LIST OF FATHERS OF IMPORTANT LITERARY Genres.

1. Father of English History – Saint Bede ( 672/673 – 735 )

2. Father of English Literature, Poetry , Language & Short Story – Geoffrey Chaucer (1343? – 1400)

3. Father of English Drama – William Shakespeare (1564 – 1616)

4. Father of English Criticism – John Dryden (1631 – 1700)

5. Father of English Novel – Henry Fielding (1707 – 1757)

6. Father of English Stream of Conscious Novel – James Joyce (1882 – 1941)

7. Father of English Tragedy – Christopher Marlowe (1564 – 1593)

8. Father of English One Act Play – Samuel Johnson (1709 – 1784)

9. Father of English Romanticism – Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772 – 1834) and

William Wordsworth (1770 – 1850)

10. Father of English Grammar – Lindley Murray (1745 – 1826)

11. Father of English Essay – Francis Bacon (1561 – 1626)

12. Father of English Mystery Plays – Edger Allen Poe (1809 – 1849)

13. Father of Epic Poetry – Homer

14. Father of English Press – William Caxton

15. Father of Modern theater – Henrik Ibsen.

16. Father of English Drama – Christopher Marlowe.

17. Father Of Tragedy – Sophocles.

LITERARY DEVICES:

Literary devices are techniques that writers use to create a special and pointed effect in their writing, to
convey information, and/or to help the reader understand the piece on a deeper level. These devices are
often used for emphasis or clarity; they are also used to get the reader to more strongly connect with either the
story as a whole or specific characters, themes, etc.

Allegory- An allegory is a story that is used to represent a more general message about real-life (historical)
issues and/or events. It is typically an entire book, novel, play, etc.

Example: George Orwell’s dystopian book Animal Farm is an allegory for the events preceding the Russian
Revolution and the Stalinist era in early 20th century Russia. In the story, animals on a farm practice
animalism, which is essentially communism. Many characters correspond to actual historical figures: Old
Major represents both the founder of communism Karl Marx and the Russian communist leader Vladimir
Lenin; the farmer, Mr. Jones, is the Russian Czar; the boar Napoleon stands for Joseph Stalin; and the pig
Snowball represents Leon Trotsky.
Alliteration- Alliteration is a series of words or phrases that all (or almost all) start with the same
sound. These sounds are typically consonants to give more stress to that syllable. You’ll often come
across alliteration in poetry, titles of books and poems (Jane Austen is a fan of this device, for example—just
look at Pride and Prejudice and Sense and Sensibility), and tongue twisters.
 Example: "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers." In this tongue twister, the "p" sound is repeated
at the beginning of all major words.
Allusion- Allusion is when an author makes an indirect reference to a figure, place, event, or idea originating
from outside the text. Many allusions make reference to previous works of literature or art.

Example: "Stop acting so smart—it’s not like you’re Einstein or something." This is an allusion to the
famous real-life theoretical physicist Albert Einstein.
Anachronism- An anachronism occurs when there is an (intentional) error in the chronology or timeline of a
text. This could be a character who appears in a different time period than when he actually lived, or a
technology that appears before it was invented. Anachronisms are often used for comedic effect.

Example: A Renaissance king who says, "That’s dope, dude!" would be an anachronism, since this type of
language is very modern and not actually from the Renaissance period.
Colloquialism- Colloquialism is the use of informal language and slang. It's often used by authors to lend a
sense of realism to their characters and dialogue. Forms of colloquialism include words, phrases, and
contractions that aren't real words (such as "gonna" and "ain’t").

Example: "Hey, what’s up, man?" This piece of dialogue is an example of a colloquialism, since it uses
common everyday words and phrases, namely "what’s up" and "man."
Epigraph- An epigraph is when an author inserts a famous quotation, poem, song, or other short passage or
text at the beginning of a larger text (e.g., a book, chapter, etc.). An epigraph is typically written by a
different writer (with credit given) and used as a way to introduce overarching themes or messages in
the work.Some pieces of literature, such as Herman Melville’s 1851 novel Moby-Dick, incorporate multiple
epigraphs throughout.

Example: At the beginning of Ernest Hemingway’s book The Sun Also Risesis an epigraph that consists of
a quotation from poet Gertrude Stein, which reads, "You are all a lost generation," and a passage from the
Bible.
Euphemism- A euphemism is when a more mild or indirect word or expression is used in place of another
word or phrase that is considered harsh, blunt, vulgar, or unpleasant.

Example: "I’m so sorry, but he didn’t make it." The phrase "didn’t make it" is a more polite and less blunt
way of saying that someone has died.
Flashback- A flashback is an interruption in a narrative that depicts events that have already occurred, either
before the present time or before the time at which the narration takes place. This device is often used to give
the reader more background information and details about specific characters, events, plot points, and
so on.

Example: Most of the novel Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë is a flashback from the point of view of the
housekeeper, Nelly Dean, as she engages in a conversation with a visitor named Lockwood. In this story,
Nelly narrates Catherine Earnshaw's and Heathcliff's childhoods, the pair's budding romance, and their tragic
demise.
Foreshadowing- Foreshadowing is when an author indirectly hints at—through things such as dialogue,
description, or characters’ actions—what’s to come later on in the story. This device is often used to
introduce tension to a narrative.

Example: Say you’re reading a fictionalized account of Amelia Earhart. Before she embarks on her (what we
know to be unfortunate) plane ride, a friend says to her, "Be safe. Wouldn’t want you getting lost—or worse."
This line would be an example of foreshadowing because it implies that something bad ("or worse") will
happen to Earhart.
Hyperbole- Hyperbole is an exaggerated statement that's not meant to be taken literally by the reader. It is
often used for comedic effect and/or emphasis.

Example: "I’m so hungry I could eat a horse." The speaker will not literally eat an entire horse (and most
likely couldn’t), but this hyperbole emphasizes how starved the speaker feels.
Imagery- Imagery is when an author describes a scene, thing, or idea so that it appeals to our senses (taste,
smell, sight, touch, or hearing). This device is often used to help the reader clearly visualize parts of the
story by creating a strong mental picture.

Example: Here’s an example of imagery taken from William Wordsworth’s famous poem "I Wandered Lonely
as a Cloud":

When all at once I saw a crowd,

A host of golden Daffodils;
Beside the Lake, beneath the trees,
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.

Irony- Irony is when a statement is used to express an opposite meaning than the one literally expressed by it.
There are three types of irony in literature:

 Verbal irony: When someone says something but means the opposite (similar to sarcasm).
 Situational irony: When something happens that's the opposite of what was expected or intended to happen.
 Dramatic irony: When the audience is aware of the true intentions or outcomes, while the characters are not. As
a result, certain actions and/or events take on different meanings for the audience than they do for the characters
involved.

