Chey 13 INTRODUCTIO! : By A transducer is defined as a device that receives energy from one system and transmits it to another, often in a different form. x Broadly defined, the'transducer is a device capable of being actuated by ay energising input from one or more transmission media and in tum generating related signal to one or more transmission systems. It Provides a usable output in response to a specified input measurand, which may be a physical or mechanical quantity, property, or conditions. The energy transmitted by these systems Tay be electrical, mechanical or acoustical. The nature of electrical output ‘from’ the transducer depends on the basic principle involved in the design. The output may be analog, digital or frequency modulated.” | Basically, there are two types of transducers, electrical, and mechanical. ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCER on 12 An electrical transducer is a sensing device by which the physical, mechanical or optical quantity to be measured is transformed directly by a suitable mechanism into an electrical voltage/current proportional to the input measurand. _ Anelectrical transducer must have the following parameters: 1. Linearity’ The telationship between a physical parameter and the resulting electrical signal must be linear, 22. Sensitivity This is defined as the electrical output per unit change in the Physical Parameter (for example V/°C for a temperature senso!) High sensitivity is generally desirable for a transducer. 3. Dynamic Range : The Operating range of the transducer should be wide, : He Permit its use under a wide range of measurement conditions. , iri The input/output telationship for a transducer abou open ag 4 long period of time. This ensures reliability 0 5. Phy e Mae he os a pestis must have minimal weight and run in the es is existitg conti Measurement system does not distu!el a ile El of Electrical Transd on of physical quantinn i, he ™ain adva Blectrical am, A intity into electrical qm tees ofele amplification and attenuati quantities) are ss-inertia effects are m; On can be easily ects of friction are bet tical transducers as follows: done, lectrical output can be easil pose of measurement. transducers can be broadly classified into ly used, transmitted and processed for two major categories, transducer generates an electrical signal directly in response to | parameter and does not require an external power source for its ive transducers are self generating devices, which operate under ion principle and generate an equivalent output signal (for | pressure to charge or temperature to electrical potential). iple of active transducers are piezo electric sensors (for generation sponding to pressure) and photo voltaic cells (for generation of ¢ to illumination). nsducers operate under energy controlling principles, which sary to use an external electrical source with them. They depend in an electrical parameter (R, L and C). le are strain gauges (for resistance thermistors (for resistance change corres change in response to sponding to temperature renon-electrical quantities. For .d, which converts the physical 4 tes an electric transducer, that is electrical in nature. thod used for electrical or frequency; their ansducers are used mostly to measu 4 detector or sensing element is use a displacement. This displacement oa seco! \d give an outpu! Sasecondary transducer an 5 ee ae quantity is measured by the s aah lent, The electrical signals may be current, A sed on R, L and C effects. cer which converts a non-electrical a ee be considered as consisting of two Pat" uantity into an analog electrical Z ensing element, and the! Pot EC TK’ tlege of F — és = : —_— se a | ! i 408 _Ekcronic instrument —— ‘The sensing or detector element is that part ofa transducer which respond, to heres In a physical phenomenon or to a change 0 ® physical phenomenon. The respons, nves of the sensing element must be closely related fo the physical phenomenon, —— iW The transduction element transforms the output of a sensing element to ay part | electrical output. This, in a way, acts as & secondary transducer. resist Transducers may be further classified into. different categories depen cing ofa resi upon the principle employed by their transduction elements to convert physica} a sliding phenomena into output electrical signals. . ‘ tion « "The different electrical phenomena employed in the transduction elements of sransiato transducers are as follows. g combi 1. Resistive 6. Photo-emissive element 2. Inductive 7. Photo-resistive shown i 3, Capacitive 8. Potentiometric astelip 4, Electro magnetic 9.. Thermo-electric Tran! 5. Piezo-electric 10. Frequency generating as shov , (trash SELECTING A TRANSDUCER, 13.3 devices The transducer or sensor has to be physically compatible with its intended ae application. The following should be considered while selecting a transducer, 1. Operating range Chosen to maintain range requirements and good resolution. 2. Sensitivity Chosen to allow sufficient output. 3. Frequency response and resonant frequency Flat over the entire desired range. 4. Environmental compatibility’ Temperature range, corrosive fluids, pressure, shocks, interaction, size and mounting restrictions. 5, Minimum sensitivity To expected stimulus, other than the measurand. 6. Accuracy Repeatability and calibration errors as well as errors expected due to sensitivity to other stimuli. 7. Usage and ruggedness Ruggedness, both of mechanical and electrical intensities versus size and weight. 8. Electrical parameters Length and type of cable required, signal to noise ratio when combined with amplifiers, and frequency respons? limitations. RESISTIVE TRANSDUCER 34 Resistive transducers are those in which the resistance changes due to a chang? in some physical phenomenon. The change in the value of the resistance witha change in the length of the conductor can be used to measure displacement. Strain gauges work on the principle that the resistance of a conducto! semiconductor changes when strained, This can be used for the measurement © displacement, force and pressure. yr OFBes wi itiometer e potentiometer (pot) consists pce element provided with act, called a wiper. The rotational. Some have ion of both, with resistive jin the form of a helix, as in Fig. 13.1(c). They are known Tesistive elements, in Fig. 13.1@), are linear devices. Rotational resistive ! arand are used for the t of angular displacement, Fig. 13.1(b). resistive elements are multi devices which ‘can be Measurement of either or rotational motion. A is a passive transducer uires an external power operation. ‘Potentiometers ey are inexpensive. mple to operate and are very for applications where Tequirements are not par- arly severe. are useful for the mea- nt of large amplitudes lacement. trical efficiency is very h, and they provide suffi- it output to allow control When using a linear poten- neter, a large force is re for the measurement of tem, sliding contact may be to move the sliding contacts. perature, Fig. 13.1 OO ome (©) tional 4) Translatory Type (b) Rotation: ne (©) Helipot (Rotational)410 Electronic Instrumentation 2, The sliding contacts can wear out, become misaligned and Benerate noise. 