VJ.

•· -

C lin1atc of Ind ia rd
The wo "mo nso on" has bt
The climate ofln dia is essentially sub-trop ical mon soon ic.
son" . Orig inal ly, the wor d "mons%:'.
derived from the Arabic word "ma usim " _which mea ns "sea
was used by Arab navigators several cent urie s ago ,
to desc ribe a syst em of seas ona l reve rsa\' .
winds along the shores of the Indian Oce an, espe cial ly ove
r the Ara bian Sea , in whi ch the Wi;~,
mer seas on and from the nort h-ea st '
blow from the south-west to nort h-ca st duri ng the sum
soo ns arc peri odic (sea son al) w inct/'
_south-west during the winter season. In othe r wor ds, mon
h there is a com plete reve rsal of the win d dire ctio n afte r eve ry six mon ths. ltj
whic
I.:,l y Prej
ng ' M onso on Met eoro logy, Oxf ord Uni ve ,..·t
In the opin ion of Cha ng-C hia- Che
atm osp her ic circ ula tion ove r a .
Oxford: :•l\fo nsoo_n is a fl ow patt ern of the gen e ral wi
ds in one dire ctio n in eve
ge~graphical area, m whic h ther e arc clea rly dom inan t win
of w ind is rev erse d or al mryo pt art of 1
~eg10n ~oncerncd, but in whi ch this prev ailin g dire ctio n · s reve ti
er to sum mer and from .
ram wmt ' sum mer to win ter."
t . h. . .
Monsoon s are espe ciall y prom inen
t "d wit tn the trop ics on the eas te rn side s of the
landmass, but in Asia it also occu ic . Ch" g
ob d , rs ous t e the trop. sm ma, Kor ea, and Jap an and -
.
serve up to 400 north. Sou th-E ast A s1a, ma
· h, O\veveI!
espe _c ially the sub con tine nt of Ind ia,
 Geo grap hy of Indi a

typ ical exa mp le of a '8!l'W 120W ()"

monsoon reg ion . It is

only around the Indian
Ocean that monsoonal
circulation, in true sense
of the term , is . . . . .... ..
. .. . . . . .
observed . Th ere is .E~o r ·• · · • ·
complete reversal of
wind in India, and the
monsoons "ap pear as
true ly interruptive and
reverses normal global
at m os ph er ic
cir cul atio n." Oth er
nce Fig. 1 : Monsoon Regions of the World
areas whi ch exp erie
the
ilar but less pro nounced sea son al change ~ of wind direction include south-eastern USA
sim
nds , Ma dag asc ar, Eas t Afr ica, the Guinea coast of West Africa, South-east ~sia,
Caribbean Isla
ea, Japan, and North Australia (Fig. 1).
Philip-pines, south-eastern China, South Kor
INDIAN MONSOON :

nsoons are a com plex met eorologi cal phenomenon. Exp~rts of meteorology have deve-
Mo
of con cepts abo ut the origin of mon soons. Some of the important concepts about
loped a number
under.
the origin of monsoons bave been given as
The Th erm al Co nce pt of -Halley :
a not ed astr ono ~er ii:t 1686 hyp oth esised that the primary cause of the annual
Halley, the
the differential heating effects of the land and
cycle of the Indian monsoon circulation was
ing to this con cep t mo nso ons are the exte nded land breeze and sea breeze on a large
sea. Accord ing the
of continents and ocean basins (Fig. 2). Dur
scale, produced by the differential heating
when WINTER
summer season in the Northern Hemisphere, SUMMER
cer, Nortt, east trade
the sun's rays are vertical over the Tropic of Can South-west

the huge landmass.ofAsia heats quickly and dev

elops
e Baikal
land &eez e
Night line cycle
North east trade
u ~ SeaB reen
Day time cydt fi

~ strong low pressur~ centre near Lak

low
iberia) and Peshawar (Pakistan). This thermal India
N
Equator India
shif t ~: ' hot
ends up to 700 mb. Moreover, the pole-ward
cool

CZ) to
the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (IT Land and See Bl'eeze : Monsoon Cycle
ly
t position over southern Asia reinforces the thermal Fig. 2 : Land Breeze and Sea Breeze:
to this, Monsoon Cycle
illd uced low pressure centre. In comparison
 the Pre Gen xrap hy nf Indi a
ssur e ove r I
of the Indi an d t le adja cent wat er
.
re1ativeJy highan
.
the p .fi
ac1 tc Oce ans i s

llnd erth e ..
lan d se cond1tto ns, a sea-to-
pre ssu re d.
Cons equ entl I gra tent dev elop s.
from tl1 h ' Y, t le surf ace air flow is
e tgh pres sure ove r the oceans
tow ards the low pres sure areas ove r the
hea ted landmass. Und er the extreme low
pressure condition on land, the wind from
the sou ther n part of the Indi an Oce an
(sou th of Equ ator ) is attra cted tow ards
the subc onti nen t ofIndia. The air com ing Fig. 3 : The Sum mer Monsoon
from oce ans tow ards land is war m and moi st.
Wh en land barr iers like mou ntai n ranges 2.
com e in the way of the moi stur e-la den win
ds, they asce nd and resu lt into saturation atld?\
and precipitation (Fig .- 3). ¾
,cond .
tll~ 3
Co ntr ary to this , in the
Northern Hemisphere during winter The Asiatic Monsoon Winds
sea son , the re dev elo ps hig h
pressure areas nea r Baikal Lake
(Siberia), and Peshawar (Pakistan).
As com par ed to the se hig h
pressures, the Ind ian Oce an and
the Pacific Ocean (south of Jap an)
remain relatively warm, having low
pressure areas. Consequently, there
is an outflow of air from the high
pre ssu re of the lan d to the low
pressure areas of the oceans. The
air blowing fro m hig h pre ssu re
areas ofl and towards the sea is col d January
· co Id d dry · ·
an d dry. Th 1s an air 1s Fig. 4 : The Winter Monsoon
incapable ofgiving precipitation unless it comes into
contact with some wat~r body (ocean/~
(Fig. - 4).

The thermal concept about the origin of monso

on has, however, not been accep~~
universally as it fails to explain the intricacies of monso
on. Besides differential heating, the on:
and development of monsoon are also influenced
~~
by the shape of the continents, orograpbJ,

·?
 Geography of India ~:':--.

the conditions of air circulatio . t11e uppcrtro

on more than one count as r11 nm ows:
\ ~
posp here. The Halley's· concept has be en en·t·1c1se
• d
011
Criticism :
1. The low pressure areas that d 1
the Northern Hemisphere eve op o:er the continents during the summer season in
• . (location)
positron sudden!are Th"
not stationary Th
. ese low pressure areas change their
• y. 1s sudden change · th I
exc I us1vely related to lo th .. m e ow pressure areas are not
June in the north-easternw ermf al conditions. The low pressure areas stabilises in
lows associated with th parts
d o the . subc onf ment. In c.iact, they represent the cyclonic
cannot be termed as onl e thynam1c factors
. ' and th ere fiore, these low pressure areas
Y ermally mduced.
2. Had the monsoon been thermall . .
the upper air of the tr h y m~uce_d, there would be anti-monsoon circulation in
oposp ere, which 1s lacking.
3. Although
its high
grip from thetemperat
midd urea~d the c~nseque~t low pressure takes the north-west in
le of Apnl, no ram starts m northern India till the middle of June.
4. The
h modem researche. sm· meteoro 1ogy have shown that the monsoon rainfall is not
11
w. _0c. Y orographic. They are an amalgamation of convectional, orographic and cyclonic
ra.1111a11 •

5. Instead of tw~ broa~ seasons (winter and summer) the monsoon climate has more
seas?~s (~our m India), due to the highly variable characteristics of temperature and
precip1tatlon.

6. Halley did not take into consideration the Coriolis effect of rotation of the earth on its
axis. On a rotating earth, the wind has a tendency to move towards its right in the
Northern Hemisphere and towards its left in the Southern Hemisphere.

7. The role oflatent heat passing into the atmosphere through water vapour was also not
considered by Halley; water vapour also plays an important role in the origin and
development of monsoons.

