SCHOOL OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

Introduction to Electronics and Electrical Power &

Machines (ENG60904)

Group No. : -

Assignment : Assignment 3
Title

Lecturer :
Submitted Date : 30/11/2023

No Members ID Name of Group Lab Report Item/total marks Marks

. Members
Format/10
1
Abstract and
Introduction/15

Figures and Diagrams/15

Design Procedures /30

General Results and

Discussions/20

Conclusion and
References/Appendix /10

Total /100

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………… 3

1.0 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………. 3-5

2.0 LIST OF COMPONENTS……………………………………. 6

3.0 REAL LIFE APPLICATION…………………………………. 7-13

4.0 RESULTS
4.1 Data……………………………………………………………. 13-15
4.2 Sample calculation…………………………………………….. 16

5.0 DISCUSSION………………………………………………….. 17-18

6.0 CONCLUSION………………………………………………… 19

REFERENCE………………………………………………………. 20-21

Abstract

2
 DC machine is an electromechanical energy conversion device. There are 2 different
types of DC machines, one is DC generator and the other one is DC motor. DC machines are
very different from AC machines. DC motor help convert electrical energy to mechanical
energy, whereas AC motor help convert mechanical energy to electrical energy. DC motor is
used where wide range of speed and good speed regulation is needed. DC machine has 2
main components, stator, and rotor. Stator and rotor are separated by just air gap. Stator is the
outer frame and it is not movable but rotor is free to move and it is the inner part of the
machine. Conductors are placed in the slots of stator and rotor and it is interconnected in the
form of windings. Armature winding is the voltage that is induced in the windings. When the
current passes through to form main flux is called field windings.

1.0 Introduction

DC machines are basically an electromechanical alteration device. It can convert

mechanical energy to electrical energy or electrical energy to mechanical energy. The DC
machines work just like AC machines because it includes AC current and AC voltage [1].
Whereas the output of DC machine is different in the sense that it converts AC voltages to
DC voltages [1]. DC machine have another name which is commutating machine. One of the
advantages of using DC machine is that it includes torque regulation and easy speed [1].

The DC machine works by the flow of electric current through a coil within
magnetic field and the magnetic force produces a torque which rotates the DC motor. The DC
machines are classified in two different types. One is DC generator and the other one is DC
motor [1].

3
 Figure 1: DC machine

There are few types of DC motors such as permanent magnet, series, shunt,
compound DC motors and many more. Series DC motor is used where high starting torque is
required. The series DC motors can be seen in cranes, air compressors and vacuum cleaners
[2]. Shunt DC motors are used on the application that needs constant speed [2]. Some of the
examples would be fans, conveyors, blowers etc. Compound DC motor is required when both
high starting torque and constant speed is required. Printing presses, elevators and lifts use
compound DC motor. For permanent magnet DC motor, it is a special type of motor because
it creates the required magnetic field [3]. Some real-life applications would be washer,
wheelchairs, and windshield wiper [3].

Its very interesting to study on how DC motors work. A basic DC motor consist of
current carrying armature which is connected to power supply through commutator segments
and brushes. The armature is placed between the north and south pole of the electromagnet.
When current is supplied in the armature, mechanical force acts immediately due to
electromagnetic effect of the magnet on the armature conductors. Fleming’s left-hand rule can
be used to determine the force direction that acting on the armature conductors.

Figure 2: Fleming’s
left-hand rule

The forces that make a motor turn are from the force that is from the magnetic field
that exerted on the conductor. The force can be calculated with a specific formula and it is
stated below:

4
 Formula 1: Formula for force

Torque is produces in the DC motors. To calculate the torque, it has its own
formula. The formulas are stated below:

Formula 2: Torque formula

Alpha (α) is the angle between the plane of the armature turn and the plane of
reference of the armature. W is the distance separation between 2 conductors.

2.0 List of Components

Figure 3: Components in a DC machine

5
 The first one is the pole shoe. The pole shoe in the DC machine is to enlarge the
region of the pole [1]. The flux can be spread out within the air gap and extra flux can be
passed through the air gap toward the armature [1]. Mostly, the pole shoe is made of cast iron
or cast steel. The next one would be the field winding. The field winding sits in the region of
pole core and called as field coil. When current is transmitted through the field winding, it
will electromagnetic the poles causing a flux [1]. Field winding is made of copper in general.

Armature core has a huge number of slots within the edge and the armature
conductors sit within the slots [1]. The armature core is made of low-reluctance materials
such as iron. Armature winding formed by connecting the armature conductors. When the
armature winding is turned, voltage and magnetic flux is being induced [1]. Armature
winding is also made of copper.

