is frequently humorous,
and can be sarcastic when using words to imply the opposite of what they normally mean

irony – expression of something which is contrary to the intended meaning; the words say one
thing but mean another. *Yet Brutus says he was ambitious; / And Brutus is an honourable man.
Shakespeare, Julius Caesar

irony – The discrepancy between appearance and reality – verbal, situational, dramatic.

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irony – When the opposite of what you expect to happen does. verbal irony – When you say
something and mean the opposite/something different. For example, if your gym teacher wants
you to run a mile in eight minutes or faster, but calls it a “walk in the park” it would be verbal
irony. If your voice tone is bitter, it's called sarcasm. dramatic irony – When the audience of
a drama, play, movie, etc. knows something that the character doesn't and would be surprised
to find out. For example, in many horror movies, we (the audience) know who the killer is,
which the victim-to-be has no idea who is doing the slaying. Sometimes the character trusts the
killer completely when (ironically) he/she shouldn't. situational irony – Found in the plot (or
story line) of a book, story, or movie. Sometimes it makes you laugh because it's funny how
things turn out. (For example, Johnny spent two hours planning on sneaking into the movie
theater and missed the movie. When he finally did manage to sneak inside he found out that
kids were admitted free that day).

irony/ironic – The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant, or the
difference between what appears to be and what is actually true. Irony is often used to create
poignancy or humor. In general, there are three major types of irony used in language: (1) verbal
irony – when the words literally state the opposite of the writer's (or speaker's) meaning (2)
situational irony– when events turn out the opposite of what was expected; when what the
characters and readers think ought to happen is not what does happen (3) dramatic irony – when
facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction but known to the reader,
audience, or other characters in the work.

isocolon* ahy-suh-koh-luhn – Parallel structure in which the parallel elements are similar not
only in grammatical structure, but also in length. For example, “An envious heart makes a
treacherous ear” (Their Eyes Were Watching God, Zora Neale Hurston). A figure of speech or
sentence having a parallel structure formed by the use of two or more clauses, or cola, of
similar length, as “The bigger they are, the harder they fall.”

jargon – The diction used by a group which practices a similar profession or activity. Lawyers
speak using particular jargon, as do soccer players.

juxtaposition – Placing dissimilar items, descriptions, or ideas close together or side– by– side,
especially for comparison or contrast.
juxtaposition - Placing things side by side for the purposes of comparison. Authors often use
juxtaposition of ideas or examples in order to make a point.(For example, an author my
juxtapose the average day of a typical American with that of someone in the third world in
order to make a point of social commentary).

juxtaposition – Placing two ideas side by side or close together.

juxtaposition – Placing of two items side by side to create a certain effect, reveal an
attitude, or accomplish some other purpose.

kairos – the opportune moment; in arguments, the timeliness of an argument and the most
opportune ways to make it.

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kairos – Greek term for time pertaining to a sense of timing and timeliness (as opposed to
chronological time); the “right” time, opportunity or occasion.

kairos – The opportune occasion for speech. The term kairos has a rich and varied history, but
generally refers to the way a given context for communication both calls for and constrains one's
speech. Thus, sensitive to kairos, a speaker or writer takes into account the contingencies of a given
place and time, and considers the opportunities within this specific context for words to be effective
and appropriate to that moment. As such, this concept is tightly linked to considerations
of audience (the most significant variable in a communicative context) and to decorum (the
principle of apt speech). Rhetorical analysis of any sort begins with some orientation to the kairos.
Whether or not a rhetorical critic employs the term kairos, he or she will examine the exigencies
and constraints of place, time, culture, and audience that affect choices made by speakers and
authors to influence that moment: Germany of post-World War I was demoralized and
disorganized. Adolph Hitler's rhetoric was successful not only because of his personal charisma
and his mastery of delivery, but because he spoke at the right time: the German people wanted a
way out of its economic morass and its cultural shame, and Hitler provided them both with his
strong, nationalistic oratory. Had Germany been doing better economically, Hitler's words would
have bounced harmlessly off the air.

lending credence – In arguing a point, a speaker should always lend his opponent some credit for
his/her ideas. In this way, the speaker persuades the audience that he is fair and has done the
research, thereby strengthening the argument.

litotes – a form of understatement that involves making an affirmative point by denying

its opposite. Litote is the opposite of hyperbole. Examples: "Not a bad idea," "Not many," "It isn't
very serious. I have this tiny little tumor on the brain" (Salinger, Catcher in the Rye).

litotes – a form of understatement in which a thing is affirmed by stating the negative of its
opposite

litotes – a particular form of understatement, generated by denying the opposite of the statement
which otherwise would be used. Depending on the tone and context of the usage, litotes either
retains the effect of understatement (Hitting that telephone pole certainly didn't do your car any
good) or becomes an intensifying expression (The flavors of the mushrooms, herbs, and spices
combine to make the dish not at all disagreeable).

litotes – a particular form of understatement, generated by denying the opposite of the statement

litotes – Form of understatement in which the negative of the contrary is used to achieve
emphasis and intensity. For example, "She is not a bad cook." Or "No man ever followed his
genius until it misled him." Thoreau

litotes ˈlī-tə-ˌtēz lī-ˈtō-ˌtēz – understatement in which an affirmative is expressed by the

negative of the contrary (as in "not a bad singer" or "not unhappy")

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litotes: understatement, for intensification, by denying the contrary of the thing being affirmed.
(Sometimes used synonymously with meiosis.) *A few unannounced quizzes are not inconceivable.
*War is not healthy for children and other living things. *One nuclear bomb can ruin your whole
day. (meiosis)

logical fallacies – fallacy - An error in reasoning that renders an argument invalid; either-or
reasoning – reducing an argument to two polar opposites and ignoring any alternatives or middle
ground, also known as false dilemma/dichotomy - A fallacy of oversimplification that offers a
limited number of options(usually two) when in fact more options are available; ad hominem –
attacking a person’s motives or character instead of his argument or claims; appeal to authority - A
fallacy in which a speaker or writer seeks to persuade not by giving evidence but by appealing to
the respect people have for a famous person or institution; false analogy – When 2 cases are not
sufficiently parallel; hasty generalization – A fallacy in which a conclusion is not logically
justified by sufficient or unbiased evidence; non sequitur – introducing irrelevant evidence to
support a claim; red herring – something used to distract the audience's attention from the real
issue or argument; slippery slope – failure to provide evidence showing that one event will lead to
a chain of events; straw man – misrepresenting opponent's position to make it easier to attack
(taking things out of context)

logical fallacy/fallacy of argument – a flaw in the structure of an argument that renders its
conclusion invalid or suspect. (See ad hominem argument, bandwagon appeal, begging the
question, dogmatism, either/or choice, equivocation, false authority, faulty analogy, faulty
causality, hasty generalization, non sequitur, paralipsis, red herring, scare tactic, sentimental
appeal, slippery slope, stacking the deck, and straw man.)

