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CONTENTS
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CHAPTER 1: NATURE OF OCEANOGRAPHY
Oceanography as a branch o f sciences,
oceanography as a branch o f geography,
meaning and definition o f oceanography, scope o f oceanography,
branches o f oceanography,
growth o f oceanography,
summary o f the history o f oceanography, = ?
origin o f atmosphere,
origin o f oceans,
ocean's characteristic features,
CHAPTER 2 : ORIGIN OF OCEAN BASINS
distributional characteristics o f continents and ocean,
continental drift theory o f Taylor,
continental drift theory o f W agener,
plate tectonic theory,
seam ounts and tablem ounts,
CHAPTER 3 : OCEAN MORPHOLOGY AND BOTTOM RELIEF
m arine provinces,
continental m argins,
contin en tal shelf,
contin en tal slope, subm arine canyons,
d istrib u tio n o f subm arine canyons,
o rigin o f subm arine canyons,
deep sea fans and continental rise, deep ocean basins,, abyssal plains,
abyssal hills, ocean deeps and trenches,
m id-ocean ridge,
bottom reliefs o f A tlantic O cean,
bottom reliefs o f Pacific O cean,
bottom reliefs o f Indian O cean,
bottom reliefs o f A rctic O cean,
CHAPTER 4 : PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF OCEAN WATER
hydrological cycle,
constituents o f seaw ater,
physical properties o f seawater,
sea temperature,
density o f oceans,
relationship between density, temperature and salinity,
CHAPTER 5 : SALINITY OF SEAWATER
meaning and derivations,
principles o f constant proportion,
com position o f seawater,
sources o f ocean salinity,
controlling factors o f salinity,
horizontal distribution o f salinity,
vertical distribution o f salinity,
significance o f salinity,
CHAPTERS: MARINE SEDIMENTS AND DEPOSITS
nature o f marine sediments, v
 (x)
production, transportation and d ep ssitio n o f marine sediments,
man's impact on marine sediments,
factors of marine sedimentation, <. (
sources o f marine sediments,
mode of marine sedimentation, •
classification of marine sediments,,
lithogenic sediments,
volcanogenic sediments, biogenic sediments,
hydrogenic sediments,
classification of ocean deposits, '■
distribution o f ocean deposits,
CHAPTER 7 : ATMOSPHERE-SEA INTERACTIONS
solar radiation and heating of earth's surface, .
meridional transfer of heat from ocean surface,
heating and cooling of ground and ocean surfaces,
differential heating and cooling of land and ocean surfaces,
atmospheric pressure,
pressure gradient,
horizontal distribution of air pressure and pressure belts,
atmospheric motion, ' *"
global wind belts,
atmospheric cellular circulation,
El Nino-La Nina phenomenon,
W alkar circulation and southern osciellation,
monsoon, •
origin of Indian monsoon,
land and sea breezes,
tropical cyclones,
CHAPTER 8 : SEA WAVES, SHORELINE PROCESSES AND COASTAL SCENERY
sea waves : components and characteristics, '\
generation of sea waves,
types and movement of sea waves,
wave refraction, . . , •’
wave reflection,
sea coasts and sea shores, classification of coasts and shores,
waves and dynamic shorelines,
coastal features and habitats,
depositional coastal features, beaches,
delta,
development o f shorelines o f submergence,
development o f shorelines of emergence,
CHAPTER 9 : TSUNAMIS
tsunamis : nature and characteristics,
tsunamis : causes and origin,
chronology o f tsunami waves,
arrival o f tsunami,
adverse effects of tsunami disaster, Sumatra tsunami,
management of tsunai(ni disaster,
CHAPTER 10: SURFACE OCEAN CURRENTS
, ■ i {.,•**■ i>i<' ia i t s r v?
meaning, concepts and types, 258
 ocean currents : characteristics and significan ce, 260
origin and factors o f ocean currents, 263
;:V circulation gyres, 266
Ekm an spirals and Ekman Uansport, 267
geostrophic circulation, western intensification, 269
surface currents o f the oceans, 274
surface currents o f Atlantic Ocean, 275
sargasso sea, 281
surface currents o f P acific Ocean, 282
El N in o current, 285
effects o f El N in o , 286
su rfa ce c u rre n ts o f In d ia n O cean, 288
e ffects o f surface ocean currents, 290
CHAFFER 11: W ATER MASSES AND DEEP CURRENTS 2 9 4 -3 0 6
w a te r m asse s, 294
ty p e s o f w ater m asses, 295
sources o f w ater m asses, 296
d e e p c u rre n ts and th erm o h alin e circu latio n , 298
c y c lic p a tte rn o f th erm o h alin e circulation, 298
w a te r m asses o f A tlan tic O cean, w ater m asses o f P acific O cean , 299
w a te r m asses and th erm o h alin e circulation in Indian O cean , 300
c o n v e y e r b e lt circu latio n , dow nw elling, 301
u p w e llin g , 302
CHAPTER 12: TIDES 3 0 7 -3 2 2
tid e s : m e an in g and concep ts, tides : characteristic featu res, 307
tid e g e n e ra tin g force, 310
tim e o f tide, 311
ty p e s o f tid es, 313
th e o rie s o f th e o rig in o f tides, equilibrium m odel o f tid es, 315
e q u ilib riu m th e o ry o f N ew ton, 316
p ro g re s siv e w ave theory, 317
sta tio n a ry w av e theory, 318
tidal b o res, 319
tidal currents, 320
CHAPTER 13 : CORAL REEFS 323-339
com p on en ts o f coral reefs, 323
c o n d itio n s fo r th e gro w th o f coral polyps, 324
coral e co lo g y , 327
distribution o f coral reefs, 329
typ es o f coral reefs, 330
origin o f coral reefs and atolls, subsidence theory, 332
standstill theory, .. . 334
glacial control theory, concept o f W .M . D avis, 335
coral bleaching, 336
CHAPTER 14: OCEAN HABITATS 340-368
ocean habitats : characteristic features, 340
classification o f ocean habitats, 341
p elagic habitats and environment, 343
benthic habitats and environment, 346
Ite - *u coastal habitats,
estuaries,
Hugli estuary,
lagoons,
!• * ' . - f t ' y - -
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 coastal wetlands, < .■; ?t 358
m angrove swamps, 359
m angrove swamps in India, 361
salt marshes, , 364
r Indian salt marshes, 365
CHAPTER 15 : MARINE BIOMES (BIOZONES) AND SEA ORGANISMS 369-386
marine biomes (b io z o n e s): meaning and characteristic features, 369
types o f marine biomes, 371
classification of marine organism s, 373
plankton com m unity, marine biological com m unities, 377
phytoplanktons, zooplanktons, 378
nekton community, 380
sea mammals, 380
benthos community, . 382
CHAPTER 16 : MARINE ECOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY 387-412
m arine ecology, meaning and concept, 387
factors of m arine ecology, 389
adaptation of marine organisms, 393
ecological productivity and biological production, 398
limiting factors of primary production, 399
prim ary producer marine organisms, 401
regional pattern of net marine primary productivity, 401
global pattern of primary production, 1 404
trophic levels and food chains, 406
energy flow in marine ecosystem, 408
m arine biogeochemical cycles, 409
CHAPTER 17 : MARINE RESOURCES 413-429
* m arine resources : meaning and importance, 413
law o f sea : historical perspective, maritime zone, 414
classification o f m arine resources, 416
m arine biological resources, 417
food resources, 418
fishing, m arine farming, 419
ocean ranching, whaling, 421
m ineral resources, - 422
non-conventional m arine energy resources, vitam ins and drugs resources, 426
conservation o f m arine resources, 427
CHAPTER 18 : MAN AND OCEANS 430-451
manipulation o f coastal processes, 431
marine pollution, 435
man and marine ecosystem , 442
overfishing, 443
global w arm ing and oceans, 445
global w arm ing and m arine ecology, 449
CHAPTER 19 : BERMUDA TRIANGLE 452-454
Area o f Bermuda Triangle 452
Disappearance o f aircrafts & ships 453
Supernatural explanations 453
Scientific explanations 454
• INDEX 455-458
• REFERENCES 459-460
 buttress zone, 328 d e n sity s tra tific a tio n , 108
ab an d o n ed delta, 232 d e s tru c tiv e p la te boundaries, 42
abrasion, 221 d e s tru c tiv e w a v e s, 213
calc a re o u s oo£e, 137
ab so rption, 95 d ia s tro p h ic th e o ry , 68
cap illary w av es, 208
abyssal plain s, 70 d ia to m o o z e , 138
c arb o n ife ro u s g la c ia tio n , 38
abyssal hills, 71 d is p h o tic z o n e , 342
active co n tin en tal m argins, 61 ch em ical o c e a n o g ra p h y , 6
c h lo rin ity , 112, 124 d iv erg en ce-d ep en d en t upwelling
adiabatic heating and cooling,
304
154 c irc u la tio n g y res, 2
ad so rp tion, 116, 124 d iv e rg e n t p la te b o u n d aries, 4 ]
cliff, 221
a h erm atype corals, 328 d o w n w e llin g , 301
c lim a tic o p tim u m , 12
algae ridge, 328 d o w n w e llin g o c e a n currents
c o asta l h a b ita ts, 348
ap h o tic zone, 103, 345 260
c o a sta l p la in e stu a rie s, 351
apogean tide, 3 14 d re d g in g , 4 3 4
c o asta l w e tla n d s, 2 2 8 , 358
aq u asp h ere, 28 d rifts , 2 6 0
co ld co re rin g s, 279
arcu ate delta, 231 d y n a m ic o c e a n o g ra p h y , 6
co ld w all, 278
atoll, 331
c o llisio n zo n e, 42
e a st b o u n d a ry c u rre n ts , 266