The Dynamic Concept by Flohn :

The dynamic concept about the origin of monsoons was put forward by Flohn in 195 l.
According to this concept, monsoon is the result of seasonal migration of planetary winds and
pressure belts. The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is formed due to the convergence
of north-east and southeast trade winds near the equator. The northern and the southern boundaries
of the ITCZ are called NITC (Northern Inter-Tropical Convergence) and SITC (Southern Inter-
Tropical Convergence), respectively. There is a belt of doldrums within the Inter-Tropical
Convergence, characterised by equatorial westerlies. At the time of the summer solstice (21st
June), when the sun's rays are vertical over the Tropic of Cancer, the NITC is extended up !O
 ' 'Z<\XJ,;' ( 1~~
3Qo 1'.T
l~ latituct
'<: -eog rap hy of Tnd ia
ov e e , cov eri ng so th
r the se are T u ~n
d
rot ati ng eart} as. he equ ato nal sou th- eas t Asi a .. Th us. equ ato rial wes ter\ ·
we ste rlie s bec om e sou th-w est
their right (C 1, the
. . trade wm · d f •
so the Sou the rn l lem ,sp
or surnrn •e, at~~
(F · ono lts eff ect ) her e afte r crossin g the eer fl\"1'\,,..' •,1 ,
•g. S) . Th e NT TC is ~ O f S u t\Ua tl"ltt i, "',
r 1 t l ? ~ ~ t l - - h (Su•n
ass oci ate d wit h numerous r,••J
T'i i<
atm os ph eri c sto rm s
Lfl
(cy clo ne s) wh ich yie ld l

hea vy rainfall during we t 11).~

mo nso on mo nth s (Ju ly to ~

~ '
.........
Sep tember). Similarly, the
no rth -ea st or wi nte r --~J:v) -
mo nso on do es no t monsoona
ori gin ate on ly du e to Jow a-'-' ''...."' rt
coo c'
pre ssu re in the So uth ern
~ JI
He mi sph ere dur ing win ter
solstice (w hen the Su n's
. ~ ot'\ tl

rays are vertical ov er the
Tropic of Ca pri cor n). In
fac t, the no rth -ea st
mo nso on s are no rth -ea st_tra de wi
sou thw ard shi ftin g of pre ssu re and
tbe Su n at the tim e of wi nte r sol stic
Asia, and no rth -ea st tra de
wi nd s oc cu py the ir
ut"'
~ J st1'e
Fig. 5 : South-West Monsoon (Patter
ns of Surface Monsoon
Winds in July (Summer) or
nd s wh ich are re- est abl ish ed ov er
south-east As ia~ -.
wi nd belts. It is ob vio us tha t du e to
southward mo v~~-
e, the NT TC is wi thd raw n fro m ov
er south and S0'1\h~
Patterns of Surface Monsoon Wm
ds in January (WintMJ

normal position. Th ese

north-east trades, thus,
be co me wi nte r
monsoons. The north-east
monsoons ha vin g the ir
on g1 n on lan d are
generally dry and devoid
of rains (Fig.-6).

In brief, according
to Flohn, the existence of
mo ns oo ns 1n As ia, Nor1h-eeslm01IIOOt'larenodlG81llla
Since t-vhal.l9.., o,tgi, on land, tw-=dew ila.
- norairlllllo
es pe cia lly in the
I
su bc on tin en t of India, is
_~I
Fig. 5 : North-East Monsoon (Patterns of
Monsoon Winds in Januaiy (Wmter))
Surface

.Jn* =
\ ~ ~ (\,'}.€::,..__.._O,<_ 0_::. "1 c; f"nuho_to 6 ~~- {.c...-<_ '

~~~. ·
•
Geo gra phy of Ind ia
L (~IOI))~
(") ~-;J
·, not due to tem per atu re con tras~ t s b etw een land and s b . rati on 0 f
h 11 d uce d pla net ary w · d tld · ea, ut mainl y due to the annual mig
t enn a Y pro 8 pre ssu D
re b e It s. esp ite the relati ve shi ft ing of In t er-
· a 1 C onv erg enc e (lhc nna l m s ·
~ Trop1c
upper atm ospher ic circ ula tion
fi • 1 x sys
Uct
tem
equ rtto r) and p ress ure b e Its, Flo hn see ms to ha ve igno red the

H
t
s rea ms) and the so,J th ern osc ·11
1
·
, atton, whi ch make the Asiatic
! mo nso on a atr y com ple ear ly arrival of Jnd ian
ons in the stat es of nor th e . tel ad~o cou ld not exp· lain the cau ses of
/ mo nso - as n 1a The dyn amic con cept, therefore, was also not take n
e exp lan atio n of the · 0f
g 10
ori_ ·
as the sol mo nso ons .
..
Re cen t Co nce p ts a bou t t he O ragm of Ind ian Mo nsoons •
. •
During the last five decades th c circ ula tion has been studied significantly,
of wh ich me teo rol ogi s~ he upp er_atmosp hen 1· .
as a res ult s ave rais.ed certain doubt s ab out th e va 1d1ty of the classical
con cep t of the ori gin of India n mo nso on It is now b e1·ieved th at th e diff . .
. · . erential heating ofl and
arid sea can not pro duc e the mons oon circulation Mo re r nt th eon.es h ave laid .
greater emphas is
atm osp b · . ece
ula tion in the
on the circ
circ ula tion ere ove r the sub con tme nt and the adj oin ing are as. Apart from
upper atm osp her ic teau ,jet
N . (S ,hrecen t co_ n ce~ ts rely heavily on the role of the Tibetan Pla
streams and the El-
' mo out em Osc11lat10n).
Th e dat a gat her ed by me t eor o1ogi•sts afte r the Sec ond World Wa r hav e rev eal ed that the
. . d h . :
rela ted to the foll ow ing phe nom ena
ong m an me c aru sm of mo nso ons are
a source of
rol e of the Him ala yas and Tib eta n Pla tea u as a phy sic al bar rier and
(i) ~h e
hig h-l eve l hea t.
the troposphere.
(ii) The circulation of upper air jet streams in
lar wh irl over north and south poles
in the
ste nce of upp er air circ um -po
(iii) The exi
troposphere,
and
Th e dif ferent ial hea rin g and coo ling of the huge landmass of Asia and the Indian
(iv) · ·
the Pacific Oceans. .
South Pacific and Indian Oceans.
(v) The occurrence of El-Nino in the
the Mo nso on Ex ped itio n (M one x) wa s organised as a joint venture of the Soviet
In 1973,
exp edi tion , fou r Ru ssia n and two Ind ian ships, equipped with modem
Union and India. Under this
nts we re pre sse d int o ser vic e in the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Sea to
scientific instrume
phe nom eno n of Ind ian mo nso ons . Th e period of investigation extended from the
investigate the arrived
Ma y to Jul y, 197 3. On the bas is of the data obtained, the Soviet meteorologists
.lllonth of
Tib et Pla tea u pla ys a cru cia l rQl e in initiating the monsoon circulation
the conclusion that the
tin ent . In 195 8, Dr. P. Ko tes wa ram , the Director General of the Indian
er the Indian subcon
ori es, wh ile par tici pat ing in the inte rnational symposiwn on "The Monsoons
eteorological Observat
me r-ti me heating of the Plateau of Tibet was the
the World" had exp res sed vie ws tha t the sum
ma int ena nce ofm onsoonal circulation. The Indian as
st important factor in the cau sat ion and
So vie t sci ent ists we re tm ani rno us in their views on this point.
ell as the
I ~
( ~).
•
Gengrnph.►' nf In dia

·L~t ·s 60 0 km w,• oe
Th e Plate au o f T 111\ 1 •n the we st an d 10 00 km .
:" 1• , 1n the
.
we st to ea~t is ahnut 20 00 k Th e av cr~ ge he igh t of th e pl ate au Is about 4f)ea ,, I
f) ,, 1.
m. . .
en or mo us bJc,rk of h1g . h ) 111d ac tin g 9c; a fo rm id ah le ha m er. Du e to it, 0 ll'I •
~n • . . th "
rec eiv es 2°C. . to 3 ('c mo ins ola t,o n t 1\M l th e nc ig h -h ou nn g are a'\ . It i, .ahCf\r itt'tl'·•i.•
re ·
co, .
. .
im po rta nt gt,'1-grar h.,ca I 1trols on the ge ne ral atm os ph er ic c 1rc u a-t,on
I . .
tn the ref) r,"' .
. "tf ,r..,tt"·"' P.•·~'r
of Ti1'ct efTe"CtS th e atm . tw o wa ys , ac tin g se I . 1 '=
os -p hc re in pa ra te y or in co rnh~1r, I'\ ·•
i . _h.' lfo· t1n l~• 1:'t ". h-111 ~
. d ('" ) as a
Phy sic
· al t,amer. an " Th
n:i1,r,l\ f':. ~,. -rlv 1~ nn •~
iC
h e 'h-Iev eJ he at so ur ce . ,h~ '""c·,•.:\nn,e
f e @ ,~
h -., ..,~ Iv 1~ ~
m ""n
~ 'd1·._.
"n al cross-section o t
e
ANTI CYCl-ONE
lo, ,1Z .1f l"~ ~l
Indian summer monsoon ,r,

its re la tio ns hi p wi th
and
th e
-- -- -- ------...__/_ .:..-----<:-~
... . , e"l!tt'n•\, wie-;.t"Nl
a" d the .\r ah ,4
Tibetan-Himalayan ma ss
if has ( , .-_ fr1 u. Bhlw••
be en shown m .
• B. 1n ~1 \o" ' ~, ,
ea ... ter ,y }f!t a
According to Maung
~ \nc ha n oc ea
Tun Yin, the Tibetan Plate n
au a.nd/,4.nr.bM
acts as a physical barrier. In af ld m ~f i~
the beginning of June, the "'a st o final~
subtropical je t stream
disappears completely over
northern India (Fig. 8). At this ~\ on .:x iU ~
tim e, the jet stream shifts to inens\t'j of
the north of the Himalayas lnc !ia nO c~
and
Tibet, and takes up a position -- ~2 00 mb je t ~cre:un
· WINTER WESTER.Y
at about 40° N. Yin considers .ETSTREAM Ocean. has
that there is a correspondence JE l' Sl"~
· Fig. 7 : Crass Section of the
between the shifting of the je Indian Summer Monsoon
t
and the slowing. down of the con~entn
westerlies over the whole
becomes very cold in winter, of Eu ra sia . In fact, the Plateau om T oe
· and proves to be the most ja ~
of the Jet far to the south in im portant factor in causing the 5~ ~4 =\
the middle of October. Th ad'-1 3 4
summer monsoon at the be us, he opines that the abrupt o~ thatthe~
ginning of June is prompt
8 !malayas and ed by the hydro-dynamic
not by the thermally induce efl~t cli 11
mid_dle of October, the platea d lo w pr es su re ce nt re over northwest lndil. \n~
u proves to be the most im appred
the Je po rta nt fa ctor in causing the ad\at\l.~ w
t sou th of the Himalaya or bi inter
furcate it into two parts (F
ig. 7).
The_ summer-time heating of Raipur
11
Heat Engine" produ the Tibetan Plateau makes tOctob
th it a hi gh -level heat source? in to ~
. ces a erma I antic •
yclo ne
pre urle) is formed over this ov er th is region. A warm core ant1c • \ elNt
an t~s
icyc one takes pl plat eau du ring the summer monsoon yc on is \oca,
process called f ace m t · h • pe riod. Th e formationof~1 1'ibet~
e ~•ddle part of the tropo
sphere at 500 mb level. It \toi·
an i-cyclogenes1s. The antic
yclone at 500 mb at Tibe is the res u ~ circu1
t weakens the westerns
 Geography of India

tr~pical jet-stream south of

Himalayas,. but produces ....
f<~-:;;;;----.. . . . .--:::=----.. . . . _:(~~:~
. · @
uOptcal ffiomsPHaite
'\
3
~·~ ,·
'J.
easterly .Jet on the southem SI.de Of cvCt.ON& rmPOCIPH""""'
llfllTl•CYCt.ON!

th e anticyclone
. . This t rop1cal
.
easterly
. . Jet stream first
· d eve1ops
m longitudes east of India and then
extends westwards aero ss In d1a .
and the Arabian Sea to eastern
Africa. Blowing along K o1kata-
Bangalore axis the air under the
easterly jet descends over the
Indian ocean near Masscamess
and .Zanzibar. Islands of Tanzanta, .