13.4.2 Resistance Pressure Transducer ‘ Measurement in the resistive type of transducer is based on the fact that a change in pressure results in a ie A cecteaatan Resistancg pressure transducers are of two mat irst, the. electromec] anical Tesistance transducer, in which a change of pressure, tress, position, displacement or other mechanical variation is applied to a variable resistor. The other Tesistance transducer is the strain gauge, where the stress acts directly on the resistance, It is very commonly used for stress and displacement measurement jn instrumentation. fT OVE In the general case of pressure measurement, the sensitive resistance element may take other forms, depending on the mechanical arrangement on which the pressure is caused to act. Figure 13.1(d) and (e) show two ways by which the pressure acts to influence the sensitive resistance element, i.e. by which pressure varies the resistance element. They are the bellow type, and the diaphragm type. (Yet another is the Bourdon tube of pressure gauge). In each of these cases, the element moved by the pressure change is made to cause a change in resistance. This resistance change can be made part of a bridge circuit and then taken as either ac or dc output signal to determine the pressure indication. INSSSSS VILL, NS Resistance Leads to External Bridge Circuit LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLA FR / ) iN i rid EZ : Bellows Movement Coupled to Movable Resistance Contact Y SIS SNES “Z Spring Resistance Contacts ’! NSO See Fig. 8.(d) Resistance pressure transducerResistance Leads to Extemal Bridge Circuit pease diaphragm moves the resistance contact ITION TRANSDUCER 13.5 a resistance change in the sensing clement. (A common ial measurement and control work is to be able to sense the’, t, or the distance it has moved). displacement transducer uses a resistive element with a sliding t linked to the object bein; n the slider and one end of ‘object. Figure 13.2(a) gives f the resistance element depends on the construction of this type of ‘od of use. The output voltage depends on nction of the shaft position. This voltage for visual display. ‘ um shaft strokes, from sistance versus “Sa typical meth is therefore a func! 1 voltmeter calibrated in cms r units provide a choice of maxim ft or more.) Deviation from linearity of the re can be as low as 0.1 — 1.07 é . 13,2(b), if the circuit is unloaded, the ou voltage V, is a 4 i on the position of the wiper depending up a bate Bo the resistive transducer is that the physical variable under * g monitored or measured. Thus the .Conducting Strip G— wiper Lv. i Ww B A (a) ic Fig. 182. (a) Construction of resistance position transducer (b) Typical methog Neon Ry Therefore, 7 RAR When applied to resistive position sensors, this equation shows that ouy voltage is proportional to R,, ic. the position of the wiper of the potentiometer i the resistance of the transducer is distributed uniformly along the length of trav of the wiper, the resistance is perfectly linear. Example 13.1 4 displacement transducer with a shaft stroke of 3.0 ini | applied to the circuit of Fig. 13.2(b). The total resistance of the potentiometer jy 854 The applied voltage V, is 5 V, When the wiper is 0.9 in. from B, wha ‘pee OY solution £ x5 K= 2. x5k= 15000 erefore Fig. Ex 31i Re” “ach A a , ln Copan, : Wand MILL is /) . one? so ew LOT (60) vie i —_ Potentlometer Bea reference start of the test, s balanced (¥, = 0), IU resistance of 0,5 distance is Sin)’ i Wiper moves 0.5 in. towards A from ntre, it will have from the ce x % method jp (-2Rast) )» i (aaa) x | that output tiometer. If th of travel 3.0 in. is ntiometer n B, what \ is an example of a passive transducer that uses the variation Hi in wires to sense the strain produced by a force on the ‘ i Ni wa that stress (forcelunit area) and strain (elongation or ength) in a member or portion of any object under pressure is | (to the modulus of elasticity. | can be measured more easily by using variable resistance iacommon practice to measure strin instead of stress, to serve 1 of pressure. Such transducers are popu farly known as strain gauges. Hiatt « or is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on | is in the value of the resistivity of the ictor when Wa yo 0 strain, a property called the vpiezo-resistive effect. Therefore, gauges are also known as jezo resistive gauges. 4 Far transducers, c.g load cells, torquemelers PEE gauges, s, etc, employ strain gauges 4S secondary transducers. Fis subjected to a positive stress, its length increases while its decreases. Since the resistance of a conductor 1s directly i le inversely proportional to its area of cross-section, rveatrain, The change inresistance ‘i sitive hhange ‘an for an increase In resistance due to1Colicge © Hee Png crim 414 Electronic Instrumentation its dimensional changes. This property is called the piezo-resistive eft, 7 The following types of strain gauges are the most important, mae 1. Wire strain gauges 2. Foil strain gauges waelal 4 3. Semiconductor strain gauges tie 13.6.1 Resistance Wire Gauge 5 Resistance wire gauges are used in two basic forms, the unbonded ty, bonded type. PS, andthe 1. Unbonded Resistance Wire StrainGauge An unbonded strain Bauge ¢ a wire streched between two points in an insulating medium, such ¢ 8°" diameter of the wire used is about 25 um. The wires are kept under au tat hee i no sag and no ee vibration, Unbonded strain gauges a connected in a bridge circuit. The bridge is bal: i el shown in Fig. 13.3, PoE ag ht att DO load applied Force Force Rod Weld Points, Ring }== Sapphire Pins \ Main Platform __,(Movable Arm) > Force [= Stretched Unbonded Strain j Gauge Wire ni MT Hole (Filaments of Strain etl ? ’ Sensitive Wire) : Fi. 183 Unborded strain gauge ah: \ > \S ae Ske elPe, and the = Consists of 1 as air. The T tension so are usually 1 applied as train Fine Wire Direction of supa Strain eee ‘Leads Fig. 184 Bonded resistance wire strain gauge ‘top with a thin material, so that it is not damaged mechanically. ‘of the wire permits uniform distribution of stress. The carrier ‘or cemented to the member being studied. This permits a good from carrier to wire. tends to elongate the wire and thereby increase its length and tional area. The combined effect is an increase in resistance, Bein ‘specific resistance of the material in Sm length of the conductor in nm area of the conductor in m’ ‘strain, two physical parameters are of p’ ein Tesistance. cee itvty ofa material to stain is called the gauge ratio of the change in resistance ARIR to the change in the articular interest. os _ ARIR (13.1) GE(K)= "A Tength in m (without So vded bythe original length, das the change in length416 Electronic Instrumentation ~ y Al ie. Steam Bq, (13.1) can be written as AR/R hike ag (13) where ois the strain in the lateral direction. |= The resistance of a conductor of uniform cross-section is __, length Ro Pred d 1 R=? md 3 ‘Gia Soe Since res pee PEA iC 1 a R= Pag aad (9 where p= specific resistance of the conductor =lengthofconductor _ 4. i d= diameter of conductor. When the conductor is stressed, due to the strain, the length of the conduct. increases by Al and the simultaneously decreases by Ad in its diameter. Hen the resistance of the conductor can now be written as ape tae p(l+Al n/4(d2 Ady 7/4 (d? =2d Ad + Ad?) Since Ad is small, Ad” can be neglected " pueden ‘ "7/4 (d? — 2d Ad) Ld = p+ ADs pl i+ l/h (34 n/Ad? (: - 22) lad? (: p maa) i : d ‘Now, Poisson’s ratio pis d WI lefined as the rati in i ree to stain in the axial diection, that's lateral dire Adid BS AIL: (3s 5 Ad _ Al in 4 GE AN ati (1392017, 2 % roject Coordinator: STM OD: Diet, my fEngineering, * Bea 2 P+ At) (a/4)d? (\—2yari ir (13; 2) pl pl Giada? Il, we can neglect higher powers of Al; (133) pl + (l4)d* e conductor = eter. Hence i ree Pht vol Bala) (13.4) al direction (35) 38 * Rose M” 2 A+ AI) (/4) a? 2uAti ” lay? pl “@l4) a? [pezasueeanr say sigs xi ee eek 4? pte +2 ain 3) R= Gaya? \ Bi pan SLR dap factor will now be k Aria’ (All) 0420) i =a ~All ‘resistance strain er, whichis subjects 1 ulate the change” Mi Sub amy, ‘hi Kushna’ ox. MegheS Biv. .15) P faGopange YECBS7) MUL JECREO) (I Ge 2nainy (42H Ari) (+ AND +2Wary > 2 HAT (2 yeaTn 14? (I/F 1-4? AP IP (1+2 yam ain [1+@u+n aun Spl (4)? (CD Meets (13.7) WAM at cau +28) (13.8) i i factor 9 : 2is ze with a gauge Ifthe \ gage Mina strain of X10" | is 1:ne ae ES Sa, ‘oject Coordinator: { lath Been? BE Dhoul rs I Proiessor | i Dep’ fi ie TK. olle,_of cering. * Ros -A10 earn hsoumentsiot se Q— ——_ — LA Bag Strain = i of solution Given: ARIR eae egal ~ “AL : y Keette tyPe e Po io eee 4 Epon initi: is i is typicall pot encounter The initial resistance value R of a strain gauge is typically around 129 ; and the gauge factor may be from (FOr Nickel) - 12 to+ 6. A gauge factor q Goins ers Semiconductor gauge have high ; a ost strain gauges. fe tet = js of strain in 2. is reasonable fo sensitivities. strain gauge is hormally used in a bridge arrangement in whict Ei forms va erm of the bridge. The bridge may be ac or de ae frown. The measur simple de arrangement is shown in Fig. 13.5. Only one of the gauges is a, # jongitudinal axis, active element, producing an Mement, as shown in output proportional to the strain. ‘When a strain occu The other (dummy) gauge is not ofthe gauge, it also a strained, but simply balances the axis. This introduces bridge (compensation). Since the "tn mast applicatic resistance of the fine wire element axis and the transver is sensitive to temperature as well sensitivit as stress variation, any change in ents the re temperature will cause a change in If the axis of the the bridge balance conditions. This used to determine th effect can cause error in the strain i Se gauges at a point o1 Oe ade ocietica in) ee cae used in bridge The magnitude of s the accuracy). Hence, when erraneerment geometrical determi temperature variations are significant, or when unusual accuracy is required, clement strain gaug some compensation must be used. The dummy gauge accomplishes this, becaus two longitudinal ga itis placed in. the same temperature environment as the active gauges, but nl " subjected to strain, Consequently, the temperature causes the same change of resistance in the two strain gauges and the bridge balance is not affected by the temperature, ¢ : If the two resistors R, and Rp have negligible temperature coefficients, he bridge retains its balance under conditions of no-strain, at any temperature wit its operating range. ¢ (However, one of the two gauges in mounted so that its sensitivity directions at right angles to the direction of strain.) Oe us dummy gauge is not affected by the deformation af jerefore acts lik ive resi it staid ete i ga Itoi passive resistance, with regard '0 Since only one gauge res ‘ j 4 sponds to the strain, the i ids just as in the case of a single gauge, amemancaias ge uraln impossible, ion and magnitude of stress are jeasuring axis of a strain gauge is axis, which is parallel to the wire ° #188 Grid type strain in Fig. 13.6. mauge ‘occurs in the member being ‘measured, along the transve t also affects the strain being measured parallel to the Tongitudinal €rror in the response of the gauge. ions, some degree of strain is present along the transverse fetse sensitivity must be considered in the final gauge output. ity cannot be completely eliminated, and in highly accurate resultant gauge error must be compensated for. : is of the strain in a component is unknown, strain gauges may be ot the exact direction, The standard procedure is to place several is nt on the member’s surface, with known angles between them. Of strain in each individual gauge is measured, and used in the ion of the strain in the member, Figure 13,7 showsa three- c, called a Rossefte gauge, in which the angle between eny of Strain \& C cs oe 9 ow HR sid ged SW Cat? \ no" pe 7¥, 20th 0 oe pa we o ‘ G9 gb es? ove aay so ob a eet a NGO Set nt 2 or “20h sme) ” orc ‘The 45° Rossette gauge is, in general, Me ee one, There are dite ae shapes and sizes of strain gauges fOr VEIT are gauges with spor resist Serving a similar, but not sP&O% 2 shown in Figs. 13.8(a), (b) ae © g, strait modified grid configurations, such as ©, their withi Lead ie and 363 Foil This class © strain is "i the foil and ont | pickel and P _ Foil gaug (@) (b) (©) on aoe < je (b) Helical gauge can be us Fig. 138 (a) and (c) Torque type gauge (b) gaug Spee ‘A measurement of this type would be useful at the cross-point of an X-shaped Foil type frame. gauge facto ‘The latest in strain gauges is the etched foil strain gauge. This device uses the The atv technique of PCB design. Its plysical and electrical characteristics are superior large scale, to bonded wire strain gauges in almost every respect. Etched | The size of strain gauges varies with application. They can be as ‘small as 3 sensitive m sq.mm. Usually they are larger, but not more than 2.5 mm long and 12.5 mm beused ast wide. * etching sol To obtain good results, it is desirable that a resistance wire strain gauge have metal whic the following characteristics. This me 1. The strain gauge should have a high value of gauge factor (a high value etched foil of gauge factor indicates a large change in resistance for particular strait, thinner tha implying high sensitivity). : shown in 2. The resistance of the strain gauge should be as high as possible, sin tics, toget this minimises the effects of undesirable variations of resistance in flexibility, measurement circuit. Typical resistances of strain gauges are 120 Mounted j 350 Q and 1000.2 Places an A high resistance value results in lower sensitivity. Hence, in ordet® Surfaces, get high sensitivity, higher bridge voltages have to be used. The et The Io voltage is limited by the maximum current carrying capacity of fil gauge wires, which is typically 30 mA. a than that | 3. The strain gauge should have a low resistance temperature coefici Vers This is necessary to minimise errors on account of temperature uh Bauge is which affects the accuracy of measurements, (‘Temperature compens* Bauge ig is also used.). The 4, The Strain gauge should not have hysteresis effects in its respons* *sistane‘Pecially ind (©). shaped ses the uperior Il as 3 5 mm e have value strain, since in the 20 2 jer 10 ridge f the sient £109 atio? ersorial Exa’ Assu Janu Arai, ¥, 0. Clon! Servire der to maintain constan, Sa le ‘1 cy Of calibra : strain gauge, it should have linear char on Ovet the entire range ofthe resistance should be a linear function often! i.e. the variation in in, within specified accuracy limits over the ens Y entire frequenc 7, Leads used must be of materials which hava ia Sy Fangs and low resistance temperature coefficient. Py, 363 Foil Strain Gauge This class of strain gauges is an extension of the resis it fi Thesirain is sensed with the help of a metal foil, Themen site ie flan Wire are nichrome, constantan (Ni“+ Cu), isoclatic (Nit Cr+ Mo), nickel and platinum. 