Juxtaposition- Juxtaposition is the comparing and contrasting of two or more different (usually opposite)
ideas, characters, objects, etc. This literary device is often used to helpcreate a clearer picture of the
characteristics of one object or idea by comparing it with those of another.

Example: One of the most famous literary examples of juxtaposition is the opening passage from Charles
Dickens’ novel A Tale of Two Cities:

"It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it
was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of
Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair …"

Malapropism- Malapropism happens when an incorrect word is used in place of a word that has a similar
sound. This misuse of the word typically results in a statement that is both nonsensical and humorous; as a
result, this device is commonly used in comedic writing.

Example: "I just can't wait to dance the flamingo!" Here, a character has accidentally called the flamenco (a
type of dance) the flamingo (an animal).
Metaphor/Simile- Metaphors are when ideas, actions, or objects are described in non-literal terms. In short,
it’s when an author compares one thing to another. The two things being described usually share something in
common but are unalike in all other respects. A simile is a type of metaphor in which an object, idea,
character, action, etc., is compared to another thing using the words "as" or "like."

Both metaphors and similes are often used in writing for clarity or emphasis.
Examples:

"What light through yonder window breaks? It is the east, and Juliet is the sun." In this line from Romeo and
Juliet, Romeo compares Juliet to the sun. However, because Romeo doesn’t use the words "as" or "like," it
is not a simile—just a metaphor.

"She is as vicious as a lion." Since this statement uses the word "as" to make a comparison between "she" and
"a lion," it is a simile.

Metonym- A metonym is when a related word or phrase is substituted for the actual thing to which it's
referring. This device is usually used for poetic or rhetorical effect.

Example: "The pen is mightier than the sword." This statement, which was coined by Edward Bulwer-Lytton
in 1839, contains two examples of metonymy: "the pen" refers to "the written word," and "the sword" refers
to "military force/violence."
Onomatopoeia- Onomatopoeia is a word (or group of words) that represents a sound and actually
resembles or imitates the sound it stands for. It is often used for dramatic, realistic, or poetic effect.

Examples: Buzz, boom, chirp, creak, sizzle, zoom, etc.

Oxymoron- An oxymoron is a combination of two words that, together, express a contradictory meaning. This
device is often used for emphasis, for humor, to create tension, or to illustrate a paradox (see next entry for
more information on paradoxes).

Examples: Deafening silence, organized chaos, cruelly kind, insanely logical, etc.
Paradox- A paradox is a statement that appears illogical or self-contradictory but, upon investigation, might
actually be true or plausible. Note that a paradox is different from an oxymoron: a paradox is an entire
phrase or sentence, whereas an oxymoron is a combination of just two words.

Example: Here's a famous paradoxical sentence: "This statement is false." If the statement is true, then it
isn’t actually false (as it suggests). But if it’s false, then the statement is true! Thus, this statement is a
paradox because it is both true and false at the same time.
Personification- Personification is when a nonhuman figure or other abstract concept or element is given
human-like qualities or characteristics. It is used to help the reader create a clearer mental picture of the scene
or object being described.

Example: "The wind moaned, beckoning me to come outside." In this example, the wind—a nonhuman
element—is being described as if it is human (it "moans" and "beckons").
Repetition- Repetition is when a word or phrase is written multiple times, usually for the purpose of emphasis.
It is often used in poetry (for purposes of rhythm as well).

Example: When Lin-Manuel Miranda, who wrote the score for the hit musical Hamilton, gave his speech at the
2016 Tony’s, he recited a poem he’d written that included the following line: And love is love is love is love is
love is love is love is love cannot be killed or swept aside.

Soliloquy- A type of monologue that's often used in dramas, a soliloquy is when a character speaks aloud to
himself (and to the audience), thereby revealing his inner thoughts and feelings.

Example: In Romeo and Juliet, Juliet’s speech on the balcony that begins with, "O Romeo, Romeo!
Wherefore art thou Romeo?" is a soliloquy, as she is speaking aloud to herself (remember that she
doesn't realize Romeo's there listening!).
Symbolism- Symbolism refers to the use of an object, figure, event, situation, or other idea in a written work to
represent something else—typically a broader message or deeper meaning that differs from its literal
meaning. The things used for symbolism are called "symbols," and they’ll often appear multiple times
throughout a text, sometimes changing in meaning as the plot progresses.

Example: In F. Scott Fitzgerald’s 1925 novel The Great Gatsby, the green light that sits across from
Gatsby’s mansion symbolizes Gatsby’s hopes and dreams.
Synecdoche- A synecdoche is a literary device in which part of something is used to represent the whole, or
vice versa. It's similar to a metonym (see above); however, a metonym doesn't have to represent the
whole—just something associated with the word used.

Example: "Help me out, I need some hands!" In this case, "hands" is being used to refer to people (the
whole human, essentially).