~~~
and mtens1fies its high pressure ce11,
so as to finally move as south-west
monsoon.
~ 200 mb WESTERLY JET STREAM (Summ.-)

The data collected under Fig. 8 : Monsoon and th Tb

1 ·
Monex support that higher the · e etan-Himalayan Highlands

inensity of the tropical easterly ·et

Indian Ocean and stronger woul~ be~:a~er wouldf be potency of the high pressure cell over the
e impact o south-west monsoon Th th f th
jet stream from the Tibetan
. Pl t · e pa
a eau upto Masscarness Island and Tanzania in theoSouth
e easterly
lndi
0cean has been shown m (Fig. 9). an
JET STREAM AND INDIAN:
Jet stream is the ~ost prominent movement in upper level westerly wind flows; irregular,
con~entrated, meandenng bands of geo-strophic wind, travelling at speeds of 300 to 400 kmph.
The Jet streams are high altitude (9000-12000 m) westerly winds between middle latitudes (summer
3S°N-45°N; winter 20°N-35°N) in the Northern Hemisphere. Recent researches have shown
that these winds exert considerable impact on surface weather conditions.
The influence of jet streams on the origin and development of Indian monsoons may be
appreciated from the following description of weather phenomena during the summer and the
winter seasons. The upper air westerly jet streams are extended upto 20°N-35°N (Nagpur,
Raipur latitudes) due to equator-ward shift ofupper air north polar whirl during northern winter
(October to February). In the winter season, the upper air westerly jet streams are bifurcated
iato two branches due to physical obstruction of the Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. One branch
ii located to the south of the Himalayas, while the second branch is positioned to the north of the
11betan Plateau (Fig. - 7). The upper air high pressure and anticyclonic (with clockwise air
.t,culation) conditions are developed in the troposphere over Afghanistan and Plllcistan.
-
Geography of In dia

-m<)f'()Pl'USE

Hlgt,PresMJre
Duri
~ ~ - ~ , ac
1 1 i/-. -. T~&.t~~ ~ the grounc
groundsu
t i i ~~
t t t -- ·~
\ \
15 maintai
conditto1i
from the

1.ow PreNure
n:.an
..__
._
·

J-trr,alayas+- +--- .
. l: \
~.
11.1,
areas.~
and Ma
high e-v
+-- +-- 1 states
7//4 ½.
\

f ;,w . i
..__ ...__ : easten
i!JJ.14~¼ i/i/J 1/ff:
~~
0

r,,.,.,,,,r//{>,. ~r'TTT'Pl :~.,, comir

·1l!Ji1//!/i
1

1 I l~f!½ i/1'll1//{1, I lfifrrtrr,,,~,, {//1/J/l/./llh,__

~· 1/i' 1/i ' i 1/i1i/ · 0ff/!Jfl ¼ IffTTl7Tmrmi1TrTTn~= mons
mom
Fig: 9 : Tropical Easterly Jet Stream (Men ona ross-sectlon o ian ons°?~ EN-
..
Consequently, the winds tend to descend over the no~~-western _parts of India, res_ulting into\ Oc•
development of atmospheric stability and dry conditions. Besides, the upper air wester\yit Pel
streams also cause periodic changes in general weather conditions because they lie over \ th,
temperate low pressure (cyclonic wave) which moves from west to east under the influence~ ..,
0
··upper air westerly jet streams across the Mediterranean Sea and reach Afghanistan, PakiS'l4i
aI
and north-west India. These storms are not frontal cyclones, but waves which move at Ill
height of2000 m from the mean sea level, while at t~e surface they are north-east trade wind.I.
The tropical easterly jet stream as stated above, extends far to the north ofTibet,and tll
air flow is ro~ghly along the Kolkata-Bangalore axis. These upper air easterlies descend intotll
permanent high pressure area formed over the southern Indian Ocean near the Masscarn~
I~!an~ (Tanzania). This naturally intensifies the "High" already present there (Fig. -9). lt is frotl
1
is high pressure cell that the onshore winds start blowing towards the thermally induced \01
pressure area, d~veloped in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent. After crossing Iii
equator such wmds become s th I
monsoons. Th ese surface windsou st
hav -we er Y and . .are known as the south-westerly. summei
..A
precipitation It is th ~ e vast potentiality for south-westerly summer monsoonai 111
· , ereiore, clear that the st gth f h dt
the intensification of
permanent "High"~
ren
d
·
. ·
°
t e easterly Jet stream is directly relate 0
. ·IT~

