Community Health

BCHST
KADUNA
Pharmacy &
Medical Laboratory

Research Project Guidelines

FOR STUDENTS AND SUPERVISORS

 Section One

The Project
A project is an in-depth study of an issue or topic in public health, health management or
international health. It may be in the form of a small-scale research study, a case study, a
program evaluation or a report on a field placement.
Aims and Objectives
Projects vary in their aims, scope and design. They should be designed so as to allow you to
demonstrate your ability to apply the principles of research at a diploma level. In reporting on the
project, you should show that you can:
1. Identify and define a significant issue relevant to the discipline of your study.
2. Systematically collect relevant up-to-date information about the issue, either directly or
from published studies or publicly available data.
3. Analyze, interpret and discuss the information in accordance with standard academic and
health research practice.
4. Draw conclusions and make recommendations relevant to the issue that will contribute to
current knowledge and practice in health.
5. Write and present a report in accordance with academic standards at a diploma level.

Identifying and defining a significant issue relevant to the discipline of your study. This
gives you your research problem which is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be
improved, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature,
in theory, or in practice that points to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate
investigation.

Systematically collect relevant up-to-date information about the issue, either directly or
from published studies or publicly available data. Data collection is the most important work
of a researcher. The collection of information or facts must be done using any of the two types of
data collection:

1. Primary data collection which may be from experiment, questionnaire, observation and
interview; and
2. Secondary data collection whose categories are review of literature, official and non-
official reports and library approach.

A researcher makes measurement in the process of data collection. The following are the four
scales of measurement which are laterally referred to as types of data.

1. Nominal Scale: Non-numeric categories (names or labels) that cannot be ranked or

compared quantitatively. Variables are exclusive and exhaustive. In order to have an
exhaustive number of responses (in a questionnaire), you might have to include a
category such as „others‟, „uncertain‟, „don‟t know‟, or „can‟t remember‟ so that the
respondents will no distort their information by forcing their responses in one of the
categories provided (“Measurement and Scaling”, n.d.).
2. Ordinal Scale: Exclusive categories that are exclusive and exhaustive but with a logical
order. Quality ratings and agreement ratings are examples of ordinal scales (i.e., good,
very good, fair, etc., OR agree, strongly agree, disagree, etc.
 3. Interval: A measurement scale where data is grouped into categories with orderly and
equal distances between the categories (equality of intervals). There is always an
arbitrary zero point.
4. Ratio: contains features of all three. In addition, it is the only scale that allows
multiplication and division.

Analyze, interpret and discuss the information in accordance with standard academic
and health research practice. When data is collected, it is forwarded for analysis which is the
most technical job. Data analysis may be divided into two main categories: data processing
which is sub-divided into data editing, data coding, data classification, data tabulation, data
presentation and data measurement; and data exposition which has sub-categories of description,
explanation, narration, conclusion/findings and recommendations/suggestions.

Percentage. The percentage of a number is the value of the number out of 100. It is
represented by the symbol “%” and calculated by using the formula ( )

Mean. The average of a data set.

Median. The middle of a data set.

Mode. The most common number in a data set.

Range. The difference between the lowest and highest values in a data set.

Example: The following are weights of students in a particular class of a primary school in
kilogram (kg); 21, 21, 21, 23, 24, 26, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31 and 33. Find: (a) the mean weight of the
students, (b) the median of the weights of the students, (c) mode for the weights of the students,
(d) range for the weights of the students, (e) percentage by number of students weighing 21kg,
and (f) percentage by weight of students weighing 21kg.
Solution:
(a)
This means that the average weight of the students is 26.08kg.

(b) 21, 21, 21, 23, 24, 26, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31 and 33

This means that the middle weight of the students is 26kg.

(b)
This means that the most common weight of the students is 21kg.
(c)
This means that the maximum variability in the students‟ weight is 12kg or it means that
the students‟ weight spreads by maximum of 12kg.
(d) ( )
This means that 25% of the students have weight of 21kg.
(f)
 ( )
This means that 20.13% of the students‟ weight is 21kg.

Draw conclusions and make recommendations relevant to the issue that will
contribute to current knowledge and practice in health. The conclusion is a summary of your
research findings which must be in accordance with your research objectives. Therefore, number
of conclusions or conclusion paragraphs should be equal to the number of objectives.

Write and present a report in accordance with academic standards at a diploma

level. A researcher should prepare a report for his work. He must keep in his mind the following
points:

1. Report Design in Primary Stages: The report should carry a title, brief introduction of
the problem, background, acknowledgement, table of contents, table of graphs and charts.
2. Main Text of the Report: It should contain objectives, hypothesis, explanations and
methodology of the research. It must be divided into chapters with separate summary of
findings enlisted. The last section would be clearly of conclusions of the study.
3. Closing the Report: The last step in a research process contains of bibliography,
references, appendices, index and maps or charts for illustration.