Figures of Speech

A figure of speech is a word or phrase that has a meaning something different than its literal meaning. It
can be a metaphor or simile that is designed to further explain a concept. Or, it can be a different way of
pronouncing a word or phrase such as with alliteration to give further meaning or a different sound.
1.Alliteration - The repetition of an initial consonant sound.
Example: Sally sells seashells.
2. Allusion -The act of alluding is to make indirect reference. It is a literary device, a figure of speech that
quickly stimulates different ideas and associations using only a couple of words.
Example: David was being such a scrooge!. (Scrooge" is the allusion, and it refers to Charles Dicken's novel,
A Christmas Carol. Scrooge was very greedy and unkind, which David was being compared to.)
3. Anaphora - The repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or verses.
(Contrast with epiphora and epistrophe.)
Example: I came, I saw, I conquered – Julius Caesar
4. Antaclasis - It is a rhetorical device in which a word is repeated and whose meaning changes in the
second instance. Antanaclasis is a common type of pun.
Example:
Your argument is sound, nothing but sound. – Benjamin Franklin.
The word sound in the first instance means solid or reasonable. The second instance of sound means
empty.
5. Anticlimax - Refers to a figure of speech in which statements gradually descend in order of importance.
Example:
She is a great writer, a mother and a good humorist.
6. Antiphrasis - A figure of speech in which a word or phrase is used to mean the opposite of its normal
meaning to create ironic humorous effect. From the Greek : anti "opposite" and phrasis, "diction".
Example:
She's so beautiful. She has an attractive long nose.
7. Antithesis - The juxtaposition of contrasting ideas in balanced phrases.
Example:
Many are called, but few are chosen.
8. Apostrophe - Breaking off discourse to address some absent person or thing, some abstract quality, an
inanimate object, or a nonexistent character.
Example:
"O, pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth,
That I am meek and gentle with these butchers!
Thou art the ruins of the noblest man
That ever lived in the tide of times."
Shakespeare, Julius Caesar, Act 3, Scene 1
9. Assonance - Identity or similarity in sound between internal vowels in neighboring words.
Example:
"The crumbling thunder of seas" – Robert Louis Stevenson
10. Cataphora - Refers to a figure of speech where an earlier expression refers to or describes a forward
expression. Cataphora is the opposite of anaphora, a reference forward as opposed to backward in the
discourse.
Example:
After he had received his orders, the soldier left the barracks. (he is also a cataphoric reference to the
soldier which is mentioned later in the discourse.
11. Chiasmus - A verbal pattern in which the second half of an expression is balanced against the first but
with the parts reversed.
Example:
He knowingly led and we followed blindly
12. Climax - Refers to a figure of speech in which words, phrases, or clauses are arranged in order of
increasing importance.
Example:
"There are three things that will endure: faith, hope, and love. But the greatest of these is love."
1 Corinthians 13:13
13. Dysphemism - Refers to the use of a harsh, more offensive word instead of one considered less harsh.
Dysphemism is often contrasted with euphemism. Dysphemisms are generally used to shock or offend.
Example:
Snail mail for postal mail.
14. Ellipsis - Refers to the omission of a word or words. It refers to constructions in which words are left
out of a sentence but the sentence can still be understood.
Example:
15. Euphemism - The substitution of an inoffensive term for one considered offensively explicit.
Example:
Going to the other side for death
Passed away for die
16. Hyperbole - An extravagant statement; the use of exaggerated terms for the purpose of emphasis or
heightened effect.
Example:
The bag weighed a ton.
17. Irony - The use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning. A statement or situation where
the meaning is contradicted by the appearance or presentation of the idea.
Example:
His argument was as clear as mud.
18. Litotes - A figure of speech consisting of an understatement in which an affirmative is expressed by
negating its opposite.
Example:
19. Merism - It is a figure of speech by which something is referred to by a conventional phrase that
enumerates several of its constituents or traits.
Example:
Flesh and bone. (Referring to the body).
20. Metaphor - An implied comparison between two unlike things that actually have something important
in common.
Example:
All the world's a stage,
And all the men and women merely players;
They have their exits and their entrances;
(William Shakespeare, As You Like It, 2/7)
21. Metaplesis - It is a figure of speech in which reference is made to something by means of another thing
that is remotely related to it, either through a causal relationship, or through another figure of speech.
Example:
A lead foot is driving behind me. (This refers to someone who drives fast. This metalepsis is achieved only
through a cause and effect relationship. Lead is heavy and a heavy foot would press the accelerator, and
this would cause the car to speed.)
22. Metonymy - A figure of speech in which one word or phrase is substituted for another with which it's
closely associated; also, the rhetorical strategy of describing something indirectly by referring to things
around it.
Example:
Crown. (For the power of a king.)
The White House. (Referring to the American administration.)
23. Onomatopoeia - The use of words that imitate the sounds associated with the objects or actions they
refer to.
Example: clap, murmur
24. Oxymoron - A figure of speech in which incongruous or contradictory terms appear side by side.
Example: Dark light, Living dead
25. Paradox- A statement that appears to contradict itself.
Example:
Drowning in the fountain of eternal life. Deep down, you're really shallow.
26. Personification - A figure of speech in which an inanimate object or abstraction is endowed with
human qualities or abilities.
Example: "Ah, William, we're weary of weather,"said the sunflowers, shining with dew.
27. Pun - A play on words, sometimes on different senses of the same word and sometimes on the similar
sense or sound of different words.
Example:
"Atheism is a non-prophet institution." (The word "prophet" is put in place of its homophone "profit",
altering the common phrase "non-profit institution")
28. Simile - A stated comparison (usually formed with "like" or "as") between two fundamentally dissimilar
things that have certain qualities in common.
Example:
He fights like a lion.
29. Synecdoche - A figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole (for example, ABCs for
alphabet) or the whole for a part ("England won the World Cup in 1966″).
Example:
A hundred head of cattle (using the part head to refer to the whole animal)
30. Tautology - A statement that says the same thing twice in different ways, or a statement that is
unconditionally true by the way it is phrased.
Example:
Forward planning
It's a free gift.
31. Understatement - A figure of speech in which a writer or speaker deliberately makes a situation seem
less important or serious than it is.
Example:
"The grave's a fine and private place,
But none, I think, do there embrace."
(Andrew Marvell, "To His Coy Mistress")
FAMOUS AUTHORS IN LITERATURE
Jane Austen 1775 – 1817
The Jane Austen Centre’s website states: ‘Jane Austen is perhaps the best known and best loved of
Bath’s many famous residents and visitors.’ One wonders at the restraint in that, considering that Jane
Austen is indisputably one of the greatest English writers – some say the greatest after Shakespeare – and
certainly the greatest English novelist and one of the most famous English women who ever lived.
William Blake 1757-1827
Although not highly regarded either as a painter or poet by his contemporaries William Blake has the
distinction of finding his place in the top ten of both English writers and English painters. The reason he
was disregarded is because he was very much ahead of his time in his views and his poetic style, and also
because he was regarded as being somewhat mad, due to behaviour that would be thought of as only
slightly eccentric today– for example his naturistic habit of walking about his garden naked and sunbathing
there.
Geoffrey Chaucer 1343-1400
Geoffrey Chaucer stands as the great giant of English poetry. His verse is still read and enjoyed today and
often adapted for theatre performances. It is full of characters, still recognisable as types we encounter in
daily life in spite of having been inspired by people Chaucer observed more than seven hundred years ago.
Charles Dickens 1812-1870
Charles Dickens was an extraordinary man. He is best known as a novelist but he was very much more
than that. He was as prominent in his other pursuits but they were not areas of life where we can still see
him today. We see him as the author of such classics as Oliver Twist, David Copperfield, Great
Expectations, A Tale of Two Cities, Bleak House and many others. All of his novels are English classics.
John Donne 1572-1631
John Donne must be one of the most interesting writers who ever lived, both as a poet and a man. His
life was a colourful adventure and his poems are significant feats of language. A Jacobean writer, more or
less a contemporary of Shakespeare, Fletcher and Webster, but very distant from those theatre writers,
both regarding his social class and his literary work
George Eliot 1819-1880
George Eliot was the pen name of Mary Ann Evans, a novelist who produced some of the major classic
novels of the Victorian era, including The Mill on the Floss, Adam Bede, Silas Marner, Romola, Felix Holt,
Daniel Deronda and her masterpiece, Middlemarch. It is impossible to overestimate the significance of
Eliot’s novels in the English culture: they went right to the heart of the small-town politics that made up
the fabric of English society. Her novels were essentially political.
John Milton 1608-1674
John is often referred to as ‘the language of Shakespeare and Milton.’ Milton’s poetry has been seen as
the most perfect poetic expression in the English language for four centuries. His most famous poem, the
epic Paradise Lost is a high point of English epic poetry. Its story has entered into English and European
culture to such an extent that the details of our ideas of heaven and hell and paradise, Adam and Eve,
Satan.
George Orwell 1903-1950
George Orwell was the pen name of Eric Blair, a twentieth century writer, equally at home with
journalism, essays, novels, literary criticism and social commentary. He was famous in all those areas, but
will be particularly remembered for two of his novels, Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty Four, both among
the most significant works of literature of the twentieth century and two of the most influential…
Harold Pinter 1930-2008
Harold Pinter won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2005, three years before his death from cancer. He
had a career of more than half a century as a playwright, director, actor and writer of screenplays for
television and film. He was without doubt the most influential English playwright of the twentieth century
and so earns his place on this list…
Samuel Taylor Coleridge 1772-1834
Samuel Taylor Coleridge was an English poet, best known in his time as a literary critic and philosopher.
He was immensely influential in English literature as one of the founders of the English Romantic
Movement and when one talks about ‘the Romantic poets,’ its Coleridge’s name that springs to mind…
There are other great English language writers closely associated with the English writing scene, and
could have been included in this list had they been born in England. Writers like Irishmen, James Joyce,
William Butler Yeats, Jonathan Swift and Oscar Wilde, and the American, T.S. Eliot.