logos – Greek for “embodied thought.” Speakers appeal to logos, or reason, by offering clear,
rational ideas and using specific details, examples, facts, statistics, or expert testimony to back them
up.

loose sentence – When a sentence is grammatically complete before its end

loose sentence/non-periodic sentence – A type of sentence in which the main idea (independent
clause) comes first, followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a
period were placed at the end of the independent clause, the clause would be a complete sentence. A
work containing many loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, or conversational. Generally,
loose sentences create loose style. The opposite of a loose sentence is the periodic sentence.
Example: I arrived at the San Diego airport after a long, bumpy ride and multiple delays. Could
stop at: I arrived at the San Diego airport.

medium – the channel of communication. For example, shock radio, YouTube video, PowerPoint,
oil painting, color flyer.

metaphor – A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the
substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity. Metaphorical language makes writing
more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking, and meaningful.

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metaphor – implied comparison achieved through a figurative use of words; the word is used not
in its literal sense, but in one analogous to it. *Life's but a walking shadow; a poor player,
That struts and frets his hour upon the stage. Shakespeare, Macbeth *while he learned the language
(that meager and fragile thread . . . by which the little surface corners and edges of men's secret and
solitary lives may be joined for an instant now and then before sinking back into the darkness)
Faulkner, Absalom, Absalom!

metaphor – Making an implied comparison, not using “like,” as,” or other such words. “My
feet are popsicles.” An extended metaphor is when the metaphor is continued later in the
written work. If I continued to call my feet “my popsicles” in later paragraphs, that would be
an extended metaphor. A particularly elaborate extended metaphor is called using conceit.

metonymy – Replacing an actual word or idea, with a related word or concept. “Relations
between London and Washington have been strained,” does not literally mean relations
between the two cities, but between the leaders of The United States and England. Metonymy
is often used with body parts: “I could not understand his tongue,” means his language or his
speech.
metonymy – substitution of one word for another which it suggests. *He is a man of the cloth.
*The pen is mightier than the sword. *By the sweat of thy brow thou shalt eat thy bread.

metonymy – The substitution of a term naming an object closely associated with the word in mind
for the word itself.

metonymy – A term from the Greek meaning "changed label" or "substitute name," metonymy is a
figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated
with it. For example, a news release that claims "the White House declared" rather than "the
President declared" is using metonymy; Shakespeare uses it to signify the male and female sexes in
As You Like It: "doublet and hose ought to show itself courageous to petticoat." The substituted
term generally carries a more potent emotional impact.
mode of discourse – The way in which information is presented in a text. The four traditional
modes are narration, description, exposition, and argument.

mood – (1) The quality of a verb that conveys the writer’s attitude toward a subject. (2) The
emotion evoked by a text.
mood - The atmosphere created by the literature and accomplished through word choice
(diction). Syntax is often a creator of mood since word order, sentence length and strength and
complexity also affect pacing and therefore mood. Setting, tone, and events can all affect the
mood.

mood – The overall atmosphere of a work and the mood is how that atmosphere makes a reader
feel.

mood – The prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can affect
the mood. Mood is similar to tone and atmosphere.

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mood –The feeling or ambience resulting from the tone of a piece as well as the
writer/narrator's attitude and point of view. The effect is created through descriptions of
feelings or objects that establish a particular feeling such as gloom, fear, or hope

motif – a recurring idea in a piece of literature. In To Kill a Mockingbird, the idea that “you
never really understand another person until you consider things from his or her point of view”
is a motif, because the idea is brought up several times over the course of the novel.

motif – recurrent images, words, objects, phrases, or actions that tend to unify the work.

narratio – the second part of a classical oration, in which a speaker or writer presents the facts of a
case.

narrative – A rhetorical strategy that recounts a sequence of events, usually in chronological order.

narrative – The telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events.

necessary reason – a cause that must be present for an effect to occur; for example, infection with
a particular virus is a necessary reason for the development of mumps. (See also immediate reason
and sufficient reason.)

non sequitur – a fallacy of argument in which claims, reasons, or warrants fail to connect logically;
one point doesn’t follow from another: If you’re really my friend, you’ll lend me five hundred
dollars.

nostalgia – Desire to return in thought or fact to a former time of inadequate evidence. Smoking
isn’t bad for you; my great aunt smoked a pack a day and lived to be 90.

onomatopoeia – A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words.
Simple examples include such words as buzz, hiss, hum, crack, whinny, and murmur. If you note
examples of onomatopoeia in an essay passage, note the effect.

onomatopoeia – A word capturing or approximating the sound of what it describes, such as

buzz or hiss.

onomatopoeia – The use of a word which imitates or suggests the sound that the thing makes.
Snap, rustle, boom, murmur.

open thesis – An open thesis is one that does not list all the points the writer intends to cover in an
essay. The popularity of the Harry Potter series demonstrates that simplicity trumps complexity
when it comes to the taste of readers, both young and old.

operational definition – a definition that identifies an object by what it does or by the conditions
that create it: A line is the shortest distance between two points.
or a stance.

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oxymoron – a self contradictory combination of words.

oxymoron – apparent paradox achieved by the juxtaposition of words which seem to contradict one
another. *I must be cruel only to be kind. Shakespeare, Hamlet

oxymoron – From the Greek for "pointedly foolish," an oxymoron is a figure of speech wherein the
author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Simple examples include
"jumbo shrimp" and "cruel kindness." This term does not usually appear in the multiple-choice
questions, but there is a chance that you might find it in an essay. Take note of the effect that the
author achieves with the use of oxymoron.

oxymoron – When apparently contradictory terms are grouped together and suggest a paradox
– “wise fool,” “eloquent silence,” “jumbo shrimp.”

oxymoron –A figure of speech that combines two apparently contradictory elements, as in

“deafening silence.”

pacing – The speed or tempo of an author’s writing. Writers can use a variety of devices
(syntax, polysyndeton, anaphora, meter) to change the pacing of their words. An author’s
pacing can be fast, sluggish, stabbing, vibrato, staccato, measured, etc.

pacing

Definition: the speed at which a piece of writing flows — use when discussing organization;
point out where action/syntax begins to speed up, slow down, is interrupted, etc.

