Volum 1

Plants Flora of Swat Pakistan
Title: Flora of District Swat Pakistan

Author: Shujat Ali
Email: alishuat119@gmail.com
Devotion
This exertion is dedicated to the several botanists both past and present for the vast body of knowledge that
exists nowadays.
Foreword
This volume was a complete calamity and raised to become far more complete than I always envisioned. It came
about due to my wish to comprehend more about the plant diversity of Swat Pakistan. Another intention for
assembling this book is there are rare practical field guides or guidebooks on the market to both families and
genera which are inclusive. This book annotations are prized to increase future versions. This book aims to make
possible the identification to genus and family of all flowering plants of Swat Pakistan or at least guide the user
from everything with a flower and (usually) green to fewer potential group. I must state that work of this kind is
frequently hard to amass due to prevailing faults in published literature the large number of present literature,
occasionally opposing thoughts on the taxonomy (so called lumping and splitting) and finally the simple
circumstance that there are so many missing gaps in our body of knowledge. I would like this book to inspire an
open, cooperative practice where response and debate form future versions.
Description
District Swat of Pakistan has a gorgeous diversity of ecosystems and vegetation communities. The elevation of
the Swat Valley is 975.36 meters and ranges to 2900 meters. The uppermost peak of Hindu Kush Range in Swat
Valley is Falak Sher (Falak Sar) which is around 5918 meters elevate. This book is a comprehensive guide to the
vascular plants in Swat Pakistan and comprises descriptions, distribution, habitat information, flowering times,
and elevation ranges for all species. Photographs for nearly 1 of the species are also incorporated. The goal of this
guide is to enable students, researchers, inexpert and professional botanists or everyone interested in the flora of
Swat Pakistan to successfully identify plants with confidence and satisfaction.
1
Contents
Page Title
3-4 Chapter 1
3 Introduction
3 Description and generic notes
3-4 Floral Formula
4 Synonymy
4 Glossary
5-15 Chapter 2
5-6 General Account of Pteridophyte, Characteristics of Pteridophyte
6 Life Cycle of Pteridophyte,
7 Family Adiantaceae
7-8-9 Adiantum capillus-veneris L., Adiantum caudatum, Adiantum venustum, Cheilanthes argentea
Cheilanthes acrostica, Onychium japonicum,
9 Family Aspleniaceae
9-10 Asplenium adiantum-nigrum, Asplenium trichomanes L, Ceterach dalhousiae,
11 Family Dennstaedtiaceae,
11 Microlepia strigosa, Pteridium aquilinum,
11 Family Dryopteridaceae
11-12 Dryopteris filix-mas, Dryopteris juxtaposita Christ,
12 Family Equisetaceae,
12 Equisetum arvense L.,
13 Family Hypodematiaceae,
13 Hypodematium crenatum (Forsk.)
13 Family Marsileaceae
13-14 Marsilea quadrifolia L.
14 Family Pteridaceae,
14-15 Pteris cretica L., Pteris vittata L.,
16-17 General Account of Gymnosperm , Basic Characters Of Gymnosperm,
17-18 Life Cycle Of Gymnosperm,
16-21 Chapter 3
18 Family Cupressaceae,
18-19 Cupressus sempervirens L, Juniperus communis L. var. saxatilis Pallas,
19 Family Pinaceae,
19-20 Abies pindrow Royle, Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D. Don) G. Don, Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss, Pinus
roxburghii Sargent, Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jackson,
20 Family Taxaceae
21 Taxus wallichiana Zucc
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Introduction Chapter 1
From 250 years flowering plants were organized in several classification systems according to their morphology
and biochemistry. Botanists from around the world supported and used different systems (e.g. de Candolle,
Lindley, Bentham & Hooker, Engler, Hutchinson, Takhtajan, Cronquist, and Dahlgren) which caused some
confusion and even more debate. In the last twenty years the classification of plants has changed intensely with
the accumulation of molecular data that is disentanglement the true evolutionary associations of plants. Plants
have adapted over millions of years to different pollination syndromes and/or stimulating environments and this
has resulted in some variance of closely connected groups and convergence of vaguely connected ones. A
classification system based on evolutionary relationships has been the goal since Darwin and using DNA
sequences reveals lineage far more accurately than morphological characters alone. The Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group (APG) classification is a modern system, mostly molecular based system and is now broadly accepted.
The first version was published in 1998, this was superseded in 2003 by the APG II system and the current APG
III system was published in 2009. In the APG period this work is the first and only to broadly accrue practical
morphological characters of all APG III families and their genera in the world based on the current literature for
identification.
Descriptions and generic notes
The flowering plant families are numerically organized the following Linear Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
(LAPG) III (Haston et al., 2009). The generic synopsis of each family is arranged alphabetically, and if there are
many genera grouped, then also taxonomically (by subfamilies or tribes), geographically (by continent or region)
and/or morphologically. The formal family descriptions contain important characters which are usually easily
comparable with each other and useful diagnostic characters are underlined. Morphological synapomorphies, as
well as, general characters to help compare similar genera are attempted for each genus listed. All characters used
can be seen by the naked eye or with a hand lens, though looking at placentation and ovule number can sometimes
be challenging.
Floral formulas
These formulas aid identification and can be useful for noting the number of parts to each whorl. There are several
ways of doing floral formulas with a very general one used in this work to allow its use by many users. The
formulas consist of four primary symbols (plus some additional secondary symbols) which go from left to right:
Primary: K number of sepals - with ‘K’ representing “calyx”. K5 = calyx of 5 sepals.
C number of petals - with ‘C’ representing “corolla”. C5 = corolla of 5 petals.
A number of stamens - with ‘A’ representing “androecium”.
G number of carpels - with ‘G’ representing “gynoecium”. G indicates a superior and Ĝ an inferior ovary.
3
Introduction Chapter 1
Secondary: (....) brackets are used here to indicate less often numerical values not fusion
4‒5 dashes between numbers are used here to show variation in each whorl
P the perianth (i.e. calyx and corolla) and is used when the two whorls are indistinguishable from each other
+ Symbol is used to indicate differentiation within each whorl. For example, two large petals and three small
petals would be: C2+3
° Symbol is used for sterile stamens (= staminodes) or carpels (= pistillodes)
Synonymy
Some families and genera have now been merged into other families and or genera. An inclusive list of family
synonyms is provided based primarily on the paper by Reveal & Chase (2011). Recent or relevant generic
synonymy, based on current literature, are included in each of the family treatments except for where extensive
changes have taken place and appropriate websites are cited for further information.
Glossary
The botanical terminology is kept to a minimum and a basic glossary is incorporated at the last page for any terms
used, as well as common terms which are frequently used in other botanical literature. Also, illustrations of
essential and often complex terms are included to aid the non-specialists.
4
Chapter 2 Pteridophyte
PTERIDOPHYTE
General Account of Pteridophyte
Earlier the flowering plants, the landscape was dominated with plants that seen like ferns for hundreds of millions
of years. Nowadays, their massive lineage have
descendants that have closely the similar arrivals as
their ancient ancestries. Unlike most other members
of the Plant Kingdom, pteridophyte don’t reproduce
through seeds, they reproduce through spores instead.
Pteridophyta is one of the older groups of plants
present in the plant kingdom. They have been around
far longer than the angiosperms, with earliest always
documented fossil dating back to the Silurian Period.
Moreover they are one of the precise primary true
plants to familiarize to life on terrestrial.
Characteristics of Pteridophyte
1. Pteridophytes are the early true terrestrial
plants:
It is gambled that life started in the oceans and through millions of years of evolution life gradually modified on
to dry land. And among the first of the plants to truly live on land were the Pteridophytes.
2. They are seedless, vascular cryptogams:
Pteridophytes are seedless and they reproduce through spores. They don’t have conducting tissues for transport
of water and minerals. Instead the water and minerals flow from the surface of the plant cell to cell in the plant
body. This is also one of the reasons why these plants need a continuously moist environment to live.
3. They show true alternation of generations:
The sporophyte generation and the gametophyte generation are saw in Pteridophytes.
4. Sporophyte has true roots, stem and leaves:
They comprise vascular tissues.
5. Spores developed in sporangia are homosporous or heterosporous:
The sporangium is the structures in which spores are formed. They are generally homosporous (meaning: one
type of spore is produced) and are heterosporous (meaning two kinds of spores are produced).
6. Sporangia are produced in groups on sporophylls:
Leaves that bear the sporangia are termed as sporophylls.
7. Young leaves of sporophyte show circinate vernation:
The tip of the leaves tends to curl inwards to protect the vulnerable growing parts.
8. Sex organs multicellular and jacketed:
The male sex organs are called antheridia, while the female sex organs are called archegonia.
Life Cycle of Pteridophyte
5
Similar to the life cycle of angiosperm and gymnosperm the pteridophytes also contains the alternation of
generations in its life cycle. However pteridophytes contrast from mosses and seed plants in both generations are
independent and free-living. The sexuality of pteridophytic gametophytes can be classified as follows:
Dioicous: the individual gametophyte is either a male producing antheridia and sperm or a female producing
archegonia and egg cells.
Monoicous: each individual gametophyte can
developed both antheridia and archegonia and
it can function both as a male as well as a
female.
Protandrous: the antheridia matures before
the archegonia.
Protogynous: the archegonia matures before
the antheridia.
The life cycle of pteridophytes is a persistent
reproductive procedure that is dominated by
the sporophyte (sexual) phase of the
alternation of generations. Fern spores are
hurled into the air and the spores develop into
heart shaped haploid gametophytes that
comprise both male and female sex organs,
when the young gametophyte matures the sex
organs become active. In ferns the male
reproductive organ is the antheridium which
produces and releases sperm. The female
reproductive organ is the archegonia at the
base of which deceits the egg. Fern reproduction needs water for the sperm to swim to the archegonia and fertilize
the egg. The presence of water is vital for persistent genetically healthy sporophytes. Sperm released in vast
numbers from several gametophytes swim through the same waters that comprise the archegonium. Therefore
sperm cells from the similar gametophyte do not essentially fertilize that gametophyte's egg. Without this occasion
for cross fertilization inbreeding might lead to an increase of harmful recessive alleles. A fertilized egg, or zygote,
grows through the process of mitosis (cell division), producing roots, stems, and a new sporophyte. Embryonic
sporophytes are initially tightly curled structures called fiddleheads that unfurl as they grow into fronds (leaf-like
structures). The mature frond is the sporophyte, which contains multiple clusters of sporangia, sacs that hold
asexual spores. Spores form by meiosis and are released into the air and the life cycle continues
PLANT FAMILIES OF PTERIDOPHYTES