pressure makes the pres d" orme over the southern Indian Ocean. Since this h1o1'
. sure gra 1ent steep · · . .·
the v1gour of the summer monsoon. er, so It 15 the main causative factor for deternunini
 C,enl(raphy nf In din (.,_~"'-
. IOS'i '
Durmg the summer season . h
'° t e Northern H emisp · h
l
the ground surface near Peshawa (P k. ere, low pressure areas develop at
r a istan) and north
ground surface during April, May d J -west Inc1·1a due to intense heating of
•1s maintained
· · above the surface I ' an une. But as long as th e position
· · of the upper air jet stream
.. .
cond1t1ons persist over Iran Afighow. pressure (to .
the s th O f H" 1
ou ima ayas), the dynamic cyclonic
' amstan, Pakistan d h .
from the upper air high pressure b t 'an nort -west India. The winds dec;cending
0 s ructs the ascent f · d f
0
I areas, with the result that the we th . win s rom the surface low pressure
I a er remains warm a d d Th" •
and May are generally dry and ra· . . n ry. is is why the months of April
I high evaporation It may b • 1ess m spite of hi ghtemperatures (low pressure on land) and
m
· e pomted out that · •
states in May or early June U . monsoon amves m Myanmar and north east Indian
eastern limit ofthe H. . l . pper-a1r low. pressure (anticyclone) is formed to the east of the
..... . fr th h•ma ayas due to up per air · easterly Jet
• streams, with the result that the winds
commg om esout ofMyan f'; • .
:i". mar are orced to ascend and yield copious rainfall. The Myanmar
I
monsoon a so a f:1ects Bangl d h d ·
. a es an the hilly states of north-east India which receive pre-
monsoon showers m the months of April , May, an d t he ti1rst week of June.
EN-NINO AND THE INDIAN MONSOON :

The In d ian monsoon is also influenced by El-Nino, Southern Oscillation and the Somalian
Ocean Current. El-Nino, meaning "Child Christ", is a warm ocean current appearing along the
Peru coast, ge~erally in December. It replaces th~ cold Peru ocean current which flows along
the Peru coast m normal years. Under normal conditions, the Peru is a cold water current, while
over the western ~acific (Borneo, Indonesia and Eastern Australia) the ocean current is warm
and deep (Fig. - I 0(a)). The appearance of El-Nino "reverses the condition" there, and develops
warm conditions over the eastern Pacific (Peru and Chile coasts) and cool conditions in the
western Pacific .(Australia, New Guinea, and Indonesia). Whenever this warm ocean current
(El-Nino) is produced near the Peru coast, the amount of precipitation along the coastal areas of
(Peru and Chile) South America is usually high, while the eastern coast of Australia, New Guinea,
and Indonesia record drought conditions (Figs. - l0(a) and l0(b)).
As stated above, normally, the cool Peru(Humboldt) Current flows northward off the
South American coast, and then at about equator it turns westward across the Pacific as the
South Equatorial Current. The Peru Current is characterized by upwelling of cold, deep water,
bringing with it nutrients that act as food for plankton. Fish feed on these high concentrations of
plankton. The anchoveta, a small fish used commercially to produce fish meal for animal feed,
: thrives in great numbers and is harvested by the Peruvian fishermen. With the onset of El-Nino,
upweJling ceases, the cool water is replaced by warm water from the west, and the plankto~ and
daeir anchoveta predators disappear. Vast num~er of birds that feed on the anchoveta die of
~ ation.
 (;enf(rnphy nf ,,. d ;a

PACIFIC OCEAN

•4---~
WEAK EQ. CURRENT

' Equatorial
countercun-ent
(Weak)
Peru Curnnt
(Strong)

• • Upwding of cold water .

Fig.: IO(a)
The Southern Oscillation :
The shifting of atmospheric circulation over the southern Pa~ific region is kno~i uptc
Southern Oscillation. It is a precursor to the occurrence of an El-Nino event. In an El-1{a wit1
re"1
year, a major change occurs across the entire stretch of the equatorial zone as far west as SOIJ\
W2
eastern Asia. Nonnally, low pressure prevails over northern Australia, New Guinea, and lndon~ WI
where the largest and warmest body of ocean water can be found. This low pressure is associt
with a pool of warm water and a deep thermocline. Abundant rainfall normally occurs indi
area during December, which is the high sun period in the Southern Hemisphere (Figs. l~t
J
and lO(b)).

During El Nino event, the low pressure system is replaced by weak high.pressure 1
drought ensues. In contrast, pressure becomes lower than normal in the equatorial zone 0U1
st
~a ~m Pacific (Peru and Chile Coast), strengthening the equatorial trough. Rainfall is abund!I
in this new low pressure region along the coast of Peru, Chile, and Ecuador.
nd
nd . _Swface wi
th str
s and c'.":ents also change with this change in pressure. During nomi
co itwns, e ong, prevailing trade winds blow westward causing very warm ocean watetl
move to the western Pacific and t 0 " 1·1 " ' .J
t . causes the nonnal u w u· P e up near the western equatorial low. This westwaii.~j
mo 10n
1
P e ing a ong the South America coast, as bottom water is cam
 Wmlkl.ow

, ~" - -- / ~ c, - ~

· · ~
· ·
ct)-
Strong
Countercurrent
Peru Current
(Weak)
t
Fig. 1O(b) : El-Nino and Southern Oscillation

u~ to replace th: water drag~ed to the west. During an El Nino event, the easterly trade wind die
with t~e change m atmo~phe~1c pr~ssure._A weak westerly wind flow sometime occurs, completely
revers mg the normal wmd direction. Without the pressure of the trade winds to hold them back,
warm water surge eastward. Sea-surface temperatures and actual sea levels rise off the tropical
western coast of the Americas.
The major change in sea-surface temperature that accompanies an El Nino can also shift
rainfall patterns dramatica11y in large regions across the globe. During a typical El Nino event,
southeastern and interior north western Uni_ted States, southeastern South America, and the
southern tip of India receive more rainfall. Intense rainfall can also occur along the southern
California coast in winter and in the Andean highlands of Peru, Bolivia, Colombia, Chile, and
Ecuador. Drought regions include the western Pacific, northern South America, southeast Africa,
and northern India.
In brief, a positive value of Southern Oscillation (SOI) indicates:

(i) a cold Peru Current;

(ii) strong trade winds;
accumulation of warm water in western Pacific, which is balanced by the Equatorial
(iii)
Counter Current and high rate of evaporation;
 /,rdia
Geo!(raphY o,f
d from the western ha\f
. we procee of \h
f thenno--ehne as ~~
·I (iv) a rise in dcpllt O
. ~
and over Australia and lndon
.
Circulation , e,i"
· ,g branch of Walker "d fSouthAmenca(coastsof Peru -.,. -.e£ me \nd
(v) an asccn d 11 tern st e o ari1 · 0
descending branch over the wes rrnal south-west monsoon. r. C"' a ~tiQIJ
d. . leads to nou•• u,eO?~\\
Such a nom1al con ition . ulation over the southern Pacifi
. fthe 00 nnal c1rc . ghl 1c r),. {fol:tl tbe o
La Ni na : The strengthenmg o nts a situat10n rou y opposite l() '\
. ·1d) This event prese Du
. the central and western ac1fic ~ \
p . t\.
knO\~,n as La Nina (the girl chi •
.
During La Nina penod, seasurf.ace temperature in the South Pacific . b . ari r. 0
su tropical high"· •\ \ea"Ving
• b ppens because . i:.. •;rthe
The result 1s abnorma11y strong
~.1
lower than average Ieve1s. Th is a '\ in iu
. th high sun season. S()i.n-h..,
very strongly developed dunng e than normal amount of warm water w "'
trade winds. The force of these winds drags a more tw· ental coasts. La Nina condif ~ .~, wsro
. . h urf. off western con ions in the ·
bnngmg cooler water tot es ace d tO drought experienced in som ~
recognized during 1988 and rnay have been relate re\afr
e~ -
roons
North America and Peru coast in summer 1988.
· b d during El Nino and La N.1
Fig.-11 shows the surface temperature o serve .. . . na y~
During the normal and La Nina conditions, the cool water of the Peru_c~ent, movmgnorth, \ to \1
along the coast of Chile and Peru, is carried westward into_the Pacific ~ a long plume. M~ rel2
cold, upwelling wc;tter is brought to the surface along the Chile and Peruvi~ coast. During an~ wa
Nino year, the eastward motion of warm water holds the Peru Current _m check. Some \it.
upwelling, but the amount is greatly reduced compared to normal or La Nma years. It adv~
affects the planktons growth and marine food-web in the east Pacific Ocean. · a
1
El Nino and the Indian Ocean: According the meteo~ologists and oceanographers ill
Indian ocean has been wanning at a rate faster than thought before (1.2°C during the'\lli
century). It 1s also the largest consistent contributor to the global ocean warming trends.