Example: Notes on ‘Camp’ by Susan Sontag (1964)

1. To start very generally: Camp is a certain mode of aestheticism. It is one way of seeing the world
as an aesthetic phenomenon. That way, the way of Camp, is not in terms of beauty, but in terms of
the degree of artifice, of stylization.

2. To emphasize style is to slight content, or to introduce an attitude which is neutral with respect to
content. It goes without saying that the Camp sensibility is disengaged, depoliticized — or at least
apolitical.

Analysis: Sontag writes Notes on ‘Camp’ as a “series of jottings” rather than in paragraph format in
order to mimic the spontaneous and ever–changing nature of Camp. By presenting her notes as a
numbered list, Sontag develops a quick, irregular pace that is more fitting to describe the
eccentricities of Camp. Because the notes are presented as a list, the ideas move by quickly, which
further mirrors the whimsicality that is so characteristic of Camp.

paradox – a phrase or statement that while seeming contradictory or absurd may actually be well
founded or true. Used to attract attention or to secure emphasis

paradox – A seemingly contradictory situation which is actually true.“You can't get a job
without experience, and you can't get experience without getting a job.”
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paradox – A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon
closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity.

paradox – A statement that seems contradictory, but is actually true.

paradox – an assertion seemingly opposed to common sense, but that may yet have some truth in
it. *What a pity that youth must be wasted on the young. George Bernard Shaw

parallelism – (Also known as parallel structure or balanced sentences.) Sentence

construction which places equal grammatical constructions near each other, or repeats identical
grammatical patterns. Parallelism is used to add emphasis, organization, or sometimes
pacing to writing. “Cinderella swept the floor, dusted the mantle, and beat the rugs.”

parallelism – Also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term comes from
Greek roots meaning "beside one another." It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of
words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity. This can involve, but is not
limited to, repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or verbal phrase. (Again, the
opening of Dickens' Tale of Two Cities is an example: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of
times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the
epoch of incredulity....") The effects of parallelism are numerous, but frequently they act as an
organizing force to attract the reader's attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a
musical rhythm.

parallelism – use of similar grammatical structures or forms for clarity, emphasis, and/or
artfulness: in the classroom, on the playground, and at the mall.

parallelism – when the arrangement of parts of a sentence is similarly phrased or constructed

parallelism – Recurrent syntactical similarity where several parts of a sentence or several
sentences are expressed alike to show that the ideas in the parts or sentences equal in
importance. It also adds balance, rhythm, and clarity to the sentence. For example, “I have
always searched for, but never found the perfect painting for that wall.”

paraphrase – a restatement of the meaning of a piece of writing using different words from the
original.

parenthetical idea – Parentheses are used to set off an idea from the rest of the sentence. It is
almost considered an aside...a whisper, and should be used sparingly for effect, rather than
repeatedly. Parentheses can also be used to set off dates and numbers. “In a short time (and the
time is getting shorter by the gallon) America will be out of oil.”
parody – A satirical imitation of a work of art for purpose of ridiculing its style or subject.

parody – A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic
effect and/or ridicule. It exploits peculiarities of an author's expression (propensity to use too many
parentheses, certain favorite words, etc.) Well-written parody offers enlightenment about the

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original, but poorly written parody offers only ineffectual imitation. Usually an audience must grasp
literary allusion and understand the work being parodied in order to fully appreciate the nuances of
the newer work. Occasionally, however, parodies take on a life of their own and don't require
knowledge of the original.
parody – An exaggerated imitation of a serious work for humorous purposes. It borrows words
or phrases from an original, and pokes fun at it. This is also a form of allusion, since it is
referencing a previous text, event, etc. The Simpsons often parody Shakespeare plays.
Saturday Night Live also parodies famous persons and events. Do not confuse with satire.

parody – exaggerated imitation of a serious work or subject

parody – Mockery by imitation

partitio – the third part of a classical oration, in which a speaker or writer divides up the subject
and explains what the claim will be.

patch writing – a misuse of sources in which a writer’s phrase, clause, or sentence stays too close
to the original language or syntax of the source.

pedantic – An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly,
academic, or bookish (language that might be described as "show-offy"; using big words for the
sake of using big words).

periodic sentence – Sentence whose main clause is withheld until the end. To that world assembly
of sovereign states, the United Nations, our last best hope in an age where the instruments of war
have far outpaced the instruments of peace, we renew our pledge of support . . .

periodic sentence – The opposite of loose sentence, a sentence that presents its central meaning in
a main clause at the end. This independent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that cannot
stand alone. The effect of a periodic sentence is to add emphasis and structural variety. It is also a
much stronger sentence than the loose sentence. (Example: After a long, bumpy flight and multiple
delays, I arrived at the San Diego airport.)

periodic sentence – when a sentence is not grammatically complete before its end

peroratio – the sixth and final part of a classical oration, in which a speaker or writer summarizes
the case and moves the audience to action.

persona – the character that the speaker portrays.

persona – The fictional mask or narrator that tells a story.

persona – The voice or figure of the author who tells and structures the story and who may or
may not share of the values of the actual author.

personification – A figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animals, or

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inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions. Personification is used to
make these abstractions, animals, or objects appear more vivid to the reader.

personification – Treating an abstraction or nonhuman object as if it were a person by giving it

human qualities.

personification: Giving human-like qualities to something that is not human. “The tired old
truck groaned as it inched up the hill.”

persuasion – the act of seeking to change someone else’s point of view.

plagiarism – the act of using the words, phrases, and expressions of others without proper citation
or acknowledgment.

point of view – In literature, the perspective from which a story is told. There are two general
divisions of point of view, and many subdivisions within those. (1) first person narration tells the
story with the first person pronoun, "I," from the perspective of a person who is a character in the
story. This narrator can be the protagonist, a secondary character, or an observing character. (2)
third person narration relates the events with the third person pronouns, "he," "she," and "it."
There are two main subdivisions to be aware of: a. third person omniscient, in which the narrator,
with godlike knowledge, presents the thoughts and actions of any or all characters b. third person
limited omniscient, in which the narrator presents the feelings and thoughts of only one character,
presenting only the actions of all the remaining characters.