William Shakespeare
ENGLISH AUTHOR

Alternative Titles: Bard of Avon, Swan of Avon, William Shakespeare

BAPTIZED: April 26, 1564, Stratford-upon-Avon, England

DIED: April 23, 1616, Stratford-upon-Avon, England

NOTABLE WORKS

 “Hamlet”
 “The Taming of the Shrew”
 “Henry IV, Part 1”
 “The Merry Wives of Windsor”
 “King John”
 “A Midsummer Night’s Dream”
 “The Merchant of Venice”
 “Henry IV, Part 2”
 “Henry VI, Part 1”
 “The Tempest”
MOVEMENT / STYLE: Jacobean age

FAMILY : Spouse Anne Hathaway

DID YOU KNOW?
 Starlings were brought to North America in 1890 when Shakespeare fanatic Eugene Schieffelin decided
Central Park should contain all the songbirds mentioned in Shakespeare's works.
 Shakespeare's parents, wife, and children were all likely illiterate.
 Shakespeare first popularized the names Olivia, Cordelia, Jessica, and Miranda (with those spellings).

William Shakespeare, Shakespeare also spelled Shakspere, byname Bard of Avon or Swan of Avon,
(baptized April 26, 1564, Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England—died April 23, 1616,
Stratford-upon-Avon), English poet, dramatist, and actor, often called the English national poet and
considered by many to be the greatest dramatist of all time.

What was Shakespeare's family like?

Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway, eight years his senior, when he was 18. They had three children:
Susanna and twins Judith and Hamnet. Hamnet died at the age of 11.
How many plays did Shakespeare write?
There is some dispute about how many plays Shakespeare wrote. The general consensus is 37.

How many sonnets did Shakespeare write?

Shakespeare wrote 154 sonnets. The most famous include Sonnet 18, with opening lines "Shall I
compare thee to a summer's day?", and Sonnet 130, which begins "My mistress' eyes are nothing like
the sun."
How did Shakespeare die?
The cause of Shakespeare's death is unknown. However, the vicar of the local church wrote in his
journal some fifty years later that "Shakespeare, Drayton, and Ben Jonsonhad a merry meeting, and it
seems drank too hard; for Shakespeare died of a fever there contracted." The account cannot be verified
but has led some scholars to speculate that Shakespeare may have died of typhus
Why is Shakespeare still important today?
Shakespeare remains vital because his plays present people and situations that we recognize today. His
characters have an emotional reality that transcends time, and his plays depict familiar experiences,
ranging from family squabbles to falling in love to war. The fact that his plays are performed and
adapted around the world underscores the universal appeal of his storytelling.

Read more below:Understanding Shakespeare: Literary criticism

Shakespeare occupies a position unique in world literature. Other poets, such as Homer and Dante, and
novelists, such as Leo Tolstoyand Charles Dickens, have transcended national barriers; but no writer’s
living reputation can compare to that of Shakespeare, whose plays, written in the late 16th and early
17th centuries for a small repertory theatre, are now performed and read more often and in more
countries than ever before. The prophecy of his great contemporary, the poet and dramatist Ben Jonson,
that Shakespeare “was not of an age, but for all time,” has been fulfilled.

It may be audacious even to attempt a definition of his greatness, but it is not so difficult to describe the
gifts that enabled him to create imaginative visions of pathos and mirth that, whether read or witnessed
in the theatre, fill the mind and linger there. He is a writer of great intellectual rapidity, perceptiveness,
and poetic power. Other writers have had these qualities, but with Shakespeare the keenness of mind
was applied not to abstruse or remote subjects but to human beings and their complete range of
emotions and conflicts. Other writers have applied their keenness of mind in this way, but Shakespeare
is astonishingly clever with words and images, so that his mental energy, when applied to intelligible
human situations, finds full and memorable expression, convincing and imaginatively stimulating. As if
this were not enough, the art form into which his creative energies went was not remote and bookish
but involved the vivid stage impersonation of human beings, commanding sympathy and
inviting vicarious participation. Thus, Shakespeare’s merits can survive translation into other languages
and into culturesremote from that of Elizabethan England.

DID YOU KNOW?