b a r-b u ilt e stu a rie s, 354 c o m p o u n d sh o re lin e s, 218 e c o lo g ic a l p ro d u c tiv ity , 399
b a rrie r reef, 33 1 c o n ju c tio n , 313 e c o lo g y , 388
bars and b a rrie rs, 227, 228 c o n se rv a tiv e p la te b o u n d a rie s, e c o n o m ic o c e a n o g ra p h y , 6
b ath y m etry , 60 4 1 ,4 3 e c o s o u n d e r, 60
b a th y p elag ic zo n e, 344 c o n stru c tiv e w a v es, 213 edge w av es, 240
b each es, 225 c o n tin e n ta l d rift, 31, 32
E k m a n s p ira l, 167, 268
b each cusps, 227 c o n tin e n ta l m a rg in s, 61
E k m a n tra n s p o rt, 2 6 7 , 269
b each rid g e s, 227 c o n tin e n ta l rise, 70
E l N in o , 176
b eachridge-shelteredsaltm arshes, c o n tin e n ta l sh elf, 62
e n v iro n m e n ta l o cean o g rap h y , 7
366 c o n tin e n ta l slo p e, 65
e p ip e la g ic b io z o n e , 343
b en th ic h a b ita ts, 346 c o n v e rg e n t p la te b o u n d a rie s,
e q u a to r ia l w e s te rlie s , 170
42
b en th ic b io m e , 373 e q u ilib riu m m o d e l, 315
c o n v e y e r b e lt c irc u la tio n , 301
b en th o s c o m m u n ity , 381 e s tu a rie s , 3 5 0
c o ra l a n im a l, 323
b en th o s h y d ro th e rm a l v en t c o m ­ e u p h o tic z o n e , 3 4 4
m u n itie s, 388 c o ra lite , 324
e x c lu s iv e e c o n o m ic zo n e, 416
b erm s, 227 c o rio lis d e fle c tiv e fo rc e , 265
b io d e g ra d a tio n , 410 c o rio lis fo rce, 165 F e rre l c e ll, 175
b io g e n ic se d im e n ts, 136 c o rro s io n , 221 f is h in g , 4 2 0
b io lo g ic a l o c e a n o g ra p h y , 6 c u rre n ts , 2 6 0 flo o d tid e , 3 0 8
b io lo g ic a l p ro d u c tio n , 399 c ry o s p h e re , 28 fo o d c h a in s , 4 0 7
b io sy n th e sis, 409 f r ic tio n a l d ra g , 2 6 4
b ird -fo o t d e lta , 231 d a rk ag e, 12 f r ic tio n a l fo rc e , 166
b lo c k ed d e lta , 232 d e e p s, 72 f r in g in g re e f, 3 3 0
b lu e m ud, 136 d e ep o c ea n c u rre n ts , 2 6 0 fr o n tlin e n a tu ra l b u ffe rs, 63
b re a k e rs, 214 d e ep sea fa n s, 70 fu lly d e v e lo p e d sea , 208
b re a k w a te rs, 433 d eep w a te r w a v e s, 2 12
b u lk e m p la c e m e n t, 132, 134 d e lta , 229 g a se s , 93
146 d e n sity , 105 , fit--:
g a s h y d ra te s , 4 2 6
 INDEX
o c ea n w a ter m m m d*, 2 6 7
litto ral zo n e, 347
geological oceanography, 5 ocean w ater v a lle y s * 2 6 6
lith o g e n ic se d im e n ts, 134, 146
geom agnetic field, 47 o p p o sitio n , 3 13
geom orphological oceanogra­ living h y d ro sp h e re , H
looped bars, 228 o u tg a ssm g , 2 6
phy, 6
lu n ar tid al b u lg e , 308 o z o n e d ep letio n , 4 4 7
g eo strophic c irc u latio n , 269
g eo strophic cu rren t, 269
global w arm ing, 446 m an g an ese n o d u le, 138 p a la e o m a g n e tis m , 4 7
g lo b ig c rin a ooze, 137 m angrove-sheltered salt m arshes, p a rtia lly m ix e d estu a ries, 3 5 5
g lo u p , 224 365 p a ssi ve co n tin en ta l m argins, 62
g ra v ity w a v es, 208 m ang ro v e sw an y p s, 359 p a tc h re e fs , 3 2 9
g re e n h o u se e ffe c t, 447 m aricu ltu re, 421 p e la g ic b io m e , 3 7 2
green m u d , 136 m arine b io g eo ch em ical c y c le s, p e la g ic h a b ita ts , 3 4 3
g ro in s, 4 3 4 4 1 0 ,4 1 1 p e la g ic s e d im e n ts , 137
g u y o ts, 5 5 , 57, 71 m arine b io m es, 371 p e rig e a n tid e , 3 1 4
g y res, 2 5 8 , 270 m arine eco lo g y , 388, 389 p h o tic z o n e , 103
m arine form ing, 416 p h y s ic a l o c e a n o g ra p h y , 6
h ad al p e la g ic z o n e, 344 m arine o rg an ism s, 376 p h y to p la n k to n s , 3 7 9
H a d le y c e ll, 175 m arine p o llu tio n , 436 p la n k to n c o m m u n ity , 3 7 8
h a lo c lin e , 108, 1 10, 123, 124 m arine p ro v in ces, 59 p la te te c to n ic s , 4 0
h e rm a ty p e c o ra ls, 327 m arine sn o w fall, 126, 132, 147
h ig h sea , 4 1 6 p la te te c to n ic th e o ry ', 3 9
m aritim e zone, 415
h o rs e la titu d e , 1'73 p lu n g e lin e , 2 1 4
m eso p elag ic bio zo n e, 343
h u rric a n e , 195 p lu n g in g b re a k e rs , 2 1 5
m id -latitu d e circ u latio n , 172
h y d ra u lic a c tio n , 220 p o la r c e ll, 176
m id-o cean ridge, 72
h y d ro c a rb o n s , 4 4 0 p o la r a ir c irc u la tio n , 174
m onso o n , 181
h y d ro g e n ic s e d im e n ts , 138, 146 p re c a u tio n a ry p r in c ip le s , 4 4 5
m o n stro u s w aves, 213
h y d ro lo g ic a l c y c le , 90 p re s su re g ra d ie n t, 157, 163
h y d ro s p h e ric c o m p o n e n ts, 2 p rim a ry p ro d u c e r, 4 0 2
n a d ir lunar bulge, 31 1
h y d ro th e rm a l v e n ts, 73 p rin c ip le o f c o n s ta n t propor­
n ad ir tide, 3 14
h y p s o m e try (h y s o g ra p h y ), 60 tio n , 1 1 2 ,1 2 4
n atu ral b u ffers, 252 p ro g ra d a tio n , 2 2 7
n atural c h im n ey s, 224 p s e u d o m o n s o o n , 184
ice fo rm a tio n , 117
n ekto n c o m m u n ity , 381 p te ro p o d o o z e , 137
ice ra ftin g , 132
neep tide, 313 p y c n o c lin e , 107, 110, 124
in n e r e s tu a rin e s a ltm a rsh e s, 366
n e re tic h a b ita ts, 343 p y c n o c lin e la y e r, 109
in te rn a l w a v e s , 209
n e re tic m a tte r, 137
is o h a lin e , 122
n et m arin e p rin a ry p ro d u c tiv ­ q u a d ra tu re , 313
is o th e rm s , 98
ity, 402
n et tra n sp o rt, 269 ra d io la ria n o o z e , 138
k in g d o m fu n g i, 375
n e u tra l s h o re lin e s, 2 18 red c la y , 138
k in g d o m m e ta p h y ta e a , 375
k in g d o m m e ta z o a , 375 n o n -c o n s e rv a tiv e gas, 93 re d m u d , 136
k in g d o m m o n e ra , 375 n o rm a l p o la rity , 50 re e fs , 324
k in g d o m p ro tis ta , 375 n u trie n ts in s e a w a te r, 93 r e e f fa c e, 328
r e e f te rra c e , 3 28
la g o o n s, 357 o c e a n h a b ita ts, 340 re fle c tio n , 95
land b reezes, 192 o c e a n m o rp h o lo g y , 59 re m a n e n t m a g n e tis m , 4 7
land h em isp h ere, 29 o c e a n ra n c h in g , 4 2 2 retail sed im en ta tio n , 132, 147
law o f sea , 4 1 5 o c e a n ic ris e s, 73 retrogradation, 2 2 7
liquid hydrosphere, 8 o c e a n o lo g y , 3 reversal o f p o la rity , 4 9
 OCEANOd
% 8
tu rb id ity c u rre n t th eo ry , 6$ > ;
rogue w a v e s, 213 su b litto ra l zo n e, 347
ty p h o o n , 195
su b m arin e c o n y o n s, 65 -• »- *• _• **'
subm arine density cu rren t theory,
s a b k h a , 228 u p w e llin g , 3 0 2
s a lin tiy , 111
subpolar c irc u la tio n gyre, 268
s a lin o m e te r, 112, 125 v e r tic a lly m ix e d estu aries, 354
su p ra litto ra l zo n e, 347
sa lt m a rsh e s, 364 v o lc a n o g e n ic sed im en ts, 135
s a lt w e d g e e stu a rie s, 354 s u rf w aves, 208
su rface o cean c u rre n ts, 258
sc a tte rin g , 95 • W a lk a r c ir c u la tio n , 179
sea a re a, 20 7 , 214 s u rf zone, 214
w a rm c o re rin g s , 278
sea b re e z e s, 192 s y z y g y ,313
w a rm c u r r e n ts , 261
flo o r s p re a d in g , 44
table m o u n ts, 71 w a te r h e m is p h e re , 29
sea k n o lls, 71
se a m a m m a ls, 381 te rrito ria l sea, 416 w a te r h ill, 2 7 0
sea m o u n ts, 55, 57, 71 th e rm a l eq u ato r, 117 w a te r m a s s e s , 2 9 4
se a w a lls, 432 th e rm o a b ra sio n , 221 w ave base, 212
seic h e s, 207 th e rm o c lin e , 105, 110, 124 w a v e c e le r ity , 2 0 6
s e lf re v e rsa l o f p o la rity , 49 therm oh aline c irc u la tio n , 295 w a v e c re s ts , 2 0 5
sh allo w w a te r w aves, 212 tidal bo re, 3 19 w a v e -c u t p la tfo rm , 223
sh o re lin e o f e m erg en c e , 217 tid al bulge, 308 w ave freq u e n cy , 206
sh o re lin e s o f su b m erg en c e , 218 tidal range, 308 w a v e h e ig h t, 2 0 6
silic e o u s o o ze, 137 to m b o lo , 228 w a v e le n g th , 2 0 6
sin k s o f ocean salin ity , 125 trace elem en ts, 93 w a v e o r th o g o n a ls , 215
sk errie s, 224 trade w in d s, 172 w a v e p e r io d , 2 0 6
so la r b u lg e, 308 tra n sfo rm fau lts, 73 w a v e r e f le c tio n , 2 1 6
so lid h y d ro sp h e re , 8
tra n sitio n a l w av es, 213 w a v e r e f r a c tio n , 2 1 5
so u n d in g te ch n iq u e, 60 tra n slato ry w av es, 213 w a v e s te e p n e s s , 2 0 6
so u th ern o sc illa tio n , 179
tre n c h es, 72 w a v e tr a in s , 2 0 7
sp ec ific heat, 97
tro p h ic level, 407 w a v e tro u g h , 2 0 5
sp illin g b re a k ers, 215
tro p ical c irc u la tio n , 170 w e s t b o u n d a ry c u rre n ts , 265
sp rin g tid e, 313 tro p ic a l cy clo n e s, 193 w e s te r lie s , 173
stan d in g w aves, 216 tru n c a te d d elta, 232 w e s te rn in te n s ific a tio n , 270
storm w av es, 210 tsu n a m is, 239 w h a lin g , 4 2 2
stream s, 261 tsu n am i sy n d ro m e , 240 w h a lin g m o ra to riu m , 445
S tefan -B o ltzm an Jaw, 153 tsu n a m ig e n ic e a rth q u a k e s , 251 W ie n ’s d is p la c e m e n t law , 153
subaerial ero sio n th e o ry , 68 ts u n a m i-ru n n e r-u p , 240 w in d d ra g , 2 6 5
su bduction zo n e, 42 tsu n am i w a rn in g sy ste m , 252
z o o p la n k to n s , 2 7 9