polysyndeton ˌpä-lē-ˈsin-də-ˌtän – repetition of conjunctions in close succession

polysyndeton – the repetition of conjunctions in a series of coordinate words, phrases, or clauses.
*I said, "Who killed him?" and he said, "I don't know who killed him but he's dead all right," and it
was dark and there was water standing in the street and no lights and windows broke and boats all
up in the town and trees blown down and everything all blown and I got a skiff and went out and
found my boat where I had her inside Mango Bay and she was all right only she was full of water.
Hemingway, After the Storm

polysyndeton – When a writer creates a list of items which are all separated by conjunctions.
Normally, a conjunction is used only before the last item in a list. Examples of polysyndeton: “I
walked the dog, and fed the cat, and milked the cows.” “Or if a soul touch any unclean thing,
whether it be a carcass of an unclean beast, or a carcass of unclean cattle, or the carcass of unclean
creeping things…he also shall be unclean.” Polysyndeton is often used to slow down the pace of the
writing and/or add an authoritative tone.

praeteritio* – (= paraleipsis parəˈlīpsə̇ s, -lāp-) pretended omission for rhetorical effect. *Let us
make no judgment on the events of Chappaquiddick, since the facts are not yet all in. A political
opponent of Senator Edward Kennedy

precedents – actions or judgments in the past that have established a pattern or model for
subsequent decisions. Precedents are particularly important in legal cases.

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premise – a statement or position regarded as true and upon which other claims are based.
premises. An argument (or the thesis to an argument) is also sometimes called a claim, a position,
premises. However, the argument is not sound, because one of its premises is clearly untrue.
Premise: All flightless birds are man-eaters. Premise: The penguin is a flightless bird. Conclusion:
Therefore, the penguin is a man-eater. The following argument is not valid, even though its
premises are true: Premise: All baseballs are round. Premise: All basketballs are round. Premise: No
football is round. Premise: The earth is round. Conclusion: The earth is either a baseball or a
basketball, but not a football.

premises: Statements offered as reasons to support a conclusion are premises. conclusion: A

conclusion is the end result of the argument – the main point being made. In an argument one
expects that the conclusion will be supported with reasons or premises. Moreover, these premises
will be true and will, in fact, lead to the conclusion. Premise: All Spam is pink Premise: I am eating
Spam Conclusion: I am eating something that is pink.

propaganda – Information or rumor deliberately spread to help or harm a person, group, or

institution

propaganda – an argument advancing a point of view without regard to reason, fairness, or truth.

proposal argument – an argument in which a claim is made in favor of or opposing a specific

course of action: Sport-utility vehicles should have to meet the same fuel economy standards as
passenger cars.

prose – one of the major divisions of genre, prose refers to fiction and nonfiction, including all its
forms. In prose the printer determines the length of the line; in poetry, the poet determines the
length of the line.

prose – The ordinary of form of written language without metrical structure, as distinguished
from poetry or verse

pun – a word employed in two senses, or a word used in a context that suggests a second term
sounding like it. Puns are usually used for comic effect.

pun – When a word that has two or more meanings is used in a humorous way. “My dog has a fur
coat and pants!” “I was stirred by his cooking lesson.”

purpose – the goal of an argument. Purposes include entertaining, informing, convincing,

exploring, and deciding, among others.

purpose – the intended outcome(s) of the rhetorical discourse identified (implicitly or explicitly) by
the rhetor.

qualifier – a statement that indicates the force of the argument

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qualifier – In the Toulmin model, the qualifier uses words like usually, probably, maybe, in most
cases, and most likely to temper the claim, making it less absolute. For an example, see Toulmin
model.
qualifiers – words or phrases that limit the scope of a claim: usually; in a few cases; under these
circumstances.

qualitative argument – an argument of evaluation that relies on non-numerical criteria supported

by reason, tradition, precedent, or logic.

quantitative argument – an argument of evaluation that relies on criteria that can be measured,
counted, or demonstrated objectively.

quantitative data – the sort of data that can be observed and counted.

quantitative evidence – Quantitative evidence includes things that can be measured, cited,
counted, or otherwise represented in numbers – for instance, statistics, surveys, polls, census
information.

reason – in argumentation, a statement that expands a claim by offering evidence to support it. The
reason may be a statement of fact or another claim. In Toulmin argument, a reason is attached to a
claim by a warrant, a statement that establishes the logical connection between claim and
supporting reason. (See also Toulmin argument.)

rebuttal – an answer that challenges or refutes a specific claim or charge. Rebuttals may also be
offered by writers who anticipate objections to the claims or evidence they offer.

rebuttal – In the Toulmin model, a rebuttal gives voice to possible objections. For an example, see
Toulmin model.

rebuttal, conditions of – in Toulmin argument, potential objections to an argument. Writers need

to anticipate such conditions in shaping their arguments.

red herring – a fallacy of argument in which a writer abruptly changes the topic in order to
distractreaders from potentially objectionable claims.

refutatio – the fifth part of a classical oration, in which a speaker or writer acknowledges and
refutes opposing claims or evidence.

refutation – The part of an argument wherein a speaker or writer anticipates and counters opposing
points of view.

refutation – When a writer delivers relevant opposing arguments.

repetition – An instance of using a word, phrase, or clause more than once in a short passage– –
dwelling on a point.

