Controlled-release fertiliser

A controlled-release fertiliser (CRF) is a granulated

fertiliser that releases nutrients gradually into the soil (i.e.,
with a controlled release period).[2] Controlled-release
fertilizer is also known as controlled-availability fertilizer,
delayed-release fertilizer, metered-release fertilizer, or slow-
acting fertilizer. Usually CRF refers to nitrogen-based Methylene diurea (MDU) is
component of the most popular
fertilizers. Slow- and controlled-release involve only 0.15%
controlled-release fertilizers.[1]
(562,000 tons) of the fertilizer market (1995).

History
Controlled-nitrogen-release technologies based on polymers derived from combining urea and
formaldehyde were first produced in 1936 and commercialized in 1955.[3] The early product had
60 percent of the total nitrogen cold-water-insoluble, and the unreacted (quick-release) less
than 15%. Methylene ureas, e.g. methylene diurea, were commercialized in the 1960s and 1970s,
having 25% and 60% of the nitrogen as cold-water-insoluble, and unreacted urea nitrogen in the
range of 15% to 30%.

In the 1960s in the U.S., the Tennessee Valley Authority National Fertilizer Development Center
began developing sulfur-coated urea. Sulfur was used as the principal coating material because
of its low cost and its value as a secondary nutrient.[3] Usually wax or polymer is added to
perfect the encapsulation. The slow-release properties depend on the degradation of the
secondary sealant by soil microbes as well as mechanical imperfections (cracks, etc.) in the
capsule. 6 to 16 weeks of delayed release in turf applications is typical. When a hard polymer is
used as the secondary coating, the properties are a cross between diffusion-controlled particles
and traditional sulfur-coated.

Advantages
Many factors motivate the use of CRF, including more efficient use of the fertilizer. Illustrating
the problem, it is estimated that, on average, 16% of conventional nitrogen-based fertilizers is
lost by evaporation (as NH3, N2O, N2) or run-off ammonia.[4][5] Another factor favoring CRT
protecting crops from chemical damage (fertiliser burn). In addition to their providing the
nutrition to plants, excess fertilizers can be poisonous to the same plant. Finally important
advantages are economic: fewer applications and the use of less fertiliser overall. The results
(yield) is in most cases improved by >10%.

Environmental considerations

CRF has the potential to decrease nitrogenous pollution, which leads to eutrophication. The
efficient use of nitrogen-base fertilizers is also relevant to the emission of N2O into the
atmosphere each year, of which 36% is due to human activity. The anthropogenic N2O is
produced by microorganisms acting on ammonia faster than the plant can uptake this
nutrient.[6]
Implementation

The fertiliser is administered either by topdressing the soil, or by mixing the fertiliser into the
soil before sowing. Polymer coating of fertilizer ingredients gives tablets and spikes a 'true time-
release' or 'staged nutrient release' (SNR) of fertilizer nutrients. NBPT functions as an inhibitor
of the enzyme urease.[4] Urease inhibitors, at levels of 0.05 weight percent, are added to urea-
based fertilizers to control its conversion to ammonia.[7]

Mechanisms of release
The rate of the release is determined by various main
factors: (i) the low solubility of the compounds in the soil
moisture, (ii) the breakdown of protective coating applied to
fertilizer pellets, and (iii) the conversion of the chemicals
into ammonia or similarly effective plant nutrient.[4]

Conventional fertilisers are soluble in water, the nutrients

disperse. Because controlled-release fertilisers are not water-
Crotonylidene diurea is also used
soluble, their nutrients disperse into the soil more slowly.
as a CRF.
The fertiliser granules may have an insoluble substrate or a
semi-permeable jacket that prevents dissolution while
allowing nutrients to flow outward.

Definitions
The Association of American Plant Food Control Officials
(AAPFCO) has published the following general definitions Isobutylidenediurea (IBDU) is yet
(Official Publication 57): another CRF.[8]

▪ Slow- or controlled-release fertilizer: A fertilizer

containing a plant nutrient in a form which delays its availability for plant uptake and use
after application, or which extends its availability to the plant significantly longer than a
reference ‘rapidly available nutrient fertilizer’ such as ammonium nitrate or urea, ammonium
phosphate or potassium chloride. Such delay of initial availability or extended time of
continued availability may occur by a variety of mechanisms. These include controlled water
solubility of the material by semi-permeable coatings, occlusion, protein materials, or other
chemical forms, by slow hydrolysis of water-soluble low molecular weight compounds, or by
other unknown means.
▪ Stabilized nitrogen fertilizer: A fertilizer to which a nitrogen stabilizer has been added. A
nitrogen stabilizer is a substance added to a fertilizer which extends the time the nitrogen
component of the fertilizer remains in the soil in the urea-N or ammoniacal-N form.
▪ Nitrification inhibitor: A substance that inhibits the biological oxidation of ammoniacal-N to
nitrate-N.
▪ Urease inhibitor: A substance that inhibits hydrolytic action on urea by the enzyme urease.