1. FAMILY ADIANTACEAE
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It is a family of fern, containing of only one genus, Adiantum and above 200 species. They are broadly distributed
in tropical, subtropical, and temperate region.
Plants Species of Adiantaceae SPECIES
1.1 Adiantum capillus-veneris L.
English Name: maidenhair fern
Local Name: Sumbal
Distribution
It grows river side, streams, springs and shady places. It is widely distributed in temperate and tropical zone in
Africa, America, Asia, Europe and Oceania.
Description
The plants are terrestrial (land-living) or epilithic, grow up to 10 to 40
cm tall. Rhizomes sneaking, slender, scales dense, brown, lanceolate,
margins entire. Fronds distant or closely spaced, stipe roan black,
shiny, 3 to 20 cm, slender, base covered with same scales as rhizome,
remotely glabrous, lamina typically 2 pinnate below middle, 1 pinnate
above middle, ovate triangular in outline, 6-25 × 8-16 cm, base wedge-
shaped, apex acute, pinnae 3 to 5 each side, diagonally climbing, stalk
up to 15 mm, rachises, costae, and stalks same color as stipes, slightly
zigzag, color passing into lamina base, basal pair of pinnae larger, 1or
2 pinnate, narrowly ovate in outline, 3-9 × 2.5-4 cm, apex obtuse, pinnae from second pair upward all similar but
gradually smaller, pinnules 2-4 pairs per ultimate pinna, alternate, obliquely ascending, stalk castaneous black, 1
to 2 mm, slender, blade sub-equal in size or basal pair slightly larger, 12-20 × 10-15 mm, thinly herbaceous, green
or dark brown-green, both surfaces glabrous, base cuneate, sides entire, upper margin rounded, 2 to 4 lobed or
divided into stick like segments, sterile pinnules with apex obtuse, with marginal teeth mostly triangular or erose,
fertile segments with apex truncate, straight or slightly depressed, entire or with erose teeth on both sides; terminal
pinnules flabellate, usually larger, base narrowly cuneate, stalks up to 1 cm. Veins multi-dichotomously cleft,
reaching margins, visible on both surfaces. Sori 3 to 10 per pinnule, on apices of lobes of upper margin, false
indusia yellowish green, brown when old, narrowly reniform or orbicular reniform, membranous, upper margins
flat and straight, entire, persistent. Peri-spore thickly granular.
Uses
It is used in Many pharmacological effects comprising anti-diabetic, anti-obesity, anticonvulsant, analgesic, hypo-
cholesterolemic, goitrogenic, anti-thyroidal, antibacterial, antifungal, wound healing, anti-hair loss, anti-
asthmatic, anti-inflammatory, antidiarrheal and antispasmodic, antioxidant as well as diuretic
1.2. Adiantum caudatum L.
English Name: walking maidenhair, tailed maidenhair, trailing maidenhair
Local Name: Sumbal
Distribution
It grows on rocks or in rock cracks in forests or mountain valleys up to 100 to 1200 meters on altitude. Mostly
found in China, Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines, Thailand,
Vietnam and throughout the Old World tropics.
Description
7
Plants are terrestrial or epilithic, 10 to 40 cm tall. Rhizomes erect, short, scales intensely castaneous, lanceolate
and margins entire. Fronds clustered, stipe castaneous, 1 to 10 cm, thickly
dark brown or brownish multicellular shaggy, lamina 1 pinnate,
lanceolate in outline, 15-30 × 2-4 cm, base marginally narrow, rachis
same color as stipe and similarly thinly hairy, glabrescent when old, apex
usually elongated into a lash like stolon rooting at tip to form new
plantlet, pinnules 20 to 44 pairs, 5 to 8 mm apart, alternate or lower ones
sub-opposite, parallel spreading or slightly obliquely spreading, lower
pinnules progressively reduced, middle ones ± dimidiate, sub-oblong,
0.7-2 × 0.6-1 cm, delicate, brownish-green, both surfaces thinly
multicellular hirsute and densely pubescent, base asymmetrical, lower
margins sub-straight and entire, upper and outer margins intensely
divided into many narrow lobes, upper side truncate, lobes linear, margins entire, upper part again lobed into fine
linear segments, apex truncate, fine segments truncate or few dentate at apex; veins multi-dichotomously
branching, visible on both surfaces. Sori 5 to 12 per pinna; false indusia dark brown, orbicular or oblong, hairy,
upper margins flat and straight, entire, persistent. Peri-spore granular. 2n = 90
Uses
It is used in the cure of diabetes, coughs, fevers and migraine. The fronds are used externally to treat skin diseases.
1.3. Adiantum venustum D. Don
English Name: evergreen maidenhair or Himalayan maidenhair,
Local Name:
Distribution
They grow in rock cracks and mountain slopes up to 2000 to 2900 meters
on altitude. Mostly found in China, Bhutan, India, Kashmir, N
Myanmar, and Nepal.
Description
Plants terrestrial, 25 to 50 cm tall. Rhizomes decumbent, dense, scales
dense, dark brown, ovate-lanceolate, margins entire. Fronds remote,
stipe castaneous brown, 10 to 20 cm, base enclosed with same scales as
rhizome, distally glabrous, lamina 3 pinnate, mostly ovate in outline, 10-
25 × 5-12 cm, apex acuminate and 1 pinnate, pinnae ca. 6 each side,
obliquely spreading, stalks 2 to 7 mm, rachises, costae, and stalks ±
zigzag, same color as stipe, glabrous, basal pair of pinnae largest, 2
pinnate, ovate-elliptic, 5-13 × 4-7 cm, pinnules 4 or 5 pairs per lateral pinna, alternate, upwardly oblique, shortly
stalked, flabellate, 7-10 × 7-10 mm, green or brown-green, herbaceous, both surfaces glabrous, base shortly
cuneate, shortly stalked, apex rounded and denticulate. Veins multi-dichotomously forked, reaching teeth at
pinnule margin, visible on both surfaces. Sori 1 (2 or 3) per pinnule, attached at rounded sinus, false indusia
brownish, orbicular, membranous, upper margin deep sinus like, entire, persistent. 2n = 120
Uses
It is used for the treatment of cold, headache, hydrophobia, and inflammation of the chest. It is also used as an
antiviral or antibacterial drug. The extract from the rhizome can be used to treat diabetes, liver problems and is a
diuretic.
8
1.4. Cheilanthes argentea (S.G. Gmel.) Kunze
English Name: Silver Cloak Fern
Local Name:
Distribution
Grow in moistly shade places. Mostly found in Western Hemisphere but a few in Europe, Asia, Africa, Pacific
Islands, and Australia
Description
Plants generally grow on rock. Stems dense to extensive creeping,
ascending to horizontal, commonly branched, scales brown to black or
frequently bicolored with dark central stripe and lighter margins, linear-
subulate to ovate-lanceolate, margins entire or denticulate. Leaves
monomorphic, clustered to widely dispersed, 4 to 60 cm. Petiole brown
to black or straw-colored, rounded, flattened, or with single longitudinal
groove adaxially, pubescent, scaly, or glabrous, with a single vascular
bundle. Blade linear-oblong to lanceolate, ovate, or long pentagonal,
pinnate pinnatifid to 4 pinnate at base, rubbery or infrequently a bit
herbaceous, abaxially pubescent and or scaly, infrequently glabrous,
adaxially pubescent to glabrous, gloomy, not striate, rachis straight.
Ultimate segments of blade stalked or sessile, commonly free from costae, round to elongate or spatulate, typically
less than 4 mm wide, base rounded, truncate, or cuneate, stalks (when present) often shiny and dark colored,
segment margins generally re-curved to form confluent, poorly defined false indusia, extending entire length of
segment or intermittent on apical or lateral lobes. Veins of ultimate segments free or infrequently anastomosing,
pinnately branched and opposite distally. False indusia greenish to whitish, frequently narrow, visibly marginal
or infrequently infra-marginal, frequently concealing sporangia. Sporangia confined to sub-marginal vein tips or
scattered along veins near segment margins, containing 64 or 32 spores, not intermixed with farina producing
glands. Spores brown to black or gray, infrequently yellowish, tetrahedral globose, rugose or cristate, absent
prominent equatorial edge. Gametophytes glabrous. x = 30 (29 in Cheilanthes alabamensis complex)
Uses
It is perfect for regions where water is partial. Forms a flat, spreading bunch of unique, intensely dissected, star-
shaped fronds with green topsides and notably white undersides. Excellent for use in low water rock gardens,
along a retaining wall, or tucked into a container.
1.5. Cheilanthes acrostica (Balb.) Tod.
English Name: lip fern
Distribution
It is native to the Iberian Peninsula, France, the Apennine Peninsula, the
Balkan Peninsula, Turkey, the Eastern Mediterranean, Northwest Africa
and Libya.
Description
It grow in season from February to June. Its conservation rank is of
apprehension. It grows in limestone cracks, but it is also found in
quartzite and sandstones and among other loose rocks. It is found at a
height of 300 to 900 m.
9
Uses
Not yet reported from elsewhere.
1.6. Onychium japonicum (Thunb.) Kunze
English Name: cat's claw fern, carrot fern
Local Name:
Distribution
Mostly found in Bhutan, India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Myanmar,
Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, Pacific islands.
Characters
Rhizomes elongated sneaking, scales brown or reddish brown,
lanceolate. Fronds marginally dimorphic (fertile fronds slightly more
vulgarly divided than sterile ones), generally broadly spaced. Stipe 7-45
(-60) cm, 2 to 4 mm in diam., straw colored thru or with a brown to dark
brown base, dark color occasionally prolonging to rachis abaxially.
Lamina ovate deltoid or narrowly ovate, (9-) 20-48 × 10-20 cm, apex
acuminate, finely 2 pinnate pinnatifid to 4 pinnate, resolutely papery
while dry, green to dark green or grayish green, not farinose. Lateral
pinnae 10-15 pairs, deltoid lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate, basal pair
largest, 9-20 × 5-10 cm, stalked to 1 to 2 cm, apex acuminate. Ultimate fertile pinnules (segments) crowded,
sometimes overlying, linear to linear-lanceolate, 4-10 × 1-2 mm, apex acute. Ultimate sterile pinnules (segments)
like to fertile ones but commonly slightly smaller, apex shortly acuminate. Sori (2- ) 3-6 mm. false indusia
extending nearly to midvein, entire. 2n = 58, 87, 116, 174
Uses
It is perfect for using as tall ground cover in semi shade, and looks great alongside other ferns. It provides the
perfect foil for flowering plants, both in the border and the vase.
2. FAMILY ASPLENIACEAE
It is a spleenwort family of ferns, comprises 1 to 10 genera and around 800 species in the division Pteridophyta.
Some botanists treat Aspleniaceae as comprising only one genus (Asplenium) however other botanist recognize
nine separate genera.
2.1. Asplenium adiantum-nigrum L.
English Name: black spleenwort
Local:
It grows in Forest, Garden Spotted, Shade, Shady Edge and Hedgerow.
It is found in Afghanistan, N India, Pakistan; Europe, Mediterranean to
SW Asia, W North America.
Description
Plants 15 to 40 cm tall. Rhizome ascending, apex scaly; scales dark
brown, narrowly triangular, up to 6 mm, hairlike in upper half, without
black middle stripe, entire. Fronds caespitose; stipe 8-15(-20) cm, base
conspicuously swollen, thickened, semi-terete, abaxially glossy
castaneous to blackish purple, with scattered brownish black hair like
scales or sub-glabrous, adaxially sulcate, lamina triangular ovate, 9-25
10
× 4-6 (-10) cm, apex acute to acuminate, tripinnate; pinnae 8-13 pairs, alternate, stalked, basal pair largest,
triangular, 4-6 × 1.8-2.4 cm, base truncate, bipinnate, apex acute to acuminate; pinnules 5-8 pairs, anadromous,
basal pairs largest, triangular, 1.5-3.2 × 0.6-1 cm, base cuneate-truncate, shortly stalked or subsessile, pinnate,
apex acute; ultimate pinnules 4-6 pairs, alternate, anadromous, basal pair largest, elliptic to oblong or linear, 5-7
× 2.5-3.5 mm, margin serrate, apex obtuse. Costa obvious, sulcate adaxially, veins obscure, anadromously
branching, simple or 2-forked, not reaching margin. Fronds firmly herbaceous to papery, green but brown-green
when dry, lamina with 4- or 5-celled, uniseriate hairs, average stomatal guard cell length 54-60 µm; rachis
semiterete, lower half abaxially usually shiny castaneous to dark brown, apical part green or stramineous,
adaxially sulcate. Sori 1-3(or 4) pairs per pinnule or segment, median on subtending veinlet, confluent at maturity,
linear, 1-2.5(-5) mm; indusia white or brownish, linear, membranous, repand to entire, opening toward costa or
costule. Spores brown to dark brown, perispore lophate (cristate-alate), with average exospore length 32-37 µm.
Plants sexual allotetraploids: 2n = 144.
Uses
It is taken internally to treat diseases of the anger, jaundice and ophthalmia. It is said to produce infertility in
women. A decoction or syrup made from the fronds is emmenagogue, linctus and pectoral. It is used to relieve
worrying coughs
2.2. Asplenium trichomanes L
English Name: maidenhair spleenwort
Local Name:
Distribution
It grows in rocky habitats such as cliffs, scree slopes, walls and mine
waste. It grows from sea-level up to 3000 meters. it’s mostly found
in Worldwide in all temperate zones, in tropics on high mountains.
Description
Plants 10-30 cm tall. Rhizome erect, short, scaly, scales narrowly
triangular, 3 (-4) × ca. 0.5 mm, with impervious, red to dark brown
central stripe and paler narrow clathrate borders, entire. Fronds
caespitose, stipe glossy castaneous brown, 2 to 8 cm, base scaly,
upward sub-glabrous, abaxially semiterete but adaxially fluted, with
brown, membranous and sub-entire narrow annexes, texture papery,
stipe and rachis generally persisting after flaking of pinnae, lamina
linear, 10-25 × 0.9-1.6 cm, base slightly reduced, 1-pinnate, apex acute and 2-4 mm wide; pinnae 20-30 pairs,
usually obliquely inserted, sessile, middle pinnae elliptic or ovate to orbicular, 2.5-7.5 × 2-4 mm, base nearly
symmetrical, cuneate, margin crenate, apex obtuse; lower pinnae gradually reduced. Veins pinnate, costa obscure,
veins obliquely simple or up to 2-forked, basal acroscopic vein usually 2-forked. Fronds papery, green or brown
when dry, average stomatal guard cell length 35-42 µm; rachis castaneous, shiny, subglabrous, abaxially terete,
adaxially grooved and with a relatively low lateral brown membranous wing. Sori 4-8 per pinna, oval to linear,
1-3.5 mm, usually on acroscopic vein; indusium white or brown after drying, oval to linear, membranous, free
margin repand to entire, opening toward costa, persistent. Spores with lophate perispore, average exospore length
27-31 µm. Plants sexual diploid: 2n = 72.
Uses
11
A tea made from the fronds is sweet, demulcent, linctus and laxative. It has been used in the treatment of chest
complaints and to promote menstruation.
2.3. Ceterach dalhousiae (Hook.) C. Chr.
Distribution
Moist, rocky ravines, terrestrial among and at bases of rocks; 1300-
-2000 Mexico; Asia in the Himalayas. It found in moist places of all
sub-tropical and temperate zones.
Description
Roots not proliferous. Stems erect, unbranched; scales black with
brown margins, lanceolate, 2--5 × 0.6--1 mm, thinly denticulate.
Leaves monomorphic. Petiole dark to light brown throughout, dull,
to 1 cm, 1/10--1/15 length of blade, indument of scales throughout.
Blade narrowly elliptic to narrowly lanceolate, pinnatifid, 4--15 ×
1.5--6 cm, thick, sparsely puberulent to glabrescent; base
progressively elongated, apex obtuse, not rooting. Rachis light
brown to tan, gloomy scaly, scales brown, lanceolate. Veins free,
obscure. Sori 3 to 7 pairs per pinna, on both basiscopic and acroscopic sides of lobes. Spores 64 per sporangium.
2 n = 72.
Uses
No report found elswhere
3. FAMILY DENNSTAEDTIACEAE
Dennstaedtiaceae is one of fifteen families in the order Polypodiales, the most derived families within
monilophytes (ferns). It contains 10 genera and 240 accepted species, comprising one of the world's most
abundant fern, Pteridium aquilinum (bracken).
Uses
Not yet reported
3.1. Microlepia strigosa (Thunb.) C. Presl
Local Name: hay-scented fern, lace fern, rigid lace fern and palapalai
Distribution
Plant grows mostly in misty places and. It mostly found in Himalaya,
Indonesia, Japan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Pacific islands.
Description
Plants terrestrial, 80-110 cm tall. Rhizome long and creeping, ca. 4[-5]
mm in diam. with dense, long, gray-brown, acicular hairs. Fronds distant,
stipe brown, ca. 50 cm, ca. 4 mm in diam. at base, basally thickly hairy,
hairs abscising easily to leave scabrous marks, rachis and rachillae
abaxially with dense, short, brown hairs, adaxially glabrous, lamina
green or brown when dried, 2-pinnate, oblong in outline, basal pinnae
slightly shorter, middle pinnae [20-]50-70[-80] × 15-35 cm, papery, abaxially with sparse, short, gray-brown, stiff
hairs, adaxially glabrous, apex acuminate, pinnae 25-35 pairs, alternate, 4-6 cm apart, obliquely spreading, shortly
stalked, linear-lanceolate, 15-17 × ca. 3 cm, base asymmetrical, basiscopic pinnae slightly shortened, apex long
acuminate; pinnules 25-28 pairs, adjacent, sessile, spreading, variously pinnatifid, nearly rhombi-form, 1.4-2 ×
12
0.6-0.8 cm, base asymmetrical, basiscopically narrowly cuneate, ± decurrent, basal acroscopic lobule largest,
margin coarsely and irregularly toothed, apex acute. Veins prominent abaxially, obvious adaxially, pinnate or
bifurcate. Sori small, near margin of lobes; indusium brown, hemitelioid, with short brown hairs.
Uses
It tolerate coastal conditions and is deer resistant. It is well suited for use as a filler between shrubs or as a
foundation plant in shade gardens and can also be used as a lush groundcover or to add textural interest to flower
beds
3.2. Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn
Local Name: eagle fern
Distribution
It grows in meadows, deciduous, coniferous forests and hillsides. Found
almost worldwide.
Description
Petioles scattered along creeping stems, 0.3--3.5 m, shallowly to deeply
groove adaxially, base not intensely separate from stem. Blades mostly
deltate, papery to leathery, thinly to thickly hairy abaxially, infrequently
hairless. Pinnae frequently opposite to sub-opposite, proximal pinnae
frequently prolonged basiscopically, each proximal pinna closely equal to
distal part of leaf in size and dissection (except in var. caudata). Segments
alternative, many.
Uses
It Root is cooked. It can be dried and ground into a powder. The root is very fibrous so traditionally it was baked
after being dried, the outer skin was peeled off and the roots crushed into a powder with sticks so that the inner
fibers could be removed The dried root will store for years. The root comprises 60% starch. The dry weight
content of starch is between 43 and 72% this starch can be extracted from the roots and is used in making
dumplings which are eaten with soya flour and sugar as a delicacy. The root has a somewhat constipating effect
upon the body so is best eaten with foods that have a laxative quality
4. FAMILY DRYOPTERIDACEAE
The Dryopteridaceae are a family of leptosporangiate ferns in the order Polypodiales. They are recognized
colloquially as the wood ferns. They contain around 1700 species and have a cosmopolitan distribution. They
may be terrestrial, epipetric, hemiepiphytic, or epiphytic. Many are cultivated as ornamental plants.
4.1. Dryopteris filix-mas (L.) Schott
Local Name: male fern
Distribution
It grows in thick woods and talus slopes on limestone, sandstone or igneous
rock (Rocky Mountains) upto 200 to 2500 meters on altitude, mostly found
in Greenland, Europe and Asia.
Description
Leaves monomorphic, dying back in winter, 28--120 × 10--30 cm. Petiole
less than 1/4 length of leaf, scaly at least at base; scales scattered, brown,
of 2 distinct kinds, 1 broad, 1 hair-like (only this species has 2 distinct
forms of scales without intermediates). Blade green, ovate-lanceolate,
13
pinnate-pinnatifid to 2-pinnate at base, firm but not leathery, not glandular. Pinnae ± in plane of blade, lanceolate;
basal pinnae ovate-lanceolate, much reduced, basal pinnules or segments ± same length as adjacent pinnules,
basal basiscopic pinnule and basal acroscopic pinnule equal; pinnule margins serrate to lobed. Sori midway
between midvein and margin of segments. Indusia lacking glands. 2 n = 164.
Uses
The root stalks are painkilling, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, astringent, febrifuge, vermifuge and
vulnerary. The root contains an oleoresin that paralyses tapeworms and other internal parasites and has been used
as a worm expellant
4.2. Dryopteris juxtaposita Christ
Local Name: wood ferns
Distribution
Found in China, Pakistan, Bhutan, India, Kashmir and Nepal.
Description
Plants 50-100 cm tall. Rhizome erect, short, with brown scales. Fronds
caespitose; stipe stramineous, ca. 30 cm, ca. 2 mm in diam., clothed with
lanceolate, entire, dark brown scales at base, gradually glabrous toward
rachis; lamina ovate-oblong, ca. 30 × 13 cm, bipinnate-pinnatifid; pinnae
ca. 13 pairs, subopposite, 3-4 cm apart, deltoid-lanceolate, shortly
stalked, lower pinnae 7-9 × 2.5-3 cm, base cuneate, apex acuminate;
pinnules 11-13 pairs, oblong, basal pair largest, up to ca. 2 cm × 7 mm,
apex rounded, with sparse coarse teeth, tapered farther up. Lamina papery, both surfaces glabrous and with 1 or
2 small scales on costa abaxially; veins pinnate, 6 or 7 pairs on each pinnule, forked. Sori 5 or 6(-8) pairs on each