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 .• . •vc/^v

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: N A TU R E O F OCEANOGRAPHY
1-28
1
O c ea n o g ra p h y as a branch o f sciences,
o c e a n o g ra p h y as a branch o f geography,
2
m e a n in g and d efin itio n o f oceanography, scope o f o c ea n o g ra p h y , 3
5
b ra n c h e s o f o c ean o g rap h y ,
9
g ro w th o f o c ea n o g ra p h y ,
s u m m a ry o f th e h isto ry o f oceanography, 24
26
o rig in o f a tm o sp h ere ,
27
o rig in o f o c e a n s,
o c e a n 's c h a ra c te ristic featu res, 28
IQ -58

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H ydrosphere is one o f five m ajor com po­
nents o f the planet earth, nam ely, lithosphere,
atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and cryosphere.
About th ree-fo u rth o f the globe (70.8 percent) is
covered by hydrosphere. Out o f the total surface
area o f the globe (509,950,000 km 2), lithosphere
and hydrosphere cover 148,890,000 km2 and
361,060,000 k m 2 respectively. The oceans and
seas covering largest surface area o f the globle are
of param ount significance to all o f the living
organisms inclu d in g m an o f the biosphere be­
cause they help in the functioning o f global
hydrological cycle through atm ospheric-oceanic
circulation system ; they are significant sink o f
carbon dioxide and thus help in reducing the
greenhouse e ffe ct caused by hum an activities;
they help in the dispersal o f seeds and small
animals through ocean currents; they provide
vital m ineral and biological resources, they help
in the trade and com m erce; they provide varying
marine habitats fo r the evolution, and develop­
ment o f m arine organism s etc. This is why the
study o f various aspects o f oceans and seas under
the banner o f oceanography has alw ays been at the
center stage o f the developm ent o f hum an culture
and civilization.
NATURE OF OCEANOGRAPHY
1.1 OCEANOGRAPHY : A BRANCH OF
SCIENCE
G enerally, people think oceanography as a
pure science based on the fundam entals o f
physics, chem istry, and m athem atics b u t this is
not true because the discipline o f oceanography
besides dealing with the physical and chem ical
characteristics o f oceans, it also studies m arine
organisms in tem poral and spatial contexts. Thus,
oceanography is the am algam ation o f the fu n d a­
mentals o f pure and life sciences (botany,
zoology, and ecology). It is, thus, apparent that
oceanography is an applied branch o f sciences,
both pure and biological sciences.
The exclusion o f geography from the am bit
o f oceanography in no way can be ju stifie d
because different aspects o f oceanography, nam ely
distribution o f continents and ocean basins
(including seas), ocean dynamics and m ovem ents
(ocean currents and tides), m arine sedim ents and
deposits, marine organism s including corals,
marine habitats, m arine resources etc., cannot be
studied w ithout spatial consideration. It is also
true that geography being a spatial science, is also
a part o f sciences. Thus, it becomes obvious that
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 2
oceanography is a branch o f sciences including
pure sciences, biological sciences, and space
science (geography).
1.2 OCEANOGRAPHY : A BRANCH OF PHYSI­
CAL GEOGRAPHY
Physical geography is one o f the two
branches o f geography, namely physical geogra­
phy and hum an geography. In fact, the study o f
physical aspects o f the planet earth represents the
core o f spatial science, i.e., geography. Most of
geographers have pleaded for bifurcation of
geography into physical and human geography
but it is rather unwise to ignore biotic aspects of
the biospheric ecosystem or the earth and hence
there should be trifurcation of geography into
physical geography, human geography, and bio­
geography.
Physical geography in terms of its meaning
and definition, scope (subject matter), and meth­
ods o f study has undergone seachange in the past
few decades. In the beginning, physical geogra­
phy was defined as the study of only physical
environm ent, namely, land (reliefs), air and water
(hydrosphere) o f the earth as is seen in the
following definition :
" The study o f physical environment by itself
is physical geography which includes considera­
tion o f surface reliefofthegloble (geomorphology),
o f the seas and the oceans (oceanography), and o f
the air (meteorology and climatology) ”
Arthur H olm es
Arthur Holmes further elaborated the definition
o f physical geography as follows :
“Physical geography is simply the study o f
unification o f a number o f earth sciences which
give us a general insight into the nature o f man's
environment. Not in itself a distinct branch o f
science physical geography is a body o f basic
principles o f earth sciences selected with a view to
include primarily the environmental influces that
varyfrom place to place over the earth's surface. "
Arthur Holmes, I960
It may be pointed out that presently
physical geography is not only the agglomeration
oceanography
and unification o f earth sciences as referred to
above but it also studies the patterns o f interac­
tions between human activities and physical
environment. As a distinct branch o f geography,
physical geography studies the spatial patterns
and spatial relationships o f environmental com­
ponents o f the globe in regional context, it also
studies the causes o f regional patterns o f such
spatial relationships, sim ultaneously it incorpo­
rates the explanation o f spatial and temporal
changes o f environmental components and causes
thereof. It is evident that the focus o f the study of
physical geography is the biosphere (life layer)
comprising the envelope o f land, air and water
around the globe which supports the life of all
biota o f the lithosphere and hydrosphere (plants
and animals) on the earth surface.
It is, thus, apparent that besides the study of
lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere, the
study o f biosphere has also been incorporated in
physical geography. Recently, one more aspect of
the planet earth e.g. cryosphere, has been added to
the scope o f physical geography. It may be
mentioned that cryosphere includes frozen parts
o f both continents and oceans. Thus, physical
geography may be defined in the following terms
"Physical geography is the study o f charac­
teristic features o f lithosphere (geomorphology),
atmosphere (climatology), biosphere (biogeogra­
phy), and cryosphere (cryogeography). "
Savindra Singh, 2007
It is, thus, evident that the study o f
hydrosphere, say oceanography, is an integral
part o f physical geography.
The study o f hydrospheric component in­
volves the consideration o f reliefs o f the ocean
basins (continental shelves, submarine canyons,
continental slope, deep sea plains, ocean deeps
etc.); thermal characteristics o f ocean water;
salinity (composition o f seawater, sources and
distribution o f oceanic salinity); ocean deposits;
ocean tides; ocean currents and coral reefs and
atolls, marine sediments, marine resources, coastal
processes, coastal habitats and biomes, marine
ecology and marine organisms, m an and marine
environment etc.
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MATURE o f oceanography
1 3 OCEANOGRAPHY : MEANING AND
' d e f in it io n
T he scien ce o f oceanography consists o f
two G reek w ords e.g. okeanos or oceanus, m eaning
thereby oceans, and graphia, m eaning thereby
description. T hus, based on literal m eaning o f
oceanography, it m ay be defined as follow s :
"Oceanography is the description o f ma­
rine environment, say marine phenomena.
-(I)
It m ay be m entioned th at any science cannot
be m erely th e d escription o f phenom ena, rather it
m ust be an in vestigative and interpretative d isci­
pline. B ased on. this prem ise the science o f
ocean o graphy m ay be defined as follow s :
“O ceanography is that marine science
which investigates and interprets marine environ­
ment and phenomena, and marine processes,
namely physical, chemical, and biological proc­
esses. ” ...(2)
In fact, the term oceanology represents
m arine e n v iro n m en t and processes m ore com pre­
hensively an d m ore pro m in en tly than ocean o g ra­
phy but tra d itio n a lly oceanography has been in
w ider use am ong the general public and hence it
could n ev er be rep laced by oceanology, ‘ology’
means ‘science of7, and thus oceanology m eans
science o f oceans. T h is term gives m ore scientific
hue to the o cean s an d hence geography o f oceans.
A few o f the trad itio n al definitions o f
oceanography are g iv en below :
"Oceanography em braces all studies p e r­
taining to the sea and integrates -the knowledge
gained in the m arine sciences that deal with such
subjects as the ocean boundaries and bottom
topography, the ph ysics and chemistry o f sea
water, the type ofcurrents, and the m a n y phases o f
marine biology. ” ••■(3)
H.U. Sverdrup,
M.W. Johnson, and
R.H. Flemming
"Oceanography like meteorology is a sci­
ence which has grown from geographic soil. It is
c°nserned with the hydrosphere, a very mobile
- •. ;■ ■
3
p a r t o f the earth, an d stu dies tides, currents,
p h ysical properties o f ocean water, configuration
o f the coasts and the ocean flo o r, an d life in the
ocean as w ell as its region al distribution. It is ;
intim ately associated with the exact sciences. •
■■■(*)
Freeman
“O c e a n o g r a p h y , the scien ce o f the sea,
embraces prim arily the stu dy o f the fo rm and
nature o f the oceanic basins, the ch aracteristics
o f the waters in these basins and the m ovem ents to
which these waters are subjected to. ~ (5)
H.A. Maimer
I f w e co n sid er th e c o n ten ts o f a fo re sa id
definitions o f ocean o g rap h y , it b e co m e s c le a r th a t
m ost o f the above m en tio n ed d e fin itio n s also
reveal the contents o f stu d y to be p u rs u e d u n d e r
the discipline o f ocean o g rap h y . B a se d o n a b o v e
facts a com prehensive d efin itio n o f o c e a n o g ra p h y
m ay be presented in the fo llo w in g m a n n e r :
"Oceanography is a science that in vesti­
gates and interprets the ch aracteristics and
origin o f ocean basins and reliefs thereof,
physical and chemical properties o f sea w a ter
(temperature, salinity and density), ocean dynam ­
ics (tides, sea waves, ocean currents, an d tid a l
surges including trunamis), coastal p ro cesses
and coastal scenery, marine sedim ents and ocean
deposits, coastal habitats and marine ecology,
marine resources, marine organisms and b io lo g i­
cal productivity, and man and marine environ­
m ent.” --(6 )
Savindra Singh, 2007
1.4 SCOPE OF OCEANOGRAPHY
A close perusal o f d efin itio n s o f o c e a n o g ra ­
phy, as discussed in th e p rev io u s se c tio n 1.3,
clearly reveals the scope o f o c ean o g rap h y , say
subject m atter to b e stu d ied in th is d iscip lin e. In a
very sim ple term the stu d y o f h y d ro sp h ere
(oceans and seas), say w atersp h ere c o v erin g 9 7.2
percent o f all w ater, b o th in liq u id and so lid form
(ice) is called ocean o g rap h y o r th e geography of
oceam, w hich includes the c o n sid e ra tio n o f
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description and analysis o f physical and biologi­ (2) marine geomorphological aspect*
cal aspects o f hydrosphere.
reliefs o f the ocean basins
A ccording to J. Proudm an fundamental
principles o f dynam ics and therm odynam ics are (i) continental shelf and slope
also studied in relation to characteristics o f ocean (ii) deep sea plains and trenches
w ater and biological aspects. Thus, the science o f (iii) submarine conyons
oceans, i.e., oceanography includes the studies o f
m arine geology, m arine geomorphology, physical ► coastal processes and coastal landfonos
oceanography, chem istry o f ocean water, and bio­ (3) physical and chemical aspects
oceanography. M arine geology and m arine temperature o f ocean water
geom orphology aspects o f oceanography include
the consideration o f the origin o f ocean basins >■ density o f ocean water
(continental drift, and sea-floor spreading on the *- viscosity, pressure and compressibility
basis o f plate tectonics); origin and characteristics
of m arine sedim ents, and deposition thereof; >• water masses and their distributional
mode o f operation o f coastal processes (sea patterns
w aves) and characteristic features o f coastal >■ salinity o f ocean water
landform s. Physical aspects o f oceanography
>■ marine sediments and deposits
study the characteristics o f physical properties o f
ocean w ater (such as temperature, pressure, (4) dynamics of oceans
density, salinity, com pressibility, viscosity, water >- sea waves
m asses and their distributional patterns), and
dynam ics o f ocean water, namely sea waves, >■ ocean currents
ocean currents, tides, tsunamis, tidal and storm ocean tides
surges etc.
tsunamis
Recently, marine meteorology is also in­
>■ tidal surges
cluded in oceanography wherein atmospheric
conditions over ocean water are studied. The (5) global atmosphere-ocean circulation : air-sea
biological aspect o f oceanography includes the interactions
study o f the characteristics, evolution, distribu­
^ atmospheric circulation and ocean
tion and dispersal o f marine organisms; coastal currents
habitats and biome, marine ecology and marine
ecological productivity. *- southern oscillation and Walker cir­
culation
The appearance o f man after industrial
revolution as ‘economic man’ has greatly affected >■ El Nino
m arine environm ent and therefore the study o f the (6) coastal habitats and bionics
im pacts o f hum an activities on marine environ­
m ent has becom e very important subject matter of ► coastal habitats
the scope o f oceanography. (i) estuaries
Thus, the subject matter and contents o f the (ii) wetlands
study o f the science o f oceanography may be
sum m arized as follows : (iii) lagoons
(1) marine geological and tectonic aspects (iv) mangroves
>■ origin o f oceans *■ coastal biomes
>- origin o f ocean basins : continental
(i) littoral biome
drift
v plate tectonics and sea-floor spread­ (ii) sublittoral biome
ing (iii) pelagic biome