Romeo is not in love with Juliet throughout the entire duration of the play. Before he meets Juliet,
Romeo’s primary interest is a girl named Rosaline.
In Shakespeare’s original story, Romeo is given the age of 16 years and Juliet is given the age of 13 years.
The original title of the play was The Most Excellent and Lamentable Tragedy of Romeo and Juliet.
The most famous line of the play, “Wherefore art thou, Romeo?”, is often misinterpreted. The archaic
word wherefore does not mean “where”, but “why”, rendering the modern English translation as “Why
are you, Romeo?”
The Montague and Capulet families originated in the Divine Comedy by the Italian author Dante Aligheri,
rather than in Shakespeare. Romeo and Juliet, play by William Shakespeare, written about 1594–96 and
first published in an unauthorized quarto in 1597. An authorized quarto appeared in 1599, substantially
longer and more reliable. A third quarto, based on the second, was used by the editors of the First Folio of
1623. The characters of Romeo and Juliet have been depicted in literature, music, dance, and theatre. The
appeal of the young hero and heroine—whose families, the Montagues and the Capulets, respectively, are
implacable enemies—is such that they have become, in the popular imagination, the representative type
of star-crossed lovers.
READ MORE ON THIS TOPIC
William Shakespeare, detail of an oil painting attributed to John Taylor, c. 1610. The portrait is called the
“Chandos Shakespeare” because it once belonged to the duke of Chandos. William Shakespeare: Romeo
and Juliet. Apart from the early Titus Andronicus, the only other play that Shakespeare wrote prior to
1599… Shakespeare’s principal source for the plot was The Tragicall Historye of Romeus and Juliet (1562),
a long narrative poem by the English poet Arthur Brooke, who had based his poem on a French translation
of a tale by the Italian Matteo Bandello. For a discussion of this play within the context of Shakespeare’s
entire corpus, see William Shakespeare: Shakespeare’s plays and poems.
SUMMARY OF ROMEO AND JULIET:
Romeo and Juliet is set in Verona, Italy, where there is an ongoing feud between the Montague and
Capulet families. The play opens with servants from both houses engaged in a street brawl that eventually
draws in the family patriarchs and the city officials, including Prince Escalus. The Prince ends the conflict by
issuing a decree that prohibits any further fighting at the risk of great punishment. Meanwhile, Romeo, a
young man from the Montague house, laments his unrequited love for a woman named Rosaline, who has
vowed to remain chaste for the rest of her life. Romeo and his friend Benvolio happen to stumble across a
Capulet servant, Peter, who is trying to read a list of invitees to a masked party at the Capulet house that
evening. Romeo helps Peter read the list and decides to attend the party because Rosaline will be there.
He plans to wear a mask so that he will nobody will recognize him as a Montague. Romeo arrives at the
Capulets’ party in costume. He falls in love with young Juliet Capulet from the moment he sees her.
However, Juliet’s cousin Tybalt recognizes Romeo and wants to kill him on the spot. Lord Capulet
intervenes, insisting that Tybalt not disturb the party because it will anger the Prince. Undeterred, Romeo
quietly approaches Juliet and confesses his love for her. After exchanging loving words, they kiss.
Afterwards, Juliet’s Nurse tells Romeo that Juliet is a Capulet, which upsets the smitten youngster
. Meanwhile, Juliet is similarly distraught when she finds out that Romeo is a Montague. Later that night,
Romeo climbs the garden wall into Juliet’s garden. Juliet emerges on her balcony and speaks her private
thoughts out loud. She wishes Romeo could shed his name and marry her. Upon hearing her confession,
Romeo appears and tells Juliet that he loves her. She warns him to be true in his love, and he swears by his
own self that he will be. Before they part, they agree that Juliet will send her Nurse to meet Romeo at nine
o’clock the next day, at which point he will set a place for them to be married. The Nurse carries out her
duty, and tells Juliet to meet Romeo at the chapel where Friar Laurence lives and works. Juliet meets
Romeo there, and the Friar marries them in secret. Benvolio and Mercutio (another one of Romeo’s
friends) are waiting on the street later that day when Tybalt arrives. Tybalt demands to know where
Romeo is so that he can challenge him to a duel, in order to punish him for sneaking into the party.
Mercutio is eloquently vague, but Romeo happens to arrive in the middle of the verbal sparring.
Tybalt challenges him, but Romeo passively resists fighting, at which point Mercutio jumps in and draws
his sword on Tybalt. Romeo tries to block the two men, but Tybalt cuts Mercutio and runs away, only to
return after he hears that Mercutio has died. Angry over his friend’s death, Romeo fights with Tybalt and
kills him. Then, he decides to flee. When Prince Escalus arrives at the murder scene, he banishes Romeo
from Verona forever. The Nurse tells Juliet the sad news about what has happened to Tybalt and Romeo.
Juliet is heart-broken, but she realizes that Romeo would have been killed if he had not fought Tybalt. She
sends her Nurse to find Romeo and give him her ring. That night, Romeo sneaks into Juliet’s room, and
they consummate their marriage. The next morning, he is forced to leave when Juliet’s mother arrives.
Romeo travels to Mantua, where he waits for someone to send news about Juliet or his banishment.
During Romeo and Juliet’s only night together, however, Lord Capulet decides that Juliet should marry a
young man named Paris, who has been asking for her hand. Lord and Lady Capulet tell Juliet of their plan,
but she refuses, infuriating her father. When both Lady Capulet and the Nurse refuse to intercede for the
girl, she insists that they leave her side. Juliet then visits Friar Laurence, and together they concoct a plan
to reunite her with Romeo
. The Friar gives Juliet a potion that will make her seem dead for at least two days, during which time
Romeo will come to meet her in the Capulet vault. The Friar promises to send word of the plan to Romeo.
Juliet drinks the Friar’s potion that night. The next morning, the day of Juliet and Paris’ wedding, her Nurse
finds her “dead” in bed. The whole house decries her suicide, and Friar Laurence insists they quickly place
her into the family vault. Unfortunately, Friar John has been unable to deliver the letter to Romeo
informing him of the plan, so when Romeo’s servant brings him news in Mantua that Juliet has died,
Romeo is heart-broken. He hurries back to Verona, but first, buys poison from an Apothecary and writes a
suicide note detailing the tragic course of events. As soon as Friar Laurence realizes that his letter never
made it to Romeo’s hands, he rushes to the Capulet tomb, hoping to arrive before Romeo does. Romeo
arrives at the Capulet vault and finds it guarded by Paris, who is there to mourn the loss of his betrothed.
Paris challenges Romeo to a duel, and Romeo kills him quickly. Romeo then carries Paris’ body into the
grave and sets it down. Upon seeing Juliet’s “dead” body lying in the tomb, Romeo drinks the poison,
gives her a last kiss – and dies. Friar Laurence arrives to the vault just as Juliet wakes up. He tries to
convince her to flee, but upon seeing Romeo’s dead body, she takes her own life as well. The rest of the
town starts to arrive at the tomb, including Lord Capulet and Lord Montague. Friar Laurence explains the
whole story, and Romeo’s letter confirms it. The two families agree to settle their feud and form an
alliance despite the tragic circumstances.