The function of the commutator is to the collect from the armature conductor and also
to supply the current to the load by the brushes. The commutator is built with large number of
segments in the form of hard drawn copper [1]. Lastly, it would be the brushes. Brushes are
basically for gathering the current and transporting it to the exterior load [1]. The brushes are
made of graphite. These are the main components in the DC machine.

3.0 Real life application

There are brushless and brushed DC motors. The DC brushed motors have brush and
it is used to commutate the motor to cause it spin [4]. The DC brushless motor has no brush
in it and it replaces the mechanical commutation function with electronic control [4].

Brushed DC motor is used in varies occasion such as in dental hand tools, diagnostic
and scanning equipment, bar code readers and satellites. The brushed DC motor consist of 2
main components which are rotor and stator [5]. The rotor and the stator generate magnetic
field and the interaction between the rotor and stator will produce torque [5]. Torque is a
cross product; the stator and rotor field are parallel and the applied torque will be equal to
zero. According to the theory, the velocity of the rotor falls to zero. The zero-torque problem
can be resolved by just reversing the direction of the current in the rotor coils, which
eventually switches the polarities of the electromagnets and puts the 2 field in quadrature [5].
Switching the current direction is called commutation.

6
 Figure 4:
Brushed DC motor

Brushed DC motors are mostly simple, rugged, and low cost, that is why it is used in
many industries out there. It does not require much of electronics so it is a good choice for
high temperature, high radiation, and high shock [5]. Brushed DC motors are good in
moderate to low-speed applications. One of the examples would be power wheelchairs [5].
Stretching the commutator brush interface can form electromagnetic interference (EMI),
which could be a problem for sensitive medical UI electronics. One of the biggest problems
of brushed DC motor would be the friction.

Figure 5: Inner part of brushed DC motor

Brushless DC motor also has stator and rotor. The windings are normally on the stator
and the magnets are on the rotor [5]. There will be direct electrical connection because the
winding is fixed. Brushless DC motor does not have a mechanical commutator and brushes.
Brushless DC motors have a greater torque density and it can operate at high speed compared
to brush DC motors [5].

7
 Figure 6: Brushless DC motor

Brushless DC motors are also used in the medical industry. Ventilators and medical
robotics use brushless DC motor. The reason why this motor is used is because it is higher
efficient, reduces contamination and EMI, lower maintenance, and smaller size [5]. A table is
stated below to show the exact difference between both brushed and brushless DC motor:

Table 1: Difference between brushed and brushless DC motor

Permanent magnet DC motor is a motor that has a permanent magnet pole. The use of
the magnet is to make the flux working within the air gap of the field winding [6]. The
permanent magnet DC motor consist of armature core, commutator, and armature winding
[6]. Permanent magnet DC motor is made in cylindrical shape which is made of steel stator.
The rotor works like an armature, that includes commutator segments, winding slots, and
brushes [6]. The permanent magnet that are used in the DC motor are Alnico magnet, ceramic
magnet, and rare-earth magnet [6].

8
 Figure 7: Permanent magnet DC motor

Below is a circuit diagram of the permanent magnet DC motor. The circuit will look
very basic because the DC motor is generated with permanent magnet, therefore no need for
field coils within the permanent magnet DC motor.

Figure 8: Circuit diagram of permanent magnet DC motor

The permanent DC motor is used in the toy industries, electric toothbrush, food
mixers etc [6]. The next one is the series DC motor. Series DC motor is a motor in which the
field coil is connected in series to the armature winding and higher current passes through it
[7]. Series DC motor’s main objective is to convert electrical energy to mechanical energy.

Figure 9: Series DC motor

9
 A circuit diagram can be drawn to show no the series DC motor is being placed. The
power supply terminal is at the end of the armature and field coils [7]. When the voltage is
added, power starts in this terminal and passes through the armature and field windings [7].
Massive torque is produced in the shaft when the flow of the current in the armature and field
coils is large, a strong magnetic field is produced. The magnetic field is the reason for the
massive torque [7].

Figure 10: Circuit diagram of series DC motor

Series DC motor is used airplanes as engine starters, vacuum cleaners and sewing
machine. In the shunt DC motor, the field windings are connected in parallel to the armature
winding [8]. The both windings will undergo the same voltage power supply and the motor
have invariable speed with any kind of load.