5 WER : Foilgauges have a much greater dissipation capacity than wire wound gauges, onaccount of their larger surface area for the same volume. For this reason, they canbe used for a higher operating temperature range. Also, the large surface area offoil gauges leads to better bonding, Foiltype strain gauges have similar characteristics to wire strain gauges. Their gauge factors are typically the same. The advantage of foil type strain gauges is that they can be fabricated on a lagescale, and in any shape. The foil can also be etched on a carrier. Eiched foil gauge construction consists of first bonding a layer of strain sensitive material to a thin sheet of paper or bakelite. The portion of the metal to beused as the wire element is covered with appropriate masking material, and an tiching solution is applied to the unit. The solution removes that portion of the metal which is not masked, leaving the desired grid structure intact. This method of construction enables Shed foil strain gauges to be made finer than comparable'wire units, a3 Wn in Fig.. 13.9. This characteris- Fol— # together with a greater degree of lilt, allows the etched foil to be ‘din more remote and restricted and on a wide range of curved gaaewel: foi’ lOngitudinal sensitivity of the 82uge is approximately 5% greater tagy tt Of similar wire elements. The i itivity of this } j nike is cane He erate wire gauges. The hysteresis of the foil pee ate katate Se is defined as follows. If the joy etm hy i .d in strain gauges, 1s P i "ivancy ofa ee easel with no strain applied, and the gauge is Fig. 1291 Foil type strain gauge 1. Kwon, H.; Yoo", H.; P: c Met 2.Nan*-Wai Chow, Willy ‘ y 2019.0 e, YM ‘Utilizing * Nev orking (ICOIN), 20 __ Project Guide“422_Eretoiclsoumetse) usable resistance value, the measured resig from the original value. The inability °° then stressed to its maximum ; fers a or 2 ee ae physical form it had before being ely, the vee ee the difference in resistance. This effect is called hysteresis.) 4 Pe resistance film formed is typically 0.2mm thick. The resistance ya), commercially available foil gauges is between, 50 and 1000 Q. The resigie” films are vacuum coated with ceramic film and deposited on a plastic Decking for insulation. 43.6.4 Semiconductor Strain Gauge To have a high sensitivity, @ high value of | gauge factor is desirable. A high en factor means relatively higher change in resistance, which can be easily: meas with a good degree of accuracy. y Semiconductor strain gauges are used when a very high gauge factor is required. They have a gauge factor 50 times as high as wire strain gauges, Th, a yance of the semiconductor changes with change in applied strain, Th ‘Semiconductor strain gauges depend for their action upon the piezo resist, ui effect, i.e. change in value of the resistance due to change in resistivity, unig 3, Tt metallic gauges where change“in resistance is mainly due to the change iy dimension when strained. Semiconductor materials such as germanium anj RESISTAI silicon are used as resistive materials. a Tite eee aaa Gs ‘A fypical strain gauge consists of 1 Seni The .Tesis a strain material and leads that are °° Conds Tg, Dro placed in a protective box, as shown j a ee inFig. 13.10. Semiconductor wafer or Leas 4 eg ‘3 filaments which have a’ thickness of ' 0.05 mm are used. They are bonded Electrodes its onsuitable insulating substrates, such Fig-{210 Semiconductor strain gauge characte elite : temperate Gold leads are generally used for making contacts. These strain gauges ca in oa be fabricated along with an IC Op Amp which can act as a pressure sensive ree transducer. The large gauge factor is accompanied by a thermal rate of change of resistance approximately 50 times higher than that for resistive gauges. Hence, a semiconductor strain gauge is as stable as the metallic type, but has a mut higher output. | — of resists i ‘ ist ps Sinks ae compensation methods can be applied to semiconduct? To m mee Des ue s, So that small values of strain; that is micro strains, can als0 pe S , e 0) car asite ootue type of semiconductor strain gauge is 130+ i Ano} £28 uit of 350 0, 1” long, 1/2” wide and 0,005” thick. The eavee foe Tesistan, mined ym temperature at a tensile strain level of 1000 micro a _ The s oe nin oy of length). The maximum operating tensile strain is * aleoitiie! et 4 power dissipation of 0.1 W. The semiconductor strain gale denis yysteresis and is susceptible to regular methods of temper “Also te‘oon, Hi Park, K.\V. Kot 1, Kwon ‘Adversarial | ample Methods.", TEIC' 2Nanr iC) Willy slo and Pa Yssucs nary -/19:,DO1:10.1007/97 37 Arai, ¥ Okabe Mats Cio Sery e Utilizing Machine Tea Netwe ing 1° O1N). 7020, pp Projoc Breet Gu de Or. OF , Transducers 1 open TH SEMICONAUCto syn 423 ; M practical device for operation with Bauge has proved itset st conventiont or ons fo measure small train from 0,1 s9g A indicain mages of Semiconductor Strain Gauge ef stains \ Semiconductor strain gay aha ins, of the order of 0.01 Hysteresis characteristics of from 0.7 to 7.0 mm. psadvantages J. They are very sensitive to changes in temperature | 2, Linearity of Semiconductor strain gauges is poor. 3, They are more expensive, % RESISTANCE THERMOMETER* =. ~~ 137 | The resistance of a conductor changes when its temperature is changed Wa) i} Semi F, ie ie ndicior This property is utilised for the measurement of temperature, The resistance themometer is an instrument used to measure electrical resistance in terms of { Gold temperature, i.e. it uses the change in the electrical resistance of the conductor to Wah Leads determine the temperature. | The main part of a resistance thermometer is its sensing element. The ) = characteristics of the sensing element determines the sensitivity and operating ' e ‘emperature range of the instrument. | (There aré three common types of temperature sensitive resistive elements f ae inuse, the wire wound Fesictencapabeathe ic thermistor and the PTC semiconductor sitive sistance.) | Beet The sensing element may be any material that exhibits a relatively large | enct; J sance change with change in temperature. Also, the material used should be | it stublein its characteristics, i.e. neither its resistance nor its temperature coefficient ofresistance should undergo permanent change with use or age. | =a To maintain the calibration of a resistance thermometer, it is necessary to R consider its stability. The need for stability frequently limits the temperature "ange over which the sensing element may be used. i ; ve Another‘ desirable characteristic for a sensing element is a linear change in oF ih ect A i ‘ ice with change in temperature. 