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repetition – The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a
sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern.
reservation – In the Toulmin model, a reservation explains the terms and conditions necessitated
by the qualifier. For an example, see Toulmin model.

rhetor – anyone who composes discourse that is intended to affect an audience’s or broader
community’s thinking or actions.

rhetoric – The study and practice of effective communication.

rhetoric – From the Greek for "orator," this term describes the principles governing the art of
writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.

rhetoric – The art of effective communication.

rhetoric – the art of persuasion. Western rhetoric originated in ancient Greece as a discipline to
prepare citizens for arguing cases in court.

rhetorical analysis – an examination of how well the components of an argument work together to
persuade or move an audience.

rhetorical modes – This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of
the major kinds of writing. The four most common rhetorical modes (often referred to as "modes of
discourse") are as follows: (1) The purpose of exposition (or expository writing) is to explain and
analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. The AP
language exam essay questions are frequently expository topics. (2) The purpose of argumentation
is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound reasoning, discussion, and
argument that thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation
having an additional aim of urging some form of action. (3) The purpose of description is to
recreate, invent, or visually present a person, place, event or action so that the reader can picture
that being described. Sometimes an author engages all five senses in description; good descriptive
writing can be sensuous and picturesque. Descriptive writing may be straightforward and objective
or highly emotional and subjective. (4) The purpose of narration is to tell a story or narrate an event
or series of events. This writing mode frequently uses the tools of descriptive writing.
rhetorical modes/line of reasoning – analogy – A comparison to a directly parallel case; the
process of drawing a comparison between two things based on a partial similarity of like features.
narration – A story presenting events in an orderly, logical sequence. description – Using sensory
language and physical characteristics of a person, place, or thing to communicate to readers.
classification and division – Division is the process of breaking down a whole into smaller parts;
classification is the process of sorting individual items into categories. definition – Explaining what
something, or even someone, is - that is, its essential nature. exemplification – Writing that
provides a series of facts, specific cases, or instances that relate to a general idea.
compare/contrast – Writing that highlights the similarities and differences between 2 or more
topics. process analysis – Text that explains how to do something or how something occurs.

rhetorical question – A question asked merely for effect with no answer expected.

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rhetorical question – A question asked solely to produce an effect and not to elicit a reply.

rhetorical question – Figure of speech in the form of a question posed for rhetorical effect rather
than for the purpose of getting an answer. Will you join in that historic effort?

rhetorical question – Question not asked for information but for effect. “The angry parent asked
the child, ‘Are you finished interrupting me?’” In this case, the parent does not expect a reply, but
simply wants to draw the child’s attention to the rudeness of interrupting.

rhetorical situation – the context of a rhetorical act (minimally made up of a rhetor, an issue, and
an audience); this context can be both broad (historical, cultural, political, social) or narrow (such as
specific circumstances pertaining to a particular issue).

rhetorical situation – the relationship among topic, author, audience, and other contexts (social,
cultural,political) that determines or evokes an appropriate spoken or written response.

Rogerian argument – an approach to argumentation based on the principle, articulated by

psychotherapist Carl Rogers, that audiences respond best when they don’t feel threatened. Rogerian
argument stresses trust and urges those who disagree to find common ground.

Rogerian arguments – Developed by psychiatrist Carl Rogers, Rogerian arguments are based on
the assumption that having a full understanding of an opposing position is essential to responding to
it persuasively and refuting it in a way that is accommodating rather than alienating.

running style – Sentence style that appears to follow the mind as it worries a problem through,
mimicking the “rambling, associative syntax of conversation”– – the opposite of periodic sentence
style.
sarcasm – A cutting, often ironic remark intended to wound

sarcasm – A generally bitter comment that is ironically or satirically worded. However, not all
satire and irony are sarcastic. It is the bitter, mocking tone that separates sarcasm from mere verbal
irony or satire.

sarcasm – A sharp caustic remark. A form of verbal irony in which apparent praise is actually
bitterly or harshly critical. For example, a coach saying to a player who misses the ball, “Nice
catch.”

sarcasm – From the Greek meaning "to tear flesh," sarcasm involves bitter, caustic language that is
meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony as a device, but not all ironic
statements are sarcastic (that is, intended to ridicule). When well done, sarcasm can be witty and
insightful; when poorly done, it is simply cruel.
sardonic voice – a scornful, cynical, or derisive voice without hope

satire – A work that reveals a critical attitude toward some element of life to a humorous effect. It
targets human vices and follies, or social institutions and conventions. Good satire usually has three

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layers: serious on the surface; humorous when you discover that it is satire instead of reality; and
serious when you discern the underlying point of the author.

satire – A work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for
reform or ridicule. Regardless of whether or not the work aims to reform human behavior, satire is
best seen as a style of writing rather than a purpose for writing. It can be recognized by the many
devices used effectively by the satirist: irony, wit, parody, caricature, hyperbole, understatement,
and sarcasm. The effects of satire are varied, depending on the writer's goal, but good satire, often
humorous, is thought provoking and insightful about the human condition. Some modern satirists
include Joseph Heller (Catch 22) and Kurt Vonnegut (Cat’s Cradle, Player Piano).
satire – corrective ridicule. A literary style used to make fun of an idea or human vice or
weakness. (1) Juvenalian satire—a harsh and bitter formal satire in which the speaker attacks vice
and error with contempt and indignation; realistic and harsh; intended to provoke anger in the
audience. (2) Horatian satire—satire in which the voice is indulgent, tolerant, amused and witty;
gently ridicules the absurdities and follies of human beings; provokes a wry smile (3) burlesque—
comedy with ridiculous exaggeration and distortion; a serious subject is treated frivolously or a
frivolous subject is treated seriously; a tension between subject matter and style

satire – genre of writing used to critique or ridicule through humor or sarcasm

scare tactic – a fallacy of argument presenting an issue in terms of exaggerated threats or dangers.

secondhand evidence – any information taken from outside sources, including library research and
online sources. (See also firsthand evidence.)

second-hand evidence – Evidence that is accessed through research, reading, and investigation. It
includes factual and historical information, expert opinion, and quantitative data.

semantics – The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical and
psychological development, their connotations, and their relation to one another.

semantics – The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical and
psychological development, their connotations, and their relation to one another.

sentence – A sentence is group of words (including subject and verb) that expresses a complete
thought.

sentence structures – Balanced sentence – A sentence in which two parallel elements are set off
against each other like equal weights on a scale. Both parts are parallel grammatically. “If a free
society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich.” Also called
parallelism. Compound sentence - Contains at least two independent clauses but no dependent
clauses. Complex sentence - Contains only one independent clause and at least one dependent
clause. Cumulative sentence – (also called a loose sentence) When the writer begins with an
independent clause, then adds subordinate elements. “He doubted whether he could ever again
appear before an audience, his confidence broken, his limbs shaking, his collar wet with
perspiration.” The opposite construction is called a periodic sentence. Periodic sentence - When

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the main idea is not completed until the end of the sentence. The writer begins with subordinate
elements and postpones the main clause. “His confidence broken, his limbs shaking, his collar wet
with perspiration, he doubted whether he could ever again appear before an audience.” The opposite
construction is called a cumulative sentence. Simple sentence - Contains only one independent
clause.