pinnule; indusia brown, orbicular-reniform, papery, entire, readily deciduous.
Uses
Not yet found any report.
5. FAMILY EQUISETACEAE
Equisetaceae is the only surviving family of the Equisetales, a group with many fossils of large tree-like plants
that possessed ribbed stems similar to modern horsetails. Pseudobornia is the oldest known relative of Equisetum;
it grew in the late Devonian, about 375 million years ago and is assigned to its own order. All living horsetails
are placed in the genus Equisetum. But there are some fossil species that are not assignable to the modern
genus. Equisetites is a "wastebin taxon" uniting all sorts of large horsetails from the Mesozoic; it is almost
certainly paraphyletic and would probably warrant being subsumed in Equisetum. But while some of the species
placed there are likely to be ancestral to the modern horsetails, there have been reports of secondary growth in
other Equisetites, and these probably represent a distinct and now-extinct horsetail lineage. Equicalastrobus is
the name given to fossil horsetail strobili, which possibly frequently or completely belong to the (sterile) plants
placed in Equisetites.
5.1. Equisetum arvense L.
English Name: Horsetail
Pashto Name: Bandakai
Distribution
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It grows in Roadsides, shores, fields, marshes, meadows, tundra and motly
found in Greenland, Eurasia to Himalayas, China, Korea and Japan
Description
Aerial stems dimorphic; vegetative stems green, branched, 2--60(--100)
cm; hollow center 1/3--2/3 stem diam. Sheaths squarish in face view, 2--
5(--10) × 2--5(--9) mm; teeth dark, 4--14, narrow, 1--3.5 mm, often
cohering in pairs. Branches in regular whorls, ascending, solid; ridges 3--
4; valleys channeled; 1st internode of each branch longer than subtending
stem sheath; sheath teeth attenuate. Fertile stems brown, lacking stomates,
unbranched, shorter than vegetative stems, with larger sheaths, fleshy,
ephemeral. 2 n =ca. 216,
Uses
It is an herbal remedy that dates back to earliest Roman and Greek times. It was used traditionally to stop bleeding,
heal ulcers and wounds, and treat tuberculosis and kidney problems
6. Family Hypodematiaceae
It is a family of ferns in the order Polypodiales. It consists of two, or in some versions three, small genera.
Hypodematium and Leucostegia are included in the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification (PPG I).
6.1. Hypodematium crenatum (Forssk.) Kuhn
English Name:
Distribution
It grows mostly in rocky places in bush-land, up to 1200 meters on altitude. It commonly found in N India, Japan,
Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines; Africa, SW and subtropical
regions of Asia
Description
Plants (12-) 20-50 (-60) cm tall. Rhizomes creeping, ca. 3 cm in
diam., densely scaly together with stipe base; scales reddish brown,
narrowly lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate, 0.5-3 cm, membranous,
margin entire, apex acuminate. Fronds approximate; stipe
stramineous, (5-)10-25(-30) cm × 1-3 mm, swollen base covered
with scales, upward with grayish white hairs; lamina pentagonal-
ovate, 20-30 × 18-30 cm, 3-pinnate-pinnatifid, herbaceous, densely
covered with long hairs on both surfaces, rachis, costae, and costules, base truncate or cordate, apex acuminate;
pinnae 8-12 pairs, slightly oblique, lower 1 or 2 pairs subopposite, upper pairs alternate; basal pinnae largest,
deltoid-oblong, (3.5-)10-20 × (3-)5-10 cm, 2-pinnate-pinnatifid; upper pairs of pinnae gradually reduced and
confluent; pinnules 6-10 pairs, anadromous, alternate, acroscopic ones smaller, proximal basiscopic pair largest,
ovate-triangular, (1.5-)3-7 × (1-)2-5 cm, shortly stalked, base cuneate, margin pinnate-pinnatifid, apex acuminate;
ultimate segments oblong, margin entire or undulate, apex obtuse. Veins obvious on both surfaces, pinnate,
simple, ending at margin. Sori dorsal, 1-3 per segment, at middle of veinlets, orbicular; indusia persistent, pale
gray, reniform, large, membranous, densely covered with hairs. Spores ellipsoid, bearing prominent, inflated
folds. 2n = 82
Uses
It used in Common medicine and traditional Chinese medicine.
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7. FAMILY MARSILEACEAE
It is a small family of heterosporous aquatic and semi-aquatic ferns, though at first sight they do not physically
resemble other ferns. The group is commonly known as the "pepperwort family" or as the "water-clover family"
because the leaves of the genus Marsilea superficially resemble the leaves of a four-leaf clover (a flowering plant).
Leaves of this fern have sometimes been used to substitute for clover leaves [2] on Saint Patrick's Day. In all, the
family contains 3 genera and 50 to 80 species with most of those belonging to Marsilea
7.1. Marsilea quadrifolia L.
English Name: water clover or pepperwort
Distribution
It is an aquatic fern that grows from creeping rhizomes anchored in the
muddy bottoms of shallow ponds and lakes. Mostly found in Japan,
Korea; Europe, introduced in NE North America.
Description
Rhizomes creeping, with internodes up to 4.8 cm, but internodes
occasionally shorter and fronds then appearing tufted; roots arising both
at nodes and 1 or 2 on internodes, short shoots 1-3 mm occasionally
formed at nodes; main rhizome sparsely pubescent to glabrate. Fronds
with stipes green to straw-colored, 10-18 cm, slender, glabrate; pinnae
obtriangular to fan-shaped, 0.8-1.6 × 0.7-1.5 cm, margin entire, glabrate
above, sparely appressed-pubescent to glabrate below. Sporocarps (1
or)2-5(-7) per frond, attached at base of stipe where stipe joins rhizome or up to 25 mm up stipe, sometimes
persistent after decay of frond and then appearing to arise directly from rhizome; peduncles 5-12.5 mm (when 2
or 3 sporocarps on a frond these attached to stipe by a common peduncle 2-8 mm), plus an additional 1.5 mm
adnate to sporocarp, glabrate; sporocarp brown to black, elliptic in lateral view, 3.5-4 × 2.9-3.2 × ca. 2 mm, softly
leathery, convex on lateral sides, obtuse to rounded on perimeter, usually marked with a distinct tooth 0.3-0.4 mm
above end of peduncle, densely appressed-pubescent when young, becoming thinly pubescent to glabrate with
age.
Uses
It has been used as food for more than 3000 years. The plant is said to be anti-inflammatory, diuretic, depurative,
febrifuge and refrigerant. It is also used to treat snakebite and useful to swellings
8. FAMILY PTERIDACEAE
It is a family of ferns in the order Polypodiales, comprising1150 species in 45 genera. It divided over five
subfamilies. The family includes four groups of genera that are sometimes recognized as separate families: the
adiantoid, cheilanthoid, pteroid, and hemionitidoid ferns. Associations among these groups remain undecided,
and while some recent genetic analyses of the Pteridales propose that neither the family Pteridaceae nor the major
groups within it are all monophyletic, as yet these analyses are insufficiently comprehensive and robust to provide
good support for a revision of the order at the family level.
8.1. Pteris cretica L.
English Name: Cretan brake, ribbon fern, or Cretan brake fern
Distribution
16
In shade in forest undergrowth, stream banks, shaded ravines, roadside embankments. Generally found in Bhutan,
Cambodia, India, Japan, Kashmir, Laos, Nepal, Philippines, Sri
Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, Africa, SW Asia, Europe, Pacific islands
(Fiji, Hawaii)].
Native Status:
Description
Rhizome creeping or ascending, ca. 1 cm in diam., apex with black-
brown scales. Fronds clustered, dimorphic or sub-dimorphic; stipe
straw-colored, sometimes brown, seldom castaneous, 10-45 cm.
Sterile fronds: stipe shorter, ca. 2 mm in diam., glabrous; lamina 1-
pinnate or sometimes digitate, ovate in outline, 10-30[-40] × 6-20[-
35] cm; pinnae (2 or)3-5(-7) pairs, often opposite, decumbent, basal
pinnae each with 2(or 3) pinnules, shortly stalked, upper pinnae narrowly lanceolate, sometimes with basiscopic
lobe, 10-18(-24) × 1-1.5(-3) cm, sessile, base broadly cuneate, margin white cartilaginous and serrate, apex
acuminate. Fertile fronds longer: stipe 30-45 cm; pinnae 3-5(-8) pairs, opposite or upper alternate, decumbent,
basal pinnae with (1 or)2(or 3) pinnules, shortly stalked (2-5 mm); upper pinnae linear, sometimes with lateral
pinnule, 12-25 × 0.5-1.2 cm, sessile, base broadly cuneate, terminal pinna 3-lobed, base decurrent. Lamina green
or gray-green, papery when dried, glabrous; midvein abaxially extremely convex, straw-colored, glabrous; veins
conspicuous on both surfaces, distant, oblique, simple or forked at base. 2n = 58*, 59, 87*.
Conservation Status
Uses
Garden, House plant for shady areas
8.2. Pteris vittata L.
English Name: Chinese brake, Chinese ladder brake, or ladder brake
Distribution
It is mostly grow in disturbed and urban areas, usually growing on
limestone substrates, including buildings walls, roadway blows and
graves. Widely found in tropics and subtropics of the World.
Native Status: It is native to Asia, southern Europe, tropical Africa
and Australia.
Description
Plants (20- ) 30-100 (-150) cm tall. Rhizome erect, short and robust,
2-2.5 cm in diam., woody, apex thickly covered with yellow-brown
scales. Fronds clustered; stipe firm, dark straw-colored or light
brown, 10-30 cm or larger, 3-4 mm in diam., densely scaly when
young, scales like those of rhizome, sparse; rachis straw-colored,
sparsely scaly; lamina 1-pinnate, oblanceolate-oblong in outline, 20-90 × 5-25 cm or larger; lateral pinnae up to
40 pairs, alternate or sometimes sub-opposite; lower pinnae 3-4 cm apart, decumbent, sessile, not connate with
rachises, progressively shorter toward base, basal pair auriculiform, middle pinnae longest, narrowly linear, 6-15
× 0.5-1 cm, base slightly expanded and cordate, both sides slightly auriculiform, upper ones larger and
overlapping rachis; pinnae 1-1.5 cm apart, sterile margin minutely and evenly serrate, not cartilaginous, apex
17
acuminate; midvein prominent abaxially and light straw-colored; veins slender, contiguous, oblique, simple or
forked; terminal pinna similar to lateral pinnae in shape. Lamina pale green, opaque, thinly leathery, glabrous.
Conservation Status
Least Concern
Uses
It grows gladly in the wild and sometimes cultivated. It is grown in gardens for its attractive appearance, or used
in pollution control schemes, it is known to be a hyper-accumulator plant of arsenic used in phytoremediation.
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FLORA OF SWAT PAKISTAN
General Account of Gymnosperm GYMNOSPERMS