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 nature o f o cea n o g ra ph y
5

(7) m arine organism s and m arine ecology 1.5 BRANCHES OF OCEANOGRAPHY

(i) classificatio n o f m arine organism s

If we consider the contents o f definitions o f
(ii) m arine ecological produtivity oceanography (section 1.3), and the subject
(iii) marine food chains and biogeochemica) matter to be studied in the discipline o f oceanog­
cycles raphy (section 1.4) together, the follow ing branches
o f the discipline may be identified :
(iv) m arine plants
• geological oceanography
(v) m arine anim als
• geom orphological oceanography
(8) coral reefs and atolls
• physical oceanography
(7) m arine resources
• chem ical oceanography
(9) m an and m arine environm ent

Fig. 1 .1 : Branches o f oceanography.

• d y n am ic o c e a n o g ra p h y 5s- p h y sical o cean o g rap h y

• b io lo g ic a l o c e a n o g ra p h y
• econom ic o c e a n o g ra p h y
• e n v iro n m e n ta l o c e a n o g ra p h y
The a fo re sa id 8 b ra n c h e s o f o c ea n o g ra p h y
maV be fused to g e th e r so as to fo rm fo u r m a jo r
branches as fo llo w s :
v geological o c e a n o g ra p h y
(including g e o m o n o p h o lo g ic a l o c e a n o g ra -
(in clu d in g dy n am ic o c ea n o g ra p h y )
s* ch em ical o cean o g rap h y
b io lo g ical o cean o g rap h y
(in c lu d in g eco n o m ic an d e n v iro n m e n ta l
o c ean o g rap h y )
Geological Oceanography
G e o lo g ica l o cea n o g ra p h y is p rim a rily c o n ­
c ern ed w ith th e stu d y o f th e c h a ra c te ristic fe a tu re s