Examples
Most slow-release fertilizers are derivatives of urea, a straight fertilizer providing nitrogen.
Isobutylidenediurea ("IBDU") and urea-formaldehyde slowly convert in the soil to urea, which
is rapidly uptaken by plants. IBDU is a single compound with the formula
(CH3)2CHCH(NHC(O)NH2)2 whereas the urea-formaldehydes consist of mixtures of the
approximate formula (HOCH2NHC(O)NH)nCH2.

Controlled release fertilizers are traditional fertilizers encapsulated in a shell that degrades at a
specified rate. Sulfur is a typical encapsulation material. Other coated products use
thermoplastics (and sometimes ethylene-vinyl acetate and surfactants, etc.) to produce
diffusion-controlled release of urea or other fertilizers. "Reactive Layer Coating" can produce
thinner, hence cheaper, membrane coatings by applying reactive monomers simultaneously to
the soluble particles. "Multicote" is a process applying layers of low-cost fatty acid salts with a
paraffin topcoat. Recently, biodegradable polymers as coatings for slow/controlled-release
fertilizer have attracted interest for their potential to increase fertilizer/pesticide utilization
efficiency and reduce negative environmental effects. [9]

See also
▪ Seed ball
▪ Coated urea

References
1. Dittmar, Heinrich; Drach, Manfred; Vosskamp, Ralf; Trenkel, Martin E.; Gutser, Reinhold;
Steffens, Günter (2009). "Fertilizers, 2. Types". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial
Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.n10_n01 (https://doi.org/10.100
2%2F14356007.n10_n01).
2. Gregorich, Edward G.; Turchenek, L. W.; Carter, M. R.; Angers, Denis A., eds. (2001). Soil
and Environmental Science Dictionary (https://books.google.com/books?id=qvWzKSP33bg
C&pg=PA132). CRC Press. p. 132. ISBN 978-0-8493-3115-2. LCCN 2001025292 (https://lc
cn.loc.gov/2001025292). Retrieved 9 December 2011.
3. J. B. Sartain, University of Florida (2011). "Food for turf: Slow-release nitrogen" (https://web.
archive.org/web/20191029053115/http://www.grounds-mag.com/mag/grounds_maintenance
_food_turf_slowrelease/). Grounds Maintenance. Archived from the original (http://www.grou
nds-mag.com/mag/grounds_maintenance_food_turf_slowrelease/) on 2019-10-29.
Retrieved 2020-12-29.
4. Pan, Baobao; Lam, Shu Kee; Mosier, Arvin; Luo, Yiqi; Chen, Deli (2016). "Ammonia
Volatilization from Synthetic Fertilizers and its Mitigation Strategies: A Global Synthesis".
Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 232: 283–289. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2016.08.019 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.agee.2016.08.019).
5. Lam, Shu Kee; Wille, Uta; Hu, Hang-Wei; Caruso, Frank; Mumford, Kathryn; Liang, Xia;
Pan, Baobao; Malcolm, Bill; Roessner, Ute; Suter, Helen; Stevens, Geoff; Walker, Charlie;
Tang, Caixian; He, Ji-Zheng; Chen, Deli (2022). "Next-generation enhanced-efficiency
fertilizers for sustained food security" (https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-022-00542-7)
. Nature Food. 3 (8): 575–580. doi:10.1038/s43016-022-00542-7 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2
Fs43016-022-00542-7). PMID 37118587 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37118587).
S2CID 251080988 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:251080988).
6. Sloss, Leslie L. (1992). Nitrogen Oxides Control Technology Fact Book (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=--C_JAU7W8QC&pg=PA6). William Andrew. p. 6.
ISBN 978-0-8155-1294-3.
7. Zaman, M.; Zaman, S.; Quin, B.F; Kurepin, L.V; Shaheen, S.; Nawaz, S.; Dawar, K.M
(2014). "Improving Pasture Growth and Urea Efficiency Using N inhibitor, Molybdenum and
Elemental Sulphur" (https://doi.org/10.4067%2FS0718-95162014005000020). Journal of
Soil Science and Plant Nutrition. doi:10.4067/S0718-95162014005000020 (https://doi.org/1
 0.4067%2FS0718-95162014005000020).
8. C. Nitschke; G. Scherr (2012). "Urea Derivatives". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial
Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.o27_o04 (https://doi.org/10.100
2%2F14356007.o27_o04).
9. Bi, Siwen; Barinelli, Vincenzo; Sobkowicz, Margaret J. (2020-02-02). "Degradable
Controlled Release Fertilizer Composite Prepared via Extrusion: Fabrication,
Characterization, and Release Mechanisms" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PM
C7077398). Polymers. 12 (2): 301. doi:10.3390/polym12020301 (https://doi.org/10.3390%2
Fpolym12020301). ISSN 2073-4360 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2073-4360).
PMC 7077398 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7077398). PMID 32024294
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32024294).

Further reading
▪ Du, Chang-wen; Zhou, Jian-ming; Shaviv, Avi (2006). "Release Characteristics of Nutrients
from Polymer-coated Compound Controlled Release Fertilizers". Journal of Polymers and
the Environment. 14 (3): 223–230. doi:10.1007/s10924-006-0025-4 (https://doi.org/10.100
7%2Fs10924-006-0025-4). S2CID 97049596 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:970
49596).

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