It is also called Acrogymnospermae. Although Gymnosperms
are seed producing plants that comprises conifers, cycads,
Ginkgo and gnetophytes.
Currently Around 1000 existing plants species on earth of
gymnosperm. It is frequently recognized that the gymnosperms
plants originated in the late Carboniferous period, substituting
the lycopsida tropical jungle. This looks to have been the result
of an entire genome replication occasion about 319 million
years back. Primary features of seed plants were evident in fossil
progymnosperms of the late Devonian era about 383 million
years before. It has been proposed that through the mid-
Mesozoic period, pollination of several nonexistent groups of
gymnosperms was by extinct species of scorpion flies that had
specific proboscis for nourishing on fertilization drops. The
scorpion flies likely involved in pollination mutualisms with
gymnosperms, extensive earlier the comparable and
autonomous coevolution of nectar nourishing insects on
angiosperms. Indication has also been found that mid Mesozoic
gymnosperms were pollinated by Kalligrammatid lacewings.
Today it is an extinct genus with members which (in an example
of convergent evolution) resemble the modern butterflies that
arose far later. Zamia integrifolia, a cycad native to Florida
Conifers are by far the richest existing group of gymnosperms
with six to eight families, with a total of 65 to 70 genera and 600
to 630 species (696 accepted names). The Conifers are woody
plants and most are evergreens. The leaves of various conifers
are elongated, thin and needle like. Other species of gymnosperm comprising most Cupressaceae and some
Podocarpaceae, have flat, triangular scale like leaves. Agatha’s species in Araucariaceae and Nageia species in
Podocarpaceae have wide, flat band shaped leaves. Cycads are the next highest rich group of gymnosperms with
two or three families, 11 genera and around 338 species. A majority of cycads are native to tropical climates and
are most abundantly found in Areas nearby the equator.
BASIC CHARACTERS OF GYMNOSPERM