5 (ure 500 BtSpeed with which a resistive element feats > chnevain ea Simpo) perature is subjected to rapid v: i i uge tant when the measured temp: i ure Opp tite ‘botefer See, 13.20.2 (RTD'sa8 yes’ els wD 2503 ohh ————— STC ~~... smaller a given sensing element, the less heat required to raise its tempera it mse. and the fasts land copper are the metals most commonly used to mea | cempoature, The resistivity of platinum tends to increase less rapidly a jin slomperatures then for other metals, hence it is a commonly used materi” | deep eetance thermometers. The temperature, range over which platinum hg Ne gabiiyis=200-1100%C. d VP ot Figure 13.11) shows an industrial platinum resistance, thermometer, of.” The changes in resistance caused by changes in temperature are detecteg ee a Wheatstone bridge, as shown in Fig. 13.11(b). Hence, the temperature sensin Jement, which may be nickel, copper or platinum contained in a bulb or we, AY aon with the balancing bridge, form the essential components ofa temperate ve measuring system based upon this principle. (Sensing 4, Element) Ry (@) (o) Fig. {811 (2) industrial platinum resistance thermometer (b) Bridge circuit ~The sensing element R, is made of a material having a high temperaure coefficient, and R,, R,, and R, are made of resistances that are ‘practically constant under normal temperature changes. When no current flows through the galvanometer, the normal principle of ‘Wheatstone’s bridge states the ratio of resistance is ; RR Vsks + RRs Re In nonmal practice, the sensing element is away from the indicator, andi leads have a resistan Therefore, a ee Baka aeks old Re +024 Py RK _R+tR +R, Now it resistance R, ch; intail id ined an galvanometer shows a do anges, balance cannot be maintained ‘ : : : it oma flection, which can be calibrated to give a Su! the able 4g SON” eg 28 Se sei Ge HN PO cash BN eae, neat GF a es of Resistar areal resistance 1 oth ‘The measure 4 Jt has a lot of 3, Indicators, re 4, More than recording in: 5, The tempera replaced. 6.. The accura substituting 7, Resistive ele g. Resistance t dl accuracy, an 9, They are be 10, The resistiv 11. The limits |_teading. 12., The size of and 12-75 13. Extremely 2 114. Nonecessit 15, Stability of Limitations of Resista 1. High cost 2. Need for br 3. Possibility 4. Large bulb THERMISTOR The electrical resi Selecting materials temperature control hermistor (TH Gemiconductor ma Manganese, nickel, lermist creas, tors havIssues” ‘anuar “9191 3.7. Arai, ¥. Okabe Y. Cl {Service Ut og Nev. orking (CORN), 2 mentax.( Guide " =< Transducers 425 tages of Resistance Thermometers i Tl =e ot sance metho has the Tllowing esouement of temperature by the , ef qhe measurement is very accuraee intages and characteristics, f Measure , trhas a lot of flexibility with Tegard to choice if ‘highe, 3,_Indieators, recorders or controllers can algo ge no toeNE equipment. ' tial fe 4, More than one resistance element gan be clubb. dite 1 3M hag ” recording instrument, <<\to the same indicatingy temperature sensitive r [ : ; ae “sistance element can be easily installed and | ed by The accuracy of ‘the measuring gj: Sj nsin 6. substituting a standard resistor for doesn ae Grane, eu Resistive elements can be used to measure differential temperature Wilt re , Resistance thermometers have a wide working range without loss of it accuracy, and can be used for temperature ranges 200°C to + 650°C), 9,. They are best suited for remote indication, : 10, The resistive element response time is of the order of 2 to 10s Rp 11.- The limits of: error of a resis tive element are + 0.25% of the scale 12. The size of the resistive element may be about 6 = and 12—75 mm in length. 13, Extremely accurate temperature sensing. | Rs 14. Nonecessity of temperature compensation, 5 1! 15, Stability of performance over long periods of time. linitations of Resistance Thermometer 1. High cost 2. Need for bridge circuit and power source 3. Possibility of self-heating ‘ i ‘ 4. Large bulb size, compared to a thermocouple 12 mm in diameter ture r tant THERMISTOR “ue ~ 13.8 hana } of The electrical Tesistance of most materials changes with temperature. By | e ‘ling materials that are very temperature sensitive, devices that are useful in 1 erature control circuits and for temperature measurements can be made, | hermistor (THERMally sensitive resISTOR) are non-metallic resistors | “miconductor material), made by sintering mixtures of metallic oxides such as } its nese, nickel, cobalt, copper and uranium, y 3 mhistors have a Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC), i.e. resistance | (ss as ee ee dons seh of resistance vs il for a thermistor. The resistance at room temperature (25 oO 2 mmercial units ranges, from 100 Q to 10 M&2. They are suitable fo iperat Npical 60 se only | Up to about 800°C, In some cases, the resistance of thermistors at rap | | ie may decrease by 5% for each 1°C rise in temperature. Thi Hs \ i useful for Y to temperature changes makes the thermistor extremely temperature measurements, control and compensation. le Sasitiyi Precisionsh ei oo g3 ne 0 se G ee Tre gor ~ oN oct See ce 93g e ite A SO ceo cette 2 » 9 BE 00 ge wee ed G98 0b es? ‘The smallest thermistors are made inthe form of beads. Some are as small ‘as 0.15 mm (0.006 in.) in diameter. These may come in a glass coating or sealed in the tip of solid glass probes. 8 Glass probes havea diameter of about 2.5 mm and a length which varies $ from 6 ~ 50 mm. The probes are used 3 for measuring the temperature of liquids. The resistance ranges from 300.9 to 100 MQ. . Where greater power dissipations is required, thermistors may be ob- tained in disc, washer or rod forms. Disc thermistors about 10 mm in diameter, either self supporting or mountey ona small plate, are mainly used for temperature control. These thermistors are made by pressing themistors material under several tons of pressure in a rounj die to produce flat pieces 1.25 - 25 mm in diameter and 0.25 — 0.75 mm thick, having resistance values of 1 Q to’l MQ. These are sintered and coated wit silver on two flat surfaces. Washer thermistors are made like disc thermistors, except that a hole is formed in the centre in order to make them suitable for mounting on a bolt. Rod thermistors are extruded through dies to make long cylindrical units of 125, 2.75, and 4.25 mm in diameter and 12.5 — 50 mm long, Leads are attached to the end of the rods. Their resistance usually varies from 1 — 50 kQ. The advantage of rod thermistors over other configurations is the ability produce high resistance units with moderately high power handling capability. Thermistors can be connected in series/parallel combinations for applications Tequiring increased power handling capability. High resistance units find application in measurements that employ low lead wires or cables, Thermistors are chemically stable and can be used in nuclear environments Their wide Tange of characteristics also permits them to be used in limiting and regulation circuits, as time delays, for integration of power pulses, and memory units, thsi 13. Dutpenmistor configurations are as shown in Fig, 13.13(). Fant sees . 