sentence structures – simple sentence – a complete sentence that is neither compound, nor complex.
(1 subject, 1 predicate); compound sentence – a sentence that contains 2 independent clauses joined
by a coordinating conjunction; complex sentence – An independent clause joined by one or more
dependent clauses

sentence types – declarative sentence – makes a statement; interrogative sentence – asks a

question; imperative sentence – gives a command exclamatory sentence – makes an interjection
sentence types – Declarative sentence – States an idea. It does not give a command or request, nor
does it ask a question. “The ball is round.” Imperative sentence – Issues a command. “Kick the
ball.” Interrogative sentence – Sentences incorporating interrogative pronouns (what, which, who,
whom, and whose). “To whom did you kick the ball?”

sentimental appeal – a fallacy of argument in which an appeal is based on excessive emotion.

shared by the speaker and the audience.
simile – an explicit comparison between two things using “like” or “as.” *My love is as a fever,
longing still / For that which longer nurseth the disease, Shakespeare, Sonnet CXLVII *Let us go
then, you and I, / While the evening is spread out against the sky, / Like a patient etherized upon a
table... T.S. Eliot, “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock”

simile: Using words such as “like” or “as” to make a direct comparison between two very
different things. “My feet are so cold they feel like popsicles.”

slant rhyme – When a poet creates a rhyme, but the two words do not rhyme exactly – they are
merely similar. “I sat upon a stone, / And found my life has gone.”

slippery slope – a fallacy of argument exaggerating the possibility that a relatively inconsequential
action or choice today will have serious adverse consequences in the future.

sound argument – A deductive argument is said to be sound if it meets two conditions: First, that
the line of reasoning from the premises to the conclusion is valid. Second, that the premises are
true. valid argument – An argument is valid if the conclusion logically follows from the premises.
The following argument is valid, because it is impossible for the premises to be true and the
conclusion to nevertheless be false. We do not know if the argument is sound, because we do not
know if the premises are true or not. Premise: Either Elizabeth owns a Honda or she owns a Saturn.
Premise: Elizabeth does not own a Honda. Premise: Therefore, Elizabeth owns a Saturn. The
following argument is also valid, because the conclusion does follow logically from the

species – in a definition, the particular features that distinguish one member of a genus from
another: Baseball is a sport (genus) played on a diamond by teams of nine players (species).

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stacking the deck – a fallacy of argument in which the writer shows only one side of an argument.

stance – the writer’s attitude toward the topic and the audience.
stasis theory – in classical rhetoric, a method for coming up with appropriate arguments by
determining the nature of a given situation: a question of fact; of definition; of quality; or of policy.

straw man – a fallacy of argument in which an opponent’s position is misrepresented as being

more extreme than it actually is, so that it’s easier to refute.

straw man – A fallacy that occurs when a speaker chooses a deliberately poor or oversimplified
example in order to ridicule and refute an idea. Politician X proposes that we put astronauts on
Mars in the next four years. Politician Y ridicules this proposal by saying that his opponent is
looking for “little green men in outer space.”

stream of consciousness

Definition: a technique that records the thoughts and feelings of a character without regard to
logical argument or narrative sequence; reflects all the forces, internal and external, affecting
the character's psyche at the moment

Example: “Ain’t I a Woman” by Sojourner Truth (1851)

That man over there says that women need to be helped into carriages, and lifted over ditches, and
to have the best place everywhere. Nobody ever helps me into carriages, or over mud–puddles, or
gives me any best place! And ain't I a woman? Look at me! Look at my arm! I have ploughed and
planted, and gathered into barns, and no man could head me! And ain't I a woman? I could work as
much and eat as much as a man — when I could get it — and bear the lash as well! And ain't I a
woman? I have borne thirteen children, and seen most all sold off to slavery, and when I cried out
with my mother's grief, none but Jesus heard me! And ain't I a woman?

Analysis: In 1851, Sojourner Truth gave a moving speech at the Women’s Rights Convention
without preparation. Truth’s stream of consciousness approach to the speech allows her to directly
address her audience, beginning by mentioning “that man over there” and refuting his beliefs that
women are fragile. Truth then moves to note that she has “ploughed and planted” more successfully
than men, and she moves to the fact that she can “work as much and eat as much as a man.” She
shifts yet again to recount that she has “borne thirteen children” and that “none but Jesus” heard her
cry with her “mother’s grief” when they were sold to slavery. Albeit slightly messy, Truth’s lack of
structure is effective because it reflects the never–ending struggles that African American women
faced. When the injustices seemed to cease, another injustice would arise in a never–ending cycle of
oppression. Truth’s speech thus resonated with many other women who had experienced the same
struggles, and Truth became a powerful voice in the fight racial and gender equality.

style – Narrowly interpreted as those figures that ornament speech or writing; broadly, as
representing a manifestation of the person speaking or writing.

style – The choices in diction, tone, and syntax that a writer makes. Style may be conscious or
unconscious.

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style – The consideration of style has two purposes – (1) An evaluation of the sum of the choices an
author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other literary devices. Some
authors’ styles are so idiosyncratic that we can quickly recognize works by the same author (or a
writer emulating that author’s style). Compare, for example, Jonathan’s Swift to George Orwell or
William Faulkner to Ernest Hemingway. We can analyze and describe an author’s personal style and
make judgments on how appropriate it is to the author’s purpose. Styles can be called flowery,
explicit, succinct, rambling, bombastic, commonplace, incisive, or laconic, to name only a few
examples. (2) Classification of authors to a group and comparison of an author to similar authors.
By means of such classification and comparison, we can see how an author’s style reflects and
helps to define a historical period, such as the Renaissance of the Victorian period, or a literary
movement, such as the romantic, transcendental or realist movement.

style – The consideration of style has two purposes: (1) An evaluation of the sum of the choices an
author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other literary devices. Some
authors' styles are so idiosyncratic that we can quickly recognize works by the same author. We can
analyze and describe an author's personal style and make judgments on how appropriate it is to the
author's purpose. Styles can be called flowery, explicit, succinct, rambling, bombastic,
commonplace, incisive, laconic, etc. (2) Classification of authors to a group and comparison of an
author to similar authors. By means of such classification and comparison, we can see how an
author's style reflects and helps to define a historical period, such as the Renaissance or the
Victorian period, or a literary movement, such as the Romantic, Transcendentalist, or
Realist movements.