· 1 d.Recent studies• show that a warm Indian Ocean can in turn modulat/e th e p ac1·fi1c conditioos
·
me u mg the El Nmo events. So basically, such lar · •
implications on the global climate. · · ge warming over the Indian Ocean ~

The western Indian Ocean, traditionall th~ugh .

than the central and eastern Indian .y . _t to have cooler sea surface temperatureS
. Ocean, 1s surpnsmgly sh . .·,
warmmg trend over the whole of th · owing an even stronger sumroet
20
Th . . . ,. e cen~ than the central and eastern Indian Ocean.
. e w~nrung is s1gmficantly so large that it .
ramfall, manne food web, and fisherie ( may alter the monsoon circulation monsoon
oceans) a nd gIOb a I c1·~mate including thes Elwestern
N" Indian Ocean 1·s one of the most productive
'
mo.
A recent study published . h
mt e journ I Of C .
becomes warmer mainly due to . a hmate found th
during recent decades, possibl dEI Nino events, which are gettin at the western Indian Ocean
Y ue to changing climate. g stronger and more' frequen1
 G enxraphy nf lnd;a ~~-

These E l Nino event s weak .

( tm1
. ' en t 1le sm nmcr w es t er IY (hiowmg from west to east) wi nds
over the Indian O cean. Wind s h a 1 of c r h
. - ve t 1e e ffect 00
m g t e sea sur face . Strong wi nds cause
evapora tion and loss oflaten t heat c. le adi t 1· w .
• ITO tn the ocean ng O coo mg. hen the wmds are weak,
the opposit e happens , the o cean w
anns (becaus' e o f les s evapora ti· on and less loc,s of latent heat
from the ocean leading to wamli f
. ng O t11e sea surface) .
. reverses and the hO l · I
During El Nino, the wind direct ton .
leaving only weak surface south- . w e c,rcu atory system shifts eastward
west monsoo n wind 10 · th .
in further ocean wam1{11g in west em Ind.ian Ocean. s e we 5 lem Indi an Ocean. This results

Unlike the Pacific or the All f 0 Ocean is landloc ked on tbe north.
This means that the ocean . I . an i~ ceans, the Indian •
· h
crrcu ation which carnes
in the Indian Ocean withh Id· . t e tropical heat towards the poles is restricted
Indian Ocean
relative ly warmer ~nd af;ct:: g t!: piled up heat. This a~so helps in maki~g the south west
g e pattern of trade wmds and weaken mg the -
monsoo n. ·

• th
Moreov
th Ind. . er Of Humbold t (Peru) Current at the event of El Nino is carried
er, the warm Wat
· Ocean resulting into
· of the south Atlantic
,o .e sou . by .·th e W,eS t \Vmd Dnft
1an 0 .cean
'
re Iat1ve1y warm cond1t10ns or weak h.1gh pressur e over the south Indian Ocean (Fig.-11) Toe
· · o cean I&
wann water .of the South Ind ian ·· for the successful summer monsoo· n in
· not conducive
the sub-co ntment of India. · ·

Ac~ord ing to a study by ~he.Indian Institute ofTrop ical Meteorology (HTM), the frequen
cy
and du~ation of ~e~t waves m India is expected to increase. 'El-Nino Modoki' could be
responsible_ f~r this increase. Depletion of soil moisture (causes ~educed evapo-transpiration)
and the rad1at10n of heat from the earth to atmosphere also contributes to the increase in heat
waves. The regions of southe?1 India and coastal regions would be largely affected.
In the El-Modoki events, the Central Pacific ocean warms up more with cooling in the
eastern and western parts and contributes to the prolonged heat effect. It is expected that the
beat wave duration would rise by 0.5 events and by 4-7 days per decade. (Sour~e: Report in The
Times oflndia, May 18,2019) ·
PossibJe Causes of El-Nin() :
What causes the El-Nino/Southern Oscillation (also known as ENSO )? At first,
meteorologists tried to explain the changes in winds an~ pressures by the changes in ocean
surface currents, while oceanographers tried to explain the changes in surface currents by changes
in winds and pressures. It was not until the l 950s that scientists realized that the two phenomena
were linked. One view is that the cycle is simply a natural oscillation caused by the way in which
e atmosphere and oceans are coupled by energy exchange. Another possibility has been
posed by geologists, who have tried that volcanic activity along the East Pacific Rise (Ridge),
underwater zone of sea-floor spreading off the west coast of South America. Correlates with
 Geography of India

An
1. Thehdewlrld l 1

blow_, ID_.
anclenMMU ld
" •\ ,
));;g 4':
aom., a n d ~ ...
Cold.~ llir does 110(
rile and maw. an(D
ltMtland. Thtftlsa
drtJl¢C ti Bomeo. 0 d'
·

~
2. NI iut- warm
wa111r181l 3.WatMrlseeln
tempera1ure by s·c •
5. Rain in deserts
1
. of s. America 0
Ef Nino Year (W1111erotN. tlamisphele) L I ~
km~
Fig. 11 : El Nino-Southern Oscillation
El Nino events. They hypothesize that the emergence of upwelling lavas from the s
releases vast quantities of heat into the ocean, and that this heat in some way triggers an;:~
event. In any event, scientists now have good computer models that accept seas\:_
temperature along with air temperature and pressure data and can predict E\ Nino: winds~ ,
reasonably well some months before they occur. theE~
As stated above, the Southern Oscillation is closely linked with the Walker Circu\aiit monso
With a high positive Southern Oscillation, there would be a zone of low atmospheric pr~ R\JR:
over Australia and Indonesian Archipelago. It will be accompanied by large convective c\o~
heavy rainfall and raining air motion. This air eventually runs eastward, and after traversinit 'Ibe
Pacific as a high level westerly ~ind at 200 mb, it descends over South America. turb
gen
In terms of global winds, the Walker circulation suggests a strong belt of converga su1c
between the trade winds of both the hemispheres at a location slightly to the north of the equatt no
These trade winds pile up a huge quantity of warm water in the western Pacific, produce equa\Qn je
counter-current from the Indonesian coast and facilitate upwelling of cold water from be\ct al

near Peru coast, giving rise to cold Peru current. a

l
The appearance of El-Nino leads to a warm phase of the Pacific or negative SOL'NOI
the ascending branch of the Walker Cell shifts to the central regions of the Pacific Oceani
the descending air branch to the south-eastern parts of the ocean (Fig.-12). As upwe\lingofft
South American coast decreases, the sea surface temperature rises. This leads to weakerual
 Gengrnphy of India

l Plt,CiFIC OCEAN

4 : i r - - - - - - - - --T-all_ iti_
--t1\~RU
i
_,,:;,:s.:J<r.JOJL__J . \
~
current
' _ _ . ' Normal Year
1_ . I Sffno..,.. )7 .
NCM : l'he NStWan:1 shift in an B-Nino v-.
• nm, nao - ..,

Fig. 12 : Wa_lker ~ells [Southern Oscillation (SOI) and Indian Monsoon)