3 : ee arm of a Wheatstone bridge provides precise temper! iiformation. Accuracy is limited, in most applications, only by the read! jae aes are non-linear devices over a température range, although 1" er than 0.2% linearity over the 0-100°C temperature range available, The i itivi 200°C,” YPieal Sensitivity of a thermistor is approximately 3 mVFC* 40,000 1000 400 Max. Safe Contin, Temperature 10 in Ohms, * 1.0: © 50 100 150 "200250 agp Temperature °¢ Fig. B12 _ Resistance vs temperature gry of a thermistor advantages 1, Sm 2. Fas 3. Go 74. Col on 5, Co oe Limitations « 1.1'No 2. Un 3. Ve 4. Ne Solution | 25°C is 44 At 150:Will sil )19.D01:10 Issues” Januat 3.7. Arai, kat YY. Mats. Clout Service Utilizing Network 1g TN). 70,1 Proj tu '9 ? Transducers 427 Mm y } (b) FeBIB_ (@)Various configurations of thermistor (©) Bush-ype thermistor Hi sdantages of Thermistor i Ounted 1, Small size and low cost. | OTS are 2, Fast response over narrow temperature range, f round 3, Good sensitivity in the NTC region. ! ick, 4, Coldjunction compensation not required due to i 1h pee a neces 'o dependence of resistance 5, Contact and lead resistance robl a : pane a Problems not encountered due to large Ry ii m . 1 ot Lintations of Thermistor | ane |. Non-linearty in resistance vs temperature characteristics. | 2, Unsuitable for wide temperature range, | es 3. Vary low excitation current to avoid self-heating, a Wt ity, 4. Need of shielded power lines, filters, etc. due to high resistance. | ira a ia a, find Bample 3.4 rhe circuit Of Fig. Ex.13.2 (a) isto be used for temperature measurement, The thermistor isa 4 kQ. type. The meter is a 50 mA meter with ents, (Mesistance of 3.2, R, is set to.17 Q, and supply Vis 15 V. What will be the | | ting Mer reading at 77°F (25°C) and at 150°. } das —_ : nore : | puter From the graph of temperature versus resistance, the, resistance at ure SCis4 ko, Therefore the current at 25°C is tneti. = Sensi 7 | y, 15 15 FO 373 mA, a fi R 400041743 4020 TaiO'RiBie graph shows that, the thermistor resiganee W apne Ww Meter reading will then be re 15 { af ae oS a 195 mA. } R 950+17+3 970 3 HE0 7100 200 300 400 500 600 ‘Temperature in °F () % Fig. Bx 18.2 INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCER. J 13.9 Inductive transducers may be either of the self generating or the passive type The self generating type utilises the basic electrical generator principle, ie. a motion between a conductor and magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor (generator action). This relative motion between the field and the conductor is supplied by changes in the measured. An inductive electromechanical transducer is'a device that converts physical motion (position change) into a change in inductance. Transducers of the variable inductance type work upon one of the following principles. 1, Variation of self inductance 2. Variation of mutual inductance Inductive transducers are mainly used for the measurement of displacemea. The displacement to be measured is arranged to cause variation in any of thre variables 1. Number of tums 2, Geometric configuration 3: Permeability of the magnetic material or magnetic circuits For example, let us consider the i iV The aoa > case of a transducer. inductive lucer has V turns a general inductive tran: through it, the flux is g= Ni R Therefore 48 _ Ni din dt aR Ifthe current varies Very rapidly, ut emf i spherefore ‘also the s* Therefc a change} B91 Ct ‘The outpu Figures displacem Figure displacer Figur displacer Inbot Sutput al B92 Figure 1 Vatiatioy Surroun; 'Sinereg Winding f the e13.9 Passive type. inciple, ie. a the conductor conductor is rerts physical he following isplacement. any of three \sducer. The f iis passe : a PN $ REFERENCES ft Chow, C) id Serco U _ Project Guide Transducers 429 ao _ Ny di Y dt fru gutemf induced inthe coils given by e= nx gy It Nae era i ages * (139) ‘Also the self inductance is given by de ees Syn NS Sait (13.10) Therefore, the output from an inductive transducer can by a ion aicha aa : : : e in the form of either she p91 Change in Self Inductance with Numbers. of Turns oS S The output may be caused by a change in the mumberoftums. «xo VAL : ° ‘ displacement of linear and angular movement respectively. (ww SJ Figures 13.14(a) and (b) are transducers used for the messkrement of . oy 5 ‘ Disp isplacement Wing, ee Output (a) @ Fig. (314, (a) Linear inductive transducer (using air core) (b) Angular inductive transducer (using ferrite core) Figure 13.14(a) is an air cored transducer for measurement of linear displacement, Figure 13.14(b) is an iron cored coil used for the measurement of angular displacement. Inboth cases, as the number of turns are changed, the self inductance and the Sutput also changes. B92 Transducer Working on the Principl ___ with Change in Permeability re Fue 13,15 shows an inductive transducer which works on the principle ofthe Variation of permeability causing a change in self inductance. The iron core is Sumounded by a winding. If the iron core is inside the winding, its permesiiy is increased, and so is the inductance. When the iron com tov out of he Winding. the permeability decreases, resulting ina reduction ofthe selfinductance Ofte coil, This transducer can be used for measuring displacement. le of Change in Self Inductance i rye ey Ko HY oy Hy Bark, Adversasial Example Methods 2 lly Susilo Issues” January 2019:DO110.1 3.7, Acai, ¥. Okabe, Y- Matsum ing M Newworking (COHN), 2020, Pi i2 — ye 9 gh o™ a oe os ‘i hey ‘ ag OD VO, ct et of ps 10 Oy se got OF ON are 309 OH ee os pe ere ie ol ye ya iy Ss . a a se AF He et ie wr gs nto e ? noe “a 430. Electronic Instrumen} oF - : eee Former: where is pr Rg sen ‘ “4 proporti Displacement N 4) + ple of variation of y is Fig 1815 Inductive transducer working on the principle of variation of permeable pees coil is 2 13.9.3 Varlable Reluctance Type Transducer i ‘A transducer of the variable type consists/of a coil wound on a ferromagnetic gine core. The displacement which is to, be measured is applied to a ferromagnetic inducta target. The target does not have any physical contact with the core on which Ava it is mounted. Thecore and the target are separated by an air gap, as shown in Fig. 13.16(a). Ys SP iy VE : g 3 | Displacement -—~Target Air Gap 1! 