The common characters of gymnosperms
1. Habit:
The existing gymnosperms are wooded, evergreen (excluding Larix and Taxodium). The perennials grow as trees
or shrubs. Highest trees are Sequoia sempervirens (366 feet tall) and Sequoia gigantia (342 feet tall).
2. Occurrence:
The most members of gymnosperm are growing in cooler areas throughout the world, where snow is the basis of
water. Only the members of cycadales and gnetales are growing in hot dry environment. The dominant plant body
is sporophyte (2n chromosome) which may be dioecious or monoecious. Gametophytes are inconspicuous and
endo-sporic (develop with the spores).
4. Sporophyte differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
➢ Root System: Tap root system is exarch and diarch (have two Xylem bundles) to polyarch (A root that
has many xylem bundles). Moreover tap root, coralloid roots (in cycads) and mycorrhizal root (root which
make beneficial association with fungi) coniferals are present.
19
➢ Stem: woody, erect, usually branched while Cycas is unbranched

➢ Leaves: Dimorphic (leaves occurs in two types e.g. foliage and scale leaves)
5. Xerophytic Traits:
Gymnosperms Show xerophytic characters such as thick bark, dense hypodermis, dense cuticle, scaly leaves,
sunken stomata, transfusion tissue etc. In some cases leaves are modified into needle like, scale like and small
leathery. These are the adaptations to combat water stress in air and colder regions.
6. Xylem:
Xylem are Composed from xylem parenchyma and tracheids with bounded pits. Vessels are absent while vessel
are present in Gnetales.
7. Pliloem:
Paliloem are composed from sieve cells and phloem parenchyma however companion cells absent.
8. Heterospcry:
The gymnosperms are heterosporous (develop two types of spores produced microspores and megaspores).
Microspores produced within micro-sporangia while megaspores produce within megasporangia (nucellus) of
ovules. Both types of sporangia are formed on special leaf like structures called sporophylls (microsporophylls
and megasporophylls).
9. Cones or Strobili:
Sporophylls are spirally (round) structured beside an axis to form compact cone or strobili, male or pollen cones
and female or seed cones but in Cycas female cone is loosely arranged called lax.
10. Ovules:
Naked (uncovered), sessile, geneiallyorthotropous and unitegmic (one layer) or bitegmic (two layer) in Gnetum.
11. Pollination:
The pollination is anemophillous (spores that are carried by wind)
12. Fertilization:
Fertilization is siphonogamous (male gametes carried to female gametes by means of a pollen tube). Double
fertilization this feature present in angiosperms while absent in gymnosperms but found in Ephedra. After
fertilization, Zygote develops into embryo and ovules become seed.
13. Endosperm or female gametophyte:
They formed before fertilization and they are always haploid (But triploid in angiosperms).
14. Embryo:
The development is meroblastic (develop from a small part of zygote).
15. Most members show polyembryony
Mean development of more than one embryo but only one survives at the end.
16. Cotyledons:
Some species have two cotyledon e.g. Cycas and many 2 to 14 cotyledon in Pinus.
17. Cambium:
Its form secondary wood which is monoxylic (soft and porous) or pycnoxylic (firm and compact)
18. Connecting Links:
The inferior gymnosperms like Cycadales look like pteridophytesin nonappearance of vessels and wood fibers
whereas higher gymnosperms like Gnetales and Coniferales resemble angiosperms.
LIFE CYCLE OF GYMNOSPERM