(Reference. Indian Monsoon; Origin Merhanism: I.IRAR: Vnl 4 Issue

winds, less ~ccumulation of warm water on the western half of the Pacific Ocean, weakening of
the Equatonal under c~ent, heavy rain and floods along the South American coast and poor
monsoon or monsoon fatlure over the subcontinent.
BURST OF MONSSON :
The suddenness and abruptness of the Indian monsoon is known as the burst of monsoon.
The onset over the Indian subcontinent is abrupt and dramatic. It is always accompanied by
turbulent weather. The so called burst of monsoon is associated with certain basic changes in the
general upper-air circulation over southern Asia. In April and May, the insolation heating of the
subcontinent tends to establish the south-westerly monsoon flow from the adjacent ocean, but
aorthward surge of the same is retarded by the westerly zonal flow associated with the subtropical
jet stream over northern India. However, in late May or early June, when the thennal conditions
• satisfied, the jet stream disappears completely from the south of the Himalayas and shifts to
a-position to die north of the Himalayas and Tibet. At the same time, the upper trough low (low
,ressure) also moves westward from 85° E to 75°E. It may be pointed out that the jet stream
snot retreat slowly. The process of this shift is rather quick. Now, with the disappearance of
jet, a definite monsoon circulation from the sea on to the land is established. The summer
nsoon generally begins in late May in most parts of south-east Asia_. But over India, it is
 (~ <ieograp hy of India .

e from one regime to another i

delayed until. the middle or 1ate J une. The c ang in several stages dependin s abl'\1lll ,
. h
to remember that the onset O f monsoon - •
occurs
vergence zone. g l)t'\ •
\~
advance and withdrawal of the equatona con 1 . ~
f onsoon 1s c 1ose 1Y re 1ated to th
. ram the burst o m . eI\ ,:re~~ ;me:\ \M " ' ' " ~
In the opinton of Koteswa .' h ssure) over the extensive and lofty1i1,..- t~l\'.e<1te,\y ai, w"nch b\~ 0
. clone (h1g pre
of a wann-core upper an t icy sterly J. et over I nd"1a w h"tc h .1s PosirVl!l;il\t,
'1·.c'''%P) ,hin., \n \he w,ma.1
. I produces an ea .
This upper level ant1cyc one .10 th general planetary c1rcul ation . ll)t'\~ ...
Patt 1,,ma\ay:m,-~~.md,~
.

st
}5°N. It is defi nitely a part ofreadju_ ment d" eg from India to east Africa. The a~l'rl•t11,f th~ \-\ima.\~an ~"e,i
th tire region exten 10 -Vell\.. nd eas'lem \oo,an me-r,
the easterly jet covers e en h dvance of south-wester1Y monsoon cul'l' ·"=II •

current, t ere1ore
!
upper air condition paves the way fohr t a prevails throughout India. The depth oft::t\
.
Undet w~\I. ~
'"ll..nonsoonttoogh ,,.one
subcontinent. The monsoon . h Gangetic Plain it is only about S km. 1'k .,"' \ \\ ttoon"' die
. . . b t 6 5 km while overt e ' tt t~' ow va «="1 ~·
m Ind~a is a ou . 'sterl winds (easterly jet stream). ·~astern \\,ma\a,,1'!'.al1
• overlain by a layer of.ea Y d . • •ti ~ km with the south,
. f at climatic an soc1a1 s1gm 1cance toth
The abrupt arrival of monsoon 1s o gre . e~:--na\n monsoon trou

:::a~u:~;:;~~: . t f India. The onset of monsoon puts an end to ~he scorc_h1_ng Weathct ~oins the trough o~
(~oo) in the northern plains of India. The rel~t1v_e hum1d1~y increas~ :
atmosphere tremendously. The arrival of monso~n is also the begmnmg_of agnc~ltura\o~and \asts for at \e
The break. ~

fi th kharif crops in the rain-fed areas. The high temperature and high_ relative humi~~1on t"Wo time seal
or e
however, . and iniurious to health It is in the season of general rams (JulytoSe~~so davs' break i
oppressive ~ · . . : . are
that people suffer from many diseases and ep1dem1cs. cond1t1ons 1
Onset ot th~
BREAKS OF THE MONSSON :
. The ot1
The migration of the monsoon rainfall zone is one of the m~Jor sub-seas~na\ variati~ commonl'j u
the summer (or south-westerly) monsoon. Thus, the monsoon ts not a continual de\ugti. to select the
number of months, duration, but has inter-seasonal variability being made of a series of~ the timing i
· events, both pluvial and dry. Viewed locally, these are the active and break monsoons resp«ui (l}.'\D), ah,
which exist on a time scale ranging from a few days to few weeks. Thus, while the mois this de-par
appears to have a well-defined annual cycle, closer examination shows that the monsoou-. -pyogtes1
substantial variability which becomes evident as the intensity of monsoon rains wax and, T
through the wet season. Perjods during which there is a rapid succession of weather disturba over At
or storms lasting a few days are referred to as active periods of the monsoon. Periods dun Ma\ab:
which there is no rainfall for few days are the break periods of the monsoon. During an ~ prono1
~h~se, _th e Tropical Easterly Jet Stream (TEJ) remains very strong in the upper tropos~ count
mdicatmg_ strong convection and latent heating. But, when the maximum cloudiness rent Ben~
lock~d up th e foo th ills of the Himalayas and the monsoon rainfall zone moves in thisdir~ nort,
10

subsidence occurs to produ k t

. . . ce a wea easterly flow in the upper troposphere. This creates
con d1t1on of break m monsoons.
me
In break monsoon condition th . . . ~ B2
over the country and th . b ' ere ts a general rise of pressure (as well as tempera
e tso ars show marked refraction along the west coast. C\oudi'
~11, /
~~ Geography of India
le decreases and the south ~-,,_
fl \>ti"'" westerly air
. which bl ows
-easter)
over ies . surface 1eve I s over nort
. at the . . I • . I w1
I"I t

t(! ~
I
Himalayan regions and the yas and the rainfall practically e surface pressure (the monsoon
<:lr.,.\; of these Himalayan rivers. ;?them slopes of the Himalaya:~:•~• over the country outside the
I)) '"\I~ and eastern Indian rive . us, though there is no rain ,ah mg ~o high fioods in the plains
tiii:
Dt • Und rs nse and floods e
nsue. overt e plains ' all the . northern
maior
()\I , er we~k monsoon conditions . .
elli It monsoon trough ts oriented and m the years when th
o a low valley. trough <level southward in Odisha, Jharkhan.d Chh e ~astern end of the axis of the
" eastern H_imalayas and th:p::.~er the Assarit Plain aligned ;long;~:;:h, and Madhya Pradesh,

t
3 km with the south west ' ong ~lateau. The vertical extent of th' ;ahmaputra between the
main monsoon monsoon lymg to the south of the ts .ow valley trough is 2 to
ll/i . . th trough. But, when the latter mov h trough, remammg independent of the
r~ JOtnS e trough over the Assam Plaint
. es nortrainfall
_wards,there.
and extends to the Himalayas, ''t
o cause heavy .
d I The break m monsoon con d·t· .
i ions generall
an as~ for at least 3 to 5 days over 500 to I 00~
on two time scales, usually from 10 to 20 d.
.
~:urs
m t~e peak months of July and August,
. length m these months. The breaks occur
50 days ' b reak configuration D d. ays which
. on
. some occasions
. gets locked to a 40 to
. • · epen mg upon their timing dd •
c;on 1t10ns are the harbingers ofregional droughts. an urat1on, the break monsoon
d

Onset of the Monsoon :·

The ~nset of mbnsoon rains is viewed in monsoon literature as the burst of the monso
ons commonly m the fo~ of a great thunderstorm. Prediction of the onset of monsoon he! s farm::;
to se_le~t the most smtable crops to sow and to determine when to prepare the land. ~redicting
of
the t1mmg of the monsoon has been an onerous t~k for the Indian Meteorological Departm t
(I~D), almost from its beginning. Since 1878, forecasts of monsoon rainfall has been issuede;y
this department regularly.
Progress of the Monsoons :
The normal date of the onset of the monsoon is towards the end of May in Sri Lanka and
over Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal (Fig.-13). Thereafter, it bursts on the
Malabar Coast in Kerala a week later by June 1, atid the iso\ines on the onset chart display a
pronounced curve over the Bay of Bengal. The subsequeiit progress of the monsoon in the
oountry is divided by the tapering peninsula into two bifwtating currents, i.e., (i) the Bay of
Bengal Current, and (ii} the Arabian Sea Current. The Arabian Sea branch gradually advances
northwards reaching Mumbai by 10 June and Central India by IS June.
. ' '
In the meantime, the progress of the Bay of Bengal branch is nO less spectacular. lt
troves northwards into the ce'ntral Bay of Bengal and advances to nearly 20° N latitude in the

y by the third week of May.