TEN FAMOUS FILIPINO WRITERS

10. CARLO J. CAPARAS
Carlo J. Caparas is a comic strip creator, writer, director and producer who became sensational known
for his created local superheroes and comic book characters that are still popular to Filipinos until now.
Some of his creations turned Filipino icons such as “Panday” (a Blacksmith hero) and many others. As a
producer and director, Carlo J. Caparas produced box-office movies based on comics and true-to-life
stories and crimes. In 2009 he received National Artist Award granted by the President of the Philippines.
9. MARS RAVELO
Mars Ravelo is also a comic strip creator and writer who became phenomenal in the Philippines for his
created superheroes such as “Darna” (a Filipino version of Wonder Woman), Dyesabel (name of the
Filipino mermaid/heroine), and many others. During his time, the “Golden Age of Comics” flourished. Like
Carlo J. Caparas, Mars Ravelo’s creations and writings were turned into films and became box-office hit
during 1960’s to 1980’s. Ravelo was also the highest paid comic writer during his time. Until now, his
creations is still influential to Philippine contemporary literature.
8. LOUIE MAR GANGCUANCO
The youngest among the list, Louie Mar Gangcuanco published his debut novel entitled “Orosa-Nakpil,
Malate” at the age of 18. The novel illustrates the pink culture in the streets of Orosa and Nakpil, which is
known as the haven of gay Filipino culture. The novel became an instant hit, becoming a bestseller months
after it was released. His work was featured in the top-rating TV show, Sharon, in June of the same year. In
August 2006, Louie Mar was awarded the Y Idol Award (Youth Idol Award) by Studio 23’s Y Speak. Later
that month, the Sentro ng Wikang Filipino conferred a Sertipiko ng Pagpapahalaga for Orosa-Nakpil,
Malate. His phenomenal novel is endorsed by prominent people and institutions including the multi-
awarded director, Jose Javier “Joey” Reyes, Dr. Jaime Galvez Tan (former DOH secretary) and Dr. Raul
Destura of the National Institutes of Health Philippines.
After one year of circulation, Orosa-Nakpil, Malate made it to the Best Sellers List released by National
Book Store in April 2007. With him in the list are authors Mitch Albom of One More Day, James Patterson
and Maxine Paetro of The Fifth Horseman, and Gabriel Garcia Marquez of Memories of My Melancholy
Whores. The book landed on the Top 8 spot, overtaking international authors Steve Berry and Kiran Desai.
7. GILDA OLVIDADO
Gilda Olvidado is a popular Filipino novelist and writer, known for her extraordinary love stories. She
became famous during the 1970’s with her remarkable novels “Sinasamba Kita (I Worship You)”,
“Babangon ako’t Dudurugin Kita (Sweet Revenge)”. She also wrote screenplays that later turned into
blockbuster such as “Saan Nagtatago ang Pag-ibig? (Where is Love Hiding?)” who made her rise into
popularity after the Filipino Academy of Movie Arts and Sciences recognized it as the best story. Today,
Gilda Olvidado’s fans are still counting, waiting the release for her next novel.
6. NICK JOAQUIN
Nick Joaquín was born in Paco, Manila, one of the ten children of Leocadio, a colonel under General
Emilio Aguinaldo in the 1896 Revolution, and Salome Marquez, a teacher of English and Spanish. Being
read poems and stories by his mother, Joaquin taught himself by reading widely at the National Library of
the Philippines and the library of his father, who by that time was a successful lawyer after the revolution.
This developed further his interest in writing. At age 17, Joaquín was first published in the literary section
of the Pre-World War II Tribune under writer and editor Serafín Lanot. Before publishing in the Tribune,
Joaquin worked as a proofreader of the paper.
After winning a Dominican Order-sponsored nationwide essay competition for La Naval de Manila, the
University of Santo Tomas awarded Joaquín an honorary Associate in Arts (A.A.) and a scholarship to St.
Albert’s Convent, the Dominican monastery in Hong Kong. Upon his return to the Philippines, he joined the
Philippines Free Press, starting as a proofreader. Soon, he was noticed for his poems, stories and plays, as
well as his journalism under the pen name Quijano de Manila. His journalism was markedly both intellectual
and provocative, an unknown genre in the Philippines at that time, raising the level of reportage in the
country. Joaquín deeply admired José Rizal, the national hero of the Philippines. Joaquín paid tribute to
Rizal by way of books such as The Storyteller’s New Medium – Rizal in Saga, The Complete Poems and
Plays of Jose Rizal, and A Question of Heroes: Essays in Criticism on Ten Key Figures of Philippine History.
He also translated the hero’s valedictory poem, in the original Spanish “Mi Ultimo Adios,” as “Land That I
Love, Farewell!”
Joaquín served as a member of Motion Pictures under President Diosdado Macapagal and President
Ferdinand E. Marcos. Joaquin’s first move as National Artist was to secure the release of imprisoned writer
José F. Lacaba. Later, at a ceremony on Mount Makiling attended by First Lady Imelda Marcos, Joaquín
delivered an invocation to Mariang Makiling, the mountain’s mythical maiden. Joaquín touched on the
importance of freedom and the artist. As a result, for the remainder of the Marcos regime, Joaquín no
longer received invitations to address important cultural events.
5. LUALHATI BAUTISTA
Lualhati Bautista is one of the foremost Filipino female novelists in the history of contemporary
Philippine Literature. Her novels include, “Dekada ’70 (Decade ’70)”, “Bata, Bata, Pa’no Ka Ginawa? (Child,
Child… How were you made?”, and “‘GAPÔ (short name for Olongapo, Philippines)”.
In addition to being a novelist, Lualhati Bautista is also a movie and television screenwriter and a short
story writer. Her first screenplay was Sakada (Seasonal Sugarcane Workers), a story written in 1975 that
exposed the plight of Filipino peasants. Bautista has received recognition from the Philippines’ Don Carlos
Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature and the Surian ng Wikang Pambansa in 1987. Her award-winning
screenplays include Bulaklak sa City Jail (A Flower in City Jail) (1984), Kung Mahawi Man ang Ulap (If The
Clouds are Parted) (1984), Sex Object (1985). For screenplay writing, she has received recognition from
the Metro Manila Film Festival (best story-best screenplay), Film Academy Awards (best story-best
screenplay), Star Awards (best screenplay), FAMAS (finalist for best screenplay), and URIAN awards. Two
of her short stories have also won the Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature, Tatlong Kuwento ng
Buhay ni Julian Candelabra (Three Stories in the Life of Julian Candelabra), first prize, 1982; and Buwan,
Buwan, Hulugan mo Ako ng Sundang (Moon, Moon, Drop Me a Sword), third prize, 1983. Bautista also
authored the television dramas Daga sa Timba ng Tubig (The Mouse in the Bucket of Water) (1975) and
Isang Kabanata sa Libro ng Buhay ni Leilani Cruzaldo (A Chapter in the Book of Life of Leilani Cruzaldo)
(1987). The latter won best drama story for television from the Catholic Mass Media Awards. Bautista was
honored by the Ateneo Library of Women’s Writings on March 10, 2004 during the 8th Annual Lecture on
Vernacular Literature by Women. In 2005, the Feminist Centennial Film Festival presented her with a
recognition award for her outstanding achievement in screenplay writing. In 2006, she was recipient of the
Diwata Award for best writer by the 16th International Women’s Film Festival of the UP Film Center. She is
also the only Filipino included in a book on foremost International Women Writers published in Japan, 1991.
4. F. SIONIL JOSE
F. Sionil Jose is one of the most widely-read Filipino writers in the English language. His novels and short
stories depict the social underpinnings of class struggles and colonialism in Filipino society. José’s works –
written in English – have been translated into 22 languages, including Korean, Indonesian, Russian,
Latvian, Ukrainian and Dutch. Jose Rizal’s life and writings profoundly influenced José’s work. The five
volume Rosales Saga, in particular, employs and interrogates themes and characters from Rizal’s work.
Throughout his career, Sionil José’s writings espouse social justice and change to better the lives of
average Filipino families. He is one of the most critically acclaimed Filipino authors internationally, although
much underrated in his own country because of his authentic Filipino English and his anti-elite views. In
1980, Sionil Jose received Ramon Magsaysay Award (Asia’s Nobel Prize) for Literature.
3. FRANCISCO BALAGTAS
Francisco Baltazar, known much more widely through his nom-de-plume Francisco Balagtas, was a
prominent Filipino poet, and is widely considered as the Tagalog equivalent of William Shakespeare for his
impact on Filipino literature. The famous epic, Florante at Laura, is regarded as his defining work. Balagtas
learned to write poetry from José de la Cruz (Huseng Sisiw), one of the most famous poets of Tondo. It
was de la Cruz himself who personally challenged Balagtas to improve his writing. (source: Talambuhay ng
mga Bayani, for Grade 5 textbook)
In 1835, Balagtas moved to Pandacan, where he met María Asunción Rivera, who would effectively serve
as the muse for his future works. She is referenced in Florante at Laura as ‘Celia’ and ‘MAR’. Balagtas’
affections for Celia were challenged by the influential Mariano Capule. Capule won the battle for Celia
when he used his wealth to get Balagtas imprisoned under the accusation that he ordered a servant girl’s
head be shaved. It was here that he wrote Florante at Laura—In fact, the events of this poem were meant
to parallel his own situation. He wrote his poems in Tagalog, during an age when Filipino writing was
predominantly written in Spanish. Balagtas published Florante at Laura upon his release in 1838. He moved
to Balanga, Bataan in 1840 where he served as the assistant to the Justice of peace and later, in 1856, as
the Major Lieutenant. He was also appointed as the translator of the court. Balagtas is so greatly revered in
the Philippines that the term for Filipino debate in extemporaneous verse is named for him: balagtasan.
2. BOB ONG
Bob Ong, is the pseudonym of an anonymous Filipino contemporary author known for using
conversational Filipino to create humorous and reflective depictions of life as a Filipino. A Filipino Literary
critic once commented: ” Filipinos really patronize Bob Ong’s works because, while most of his books may
have an element of comedy in them, this is presented in a manner that replicates Filipino culture and
traditions. This is likely the reason why his first book – and those that followed it, can be considered true
Pinoy classics.” The six books he has published thus far have surpassed a quarter of a million copies. His
words of wisdom were applied by some of the Filipinos to their daily lives.
1. JOSE RIZAL
For obvious reasons, he is the most influential and the most bestselling author/writer until now. Jose
Rizal was a prolific poet, essayist, diarist, correspondent, and novelist whose most famous works were his
two novels, “Noli me Tangere (Touch Me Not)” and El filibusterismo “The Filibuster”). These are social
commentaries on the Philippines that formed the nucleus of literature that inspired dissent among
peaceful reformists and spurred the militancy of armed revolutionaries against the Spanish colonial
authorities. His books are still cracking the bestselling list.