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6
and form ation o f sea floor, the origin o f ocean
basins, the plate m ovem ents and sea-floor spread­
ing through tim e, m arine sedim ents in tem poral
contexts etc. In this context the study o f therm al
convective currents originating in the m antle
becom es necessary.
Geomorphological Oceanography
G eom orphological oceanography includes
the consideration o f m echanism s o f coastal
processes o f denudation and characteristc result­
ant coastal iandform s, such as sea cliffs, wave-cut
platform s, sea coves and caves, skerries, stacks,
w ave-built platform s, sea beaches etc. It may be
m entioned that these landforrns provide ideal
habitats for different types o f marine organisms
including m arine plants, animals and m icro­
organism s. It is, thus, obvious that these different
geom orphological habitats and niches creat ma­
rine environm ents o f varying spatial scales.
Physical Oceanography
Physical oceanography studies basically
the physical properties o f ocean water in terms of
therm al conditions, density, turbidity, viscosity,
com pressibility o f ocean waters etc. In fact it
includes the study of temperature and density of
ocean w ater in tem poral and spatial contexts
because these two properties determine the
m otions o f sea w ater and movement o f water mass
in the oceans. Some scientists advocate for the
inclusion o f dynamics o f oceans such as sea
w aves, ocean currents, tides etc. in physical
oceanography, while others argue for the discus­
sion o f ocean dynamics in a separate branch of
oceanography, as dynamic oceanography. The
types, characteristics and origin, and the distribu­
tional patterns o f marine sedim ents are also
studied in physical oceanography.
Chemical Oceanography
Basically, chemical oceanography is the
study o f chemical com position and charactcritics
o f seawater. The study o f salinity o f oceans is
given more attention because it affects and
OCEANOGRAPHY
controls the d en sity o f seaw ater, m ovem ent of
seaw ater, ev ap o ratio n m ech an ism , and marine
organism s. It also in clu d es the co n sid eratio n of
pollution o f seaw ater, an d ex tra ctio n o f some
chem icals from salin e sea w ater so th at it may
becom e u sab le atleast for d rin k in g purpose.
Dynamic Oceanography
D ynam ic o cean o g rap h y is p rim a rily con­
cerned w ith the study o f g en esis and ch aracteris­
tics o f various types o f m o tio n s o f sea w ater such
as sea w aves, ocean cu rren ts, tid es, tsu n am is, and
tidal and storm surges. It also in clu d es th e study of
air-sea interactions and resu ltan t s o u th e r n oscilla­
tion and Walker c irc u la tio n . B esid es, E l Nino
phenom ena, and tsunam is are given m o re focussed
attention because these affect m arin e organism s
to great extent. It m ay be m en tio n ed th at the study
o f air-sea interactions is called m a rin e m eteo ro lo g y .
Biological Oceanography
Biological oceanography is b asiccally the
study of different aspects o f m arine organism s
(e.g. characteristics and distribution o f sea plants,
sea anim als, and sea m icro-organism s); ch arac­
teristic features o f coastal habitats such as
wetlands, corals, m angroves, sea beaches, la­
goons etc.; m arine biom es; ecological p ro d u c tiv ­
ity, marine food chains, and marine biogeochem ical
cycle.
Economic Oceanography
Econom ically, oceans have becom e very
significant resource base because these provide
both biological and m ineral resources for hum an
use. B esides, oceans have alw ays been used for
trade and com m erce since tim e im m em orial.
Oceans becam e o f m uch strategic im portance
since 19th century. The econom ic oceanography
deals w ith the characteristics, origin, im portance,
classification, and distribution o f m arine re­
sources. O ceans besides providing a num ber of
biological resources (food and non-food), also
provide very vital resources o f great economic
im portance (such as m ineral oil and natural gas),
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 NATURE OF OCEANOGRAPHY
and non-conventional energy resources, namely
tidal energy, w ave energy, and biomass energy.
The study o f strategic aspects o f oceans is called
strategic oceanography, while international oceanog­
raphy deals w ith strategic aspects o f oceans, and
international laws o f seas.
Environmental Oceanography
Environm ental oceanography is prim arily
concerned w ith the study o f interactions o f man
and m arine environm ent, adverse impacts in the
form o f pollution resulting therefrom , and reme--
dial m easures thereof. The everincreasing human
presence in the oceans and hum an economic
activities such as extraction o f m inerals including
m ineral oil, harvesting o f m arine biological
resources (m ainly food resources), dredging o f
sea beds for different purposes (e.g. dredging o f
harbours, construction o f ship canals, for exam ­
ple, Sethusam udram Ship Canal through the bay
o f M annar and Palk Bay in India), plying o f oil
tankers (and resultant oil slicks due to spilling o f
Fig. 1.2 : Relationships between oceanography and other sciences.
7
crude oil from dam aged oil tankers), industrial
and urban growth in the im m ediate hinterlands o f
sea coasts, d e fo re sta tio n (on the continents) etc.
cause m arine pollution o f various sorts. It may be
m entioned that forests are the largest sinks o f
atm ospheric carbon dioxide. D eforestation re­
duces consum ption o f carbon dioxide, and hence
oceans (w hich are second largest sinks o f carbon
dioxide) have to absorb m ore atm ospheric carbon
dioxide. This leads to increase in the acidity o f
ocean water. The m elting o f continental glaciers
and ice sheets, and ice sheets o f the A rctic Sea due
to greenhouse effect and global w an n in g caused
by anthropogenic sources leads to rise in sea level
and clim ate changes, w hich introduce large-scale
changes in ocean-atm ospheric circulation. The
study o f these aspects has gained currency in the
present century.
1.6 OCEANOGRAPHY AND OTHER SCIENCES
It is true that oceanography is not pure
science like m athem atics, physics, and chem istry,
■>V'
ri ; I
■::©i
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8 nam ics and h y d ro d y n am ics d e riv e d fro m physic,.
rather it is an applied science inv°lving fun ^
m entals o f other disciplines o f scienc , tidal currents and tid a l su rg es, sto rm surges,
science such as physics, chemistry,
geology, (fig. 1.2), and interdisciplinary sciences
namely geophysics, geochemistry (which are
interrelated with physics, geology, and chem is­
try), biophysics (outcome o f physics and b io l­
ogy), biochem istry (related directly with biology
and chem istry), and geography, which is a space
science (fig. 1.2).
Oceanography includes the study o f liquid
hydrosphere (ocean water), solid hydrosphere (crust
o f the ocean basins), and living hydrosphere
(marine organism s). Since the ocean w ater rests
on ocean crusts and hence it becomes necessary to
investigate the origin and evolution o f ocean
basins, and structure and com position o f ocean
crusts and the sedim ents resting on them, volcanic
and seism ic events occurring on ocean beds. The
knowledge of geology helps in understanding these
aspects o f oceanography.
The geom orphological evolution o f bottom
reliefs and coastal landscapes, which form suit­
able habitats o f different sorts for marine organ­
isms, is closely related with geomorphology
w hich is itse lf related with geology and geogra­
phy. Thus geomorphology helps in understanding
the coastal configuration.
It may be m entioned that oceanography is a
branch o f physical geography which is closely
related to pure sciences (physics and chem istry),
earth sciences (geology, geophysics, and geogra­
phy), and biological sciences (botany, zoology,
and ecology). Geography in itself being an
interdisciplinary science, is related with biologi­
cal sciences, earth sciences, and pure sciences,
and thus oceanography draws much from geogra­
phy. B esides, geography being a spatial science,
helps in determ ining boundaries, and m apping
different m arine attributes, such as tem perature,
density, salinity, m arine deposits etc., and in
identifying distributional patterns o f these at­
tributes. In nut shell it may be m entioned that
geography helps in the study o f locational aspects
o f sea phenom ena.
The study o f motions o f ocean waters is
very significant in oceanography, and this is
facilitated through the principles o f thermody­
OCEANOGRAPHY
Such m otions in clu d e sea w av es, ocean currents,
> tsunam is etc. T h e o re tic al p h y sics h elp s in under­
standing the c h a ra c te ristic s, o rig in and m ode of
operation o f th ese m o tio n s o f o c ea n m otions. A
few devastating ev en ts o f tsu n am is in th e recent
past (like S um atra tsu n am i o f D e c e m b e r 26,2004)
have m ade the stu d y o f o cean d y n a m ic s as a whole
significant, and o f m uch h u m an im p o rtan ce. The
study o f the n atu re o f tsu n am is, tid a l and storm
surges has draw n m ore fo c u sse d a tte n tio n from
the scientists o f d ifferen t d isc ip lin e s a fte r killer
tsunam i o f D ecem b er 26, 2 0 0 4 w h ic h claim ed
m ore than 200,000 hum an liv es in th e countries
bordering Indian O cean, m a in ly In d ia, Srilanka,
T hailand, and Indonesia.
C hem istry helps in understanding the chemical
properties o f ocean w aters. C o m p o sitio n of
seaw ater in term s o f salt c o n ten ts o f different
types o f salts affects m arin e life, m o v em en t o f
ocean w ater, and e v ap o ratio n co m p o n en t .of
global hydrological cycle. T h e k n o w led g e o f
chem istry also helps in sep aratin g ch em ica ls from
ocean w aters and to m ake th em u sab le fo r hum an
being. For example, desalinization and dealkalization