 ►
.rJ nd ia
Geograp hY OJ

80" E
t<.o\k.a t a i!
o" er s ..l"Au rob
1N OI A .1\<_e '
M o n so on str · o and crra ,
Of
on set e·
p\a ' \,,h and,
• ,ttafal'-
v tha t b y tb
50 - so uth -~
the the
pe se rt. .
bY thi s t1ro
f the co ll
0 . 1
~h i\e 1n
s ea ~o ns
1
5h<>Pal
• fro tn ~
Na ~u r of ln di
•
20° N

Ba y of
Be nga l
16 "N
Ara bia n
Se a , Ch enn ai

12° N

. .
8°N Thi rwa nan t
~~ 100 0 100 30 0 50 0
~ 111 I I t I
km
IND IAN

t of South-west M on ss on
Fig. 13 : Normal Dates of On se
d Ch itta go ng Hi lls wi th fu ll fo rce, the direction being
It rapidly strikes the Arakan Coast an be tw ee n th e east-west Meghalaya
ce is fel t in the an gle
southwesterly, but the greatest for Hi lls; M izo ra m (BlueMountains). Here
rth-easte rn Lu sh ai
Plateau of the Khasi Hills and the no ab ou t 1313 m receives nearly 1200 cm
ap un ji at an ele va tion of
Mawsynram to the west of Cherr ns ha do w of the Khasi Hills and receiv~
tra Va lley is in the rai
of rainfall annually. The Brahmapu th e Hi m ala ya s, but the Bay of Bengal
reases on ce ag ain in
Jess than 250 cm. The rainfall inc ne d effect of the m on so on trough and
stw ard s du e to the co m bi
monsoon branch is deflected we ss is towards the Gangetic
~~ the Himala!a. As a consequence, its further progre
the _i:hannell_ing
a and less in the plains. The arrival of the monsoon
malay
Plam of India, g1vmg more ram to Hi
 Geograp1,
over Kolka ta is 7 June , whe re, as rn Y of lrtdia
. .
strikes Mumbai on IO Jun e. 8 Oth ention
h
.r h
ed earlie [I;,t:~~
\IS'll'
' t e Arabian Se b s ),
pJain and gradually extend over a·1ht e branc s of th
he a ranch of
monsoo n normally
(Jttarakhan d, Haryana, Himach I ar, Jharkhand C e monsoon curr t pmerge in the Gangetic
so that by the first week of Jul a_ Pradesh, Puniab• Jhhattisgarh, Madheyn
Y, l.e w· h' a rn~ , arnrn u and Kashm · a radesh d '
Utt p d
ar ra esh,
the south -west Mon soon is ·, it in

Desert, the monsoon reachese~tatish~d all ove:a~~~terval of29

day~r~:nce~~ ally to ~ajasthan,
he middle of July b1a, excluasdingd the Thar o:sert. onselt m Kera la,
by this time it has almost shed ymost of 1·t , ut only n the Thar
ure It
s moist . can be noted f a escen ding drying .d .
of the country west of 80oE and south of25 ' wm , since
while inthe rest of the country I·t.is from south oN, the adva rom (Fig. 4/6) that for part s
nee of monsoon is fr
-east to north-west. om south to north,
Seasons in India :

The subcontinent of Ind· h

The .
from Kanyakumari (Cap e-Ca ~;ri: great latitudinal dimensions·. M re are d_1fferent seasons
of India, however, divides the s ) to Jammu and Kashmir Th
easons oflndia into the foll ·. e eteorolog1cal Department
A. Seasons ofNo rth-E t Monsoon owmgfourseasons:
as
I• Winter season, mid -December to mid-March and
2. Hot weather season, mi'd -March to May '
B. Seasons of South-West Monsoon .

3. Rainy season, June to September, and

4. Season of retreating monsoon, October to mid-December.
1. The Cold Weather Season :
later part ofNovember
. The cold weat her season in the greater parts oflndia begins in the
country. The cold weather
m the north, and by the beginning of December in the rest of me
clear skies. There develops
season is char acter ised by out-flowing winds, dry and stable air, and
-westerly flow prevails down
a high pressure (anti -cyc lone ) area over north India, and a north
h of the subtropical jet
the Indus and Gan ges Valleys. During this season the southern branc
rlies reach down to the surface
stream is positioned over northern India. The middle latitude weste
from the north-east.
north of abou t 25°N. Sout h of this latitude the general movement of air is
, the general dir~ction
This northeasterly wind is called the winter monsoon. In Peninsular India
al, the easter\ 1es are
of wind is from east to west. Because of its trajectory over the Bay of Be_ng
ns.
full ofmoisture and yield some precipitation along south-east coastal regio
. . . eneral decrease in temperature from south to north. The
.
15
Duri ng wint er seas on there a~ The 180 C isotherm for the month of January runs
•sotherms run almo st para llel to the latitudes.Of h try connecting the Tapi estuary in the
in a east-west direc tion thro ugh the middle t e coun '
._ and the Mah anad i delta in the east (Fig.-l 4).
 Geography of India

In the month of
January, the north-western
72•E r,,_ __.
'".>· . .~ )
eo•E

parts of the Great Plains of f . · · ·L

India (Punjab, Haryana, l:L r-.. .
•,.:c,:;,
western Uttar Pradesh , HIOh ?:=:. • -·\,...-.--..
and Rajasthan) experience Pf9980"' ~ \· • )> ·
less than 15°C mean £..·J.::- · ~
. :::'.'. ~ ., l
monthly temperature. The 28-N : : : •• ·.: ·t ~~~ ···::·,·
night temperature in the 101 • • • •• • - -- - ~ ~ - ..

plains of Punjab, H~ana, - _-:..

- ---~~--
~.-,r..::- - ·
and Rajasthan (Amritsar, - ~:ct.~=-
Hissar, and Jodhpur) :.:-:~·-:_--j-::.;.:~·_;.,,.._.;=-:;--:t
occasionally reads below
the freezing . point,
producing ground fr?st
condition. Often, there ts a Arabian -
MeanT~
decrease of more than 6oC Sea
-----. (ln"C)
in the mean temperature, Below 10
1O.a.15
resulting into cold wave in
15-20
the northern plains ofIndia. L-__.
20-25
In south India, the 12°N AJ:x,,,e25
\
\

isotherms tend to bend to \

\

the south and run almo st 1014 \

parallel to the coast. The mb Low
western coast is warmer · INDIAN OCEAN Pressure \
0 350 100 ,.\
than that of the eastern
coast by about 2°C. The
diurnal range of Fig. 14: Mean January Temperature
temperature is about l 5°C . 11..
. .
in the Great Plains and only about 5°C 1n the coastal areas of the Pemnsu a. an l J uary \S \If.
coldest month in India, especially in northern India. Peninsular India, however, does not have~
well defined cold weather season. The mean maximum temperature for the month of January
Thiruvananthapuram and Chennai reads 31°C and 30°C, respectively (Fig.-14(a)).
A characteristic feature of the cold weather season is the inflow of western disturbancts
originating from the Mediterranean Sea. The frequency of these disturbances is 4 to 6 permon&
between December, January and February. In north-western region of the subcontinent, wm . tet
precipitation is caused by the depressions that are associated with the westerly disturbanc~
movi~g o~t from the Mediterranean Sea (Fig.-14(b)). The cold weather precipitation, thoUi
small is highly beneficial to Rabi crops. Besides, snowfall from the western disturbances {Ci
the glaciers of the Western Himalayas.
 G'-'nK,Ylphy rif l nd;a

INOIA
• (Western Disturbances)