Figure 11: Shunt DC

motor

When the DC motor is turned on, the DC flows throughout the stator and the rotor
[8]. The current will eventually generate 2 fields, one is the pole and the other one is

10
armature. In the air gap between armature and field shoes, there are 2 magnetic fields [8].
They work with each other to revolve the armature. Below is the circuit of a shunt DC motor
and it shows how it is connected.

Figure 12: Circuit

diagram of shunt DC motor

Shunt DC motor is used in some real-life application such as lifts, weaving machine,
conveyors, blowers, and fans [8]. The last one would be the compound DC motor. Compound
DC motor is a combination of series and shunt DC motor. It also has combination of series
and shunt field coils that are connected to the windings [9]. The field coils are linked to the
armature windings, producing certain amount of magnetic flux and generate torque. The
shunt DC motor has good efficient regulation of speed, whereas for series DC motor has great
and higher starting torque. The compound DC motor has both these features [9].

Figure 13:
Compound DC motor

The compound DC motor can be added to the circuit in 2 different ways and it is
shown below

11
 Figure 14: Circuit

Some of the real-life applications are steel rolling mills, printing press, cutting
machines, and stamping press [9].

4.0 Results
4.1 Data

Voltage (V) Speed (rpm)

Reading Reading Reading Average
1 2 3
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0
2 334 332 333 333
3 636 669 646 650.3
4 997 1004 1007 1002.7
5 1372 1374 1372 1372.7
6 1737 1735 1740 1737.3
7 2096 2100 2099 2098.3
8 2479 2487 2485 2483.7
9 2837 2842 2863 2840.7

Table 2: Voltage and speed readings

12
Voltag Curren Torque Speed (rpm) Power Powe Efficienc
e (V) t (A) (m/Vm output r y (%)
) (W) input
(W)
Readin Readin Readin Averag
g1 g2 g3 e
9 0.05 0 2881 2876 2862 2873 0 0 0
9 0.1 1 2551 2532 2540 2541 0.2660 0.9 29.56
9
9 0.15 2.4 2076 2112 2123 2103.3 0.5289 1.35 39.16
9 0.2 3.8 1679 1686 1651 1672 0.6653 1.8 36.96
5
9 0.25 8 1145 1187 1179 1170.33 0.9804 2.25 43.57
5

Table 2.1: Efficiency and torque for 9V readings

13
 Graph 1: Average speed against voltage graph

Graph 2: Torque against current graph

Graph 3: Efficiency against torque graph

14
4.2 Sample calculation

Current (A) Calculation

Power Power input Efficiency
output
0.05 (2π x 0 x 9 x 0.05 (0/9) x 100%
0)/60 = 0.45 W = 0%
=0W
0.1 (2π x 0.001 x 9 x 0.1 (0.26609/0.9)
2541)/60 = 0.9 W x 100%
= 0.26609 W = 29.56%
0.15 (2π x 0.0024 9 x 0.15 (0.5287/1.35)
x 2103.7)/60 = 1.35 W x 100%
= 0.5287 W = 39.16%
0.2 (2π x 0.0038 9 x 0.2 (0.66535/1.8)
x 1672)/60 = 1.8 W x 100%
= 0.66535 W = 36.96%
0.25 (2π x 0.008 x 9 x 0.25 (0.98045/2.25)
1170.33)/60 = 2.25 W x 100%
= 0.98045 W = 43.57%

Table 3: Sample calculation

Power output = (2π x N x T) / 60

Power input = V x I

Efficiency = (Power output / Power input) x 100%

15
5.0 Discussion
At the initial stage 3 sets of reading of speed were measured against the voltage. The
average speed was calculated. As the voltage increases, the average speed also increases. This
shows that the voltage is directly proportional to the speed. Based on table 2 the speed
readings were zero for when voltage was at 0 and 1V. This could have happened to overcome
losses within the motor such as copper loss, iron loss etc.

The second table 2.1 is done by choosing a specific voltage, in this case it was 9V, the
current, torque, power and efficiency were calculated. As the current increased, the torque
values also increased. This time the values of average speed decreased. It started of with 2873
rpm and ended with 1170.33 rpm. The input and output power were also calculated therefore
it would be easy to get the efficiency value. When the torque was 0m/Vm, the efficiency was
0% whereas when the torque value was 8m/Vm, the efficiency was 43.57%. As the torque
value increased, the efficiency value also increased but when the torque was 3.8m/Vm, the
efficiency value dropped to 36.96%.

Graph 3 shows efficiency against torque graph. The values of torque and current were
compared and a graph was sketched. As the torque increased the current also increased.
Based on the graph, it is shown that the increase was steady until it hits the mark when
current was 0.2A. From 0.2A the increase was steeper. It also shows that torque is directly
proportional to current. The initial torque value is zero therefore it is the no load current and
the maximum torque is the starting current.