Benefits of Doing a Project

Completing a project as part of your diploma program is an opportunity to:
1. Learn to read and interpret other people‟s research critically by doing your own. This
gives you an insight into the effects of practical difficulties and theoretical debates on
published research.
2. Develop and apply the advice you have received in your research methodology courses.
3. Submit a paper for peer-reviewed publication. (If successful, this will give a boost to your
c.v.).

Sources of Error in Measurement

1. Respondent: Respondent reluctance to express strong negative feelings or admit his

ignorance. Transient factors like fatigue, boredom, anxiety, etc. may limit the ability of
the respondent to respond accurately and fully.
2. Situation: If the respondent feels that anonymity is not assured (i.e. someone else is
present), he may be reluctant to express certain feelings.
3. Measurer: The interviewer can distort responses by rewording or reordering questions.
His behavior, style and looks may encourage or discourage certain replies from
respondents. Errors may also creep in because of incorrect coding, faulty tabulation
and/or statistical calculations, particularly in the data-analysis stage.
4. Instrument: The use of complex words, beyond the comprehension of the respondent,
ambiguous meanings, poor printing, inadequate space for replies, response choice
omissions, etc. are a few things that make the measuring instrument defective and may
result in measurement errors. Another type of instrument deficiency is the poor sampling
of the universe of items of concern.
Ethics in Research

Ethics are norms or standards of behavior that guide moral choices of our behavior and our
relationship with others. Thus, all parties in research should exhibit ethical behavior. The goal of
ethics in research is to ensure that no one is harmed or suffered adverse consequences from
research activities.

Unethical activities are pervasive and include violating non-disclosure agreement, breaking
respondent confidentiality, misrepresenting results, deceiving people, invoicing irregularities,
avoiding legal liability, and more. Therefore, as research is designed, several ethical
considerations must be balanced such as protecting the rights of the participant or subject;
protecting the safety of the researcher and team; and ensuring that a respondent does not suffer
physical harm, discomfort, pain, embarrassment, deception, or loss of privacy.

Choosing and Working with a Project Supervisor

There are two main approaches to finding a supervisor: you can choose your own topic and see
who is willing to supervise it, or you can choose a supervisor who you would like to work with,
and ask them to suggest a topic.

Using the first approach, when you have selected a topic of interest, draft a brief proposal or
„concept sheet‟ outlining the problem to be addressed, project aims and suggested methodology,
and send it to the program director to assist in suggesting a supervisor with expertise in your area
of research. Then confirm with the nominated supervisor that they are available, if you have not
already made contact.

Alternatively, you can choose a project by first selecting a supervisor who you wish to work with
and asking them for topic suggestions, or inquiring whether they are interested in supervising
you in one of your areas of interest.

Either way, try to find a supervisor whose work you have read or who you know is interested in
the kind of approach you find congenial. For example, if you wish to do a qualitative project to
understand „hearts and minds‟, it is better to have a supervisor who has qualitative research
expertise rather than (say) a clinical researcher who thinks in terms of physiological measures.
This is true even if you both work in the same topic area, such as diabetes.
 Section Two
Structuring your project report

Structure your project report in the following way.

Cover page
Title page
Declaration
Certification
Dedication
Acknowledgements
Abstract
Table of contents
List of figures
List of tables
List of appendices
Main text
• Introduction
• Literature review
• Methods/Methodology
• Results
• Discussion
• Conclusion
• Recommendations
References
Appendices

Cover page

This is the hardcover of your research project and it contains title of your project, your name
starting with surname, name of your department, name of the college and then month and year of
the project.

Title page

This is similar to cover page. However, unlike cover page, the title page is normal A4 paper not
hardcover. In addition to all the information in the cover page, the title page contains the student
registration number under his/her name and a submission statement.

Declaration

You make a declaration that the research was carried out by you, not used before in any other
place and that all information derived from the literature has been duly acknowledged.
Certification

This is also called the approval page as it is a place in your research project where the school
management gives its approval to your work for meeting the college diploma project
requirements, contribution to knowledge and literary presentation.

Dedication

You offer your research work to someone who inspired you or helped you with it. It is a way of
thanking, respecting or honoring the person.

Acknowledgments

You should acknowledge the assistance given to you by your supervisors, and any other person
or organization that has helped you in the planning, conduct, analysis or reporting of your
project.