The life cycles of gymnosperms are occur on long processes, some of the trees of this group alive one thousand
years or longer. A young conifer sporophyte (seed producing stage of the organism) grows for numerous years
before it reaches enough maturity to produce seeds. Gymnosperms are usually heterosporous and they are
producing two different kinds of strobili for the male and female. A strobilus (plural, strobili) is a structure that
has overlapping scales, such as a pine cone. Female strobili are larger than male strobili.
20
Gymnosperms have a dominant diploid sporophyte generation having two copies of chromosomes, which is the
shrub, vine, or tree stage. In the mature sporophyte stage, cones are either egg bearing (ovulate) or sperm bearing
(produce pollen). Female cones take about two years to mature, depending on the species. Through reproduction,
both male and female cones produce microspores, which are stored in especially formed leaves called scales.
Each female cone carries at least one bare, exposed ovule (a structure in the ovary that comprises the female
gametophyte and is fertilized by the sperm), and the cones are sticky to hold pollen when it is released. Within
the ovules, cells undergo meiosis, producing four
haploid cells. One cell survives as a megaspore,
which then divides through normal cell division.
The result is a female gametophyte. Within the
gametophyte, two or three archegonia can be
found, each holding one egg cell. Several strobili
make up a male cone or catkin, which also
produces microspores. In turn, these microspores
undergo mitosis and produce pollen grains (male
sex cells). Pollination is the transfer of pollen from
the male structures to female structures in a plant.
Pollination depends on wind blowing pollen from
the male strobili to the female. When pollen
fertilizes the egg, a seed forms. Seed germination,
the period during which a seed begins to grow, is
seasonal; during summer months, the cones open
and release their seeds. Going from seedling to
maturity is a multiyear process before the life cycle
repeats.
9. Family Cupressaceae
Distribution of the family is cosmopolitan and contains 27 to 30 genera (17 monotypic) and about 130 to 140
Plant species. The species of this family are monoecious, sub-dioecious or rarely dioecious trees and shrubs up to
381 feet tall. The bark of mature trees is usually orange to red or brown and tough texture, generally flaking or
peeling in vertical strips but smooth scaly or firm and square cracked in some species.
Species of Family Cupressaceae
9.1. Cupressus sempervirens L
Local Name: Italian cypress, Tuscan cypress, Persian cypress, or
pencil pine
Pashto Name: Sarwa
Distribution
Mostly found in East Mediterranean, Western Asia and It is broadly
cultivated in gardens, parks and road sides.
Native Status: native to the eastern Mediterranean region, in northeast
Libya, southern Albania, southern and coastal Bulgaria, southern
coastal Croatia, southern Montenegro, southern Bosnia and
Herzegovina, southern Greece, southern Turkey, Cyprus, northern
Egypt, western Syria, Lebanon, Malta, Italy, Palestine, Israel, western
Jordan, South Caucasus, and also a disjunct population in Iran
Diagnostic Characters
Trees grow up to 20 meter or more tall and barely cylindrical. Branches upwardly appressed, branchelets dark
green and slender. Leaves narrowly appressed, c. 1 mm long and ovate. Male cones 6 to 9 mm elongated and
21
terminal on branches. Female cones (mature) ± 20 to 25 mm wide and yellowish grey. Scales peltate and 8 to 14
in number. Seeds brown, dense, winged and thin.
Conservation status
Least Concern
Uses
The drug was used externally for head colds, coughs and bronchitis. A decoction of the cones and leaves of
Cupressus sempervirens was used in a sits bath three times a day for one week for hemorrhoids. The cones and
leaves were used internally as an astringent
9.2. Juniperus communis L. var. saxatilis Pallas
Local Name: common juniper
Distribution
Mostly found in Alpine, arctic Europe, Asia, North Africa and North
America.
Native Status: Widespread from Alaska east to Labrador and S.
Greenland, south to New York, and west to Minnesota and Wyoming;
also south in mountains to NW. South Carolina and central Arizona;
also Iceland and across N. Eurasia; to 8000-11,5000 (2438-3505 m)
in south
Plant is dioecian and shrubby horizontal. Branches shorten. Leaves in
whorls of 3, 8 to 24 and 4 mm long, cylindrical, peppery, articulated
at base and curved to sub-erect. Male cones axillary, c. 8 mm long and
female cones solitary, 20 mm long and scales 3. Fruit sub- globose,
bluish to black and 8 to 12 mm wide. Seeds 2 to 3 and ovoid (egg shape).
Conservation Status
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)
Uses
It is used for urinary tract infections and kidney and bladder stones. Other uses contain treating snakebite, diabetes,
and cancer. Some people apply juniper directly to the skin for wounds and for pain in joints and muscles. The
essential oil of juniper is inhaled to treat bronchitis and frozen pain
10. Family Pinaceae
This family also called pine family, it may have trees and shrubs containing several well-known conifers of
commercial status such as cedars, firs, hemlocks, larches, pines and spruces. The family is comprised in the order
Pinales, previously known as Coniferales. Pinaceae are supported as monophyletic by their protein type sieve cell
plastids, pattern of proembryogeny and absence of bioflavonoids. They are the largest existent conifer family in
species diversity having 250 species and 11 genera the second largest family after Cupressaceae. Mostly found in
Northern Hemisphere, with the majority of the species in temperate climates, but ranging from subarctic to
tropical. The family frequently forms the leading module of boreal, coastal and montane forests. One species,
Pinus merkusii, grows just south of the equator in Southeast Asia. Major centers of diversity are found in the
mountains of southwest China, Mexico, central Japan, and California.
Plants Species of Family Pinaceae
10.1. Abies pindrow Royle
Local Name: pindrow fir or west Himalayan fir
22
Distribution
Grows at altitudes of 2,400–3,700 metres (7,900–12,100 ft) in forests
together with Cedrus deodara, Picea smithiana and Pinus
wallichiana usually live in cooler, moister north-facing slopes. Found
mostly in East Afghanistan, Himalaya eastward to West Nepal.
Native Status: native to the western Himalaya and adjacent
mountains, from northeast Afghanistan east through northern Pakistan
and India to central Nepal
Tree grows up to 30 meter tall or more with a thin pyramidal shape.
Bark groove, light grey to brown. Leaves coiled, 2 to 4 cm long, upper
surface of leaves are pleated, leaves are dark-green and shiny. Male
cones 1 to 2 cm elongated, axillary (grow from axil), ellipsoid and
color is reddish green. Microsporophyll with 2 linear sporangia and
microspores winged (air pollinated). Female cones 8 to 12 cm long, single or in pairs, just rectangle and color is
violet purple. Magasporophyll obovate and 2 cm long. Seeds 1 to 1.2 cm long and wing twice as long as the seed.
Conservation Status
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)
Uses
It has many ethno-pharmacological ethics. It is used as a tonic for bronchitis, haemoptysis, asthma, inflammatory
conditions, fever and hypoglycemia. It is also reported as cough medicine, astringent, carminative, tonic,
antiperiodic, antispasmodic and stomachic
10.2. Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D. Don) G. Don
Local Name: Deodar cedar, Himalayan cedar, or Himalayan deodar
Distribution
It can be found at elevations ranging from 3,500 - 12,000 feet. They
typically live in temperate forests, but can span across a range of
biomes. Historically the cedar can be found living among other
conifer and broadleaf tree species. It is grow in Afghanistan, Kurram
eastward to Kashmir and West Nepal.
Native Status: native to the western Himalayas in Eastern
Afghanistan, Northern Pakistan (especially in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa)
and India (Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
Sikkim and, Arunachal Pradesh states
Plant grows up to 30 meter tall with spreading horizontal branches
and branchlets are flabby. Leaves are aciculated, 2.5 cm long and 3
sided. Male cones solitary at the tips of dwarf shoots, erect,
cylindrical, purplish at maturity and 2.5 to 4.5 (‑7) cm long.
Microsporophyll is spirally structured and each with 2 rectangle sporangia and Microspores is not winged. Female
cones solitary, erect and terminal at the end of shoots. Young cones are greenish, mature cones brown and tub
shaped, 7 to 12 x 5 to 9 cm. sporophylls fan shaped, deciduous and leaving a central woody axis. Seeds obovate,
4‑6 mm (excluding wing) with a large light brown wing.
Conservation Status
Least Concern
Uses
23
The heartwood is carminative, diaphoretic, diuretic and linctus. A decoction of the wood is used in the treatment
of fevers, verbosity, respiratory and urinary disorders, rheumatism, piles, kidney stones, insomnia, diabetes etc.
It has been used as an antidote to snake bites
10.3. Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss
Local Name: morinda spruce or West Himalayan spruce
Distribution
It grows at altitudes of 2,400 to 3,600 m in forests together with deodar cedar, blue pine and pindrow fir.
Commonly found in Afghanistan, Himalayas from Chitral eastward to Central Nepal.
Native Status: native to the western Himalaya and adjacent mountains, from northeast Afghanistan, northern
Pakistan, India to central Nepal.
Tree grows up to 30 meter or tall. Bark darkish to brown in color.
Branches loose and Leaves are 2.5 cm long. Male cones axillary,
solitary and 2 to 2.5 cm long. Micro-sporophylls with 2 linear
sporangia. Young female cones erect, reddish to green, mature cones
drooping, dark brown, ellipsoid and 10 to 15 x 2.5 to 5 cm long.
Bract scales membranous. Seeds 5 to 6 mm long, dark-grey and wing
twice as elongated as the seed
Conservation Status
Least Concern
Uses
It used as a flavoring while immature female cones are cooked. The
central portion, when baked is sweet and syrupy. Inner bark dried
ground into a powder and then used as a thickener in soups etc. or added to breakfast cereal when manufacture
bread.
10.4. Pinus roxburghii Sargent
Local Name: Pinus
Pashto Name: Nakhtar
Distribution
Pines can be found on the altitudes of up to 13 000 feet. Most pines grow on the acidic, well-drained soil.
Commonly found in Afghanistan, the Himalaya from Chitral eastward to Bhutan and Sikkim.
Native Status: The native range extends from Tibet and Afghanistan through Pakistan, across northern India in
Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim,
Arunachal Pradesh), Nepal and Bhutan, to Myanmar.
Tree grows up to 30 meter tall with a soft flaking bark 2 to 5 cm
dense. Leaves in groups of 3 and 20 to 30 cm long. Male cones c. 1.5
cm long, yellowish and thick terminal clusters. Female cones solitary
or 2 to 3 at the tips of branches and mature cones are woody. Bract
and scale unconnected and umbo obviously curved. Wing 2 to 3
times longer than seed.
Conservation Status
Least Concern
Uses
In Ayurvedic medicine, Pinus roxburghii is proposed as an intestinal antiseptic, antidyslipidemic, spasmolytic
and antioxidant, although in other parts of its range, traditional medicinal uses include treating diseases of the
eyes, ears, throat, blood and skin, bronchitis, diaphoresis, ulcer, inflammations
24
10.5. Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jackson