The result accuracy can be changed with some minor changes when carrying out the
experiment. Placing the DC motor in the horizontal direction with the same environment
could improve the reading. The reason for the motor to be horizontal so that the laser could
detect the exact value of the speed as the voltage of the motor increases. For the second
experiment, the voltage should remain constant which was 9V throughout. The equipment
that was used must be identical. The laser might experience different frequencies of light and
affecting the result of the experiment.

The calculation that are done and the graphs are very important when it comes to the
medical industry. There are some equipments that uses DC motor like the ventilators and
power wheelchairs. When voltage increases, the speed also increases. In the concept of the

16
power wheelchair, when the DC motor works the voltage will increase therefore the speed
must also increase. This will help the patient to move from point A to B quicker. When the
power wheelchair moves, there will be torque forming. When the torque is high, the
efficiency must be high. If the efficiency is low the movement of the power wheelchair will
be very poor. It shows the patient must use a greater force just to get a smaller movement and
this causes muscle fatigue in the patient. Below is a diagram of a medical equipment that uses
DC motors and it is called medical analyser. The use of medical analyser is to test human
body fluid such as blood and urine.

Figure 7: The connection of DC motors to medical analyser

Figure 8: Another device with DC motor

17
5.0 Conclusion
The use of DC motor is an excellent choice in the medical industry. At the end of the
day, the industry needs something that is efficient, low cost and reliable. DC motor can
provide all the requirements. As a prove the calculations are being made and graphs are
sketched. DC motor does have some disadvantages such as it is a high maintenance because
of low brush life [10]. DC motor have massive power loss on full wave voltage rectified and
the high starting torque can damage the reducers [10]. Below is a graph on the efficiency
when the speed changes when the temperature of the motor is varied:

Graph 4: DC motor efficiency graph

In the future the readings can be improved in many ways. The first one would be
taking more readings when the experiment is carried out before calculating the average speed
of the DC motor. The speed of the DC motor should not be measured immediately. After the
first reading is taken, give around 3 minutes before measuring the next speed. This would
give time for the DC motor to settle down and the temperature of the motor will decrease
therefore the readings would be much more accurate. The experiment can be conducted by
placing the DC motor horizontal instead of vertical. The values do fluctuate when the DC
motor is placed vertically. The laser might have a hard time detecting the exact value of the
speed. Horizontal placing in recommended. Lastly, the laser might be affected by the
difference of frequencies from the light so make sure the experiment is carried out in an
environment with minimal lights.
18
Reference
[1] EL-PRO-CUS (2013), What is a DC machine: Construction & it’s working, from

https://www.elprocus.com/dc-machine-types-and-their-applications/

[2] tutorialspoint (2023), Applications of DC machines, from

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/electrical_machines/
electrical_machines_applications_of_dc_machines.htm

[3] ROBU.IN (2020, 20th April), DC Motor Applications, from

https://robu.in/dc-motor-applications/

[4] Pete Millett (2023), Brushless Vs Brushed DC Motors: When and Why to Choose One
Over the Other, from

https://www.monolithicpower.com/en/brushless-vs-brushed-dc-motors

[5] Medical Design Briefs (2020, 1st July), Brushed Versus Brushless DC Motors: What’s the
Best Choice for Medical Applications?, from

https://www.medicaldesignbriefs.com/component/content/article/mdb/pub/features/
technology-leaders/37231

[6] EL-PRO-CUS (2013), PMDC Motor: Construction, Working and Applications, from

https://www.elprocus.com/pmdc-permanent-magnetic-dc-motor-construction-working/

[7] Max (2023, 12th march), Series DC Motors: A Comprehensive Guide, from

https://www.linquip.com/blog/series-dc-motors/

[8] EL-PRO-CUS (2013), What is a DC Shunt Motor: Construction, Working Principle,

Circuit Diagram, from

https://www.elprocus.com/dc-shunt-motor-construction-working-principle-circuit-diagram/

[9] Max (2023, 12th March), Compound DC Motors: Everything You Should Know About
DC Compound Motors, from

https://www.linquip.com/blog/compound-dc-motors/

19
[10] GROSCHOPP (2018, 23rd April), DC Motor Basic, from

https://www.groschopp.com/dc-motor-basics/

https://www.studocu.com/en-nz/document/auckland-university-of-technology/data-structures-
and-algorithms/lab-11-dc-motors-grade-a/6840894

20