“The Process of Democratization and Arab Republic of Egypt”

S1
Introduction

 Democratization process in Egypt, following the 2011 revolution, has been a subject of
intense scrutiny and analysis
 Revolution ignited hopes for a more democratic future
 Path towards democratization has been complex and marked by challenges
 Map
S2
Political Outlook of Egypt
Constitution:

 Adopted in 2014, establishes Egypt as a Republican Semi-Presidential system with a

multi-party system
 Provides for the separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial
branches
 Outlining fundamental rights and freedoms
 Grants significant powers to the president
S3
Government structure and Four Pillars of State
- Executive Branch:

 President is the head of state and elected by popular vote

 Appoint and dismiss the prime minister, cabinet members, and other key officials
 Control over state apparatus (armed forces, security agencies, and intelligence services)
- Legislative Branch:

 Bicameral legislature, consisting of the House of Representatives (lower house) and the
Senate (upper house)
 Upper house reconstituted in 2020 as the Senate after a six-year absence
 HOR members are elected through a mixed electoral system
 Considerable influence of President over legislation process
- Judicial Branch:

 Independent judiciary
 Supreme Constitutional Court is the highest judicial authority in Egypt.
 President’s power extends to the judicial branch (authority to appoint judges and the chief
justice of the Supreme Constitutional Court)
- Media:

 Significant control of government over the media landscape

 Restrictions on press freedom, with independent media outlets facing censorship and
intimidation
 Often promotes the government's agenda, shape public discourse and control the
narrative.
S4
Political Transition in Egypt

 Experienced Monarchy for centuries

 King Farouk I (the last monarch), 1952 revolution
 Centralized power structure, with limited political freedoms and a concentration of power
in the hands of the ruling elite
 Three crucial transitions since the beginning of Nasser’s rule
S5
Nasser’s Populist Authoritarianism

 In his lifetime, Nasser had successfully transformed the Egyptian state from an oligarchic
regime to a populist authoritarian one
 1952 Free Officers Movement established single-party populist authoritarian regime
 Centralize political power and dissolve all pre-existing political parties and movements
including (Arab Socialist Union (ASU) was the sole, legitimate political party)
 Established a social contract where the regime promised rapid economic development,
social justice, and national independence in return for political allegiance and a
suspension of political rights and freedoms.
 The media, civil society organization, labor unions, and religious organizations were
brought under the direct control of the regime, Control some areas of the economy,
undertook social and welfare functions on a wide scale
 The populist authoritarian regime was legitimized by a ruling bargain: economic
development, social justice, and national independence in return for political loyalty.
 1967 defeat dealt a severe blow to the Nasser regime and put this bargain into question.
 Questioning the regime’s ability to deliver on its part of the contract, which drove some
social groups to demand that political and economic rights and freedoms be restored
 In response, Nasser issued the “30th of March Declaration” (introducing democratic
elections within the ruling party, and for drafting a new constitution) -These reforms were
never implemented during Nasser’s lifetime.
S6
Hybrid Authoritarianism under Sadat and Mubarak
  From a populist authoritarian to a post-populist authoritarian or hybrid regime that
allowed for a greater measure of autonomous political, social, and economic activity
while keeping in place many of the populist and corporatist measures
 President Anwar Sadat legitimized his rule using three slogans: The rule by law;
government by institutions; and; political freedom
 Plans to liberalize the Egyptian polity, as a major departure from the Nasser regime
(policy of economic and political liberalization), More pro-Western and liberal direction
with the support of the Egyptian bourgeoisie and of western powers)
 Dissolved the Arab Socialist Union and created a new ruling party loyal to him (the
Egypt Party which was later renamed the National Democratic Party or NDP), Restored
—although in a controlled manner—opposition parties and social and political
movements
 Extended greater freedoms to the media and civil society organizations and encouraged
foreign investment and private enterprise, but also put controls on them, Also continued
Nasser’s populist policies such as subsidies, government employment, and free higher
education thereby ensuring the continued acquiescence of the lower and urban middle
classes
 Dual strategy to balance the interests of different social groups and prevented from
popular mobilization
S7

 Mubarak expanded and institutionalized the hybrid regime established by Sadat

 On the political front, the ruling NDP continued to maintain its two-thirds majority in a
rubber stamp legislature while power remained largely concentrated in the office of the
presidency and of the executive.
 Opposition parties and other civil society continued to increase in number but remained
weak and marginal, largely as a result of a restrictive laws and systematic election fraud.
 Hybrid formula succeeded in stabilizing the post-populist authoritarian regime in Egypt
for almost four decades
 Projection were made that liberalized autocracy or limited liberalization would eventually
give way to full democratization externally
 Mubarak extended wheels of governance from authoritarianism to democratization
(releasing political prisoners, calling for national reconciliation etc)
 Mubarak first test was his handling of the 1984 parliamentary elections (first time in
Egyptian history according to the proportional representation electoral system)
 Problems on the emergency law between president and the masses, protest against
parliamentary vote
S8
Arab Spring and the Crisis of the Hybrid State