Local Name: Himalayan pine or Himalayan white pine,
Pashto Name: Ranzraha
Distribution
It grows in mountain valleys at altitudes of 1800 to 4300 meters (rarely as low as 1200 meters), reaching 30 to 50
meters (98 to 164 feet) in height. Plants are mostly found in Afghanistan, Chitral eastward to Western Nepal.
Native Status: native to the Himalaya, Karakoram and Hindu Kush mountains, from eastern Afghanistan east
across northern Pakistan and North-West India to Yunnan in southwest China.
Tree grows up to 30 meters tall. Bark grey in color, scaly and branches whorled. Leaves acicular in clusters of 5,
10 to 20 cm long and bluish to grey-green in color. Male cones 1 to 1.5 cm long and dense clusters. Female cones
2 to 3 at the tips of branches, 15 to 30 cm long, dipping and wood.
Mega-sporophyll usually obvate and tip is not hooked. Wing 2 to 3
times as long as the seed.
Conservation Status
Least Concern
Uses
The wood is abstemiously firm, tough and extremely gummy. It is a
good firewood but gives off a spicy resinous smoke. It is a
commercial source of turpentine which is superior quality than that
of Pinus roxburghii but is not produced so generously. It is also a
common tree for planting in parks and large gardens, grown for its
gorgeous greenery and large pretty cones. It is also esteemed for its
comparatively great confrontation to air pollution, tolerating this
better than some other conifers
11. Family Taxaceae
It is called yew family and contains 7 genera and around 30 species of plants around the world. In former
clarifications of the family there was 3 genera and 7 to 12 species. This Family contain various branched, small
trees and shrubs. The leaves of Taxaceae species are evergreen, spirally organized and frequently twisted at the
base to seem 2 ranked. Leave are linear to lanceolate and have light green or white stomatal bands on the bases.
The plants are dioecious and infrequently monoecious. The male cones are 2 to 5 millimeters 0.079 to 0.197
elongated and hut pollen in the initial spring season. The female cones are extremely reduced with just one
ovuliferous scale and one seed. When seed matures the ovuliferous scale develops into a fleshy aril partly
enclosing the seed. The mature aril is luminously colored, lenient, juicy and sweet. The seed is eaten by birds
which then disperse the firm seed undamaged in their mucks. Although the seeds are very toxic to humans because
its seed comprising the poisons taxine and taxol.
Plants Species of Family Taxaceae
11.1. Taxus wallichiana Zucc
Local Name: Himalayan yew
Distribution
It grow at altitudes between 1800 and 3300 meters above mean sea level. Mostly found in Afghanistan,
Northwestern India, Burma, Indonesia and Philippines.
Native status: native to the Himalaya and parts of south-east Asia
It is dioecious tree and grow up to 6 to 18 meter tall. Branches spreading and irregular. Its bark reddish-brown
and scaly. Leaves spirally willing, linear, 2 to 4 cm long, upper surface of leaves are green and shiny. Staminate
cone solitary, globose and axillary on the underside of branches. Sporophylls 6 to 10 in number, peltate, each
25
with 5 to 8 suspended sporangia and Microspores is not winged (spores that are not carried by wind). Female
flowers solitary, axillary, green, with 3 pairs of scales and decussate. Seed olive green, when young (ovule) partly
bounded by a red fleshy aril. This species only varies from the European Taxus baccata in the elongated leaves
which are usually not shortly cuspidate. It could be only qualities sub-specific rank. The leaves are poisonous
however the aril is innocuous. The yew tree is similarly common in the Himalayas from 1800 to 3000 meters
evaluation. The heartwood is reddish to brown in color and good quality because of the irregular shape of the tree
trunk is not useful. The wood is lithe and ancient times it was used
for the building of crossbows. Flowers appear from mid-February
to initial March and the fruits mature in September to October.
Conservation Status
Endangered
Uses
It has been used by the local inhabitants for curing of common
cold, cough, fever, and pain. Its uses are described in Ayurveda
and Unani medicine. It acknowledged consideration recently as
its leaves and bark were found to be the major source of taxol and
effective as an anticancer drug.
26

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Plants Flora of Swat Pakistan

Title: Flora of District Swat Pakistan

Life Cycle of Pteridophyte

PLANT FAMILIES OF PTERIDOPHYTES

General Account of Gymnosperm GYMNOSPERMS

BASIC CHARACTERS OF GYMNOSPERM

➢ Stem: woody, erect, usually branched while Cycas is unbranched

LIFE CYCLE OF GYMNOSPERM

10.5. Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jackson

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