Abstract

This is a synopsis of your study question, aims and objectives, background literature, methods,
results, key conclusions and recommendations. This should be 250–300 words long and should
be very clear and easy to follow.

An easy way of writing abstract is to use IMRaD. Where;

1. I stand for Introduction of the research project in simple present tense or simple past
tense.
2. M stand for Methods of data collection and data analysis in simple past tense.
3. R stands for Results main points in simple present tense or simple past tense.
4. D stands for Discussion of the results and conclusion in simple present tense.
Introduction

In this section of your project you introduce the subject, provide the background to the topic or
problem (i.e. what is already known), outline the study question (or problem or study
hypothesis), and outline the aims and objectives of your study. The section also includes
significance of the study, scope and delimitations.

1. Background: A summary of the key relevant literature, references, or needs analysis that
justifies the project.
2. Problem: A description of the problem being addressed.
3. Hypothesis: A statement of the hypothesis you are testing, or the research question you
are endeavoring to answer.

A hypothesis is a very specific testable statement that can be evaluated from observable
data. Hypotheses come from generalizations and generalizations come from theory or
from experience (Kantowitz et al., 2009). Thus, there are hypotheses derived from
experience and there are hypotheses derived from theory. Hypotheses derived from
 experience are called common-sense hypotheses. It is recommended that you use
hypotheses in your research project only if what you want to measure is based on
qualitative theories.

4. Significance: The significance of the study is its importance. It refers to the

contribution(s) to and impact of the study on a research field. It also signals who benefits
from the research findings and how.
5. Aim: A statement of the expected outcomes of your project, and how they will help to
address the problem.
6. Objectives: An outline of the specific strategies or steps by which you intend to achieve
your research aims.
7. Scope: This refers to the areas that will be covered in the research project, e.g.
population, methods and so on. It also contains where and when the study will be carried
out.
8. Delimitations: Stating what was not done or describing what was not included or
considered or studied within the project.

Literature review

This is a review of the literature on the topic or problem you are studying. It should include a
review of any other studies or projects similar or relevant to yours, and perhaps a review of the
literature on the method you have chosen if your project tests a new method of research or
analysis.

Methods

This section includes the methodology of your research. It will cover such issues as:
1. The study design.
2. The study population, sampling frame and numbers, sampling method.
3. Survey design.
4. Survey or data collection instruments.
5. Protocol for obtaining data.
6. Ethical issues and how they are addressed.
7. Information letters, consent forms.
8. Data management and analysis methods.
9. Statistical analysis and tests.

The difference between method and methodology is that in research methods, methods of solving
research problems are given. On the other hand, methods are selected and the reasons for
selecting them are given in research methodology.

Results

In this section you present the results of your research. This section includes such information as
descriptive data dealing with your study population, response rates etc. and results of statistical
analysis. Tables, figures and graphs are an excellent means of presenting this sort of information.
All tables, figures and graphs, should be numbered consecutively throughout the whole report,
and labeled with a clear and concise descriptive title.
Discussion

In this section you interpret your results and discuss their implications, with reference to other
published research. Any limitations in your research methodology should also be referred to
here. Examiners expect you to acknowledge these limitations as an integral part of your
evaluation of your project.

Conclusion

This section summarizes the key results and the conclusions that you can draw from these
results. It also needs to reflect what your initial project aims and objectives were.

Recommendations

It is good research practice to make recommendations or to suggest directions for further

research or actions as a result of your project findings.

References

This is a list of all the references and sources you used in your literature review, methodology
and discussion. This includes books (monographs), journal articles, letters, abstracts, conference
and symposium papers, media articles, and any form of published literature or comment. This
also includes citations for computer analysis packages, online literature and sources, and any
audiovisual resources you may have researched or cited. It is important that every claim of
scientific fact you make is supported by a valid, relevant, accessible reference, and that every
idea or argument, and every verbatim quotation or paraphrase of someone else‟s work, is
correctly attributed to its source.

Appendices

This section may contain copies of any questionnaires or evaluation instruments used, covering
letters, participant information and ethics approvals, statistical formulas or additional
explanations.

REFERENCE

Kantowitz, B. H.; Roediger, H. L.; and Elmes, D. G. (2009). Experimental Psychology (9th Ed.).
Wadsworth, Cengage Learning; United States of America.
PHCM 9148 (2015). Research Project Guidelines: For Students, Supervisors and Examiners.
School of Public Health and Community Medicine; Faculty of Medicine University of
New South Wales, Sydney NSW 2052. An electronic copy of this publication is available
at: https://sphcm.med.unsw.edu.au/current-students/postgraduate-coursework/research-
project