The 34 greatest poets of all time

Poetry — one of the most important and time-honored forms of literature in the world —
brought us greats like William Shakespeare and W.B. Yeats to ancient poets like Homer
and Dante Alighieri to American treasures like Robert Frost and Emily Dickinson. With
research from Poetry Soup and Ranker, here are the 34 greatest poets of all time, not
ranked in any particular order.

Edgar Allen Poe

Famous poem: "The Raven"
Famous quote: "I have great faith in fools — self-confidence my friends call it."

William Shakespeare
Famous poem: "Sonnet XVIII" (Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?)
Famous quote: "All the world's a stage, and all the men and women merely players: they
have their exits and their entrances; and one man in his time plays many parts. His acts
being seven ages."

Maya Angelou
Famous poem: "On the Pulse of Morning"
Famous quote: "I've learned that people will forget what you said, people will forget
what you did, but people will never forget how you made them feel."

Emily Dickinson
Famous poem: “ ‘Hope’ is the thing with feathers"
Famous quote: "Hope is the thing with feathers that perches in the soul — and sings the
tunes without the words — and never stops at all."

Shel Silverstein
Famous poem: "Where the Sidewalk Ends"
Famous quote: "What I do is good. I wouldn't let it out if I didn't think it was."

Robert Frost
Famous poem: "The Road Not Taken"
Famous quote: "The woods are lovely, dark and deep. But I have promises to keep, and
miles to go before I sleep."

Pablo Neruda
Famous poem: "I Do Not Love You Except Because I Love You"
Famous quote: "To feel the love of people whom we love is a fire that feeds our life."

E. E. Cummings
Famous poem: "i carry your heart with me"
Famous quote: "It takes courage to grow up and become who you really are."

Langston Hughes
Famous poem: "I Too Sing America"
Famous quote: "Hold fast to dreams for if dreams die, life is a broken winged bird that
cannot fly."
Walt Whitman
Famous poem: "I Hear America Singing"
Famous quote: "Either define the moment or the moment will define you."

Thomas Hardy
Famous poem: "Hap"
Famous quote: "The main object of religion is not to get a man into heaven, but to get
heaven into him."

Rudyard Kipling
Famous poem: "Gunga Din"
Famous quote: "We have forty million reasons for failure, but not a single excuse."

Oscar Wilde
Famous poem: "A Vision"
Famous quote: "I have the simplest tastes. I am always satisfied with the best."