5 eed Qin Py < 3 FS [core (Ferro- 4 magnetic) » 3 Output: F Fig. 1316 (a) Variable reluctance transducer 4 The reluctance of the magnetic Path is determined by the size of the air gap. The inductance of the coil de pends upon the reluctance of the magnetic circuits. The self inductance of the coil is given by NM? A: i" eae (13.11) Pivot } 1th. where N= number of tus oh ,= reluctance of iron parts. tow Rg = reluctance of air gap ; qT i The reluctance of the iron Part is negligible compared to that of the air gap. input Therefore L=¥R, cia) i But reluctance of the air Bap is given byWilly Susilo and Paira 2.Nang-Wai Cl. 007!" Issues” January 2019.DO1:' Y. Matsumoto and 3.7. Arai, Y. Ukabe, tach) Learn Clouds. ice livin Networking (I VIN), 2020, pp. 584-58 Project Guide Project | . ‘Dr. Dhow ——_Trensducers 431, MM), 4 = length of the ai H, XA, : oh Vehusoprey tikans Ny gi) yr (49 1] ts ve ux path through air Ly } i t= permeability rk tg 1 _ apoportional to /,, as 4, and wy \| pis proper ip 9S Mo and A, are constay Hence L is proportional to I/lg, ie. ni jonal to the length of the air ie Self inductance ofthe coli inversely ‘when the target is near the 5 tee large. But when the tanger S78 38 small and th » i : in Ice i wij isa function of the distance of the net gone te inductance fhe ; re, Le. the length of the HOP ine displ Since it is the displacement which chan; m" es th i idxtance isa function of displacement, albeit ance tes eS 2, the ot oy variable reluctance bridge is shown in Fig, 13.1 ‘by. one. A Attached » - Lt steam | \ | Power Input Ss Transformer Ai Gap 4 fron Ber J 7 Air Gap ' | 3 WY) E Core | € g Fig 1816 —(b) Variable reluctance bridge circuit nanan coil is wound on each outside leg of an E core and an iron bar is on the centre leg. A magnet extends from each outside leg through an air &4p and through the iron bar to the centre leg. te moving member is attached to one end of the iron bar and causes the bar qyible back and forth, thereby varying the size of each air gap. on bridge consists of two transducer coils and a tapped secondary of the ta Power transformers. It is balanced only when the inductance of the two | Nsduer coils are equal, ie. when the iron bar is in a nearly exact horizontal | Posi ition and the air gaps are equal.‘ e cee 9 SON CP orn, cy * ONO ced © © por se es 8 et Oe ee Ne 6 we Coronet ie rat, as we sf a pT ost or co tc ae he ~ ; om poet 432 Electronic Instrumentation int A moves and alters the air gap, the by, eRe a aactk proportional to the change in in acne becomes unl tional to the displacement of the moving member, "> which in tur is Pid decrease of the inductance with varying air gap sizes ig te hae deco output. Also, the flux density within the air gaps j S easily affected by external fields. Whenever the irot See Example 13.5 4 variable reluctance type ini er hase g ke of 2500 uH When the target made of ferromagnetic ‘material is es away from the core. Calculate the value of inductance When q y displacement of 0.04 mm is applied to the. target in a direction moving iy, towards the core. pipe 2 ‘ { Solution Given inductance with gap length of 1 mm is L = 2500 nH a iN Step 1: Length of air gap when a displacement is applied to the target. ~/ ¢ = 1.00—0.04= 0.96 mm >. . : y Yo Step 2: Now inductance is inversely proportional to the length of air gap \] (°! Therefore ‘L’ with gap length of 0.96 mm h 1 s\ = 1+ AL =2500 HH x >> = 2604 HH }6 mam W Step 3: Therefore, change in inductance AL = 2604 1H — 2500 UH = 104 pH DIFFERENTIAL OUTPUT TRANSDUCERS 13.10 The differential output transducer consists of a coil which is divided into two parts, as shown in Figs. 13.17(a) and (b). (inductive transducers using self inductance as a variable use one coil, while those using mutual inductance as a variable use multiple coils.) Normally the change in self inductance, AL, for inductive transducers, (working on the principle of change of self inductance) is not sufficient for detection of subsequent stages of the instrumentation system. However, if successive stagés of the instrument respond to AL or AM, rather than L + AL, or M+ AM, the sensitivity and accuracy will be much higher. The transducers can be designed to provide two outputs, one of which Tepresents inductance (self or tmutual) and the other the decrease in inductance (Self or mutual). The Succeeding stages of the instrumentation system measure the difference between these outputs, This is known as differential output. Advantages of Differential Output 1. Sensitivity and accuracy are increased, 2. . Output is less affected by external magnetic fi 3.. Effective variations due Bee i to temperature changes are reduced. 4, Effects of change in supply voltages and frequency are reduced.REFERENC ‘Adversaris at 2.Yang- 11C' Issues” Janus: , 3.1. rai, Networking (i Project Guide 2 tuathda Transducers 433 tn response t0 @ physical’ signal (which ign ce of one part increases from Z to 7 + is net displacement), the + While that of the other part oe ! Mpductve transducers using the change in the numb inthe self inductance are shown in Fig, 13.1) Figure 13.17(a) is used for measurement of lines coil. Figure 13.17(b) is used for the measurement of if i pee of angular displacement using er of tums to cause a displacement using an air 4 / ferromagnetic Core Displacement Wiper. Ly [SL Ly () ) Fig {2.7 (a) Linear differential output transducer (b) Angular differential ‘output transducer Figure 13.18 shows an inductive transducer giving a differential output, The 10_ output represents a change of self inductance due to change of reluctance. (This aa inductive transducer also works on the principle of change of self inductance of the two coils with change in reluctance of the path of the magnetic circuit, The hile larget as well as cores on which the coil is wound are made up of iron.), ing }— Coil i Ly her ae . T Target (iron) a ich Ti ir, . poeeeoreonr—_ ure J ! PT eB OY FO re Fix. 1318 Inductive transducer differential output (Reluctance principle). NEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSDUCER (LVD1) _ ; ae 2s direst transformer is passive induetive transformer Is 809 Oo as tear Variable Differential Transformer (LVD1). The bai Wn in Fig, 13.19. : texPbasea cue Cloud < vier tilizir 1, Kwon, 17: Yoon, i; Po Methou. Wi Susi 2019.DOK:10,16 )kabe, ¥. Maisumo Machi: COIN), 2020, pp.oF a is ane oo Re eee HIS ro mee oe ar _ eae ot ge ON ‘Secondary Winding } e ais A if Primary ! Sy Winding (P1) S& a Soff Iron Core Displacement Fig. 1319 Construction of a linear variable differential transducer (LVDT) The transformer consists of a single primary winding P, and two Secondary windings S, and S, wound on a hollow cylindrical former. The secon windings have an equal number of turns and are identically placed on either side of the primary windings. The primary winding is connected to an ac source, An movable soft iron core slides within the hollow former and therefor. affects the magnetic coupling between the primary and the two secondaries, The displacement to be measured is applied to an arm attached to the soft iron core, t i (In practice, the core is made up of a nickel-iron alloy which is sloted longitudinally to reduce eddy current losses.) When the core is in its normal (null) position, equal voltages are induced in the two secondary windings. The frequency of the ac applied to the primary winding ranges from 50 Hz to 20 kHz, The output voltage of the secondary windings S, is E,, and that of seconday winding 5) is Ex. ; In order to convert the output from S, to S) into a single voltage signal, she (0 