subject – The topic of a text. What the text is about. Lou Gehrig’s subject in his speech is his
illness, but it is also a catalog of all the lucky breaks that preceded his diagnosis.

subject complement – The word (with any accompanying phrases) or clause that follows a linking
verb and complements, or completes, the subject of the sentence by either (1) renaming it (the
predicate nominative) or (2) describing it (the predicate adjective). These are defined below: (1) the
predicate nominative -- a noun, group of nouns, or noun clause that renames the subject. It, like
the predicate adjective, follows a linking verb and is located in the predicate of the sentence.
Example: Julia Roberts is a movie star. movie star = predicate nominative, as it renames the subject,
Julia Roberts (2) the predicate adjective -- an adjective, a group of adjectives, or adjective clause
that follows a linking verb. It is in the predicate of the sentence, and modifies, or describes, the
subject. Example: Warren remained optimistic. Optimistic – predicate adjective, as it modifies the
subject, Warren.

subject complement – The word (with any accompanying phrases) or clauses that follows a linking
verb and complements, or completes, the subject of the sentence by either (1) renaming it or (2)
describing it. The former is the technically a predicate nominative, the latter a predicate adjective.

subordinate clause – Like all clauses, this word group contains both a subject and a verb (plus any
accompanying phrases or modifiers), but unlike the independent clause, the subordinate clause
cannot stand alone; it does not express a complete thought. Also called a dependent clause, the
subordinate clause depends on a main clause, sometimes called an independent clause, to complete

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its meaning. Easily recognized key words and phrases usually begin these clauses for example –
although, because, unless, if even though, since, as soon as, while who, when , where, how and that.
subordination – Words, phrases, and clauses that make one element of a sentence dependent on
(or subordinate to) another. Contrast with coordination.

sufficient condition – in a definition, an element or set of elements adequate to define a term. A

sufficient condition in defining God, for example, might be “supreme being” or “first cause.” No
other conditions are necessary, though many might be made. (See also accidental condition and
essential condition.)

sufficient reason – a cause that alone is enough to produce a particular effect; for example, a
particular level of smoke in the air will set off a smoke alarm. (See also immediate reason and
necessary reason.)

summary – a presentation of the substance and main points of a piece of writing in very condensed
form.

syllepsis* – use of a word with two others, with each of which it is understood differently. *We
must all hang together or assuredly we will all hang separately. Benjamin Franklin

syllogism – A form of deductive reasoning consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a
conclusion.

syllogism – A form of deduction. From the Greek for “reckoning together,” a syllogism (or
syllogistic reasoning or syllogistic logic) is a deductive system of formal logic that presents two
premises (the first one called “major” and the second called “minor”) that inevitably lead to a sound
conclusion. A frequently cited example proceeds as follows: major premise: All men are mortal.
minor premise: Socrates is a man. conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is a mortal. A syllogism's
conclusion is valid only if each of the two premises is valid. Syllogisms may also present the
specific idea first (“Socrates”) and the general second (“all men”).
syllogism – A formula for presenting an argument logically. In its simplest form, it consists of three
divisions – a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion.

syllogism – A logical structure that uses the major premise and minor premise to reach a necessary
conclusion. Major premise: Exercise contributes to better health. Minor premise: Yoga is a type of
exercise. Conclusion: Yoga contributes to better health.

symbol – A person, place, action, or thing that (by association, resemblance, or convention)
represents something other than itself.

symbol – Anything that represents or stands for something else. Usually a symbol is something
concrete such as an object, actions, character...that represents something more abstract. Examples of
symbols include the Whale in Moby Dick, the river and the jungle in Heart of Darkness, and the
Raven in “The Raven.”

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symbol/symbolism – Generally, anything that represents itself and stands for something else.
Usually a symbol is something concrete – such as object, action, character, or scene – that
represents something more abstract. However, symbols, and symbolism can be much more
complex. One system classifies symbols in three categories – (1) Natural symbols are objects and
occurrences from nature to represent ideas commonly associated with them (dawn symbolizing
hope or a new beginning, a rose symbolizing love, a tree symbolizing knowledge). (2) Conventional
symbols are those that have been invested with meaning by a group (religious symbols such as a
cross or Star of David; national symbols, such as a flag or an eagle; or group symbols, such as a
skull an crossbones for pirates or the scales of justice for lawyers). (3) Literary symbols are
sometimes also conventional in the sense that they are found in a variety of works and are generally
recognized. However, a work’s symbols may be more complicated as is the whale in Moby Dick
and the jungle in Heart of Darkness. On the AP exam, try to determine what abstraction an object is
a symbol for and to what extent it is successful in representing that abstraction.

synecdoche sə-ˈnek-də-(ˌ)kē – A figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole,
the whole for a part, the specific for the general, the general for the specific, or the material for the
thing made from it.

synecdoche – A kind of metonymy when a whole is represented by naming one of its parts, or
vice versa. “The cattle rancher owned 500 head.” “Check out my new wheels.”

synecdoche – part is used for a whole or the whole for a part

synecdoche – understanding one thing with another; the use of a part for the whole, or the whole
for the part. (A form of metonymy.)
synesthesia* ˌsi-nəs-ˈthē-zh(ē-)ə – a description involving a “crossing of the senses.”
Examples: “A purplish scent filled the room.” “I was deafened by his brightly-colored
clothing.”

syntax – how a sentence is constructed

syntax – The way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is
similar to diction, but you can differentiate them by thinking of syntax as the groups of words,
while diction refers to the individual words. In the multiple-choice section, expect to be asked some
questions about how an author manipulates syntax. In the essay section, you will need to analyze
how syntax produces effects.
syntax – The way words are put together to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. It is sentence
structure and how it influences the way a reader perceives a piece of writing.

syntax/sentence variety – Grammatical arrangement of words. This is perhaps one of the most
difficult concepts to master. First, a reader should examine the length of sentences (short or long).
How does sentence length and structure relate to tone and meaning. Are they simple, compound,
compound–complex sentences? How do they relate to one another? Syntax is the grouping of
words, while diction refers to the selection of individual words.