0 50 . 100 150
I I I Ian

Fig. 14{a): Western Disturbances

. The north-eastern parts of India also get some rainfall during the winter season. Arunachal
Pradesh, Nagaland, and Assam may get about 50 cm of rainfall during these months (Figs.-15).
2. The Hot Weather Season :
The north Indian region experiences a well defined hot weather season from mid-March
to mid-June. With the northward march of the sun towards the Tropic of Cancer after the vernal
Equinox, the temperature begins to rise. Thermal heating over µorth-westem India gradually
establishes a thennal "low' at the surface but, while the jet stream remains south of the Himalayas.,
it maintains its dynamic anticyclone aloft over Afghanistan and the borderland of Pakistan. This
"lid" of subsiding wanning dry air prevents the surface thermal "low" from having sufficient
effect as a lifting agent to cany air aloft and so to bring about precipitation (Johnson, 1969, p.17).
At the advent of March, the temperature starts rising abruptly. By April, the Peninsular
~ gions south of the Vindhyan Range heat up with mean maximum temperature of 40°C.. In
y, the mean maximum temperature reaches ·:ci2°c in Rajasthan, Delhi, west Uttar Pradesh,
th Punjab, Jammu city, and Haryana. •
Temperature exceeding 54°c was recorded at Sri Gang8?agar in !967. At some places,
0
· ·· north -westem India, day temperature maybe as high as 4S C or 47 C. The mean
·cuIarJy·m
 Gt>r>~rophf nf fr1tllt1

minimum daily temperature in

May also remains quite high ~
being ahout 26°C at Delhi and Mn\:,~~'- 11
Jaipur. The temperature in the cm ,n -''!'ml\, l
eastern states of India and in llti/1 •-,o,m-n. ~<1
'{he n,n, I
the hilly regions in the month tb11ndet<;t.0T1
of May is generally cool and \I ''\ l(.,1mata\l.• 1
I '
in vigorating the m inimum ,.Chen"'/ B\n1
\
\ I'
average in Shillong being I 5°C tne...e are 1
1\'l
and l 7°C in Kohima (Fig.- l S). I
coffee p\i
e\sewhete i
In the mont h of April .. mango st!
the 300c isotherm of average
temperature encloses a vast
Genenl
... area of the country between
l ooN and 2 6 °N latitudes a
flnmm)
(except the west coast and the a \ow
Below25
deve\01
hilly s tates of north-east 25-50
Rajastl
India). The diurnal range of 12°N - 50-100
100-200
brand
temperature ranges between
AbcM200 weak
5°c and 6°C in coastal areas, with,
but reaches 15°-20°C in the soutl
interior part$ of the country Him
and in the north-west SatJuj 0 360
lead
Ganga Plains. a~
Fig. l 4(b) : Rainfall and Winds in January the
Being a transitional
ill
season between the north-east
Cc
and the south-west monsoon (rainy season), it is characterised by unstable air pressure and\ll\ll
l1
circulation. With the northward movement of the sun, the low pressure area also moves ~ ~
south-east to north-west. It finally settles over north-western India in the end of May or ~
part of June. The pressure generally increases towards south in the neighbouring sea. Th ,
C

genera] direction of winds is from north-west and west in north-western India; from south-~~
in the Arabian Sea and the adjoining coasts. The tornado-like dust storms of Punjab, .Hary~
nd st
a we em Uttar Pradesh, the hot winds (Loo) in western India, the Norwesters (Ka\baisakhi\
of West Bengal are the characteristics of summer season.
During summer season th · h' b\ ~
30o/co, occas10nally
• ' e sun is score mg and the relative humidity is generally e0
reaching helo IOo/c Th 1 • . '"
Guiarat M dh p w o, e tota rainfall of the season is below 2 cm in RaJastuat\
'J_ , a ya radesh; betwee 5 d 15 . ~
Himachal Pradesh p • b U n an cm in the sub-montane region of Uttarakhan
' unJa ' ttar Pradesh, Bihar and Odisha; and between 15 and 25 cm in tbt
 Geo gra phy of India

Ma lab ar coa st and ove r 50 W E 96•E

cm in As sam, M egh alaya,
Mi zor am , and Na gal and .
Th e rai ns cau sed by INDIA
il
in Temperature Zon es in Apr
thu nd ers tor ms
Karnataka are cal led as
"Cheny Blo sso ms " (w her e
these are be ne fic ial for
co ffe e pla nta tio n) an d
elsewhere in sou th fud ia as
"mango showers".
J. Th e Se as on of
General Ra ins :
By the en d of Jun e 20-N
'
a low pr es su re are a
develops over Pu nja b an d Mean Temperature

Rajasthan. The sou the rn

~W 'l25 "C)

branch of the jet str ea m

we ak en s an d is fin all y
wi thd raw n fro m the
so uth ern slo pe s of the
1 '
" i 25- 27
30- 32.5
NxN e32 .5

Himalayas by mi d-J un e,
leading to the formation of 0 350 700 1060

a dynamic depression over l(m

the surface thermal low.

ril
The In ter -T ro pic aI- Fig. 15 : Mean Temperature in Ap
Zo ne
Convergence
wa rds oc cu py ing a po sition of 25°N by mid-June and allowing
(ITCZ) moves further north Th e cyclonic vortices developed in the TT
C
to gush in the sub co nti ns; it.
equatorial westerlies stream s origin ating due to thermal heating of
pic al ea ste rly jet
cause rains in the country. The tro m wh ich south-east trade winds are pushed
ean hig h pre ssu re cell fro
Tibet intensifies Indian Oc
tarctic Circw np ola r W hirl to develop as south-west monsoon.
by the An
Ind ia, the tem pe rat ure rea ch es its maximum in June to break the
In the northern plains of
da y tem pe rat ure tou ch es 46 °C and more. The mean maximum
nsoon. At places, the °C , De lhi 40 °C , Allahabad 39°C, Koll<ata
dh pu r rea ch es 41
rature in the month ofJune at Jo rna l range of temperature is high
im la an d Sr ina g~ . Th e diu
, 29°C at Kochi and 23°C at Sh l ran ge of temperature is, however, less
S°C at De lhi . Th e diu rna
about J0°C at Leh, and 1
that of the month of May (Fig. 15).
 Geograp hy of India

80"£
Generally in the afternoon of

"~11r
a scorching day, rains begi n
suddenly. This is known as a
"monsoon burst". The Arabian Sea The Ba"j ,
current advances northwards by current firn das~
I st June on the Kerala coast and Myanmar coast, ai
reaches Mumbai by about I 0th ... :, by the eastern hi\l
·•·.· estward towu
-~ )une. By mid-June, it spreads over p\a1n. This cun
Sa.urashtra, Kutch and Madhya heav,est ra,nfan
Pradesh. (about \201
enerra-punj, l \ l
The Bay of Bengal current . A major pa~
first strikes Andaman and Nicobar ~ 1 ~~~~
islands by about 2,Sth o(_May and . Here also, th,
reaches Meghalaya, Mizoram and 1 .,....,,.,_~ the Megha\a
Tripura by about 1st June. It rapidly \ower rainfa
cm in Shill,
spreads over most of-:t,\ssam, and
reaches Kolkata arouritl 11th June. 12"N
i~n20"q
Mean~~
between J,
respective\
In Delhi, western Uttar Pradesh,
Haryana, and Punjab, the monsoon
reaches around 1st July.
1t~
008
mb
the Bay of
Ko\kata l
, Al\ahaba
I

Bikaner
During the season ofgeneral 0 · 350 ·700 \
rains, most of the country I I -1
I.___...._--:1<rn~.i....._-i I (J&K)'
betwee1
experiences good cloud cover Fig. 16: Mean Temperatee in July (Fig.-1
(from 1/8 to overcast sky). During
I

this season, the relative humidity is generallr over 65%. Assam and Kera\a record the higoo of rai
percentage of relative humidity; over 80% over the greater part of the rainy season. affect
and t
. The greater parts of the subcontinent of India receive over 85% of their total rainfi morn
during the season of general rains. The Arabian Sea current causes rainfall all along the Ma\aba the t
coast, Konkan coast, Western Ghats, Maharasqtra, Gujarat, and parts of Madhya Prad~ and
Mumbai records about 190 cm of rainfall during this season. As the Arabian current ~rosses~ lak\
Sahyadris th I • d ·.1~ ren
. ' e P aces situate on the leeward side of the Western Ghats receive substanti~.
less rainfall For exa I p ( b • d wn
. · mp e, une a out 160 km to the east of Mumbai) gets only 125 cm
rainfall. Nagpur record 125 · · ftt'
. S
Ara btan ea current wh· hs cm and ThanJavur only 85 cm of rainfall. The sub-branch 0
\'Ult se
rainfall to th . ic moves northwards through Kutch, Gujarat and Rajasthan gives I
ese regions due to th 11 I . rre~ "N
goes straight up to th ~ para e alignment of the Aravallis. The Arabian sea cu .A
e western H1malay h · ·
and Himachal Pradesh. as, w ere it gives appreciable rainfall in Uttarakhat'"