Sepa 5, and S, are connected in series opposition, as shown in ig. 13.20. vy Hence the output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two voltages. Therefore the differential output voltage E, = Es, ~ Es. 4 When the Core is at its normal Position, the flux linking with both secondary windings is equal, and hence equal emfs are induced in them. Hence, at mt! position Zs = £5). Since the output Voltage of the transducer is the difference © the two voltages, the output voltage E, is zero at null position. F _Now, if the core is moyed to the left of the null position, more flux links with winding Sj and less with winding 5,. Hence, output voltage Eg, of the seconds indi 51 Simila linking W results in En-Es The ai to the an amount ¢ the direc core pas: greater tl the valu moved, : Voltage, maintair other dir out of pl By c that of hence o The: The out1. Kwon. HY Adversar 2Nang-W 3T.Aw 60) Netw ki ding 51 38 Breater than Es. The magni wr noary is then Es, ~ Eo, in phase wi ‘nitude of the Output voltage of the With E, wining 5- (Whe ouput vllage of eee Secondary * AC Input Primary) Ee Sea ie Core piney fe) (85585) SS (Sectional View) Fe, (e) Construction (b) Basic Circuit Fig. 8.20" Secondary winding connected for differential output Similarly, if the core is moved to the right of th iti linking with winding S, becomes greater see aes as results in Eso becoming larger than Es). The output voltage in this case ie fy- Eg and is in phase with Exp. ‘The amount of voltage change in either secondary winding is proportional to the amount of movement of the core. Hence, we have an indication of the amount of linear motion. By noting which output is increasing or decreasing, the direction of motion can be determined. The output ac voltage inverts as the core passes‘the centre position. The farther the core moves from the centre, the greater the difference in value between Es, and Es, and consequently the greater the value of E,. Hence, the amplitude is function of the distance the core has moved, and the polarity or phase indicates the direction of motion, as shown in Fig, 13.21, ‘As the core is moved in one direction from the null position, the difference vollage, ie. the difference of the two secondary voltages increases, while nainfaining an in-phase relation with the voltage from the input source. In the ote direction froin the null position, the difference voltage increases but is 180' out of ph: z source. 2 ed ae eet ee of the difference output voltage with By comparing the magnitude a1 t of the sane the epi ‘and direction of the movement of the core and tence ofthe displacement may be determined. The amount of output voltage may output signal may also be applied to "lore the moving system to its normal The output voltage of an LVDT is a limited range of motion (say mine the displacement. asured to dete! ae to a controller that can a recorder or | position. : a maka function of the core displacement ie 5mm from the null! position). Issues” Janu... 201 Cloud Service Umlizing FP ject ulde HL, Park, KW. Robust ial Example Methods” TEICE 1 Susilo 9,001-10.1007/978-98 inc Le 4 Pairat T +) ¥e Masumoto and KF Machin 584-399. project Ce Dr. Ohoula436 Electronic Instrumentation . jati he output voltage against di Figure 13.21(d) shows the variation oft D 2 st display for various position of the core. The curve is practically linear fo "™™ displacements (up to 5 mm). Beyond this range, the curve starts to deviate“ "The diagram in Figs 13.21(a), (b) and (c) shows the core of an LVDT de te different positions. ms In Fig, 13.21(0), the core is at O, which is the central zero or null pos ‘ ‘ POSition Therefore, Es: = 2 and Ep = 9- es st °F to the left, as in Fig. 13.21(a) and is at 4, p When the core is move more than Es) and B, is positive. This movement represents a positive valye’® therefore the phase angle, is = 0°. : ang ‘When the core is moved to the right towards B, Ey is greater than g. ‘st hence E, is negative. Therefore, ‘Sythe output voltage is 180° out of phase with stage which is obtained when the core is moved to the left. The character the ve linear from O—A and O—B, but after that they become non-linear. = ‘One advantage of an LVDT over the inductive bridge type is that it prog higher output voltage for small changes in core position. Several ery models that produce 50 mV/mm to 300 mV/mm are available. 300 "Vion implies that a 1 mm displacement of the core produces a voltage wey 300 mV. ical 1 Core at B (©) In-Phase 5. sf —— Output , Exar Voltage i Te @ ! wy " Soh — Displacement of “0 * ; sha Out of phase @ fom C (©), (c) Various core position of LVDT lon of output voltage vs displacement \——— Residual LVDTs are available wit are sensitive teen oth ranges a low as 40.05 in. toas high as £250 e used to measure displacements of well below ulREFERENVES 1 won, |, Yoon, ti. Park, K. ‘Aéversarial Bx ple M ods. Yan, Vai Chow, Willy Susilo Je vag? 1 aary 2019.0". BTA i, ¥. Okabe, ¥ Matsurn Cloud Serv. Utilizing Machi ¥ tworking (COIN), 2020, pp Project Guide i aS Tr | ransduc cemen a They can be obtained for operation at ae eae igs 600°C and are also available in rading es 8 1OW as ~265°C ang ; s tion res i, bai e ations. Sistance designs for nuclear three pavantages of LVDT on 1 : 1, Linearity "The output voltage of thi Wa Siti. . us is i ition, displacements upto 5 mm (a linearity a ee 'S practically linear for Hs E Seo .05% is available in commercial sis 2, Infinite resolution ‘The change j fi ec) is ue and effective resolution depends at san voltage is stepless, ‘The Se ice fe test equipment than on the ‘Si and 3. High output It gives a high s . 4 output (1! is gue need for intermediate ‘amplification devi) cect atsuetyy istics 4, High sensitivity The transduc : a eI POssesses a sensitivit i 40 Vim. Dy as Bish. os } duces 5. Ru ‘ . Ruggedness ‘These transducers can usually t i ereial vibration and shock. ele A Neer eS Ves 6, Less friction. There are no sliding contacts. Bi put of 1. Lowhysteresis . Thistransducerhasa low hysteresis, hence repeatability | is excellent under all conditions. 8. Low power consumption Most LVDTs consume less than 1 W of power. Disadvantages 1. Large displacements are required for appreciable differential output. Hy 2. They are sensitive to stray magnetic tields (but shielding is possible). 3. The receiving instrument must be selected to operate on ac signals, or a t : demodulator network must be used if a de output is required. 4. The dynamic response is limited mechanically by the mass.of the.core ! and electrically by the applied voltage. 5. Temperature also affects the transducer. Frample 13.6 4m ac LVDT has the folowing dat wets | Input = 6,3 V, Output = $.2.¥, range * 0.5 in. Delerni”™ ent inh @> Calculate. the output voltage.vs core Fa “going from:+ 0.45 in. to - 0.30 in.’ tre ahi (i) The output voltage when the core 18 ~ 0.25 in. from the cen! | Solutio t ; cos 5.2 V, therefore 20,45 in, core (05 in. core. displacement produ nover = 4.68 V. movement produces (0.45 * 5.2)/0.5.=4 Similarly a — 0,30 in. core m’ (0.30 x= 5: Wi) ~0.25 4 rement produces’ ey, re: 5 in. core (025 Ke SNE 0.5)=-26