John Keats
Famous poem: "A Thing of Beauty (Endymion)"
Famous quote: "A thing of beauty is a joy forever; its loveliness increases; it will never
pass into nothingness."

Elizabeth Barrett Browning

Famous poem: "How Do I Love Thee?"
Famous quote: "If you desire faith, then you have faith enough."

William Blake
Famous poem: "The Tyger"
Famous quote: "The glory of Christianity is to conquer by forgiveness."
Sylvia Plath
Famous poem: "Daddy"
Famous quote: "Everything in life is writable about if you have the outgoing guts to do
it and the imagination to improvise."

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

Famous poem: "The Song of Hiawatha"
Famous quote: "Give what you have. To someone, it may be better than you dare to
think."

William Wordsworth
Famous poem: "The Prelude"
Famous quote: "Fill your paper with the breathings of your heart."

Mark Twain
Famous poem: "Ode to Stephen Dowling Bots, Dec'd."
Famous quote: "Kindness is the language which the deaf can hear and the blind can
see."

Ralph Waldo Emerson

Famous poem: "Uriel"
Famous quote: "A hero is no braver than an ordinary man, but he is braver five minutes
longer."

John Donne
Famous poem: "No Man Is An Island"
Famous quote: "Any man's death diminishes me, because I am involved in Mankind;
And therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls; it tolls for thee."
W.B. Yeats
Famous poem: "The Second Coming"
Famous quote: "Education is not the filling of a pail, but the lighting of a fire."

Lord Byron
Famous poem: "She Walks in Beauty"
Famous quote: "There is no instinct like that of the heart."

Lewis Carroll
Famous poem: "Jabberwocky"
Famous quote: "It is one of the great secrets of life that those things which are most
worth doing, we do for others."

Alfred, Lord Tennyson

Famous poem: "The Charge of the Light Brigade"
Famous quote: "'Tis better to have loved and lost Than never to have loved at all."

Dante Alighieri
Famous poem: "Divine Comedy"
Famous quote: "Consider your origin; you were not born to live like brutes, but to
follow virtue and knowledge."

T.S. Eliot
Famous poem: "The Waste Land"
Famous quote: "Friendship should be more than biting time can sever."

Ezra Pound
Famous poem: "Hugh Selwyn Mauberley"
Famous quote: "With one day's reading a man may have the key in his hands."
John Milton
Famous poem: "Paradise Lost"
Famous quote: "A good book is the precious lifeblood of a master spirit."

Sappho
Famous poem: "Sappho 31"
Famous quote: "What is beautiful is good, and who is good will soon be beautiful."

Homer
Famous poem: "The Iliad"
Famous quote: "Evil deeds do not prosper; the slow man catches up with the swift."

Li Bai
Famous poem: "Quiet Night Thought"
Famous quote: "We sit together, the mountain and me, until only the mountain remains."

Jalal al-Din Rumi

Famous poem: "Masnavi-ye Ma’navi (Spiritual Verses)"
Famous quote: "Raise your words, not voice. It is rain that grows flowers, not thunder."

LOCAL COLOR AND REGIONALISM

Local color or regional literature is fiction and poetry that focuses on the characters, dialect, customs, topography, and
other features particular to a specific region. Influenced by Southwestern and Down East humor, between the Civil War
and the end of the nineteenth century this mode of writing became dominant in American literature. According to
the Oxford Companion to American Literature, "In local-color literature one finds the dual influence of romanticism and
realism, since the author frequently looks away from ordinary life to distant lands, strange customs, or exotic scenes, but
retains through minute detail a sense of fidelity and accuracy of description" (439). Its weaknesses may include nostalgia
or sentimentality. Its customary form is the sketch or short story, although Hamlin Garland argued for the novel of local
color.

Regional literature incorporates the broader concept of sectional differences, although in Writing Out of Place, Judith
Fetterley and Marjorie Pryse have argued convincingly that the distinguishing characteristic that separates "local color"
writers from "regional" writers is instead the exploitation of and condescension toward their subjects that the local color
writers demonstrate.

Setting: The emphasis is frequently on nature and the limitations it imposes; settings are frequently remote and
inaccessible. The setting is integral to the story and may sometimes become a character in itself.
 Characters: Local color stories tend to be concerned with the character of the district or region rather than with the
individual: characters may become character types, sometimes quaint or stereotypical. The characters are marked by
their adherence to the old ways, by dialect, and by particular personality traits central to the region. In women's local color
fiction, the heroines are often unmarried women or young girls.

Narrator: The narrator is typically an educated observer from the world beyond who learns something from the characters
while preserving a sometimes sympathetic, sometimes ironic distance from them. The narrator serves as mediator
between the rural folk of the tale and the urban audience to whom the tale is directed.

Plots. It has been said that "nothing happens" in local color stories by women authors, and often very little does happen.
Stories may include lots of storytelling and revolve around the community and its rituals.

Themes: Many local color stories share an antipathy to change and a certain degree of nostalgia for an always-past
golden age. A celebration of community and acceptance in the face of adversity characterizes women's local color fiction.
Thematic tension or conflict between urban ways and old-fashioned rural values is often symbolized by the intrusion of an
outsider or interloper who seeks something from the community

Point of View Definition

1. A point of view in a discussion, an argument, or nonfiction writing is an opinion, the way you think about a subject.
2. In a story, the point of view is the narrator’s position in the description of events.
First person point of view. First person is when “I” am telling the story. The character is in the story, relating his or
her experiences directly.
Second person point of view. The story is told to “you.” This POV is not common in fiction, but it’s still good to know
(it is common in nonfiction).
Third person point of view, limited. The story is about “he” or “she.” This is the most common point of view in
commercial fiction. The narrator is outside of the story and relating the experiences of a character.
Third person point of view, omniscient. The story is still about “he” or “she,” but the narrator has full access to the
thoughts and experiences of all characters in the story.

LITERARY THEORIES AND CRITICISM

Literary criticism is the study, evaluation and interpretation of literature whereas literary theory is the different frameworks
used to evaluate and interpret a particular work. This is the main difference between literary criticism and literary theory.

Literary Criticism is the practical application of literary theory.

Literary Theory is a combination of the nature and function of literature and the relation of text to its author,
reader, and society.

Formalism – focuses on the structural purposes of a text

Reader-Response Criticism – focuses on the response of the reader to a text
Structuralism – focuses on the universal underlying structures of a text
Gender/Queer Studies – focuses on the portrayal of gender and gender relations
Post-colonial Studies – focuses on the influence of colonialism on literature
Psychoanalytic Criticism – focuses on the role of consciousness and unconsciousness in literature
Marxist Criticism – focuses on the political, economic and social in the literature