 By the end of Mubarak’s reign, the “hybrid regime” began to unravel. Growing
discontent within the ranks of the military and the state bureaucracy, Power struggle
between the old guard led by the military and NDP the new elite
 Emergence of a new urban middle class (Demands for political and democratic reforms)
  Deteriorating economic conditions, Emergence of Islamic movements such as the
Brotherhood and the Salafi movement
 Trickle-down effect of the Arab Spring, mass protests, end of four decades of post-
populist authoritarian rule of Mubrak
 Dissatisfactions over corruption, lack of freedom of speech, economic issues as food
price inflation, high unemployment, low wages and the enrichment of the ruling elite
were the reasons for the protests.
 People wanted to get rid of its current constitution, its replacement with democracy.
 Egyptian Armed Forces seized power from President Mubarak in a coup d’état.
 November elections, rise of Muslim Brotherhood, Mohammad Morsi, a member of the
Brotherhood, became the first freely elected President in Egyptian history.
 victory for democracy, but everything was not at all rosy
 presidency quickly became a proxy for the Muslim Brotherhood, and under his leadership
the country was driven to the edge of civil war
 coalition led by the Egyptian army chief General Abdel Fattah el Sisi removed the
President Morsi from power by military coup d’état and suspended the Egyptian
constitution

S1

Egypt under the rule of El-Sisi (Bureaucratic Authoritarianism)

 Led the military movement to oust Morsi and was subsequently elected president in June
2014
 Egyptian regime underwent a transition to bureaucratic authoritarianism that are led by
the Military movement supported by the upper class and segments of the middle class to
oust the Muslim Brotherhood and their allies from power after a period of extended
political, social, and economic turmoil
 El-Sisi regime sought to demobilize all opposition through a number of measures
 Secular opposition, restrictive anti-protest law, circumscribed media space, restricted
ability of civil society, fragmented parliament, influenced judiciary
 Restructure the economy, populist economic policies, stabilizing his regime politically
while weakening opponents, financed through foreign funding
 The rise of foreign debt, the drying up of foreign reserves, and a severe economic
recession triggered an economic crisis.
 New basis of legitimacy “legitimacy of delegation or sharyiat al-tafweed”
S2
Egypt’s present-day political dynamics and Democracy

 Expanded the institutions under his control, allowing them to exercise sweeping powers
over the population without checks or balances
 State institutions act legally but without accountability, a phenomenon called “resurgent
authoritarianism.”
  In elections, voters are faced with carefully selected choices that channel pro-regime
voices and dilute opposing ones.
 Though views critical of the regime has failed to organize into a meaningful movement.
 Pseudo-democratic institutions to function within strict limits
 Party-based authoritarian regime featuring a cult of personality with Sisi, the president, at
its center
 Rather than consolidating power only within the presidency, Sisi has created a
reconfigured authoritarianism.
 Strengthened the authority of certain institutions in the absence of a parliament, taking
advantage of the power vacuum to lay the groundwork for his own power structure
S3
Position of different Actors in Egyptian Political System

 Government Actors i.e. Judicial Branch, Legislative Ministries, Military

 Non-Governmental Actors i.e. political parties, business elites, trade unions, non-
governmental organizations
 Repression of the Masses
S4
Political Islam, Religious Movements, and Democratization Process in Egypt

 The intersection of political Islam, religious movements, and democratization in Egypt

 Influence of Islamic ideologies and the role of religious institutions.
 The Muslim Brotherhood has been a key player in Egypt's political landscape
 Involvement in politics led to the election of Mohamed Morsi as Egypt's first
democratically elected president, but his presidency was short-lived.
 The Salafi Movement, a conservative Islamic movement, advocating for strict
interpretations of Islamic law.
 Focus on implementing conservative religious principles challenges the more moderate
and inclusive approaches
Challenges of Political Islam in Democratization:

 Ideological tensions between political Islam and democratic principles.

 Power concentration and potential democratic backsliding by Islamist movements.
 Tumultuous state-society relationship and limited participation of religious movements in
the democratic process.
 Divisions between secular and religious groups, posing challenges to social cohesion and
inclusivity.
S5
Challenges faced by Egypt in process of Democratization
  Egypt faces the challenge of an authoritarian legacy where power has historically been
concentrated in the hands of a few.
 Political repression and restrictions on freedom of expression
 Weak democratic institutions, including a judiciary lacking independence
 The limited political pluralism and competition among parties limit citizen choice and
representation in Egypt's political landscape.
 Egypt grapples with socio-economic challenges such as high unemployment rates and
income inequality
 Sectarian and social divisions within Egyptian society present obstacles to building
consensus and fostering social cohesion.
 Ongoing security concerns, including terrorism and regional instability, provide
justification for curbing civil liberties and prioritizing stability over democratic reforms.
 Geopolitical considerations exert influence on Egypt's political trajectory, impacting its
democratic development.
S6
Prospects for Democratization:

 Lessons Learned
 Role of Civil Society
 Political Pluralism and Inclusion
 Grassroots Mobilization and Social Services
 Pragmatic Engagement and Adaptation
 Counterbalance to Authoritarianism
S7
Concluding Remarks

 Future of democracy in Egypt?

 Western model of democracy is not a universal fit for all
 Unique socio-cultural, religious, and political dynamics of Egypt
 Egypt's bleak current situation
 Delicate balance between political reforms, civic engagement, and the preservation of
cultural and religious heritage