o f ocean w ater m ay be carried th ro u g h a p p ro p ri­
ate chem ical process.
Geophysics helps in the study o f th e n a tu re
and mode o f plate tectonics w hich reveal the secret
o f sea-floor spreading and co ntinental drift, o rig in
o f various types o f fractures and faults on th e sea
beds, nature o f vertical endogenetic m o v em en ts
leading to the occurrences o f u n d ersea earth q u ak es
and vulcanicity, undersea landslides, w h ich m ay
generate pow erful tsunam i w aves.
Marine life is clo sely related to biological
sciences. The principles and p rocesses o f evolution
o f life, biotic succession , b io g eo ch em ica l cycles,
ecological productivity and transfer o f energy etc.
greatly help in understanding the characteristics
o f marine organisms including marine plants,
animals, and m icro-organism s.
B esides, other disciplin es such as marine
m eteorology, ocean engineering, marine archae-
° l° g y , international law s, disaster management,
cryogeography (Savindra Singh, 2 0 0 7 ) etc. also
help in the study o f oceans.
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w •
NATURE OF OCEANOGRAPHY
1.7 GROWTH OF OCEANOGRAPHY : HISTORI­
CAL PERSPECTIVE
,w
The growth o f oceanography is closely
related to the developm ent o f knowledge o f skill
o f making vessels, and navigation leading to the
explorations and discovery o f different oceans,
seas, and islands, and sea phenomena through
successive stages in tune with the advancement o f
science and technology and human skill, and state
o f art. Thus, the growth o f knowledge o f
oceans may be studied in a number o f ways as
follow s :
Growth o f Oceanography
• stage o f individual approach
• dark age
• stage o f system atic approach
• stage o f international approach
or
Growth o f Oceanography
• ancient or classical period
• middle period or darke age
• modern period or age o f discovery and
exploration
or
Growth o f Oceanography
• early history
• m iddle a g e ,
• m odem age
1. Stage of Individual Approach (Ancient Pe­
riod)
The initial stage or first stage o f the
know ledge o f oceans was characterized by indi­
vidual efforts o f the early mariners. This period is
also known as ancient or classical period which was
enriched by the know ledge o f seas and oceans by
individual mariners, historians, philosphers and
travelers. This period covering a long period o f
time from pre-historic period (4000 B.C.) to 2nd
century A .D . is divided in 3 sub-periods or 3
stages o f the developm ent o f know ledge o f oceans
and seas, as fo llo w s :
9
>- early period : from the age o f H om er (4000
B .C .) to the age o f H ecatius (500 B .C.).
>- period of m easurem ent from 500 B.C. to the
tim e o f Strabbo (54 B .C .— 25 A .D .)
> period of m apping of oceans from 1st century
to 2nd century A.D.
The ancient period o f the gro w th o f k now l­
edge o f oceanography sp read in g o v er a long
period o f about 4200 years (from 4 0 0 0 B.C. to 2nd
century A .D .) is also know n as classical period o f
historical developm ent o f o cean o grap h y . The
follow ing are the salien t features o f d ev elo p m en t
o f know ledge o f oceans, seas and n av ig atio n
during three sub-periods o f an cien t age :
(1) Early Period : This period sp read o v er about
3500 years (from 4000 B.C. to 500 B .C .) w as
m arked by the navigation o f certain p o rtio n s o f
the Pacific O cean and M ed iterran ean sea b y
individual m ariners. T hus the early sta g e o f
navigation o f oceans and seas w as b a se d on
invidual voyages. It is not p recisely k n o w n as to
who developed first the art o f n av ig atio n b u t it is
generally believed that the E g y p tian s d e v e lo p e d
the art o f m aking o f v essels and n a v ig a tio n o f
coastal areas as early as 4000 B .C . T he fo llo w in g
are the salient features o f d e v e lo p m e n t o f
know ledge o f vessel m aking and n a v ig a tio n
during early period o f th e g ro w th o f o c e a n o g ra ­
phy :
3- E gyptians d ev elo p ed th e art o f b u ild in g o f
vessels for n av ig atio n , and sta rte d c o a sta l
pioloting in the M ed iterran e a n S ea as early
as 4000 B.C.
»- It is b eliev ed th a t th e a n c e sto rs o f th e
inhabitants o f the P a c ific isla n d s w e re n o t
the natives o f th ese isla n d s, ra th e r th ey
cam e from o th e r areas.
3- M ost o f the islan d s o f th e cen tral P a c ific
O ceans w ere settled b y th e P o ly n e sia n s
b etw een 2000 B .C . and 5 00 B .C . T he
P acific islan d s are d iv id e d in th re e g ro u p s
as follow s :
• M icronesia re p re se n ts g ro u p o f sm all
islan d s (m icro = sm all, n e s ia = isla n d s)
lo cated b etw ee n th e la titu d e s o f 0°
(e q u ato r) an d 2 3 .5 ° N , an d lo n g itu d e s
o f 125° E an d 180° E (fig. 1.3).
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■■
10
• M elanesia (melan - bl^ck> ^ eS . marginal coastal areas o f the Mediterra­
islands, i.e., islands inhabited by black
skinned people) consists o f islands o f
the Pacific located to the south M icro­
nesia betw een the equator-30 S lati­
tude, and 125°- 180° E longitude.
Significant islands are N ew Ireland,
B orneo, Papua New G uinea, B runei,
C alebes, New H ebrides etc.
• P o ly n esia (poly = many, nesia = islands,
group o f many islands) includes the
islands o f the central and eastern
Pacific Ocean. Important islands are
Howaiian islands, Marquesas islands,
Samoa islands, Toga, Easter Islands,
Samoa etc.
5- Phoenesians are considered to be the first
n avigators from Europe. It may be men-
Fig. 1.3 : Exploration o f Pacific islands.
(2) Early Period of M easurem ent : This period was
spread over about 500 years from 500 B.C. to the
time o f Strabbo (54 BC - 25 A.D .). A number o f
s
OCEANOGRAPHY
tioned that the people living in the eastern
nean Sea, representing the present position
o f Syria, Lebanon and Israel, were called
Phoenesians, w ho developed the art o f
navigation. Phoenesians explored the en­
tire Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea,, and parts
o f Indian Oceans betw een 1000 B.C. and
600 B.C.
Phoenesians are believed to have first
circum-navigated A frica in 590 B.C.
» Phoenesians also sailed in the A tlantic
Ocean and reached C om w al, England.
» The early navigators used coastal land
marks and stars to sail their v essels,
and thus they seldom ventured in the deep
sea.
attempts were made to measure various c o m p o n e n t s
o f the oceans. The follow in g are the s ig n ifie s ^
contributions in the field o f oceanography :
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NATURE OF OCEANOGRAPHY
>- Pytheas w as probably the first navigator
from G reece w ho circum -navigated E ng­
land and m easured the length o f coastlines
o f E ngland in the 4th century B.C.; then he
sailed to Iceland in 325 B.C. Pytheas was
b asically astronom er-geographer, so he
attem p ted to determ ine latitudes and
longitudes o f a place w ith the help o f stars.
D uring his voyage he also studied tides and
propounded the concept o f lunar origin o f
tides. In other w ords, according to Pytheas
tides w ere originated due to influence o f
m oon. Pytheas is also given credit to study
the ocean processes such as tidal process.
A ccording to him the regular variation o f
Phrygia
/ A rm enia
Fig. 1.4 : The Herodotus ’map o f the world-the Greek world, sou rce: Challenger, Report, 1S95 A.D., in P. R. Pinet, 2000.
»■ Eratosthenes (276-192 B .C .) was a G reek
scholar and librarian in A lexandria o f
Egypt. H e is given credit to determ ine the
circum ference o f the earth w ith great
tides in the A tlan tic O cean w as in tune w ith
various phases o f the m oon.
H erodotus p roduced a m ap o f the M ed iter­
ranean Sea in 4 50 B .C ., w hich w as
surrounded by th ree co n tin en ts, nam ely
Europe (E uropa), A sia, and L ybia (now the
no rthernm ost p art o f A frica. It is ap p aren t
from fig. 1.4 that H ero d o tu s b eliev ed in v ast
extent o f oceans w hich su rro u n d ed three
continents. H e n am ed the oceans m are. H e
visualized 3 m ajor oceans (m are) su r­
rounding three co n tin en ts (as m en tio n ed
above). T hese oceans w ere m ark ed on the
map (fig. 1.4) as (1) M are E ry th raeu m , (2)
M are A ustralis, and (3) M are A tlan ticu m .
e&o,
’n8s
Mas:SaQetae
r.a m c a s ^5
Araxes
Sogdi
f\ra * eS Bactri
Caspapyrus
accuracy. H e calculated the polar circum ferce
(through north and south p o les) on the
basis o f trig n o m etry , as 40,000 k m (2 4 ,8 4 0
m iles), w hich fell sh o rt o f o nly 32 k m from
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12
the present day accurate polar circum fer­
ence of 40,032 km (24,875 miles) o f the
earth.
s- strabbo (54BC-25A.D.) presented detailed
description of land and sea.
(3) E arly P eriod of M apping of Oceans : This period
o f developm ent of knowledge of oceanography
includes a time span of 200 years (1st and 2nd
century A.D.). The following contributions are
noteworthy in the field of the science o f oceans,
say oceanography :
s- Roman thinker Seneca (54 B.C. - 30 A.D.)
observed inflow of water through rivers
into the oceans and seas, the evaporation of
ocean water, and sea level. On the basis of
his observations, he opined that inspite of
huge volume of water brought by the rivers
into the seas and oceans, the sea level
remains constant because the additional
input o f water was suitably compensated
by proportionate loss of water through
evaporation. Thus Seneca visualized glo­
bal hydrological cycle.
>- G reek Ptolem y compiled the map of entire
Roman world in about 150 A.D. This map
carried longitudes and latitudes. This map
contained 3 continents of Europe, Asia,
and Africa. Indian ocean was shown as
closed sea surrounded by landmasses,
which were not identified and named by
Ptolemy. He visualized all the oceans like