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synthesis – a kind of critical thinking in which a writer identifies patterns, themes, and connections
among sources and combines them to make a particular point or to support a claim.

tautology* – repetition of an idea in a different word, phrase, or sentence. *With malice toward
none, with charity for all. Lincoln, Second Inaugural

testimony – a personal experience or observation used to support an argument.

text – While this term generally means the written word, in the humanities it has come to mean any
cultural product that can be “read” — meaning not just consumed and comprehended, but
investigated. This includes fiction, nonfiction, poetry, political cartoons, fine art, photography,
performances, fashion, cultural trends, and much more.

theme – The central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers into life. Usually theme is
unstated in fictional works, but in nonfiction, the theme may be directly stated, especially in
expository or argumentative writing.

theme – The central idea or message of a work. The theme may be directly stated in nonfiction
works, although not necessarily. It is rarely stated directly in fiction.

theme – The central or dominant idea or concern of a work; the main idea or meaning

thesis – Focus statement of an essay; premise statement upon which the point of view or
discussion in the essay is based.

thesis – In expository writing, the thesis statement is the sentence or a group of sentences that
directly expresses the author’s opinion, purpose, meaning, or position. Expository writing is usually
judged by analyzing how accurately, effectively, and thoroughly a writer has proved the thesis.
thesis – The central claim and overall purpose of a work

thesis – The sentence or groups of sentences that directly expresses the author's opinion, purpose,
meaning, or proposition. It should be short and clear.
tone – A writer’s attitude toward the subject and audience. Tone is primarily conveyed through
diction, point of view, syntax, and level of formality.

tone – A writer's attitude toward his subject matter revealed through diction, figurative language
and organization. To identify tone, consider how the piece would sound if read aloud (or how the
author wanted it to sound aloud). Tone can be: playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous,
formal, somber, etc.

tone – Similar to mood, tone describes the author’s attitude toward his material, the audience, or
both. Tone is easier to determine in spoken language than in written language. Considering how a
work would sound if it were read aloud can help in identifying an author’s tone. Some words
describing tone are playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal, ornate, sardonic, and
somber.

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tone – The attitude a literary work takes towards its subject and theme. It reflects the narrator's
attitude.

tone – the voice and attitude the writer has chosen to project.

Toulmin argument – a method of informal logic first described by Stephen Toulmin in The Uses
of Argument (1958). Toulmin argument describes the key components of an argument as the claim,
reason, warrant, backing, and grounds.

Toulmin model – An approach to analyzing and constructing arguments created by British

philosopher Stephen Toulmin in his book The Uses of Argument (1958). The Toulmin model can be
stated as a template: Because (evidence as support), therefore (claim), since (warrant or
assumption), on account of (backing), unless (reservation). Because it is raining, therefore I should
probably take my umbrella, since it will keep me dry on account of its waterproof material, unless,
of course, there is a hole in it.

transition words – Words and devices that bring unity and coherence to a piece of writing.
Examples: however, in addition, and on the other hand.

trope – a figure of speech that involves a change in the usual meaning or signification of words,
such as metaphor, simile, and analogy.

understatement – A figure of speech in which a writer deliberately makes a situation seem less
important or serious than it is.

understatement – The ironic minimizing of fact, understatement presents something as less

significant than it is. The effect can frequently be humorous. “Our defense played valiantly, and
held the other team to merely eight touchdowns in the first quarter.”

undertone – An attitude that may lie under the ostensible tone of the piece. Under a cheery surface,
for example, a work may have threatening undertones. William Blake’s “The Chimney Sweeper”
from the Songs of Innocence has a grim undertone.

unstated premises – Not every argument is fully expressed. Sometimes premises or even
conclusions are left unexpressed. If one argues that Rover is smart because all dogs are smart, he is
leaving unstated that Rover is a dog. Here the unstated premise is no problem; indeed it would
probably be obvious in context. But sometimes unstated premises are problematic, particularly if
two parties in a discussion are making differing assumptions.

values, appeal to – a strategy in which a writer invokes shared principles and traditions of a society
as a reason for accepting a claim.

vernacular – 1. Language or dialect of a particular country. 2. Language or dialect of a

regional clan or group. 3. Plain everyday speech

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voice – (1) The quality of a verb that indicates whether its subject acts (active voice) or is acted
upon (passive voice). (2) The distinctive style or manner of expression of an author or narrator.
voice – The acknowledged or unacknowledged source of words of the story; the speaker, a
"person" telling the story or poem.

warrant – in Toulmin argument, the statement (expressed or implied) that establishes the logical
connection between a claim and its supporting reason. Claim – Don’t eat that mushroom. Reason –
It’s poisonous. Warrant – What is poisonous should not be eaten.

warrant – the assumption the speaker makes about the audience

wit – In modern usage, intellectually amazing language that surprises and delights. A witty
statement is humorous, while suggesting the speaker’s verbal power in creating ingenious and
perceptive remarks. Wit usually uses terse language that makes a pointed statement. Historically,
wit originally meant basic understanding. Its meaning evolved to include speed of understanding,
and finally (in the early seventeenth century), it grew to mean quick perception including creative
fancy and a quick tongue to articulate an answer that demanded the same quick perception.

zeugmahttps://mcl.as.uky.edu/glossary-rhetorical-terms ˈzüg-mə – two different words linked to a

verb or an adjective which is strictly appropriate to only one of them. *Nor Mars his sword, nor
war's quick fire shall burn / The living record of your memory.

zeugma – the use of a word to modify or govern two or more words usually in such a manner that it applies
to each in a different sense or makes sense with only one (as in "opened the door and her heart to the
homeless boy")
zeugma ˈzüg-mə – Grammatically correct linkage of one subject with two or more verbs or a
verb with two or more direct objects. The linking shows a relationship between ideas more
clearly.

zeugma (syllepsis) – When a single word governs or modifies two or more other words, and
the meaning of the first word must change for each of the other words it governs or modifies.
“The butler killed the lights, and then the mistress.” “I quickly dressed myself and the salad.”

Sources: Glossaries of Everything’s An Argument, The Language of Composition, many websites,

including
https://library.fiveable.me/ap-lang/exam-skills/rhetorical-devices-list-w-examples/blog/
vjoihhSDsBgL3LMwsLM5
https://depaolo2021.weebly.com/uploads/8/8/2/4/88243888/ib_literary_terms.pdf
http://rhetoric.byu.edu/

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Note to Kevin—must mean something, etc. Could have used these from the beginning before they
were asked to find them. Still more examples of big rhetorical choices

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