seas. It appears that he was influenced by
the presence o f Mediterranean Sea.
>■ P osidonium measured the depths o f ocean
upto 1000 fathoms near Sardinia.
2. Middle Age : Dark Age
M iddle age, very often known as dark age in
the scientific world, continued from the end o f the
2nd century A.D. to the 14th century A.D. when
no significant contributions could be made in the
field of oceanography. The significant turn in the
political scene in the regions surrounding the
M editerranean Sea was very much reflected in the
sluggish development o f knowledge in the field o f
sciences including oceanography. The M editerra­
OCEANOGRAPHY
nean region was dom inated by the A rabs after the
fall o f the Roman Em pire in the 5th century A.D.
The entire long period o f about 1200 years was
dominated by religious orthodoxy. The initiatives
taken by the Roman philosophers, historians,
thinkers, and navigators were overshadow ed by
the Arabs who were in command. Consequently,
‘the western concept o f w orld geography degen­
erated considerably, one notion envisioned in the
world as a disc with Jerusalem at the cen ter’ (H. V.
Thurman and A.P. Trujillo, 1999).
It may be m entioned that the A rabs were
trading communities and hence they used to
extensively trade with north and east Africa,
Southeast Asia, and India across Indian Ocean.
They understood the seasonal pattern o f wind
circulation over Indian Ocean and thus they used
to navigate with their ships carrying goods from
the eastern parts o f Africa towards east follow ing
the S. W. Monsoon winds across Indian Ocean
while they used to return back during w inter
season following the direction o f N.E. M onsoon
winds. The following are the significant contribu­
tions in the field o f oceanography during dark
age :
>■ A.D. 673 - 735 : Bede, an English monk,
observed the tidal phenomena, and opined
that ocean tides were largely controlled by
the moon, which he called lu n a r co n tro l. He
also described tidal behaviour and ob­
served that there were monthly variations
in ocean tides, and the height o f tides was
greatly influced by the force o f wind. His
publication, De T em porum R atio n e, con­
tained his descriptions o f oceans and tides.
>■ Unlike Arab world, the inhabitants of
northwestern Europe, called as V ikings of
Scandinavia (Norway and Sweden) ven­
tured to sail through N orth A tlantic Ocean.
The Vikings reached Iceland and colo­
nized the island in the late 9th century
because o f warming o f climate in the
northern hemisphere.
>• The period from 950 to 1250 A.D., i.e., 300
year - period is called as a phase o f ‘little
climatic optinum’ when climate became
warm and relatively dry as average tem­
perature increased by 1° to 2°.C from the
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n atu re o f o ceanography
present-day global average tem perature.
The clim ate o f G reenland and Iceland
becam e m ild and attracted the Vickings
from Iceland to settle in Greenland. The
clim ate in the southern G reenland allowed
the grow th o f stunted vegetation, pasture,
and agriculture to support newly settled
hum an population, (fig. 1.5).
>- The V ikings reached southern Greenland
from Iceland under the leadership or Eric
th e R ed, who further sailed westward from
G reenland and reached Baffin Island of
Canada. Thus, Eric the Red is given credit
to discover Baffin island (fig. 1.5).
H erjolfsson started from Iceland for
B jarn i
Greenland but unknowingly reached Vinland,
m odern N ewfoundland because he took
more southerly route. Soon after he real­
ized his m istake and returned back without
landing on the island.
L eif E ricson, the son o f Eric the Red, learned
about Vinland from Bjarni Herjolfsson,
and sailed to Vinland and colonized it in
the y ear 995. In fact, it was
vmuumuiuu' - . '1" ' " 1'!71
' Greenland
First Viking voyage to Iceland
-------- Leif Eriksson
Fig 1 .5 : The voyages of Vikings of Scandinavia and
discovery o f Greenland, Newfoundland and
Vinlarul (N e w fo u n d la n d ) . Source : based on
and m odified from Thurman and Trujillo,
1999.
13
Ericson who nam ed the island as V inland,
which later on becam e N ewfoundland. It
may be m entioned that Ericson sailed
directly from the southern tip o f Greenland
to V inland (fig. 1-5).
^ The period from 1250 A.D. to HSO A . a
was characterized by the reversal o f m ild
clim ate o f 10th to 13th centuries, as
tem perature began to drop causing accu­
mulation o f more ice over G reenland,
drifting o f ice sheets and num erous ice­
bergs in the North Atlantic Ocean. The
drifting icebergs disrupted physical
connection o f G reenland with Iceland and
Europe. This clim atic change discouraged
voyages through the N o rth A tlan tic
Ocean.
3. The Great Age of Discovery and Exploration
The period from 15th to 16th century is
called ‘the great age o f discovery and exploration
because efforts were made during this period to
discover and explore new areas. C olum bus
discovered America and M agellan circum navi­
gated the globe. The map presented by O rtelius m
1570 provided new knowledge about the distribu­
tion of land and seas. Significant contributions
were made in the fields o f origin o f coastal
geomorphology, theoretical base o f the origin o f
tides, ocean currents, and sea w aves during this
period of renaissance. The following are the salient
features o f discovery and exploration during this
period o f renaissance :
>- Navigators from P o rtu g a l and S p a in are
given full credit for discovering new areas
like A m ericas, and opening o f new
routes to India, East Indies etc. via Cape
o f Good Hope (southern tip o f South
Africa).
>■ Question arises as to why there was sudden
spurt in discovery and exploration by the
Europeans? In fact, the econom ic im por­
tance o f the New W orld, India, and S.E.
Asia on one hand, and the fall o f C onstan­
tinople in the hands o f Sultan M oham m ed
II in the year 1453, and consequential
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 14
isolation o f the port cities bordering the
M editerranean Sea from the access to
India, Asia, and East Indies on the other
land, forced the Europeans to search new
routes.
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519 A.D.) stud­
ied currents and waves and presented
detailed accounts about them. He postu­
lated that there were fluctuations in sea
level. His observation was based on the
study o f marine fossils found over the
m ountains o f Italy.
C hristopher Columbus (of Spain) discov­
ered North America. Columbus started his
voyage from Canary Islands on August 3,
1492 with 88 men and 3 ships. In fact]
Colum bus planned to sail westward to
reach East Indies (till then Americas were
not known) but reached West Indies. Thus
in place of reaching India, he discovered
North America and islands in the Carribbean
Sea.
Prince H e n r y th e N a v ig a to r o f Portugal is
given credit to establish marine observa­
tory in Portugal so that Portuguese naviga­
tors and sailors could he trained in sailing
skill so that they could search new alterna­
tive sea routes to India and East Indies but
this could not be possible till I486 A.D.
when B a r th o lo m e u D ia z became successful
in rounding the Cape Agulhas. It may be
m entioned that prior to this successful
attem pt several abortive attempts were
made to circumnavigate the Cape of
A gulhas.
»• It was the year 1500 A.D. when P ed ro
A lv a r e s C a b r a l sailed across the Atlantic
Ocean and discovered B razil of South
Am erica.
observed the currents
>• J u a n P o u n c e d e L eon
in the G u lf o f M exico and described the
nature o f Florida current, which was found
to be a powerful current with great velocity
in the year 1513 A.D.
>• The Pacific Ocean became known to
Europeans in the year 1513 when V a sco
Nunez de Balboa sailed through the central
I
OCEANOGRAPHY
Atlantic Ocean and sailed to Panama and
became successful in crossing the Isthmus
o f Panama and sailed in the Pacific. It may
be mentioned that Balboa could see a vast
sea to the west o f Panama by clim bing a
mountain top.
► Peter Maty r observed and studied the nature
o f the G ulf Stream and described the mode
o f its origin in the year 1515 A.D.
>• The age o f great discovery reached its
culmination when Ferdinand Magellan made
a successful circum navigation o f the globe
covering largest distance through oceans
and seas, which was never achieved by
any navigator earlier. The historic voyage
started on September 20, 1519 from
Sanlucar de Barrameda o f Spain under the
leadership o f M agellan, who started his
voyage with 5 ships and 280 sailors. He
sailed south-westward across the A tlantic
Ocean to the eastern coast o f South
America, and reached the southernm ost tip
of this continent. Here he located a strait
measuring 500 km in width in the year
1519 (in December). This strait was named
Magellan Strait in the honour o f the great
explorer. From here Magellan sailed through
the Pacific Ocean, and discovered PhiliD-
pmes on March 15, 1521. M agellan was
killed on 27 April, 1521 by the inhabitants
o f Mactan island. Though M agellan was
killed but the onward voyage o f circum ­
navigation o f the globle continued.
^ took the command o f the
S eb a stia n d el C a n o
voyage after the death o f M agellan and
completed the task o f circum navigating the
globe. He sailed on the ship V ictoria across
n ian Ocean and after navigating around
Africa ultimately reached Spain on 8
September 1522 A.D. Out o f 280 sailors
only 18 could survive to reach Seville.
>■ Geradus Mercator constructed a map pro­
jection in the year 1569 for the preparation
o f world map which could be used by the
mariners tor navigational purposes. It may
e mentioned that this is a true direction
map projection and hence it is still used by
the navigators.
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 TO W-
■’*83
!

15
NA TU RE o f o c e a n o g ra p h y

160° 140* 120* 100"80“ 50” 4fT 20* 0* 20* 40' 60* 80* 100‘ 120'140* 160*

o f Columbus, and circumnavigation of globe by Magellan and Sebastian de Cano.

Fig. 1 .6 : Voyage

‘O b serv atio n s and E x p e rim e n ts on th e S a lti­

4. Period of Early Scientific Investigations of the
ness o f th e S ea’ in the y ear 1674.
Oceans
>- N ew ton presented his theory o f the origin o f

T he study o f seas and oceans began on ocean tides.

>- L uigi M arsig li for the first tim e p resen ted
scientific and technological basis since 17th
century and continued upto 18th century during
w hich m athem atical m ethods and scientific prin­
ciples w ere used for the interpretation o f em piri­
cal know ledge and description about oceans.
O cean tides becam e the focal theme o f oceanic
study. D etailed studies were carried out regarding
the m easurem ent and m apping o f ocean depth,
variation in the horizontal and vertical distribu­
tion o f salinity, pressure o f ocean w ater, ocean
tides and currents on the basis o f investigations o f
these variables in G ibralter Strait. The follow ing
are the salien t features o f the developm ent o f the
know ledge o f the oceans and their phenom ena
during this period :
> - R o b e rt B oyle studied ocean salinity, tem ­
perature and density o f seaw ater and tried
to understand the relationships am ong
three variab les in different depth zones.
T he results o f studies w ere published in
the description o f re g io n a l o c e a n o g ra p h y
based on his studies o f b o tto m relief,
tem perature, salinity, w ater p ressure, tid es,
and currents o f the M ed iterran ean Sea. H e
is given credit to com pile a co m p reh en siv e
book on the science o f sea for the first tim e
in the history o f oceanography. T h is boo k ,
captioned as ‘H istoir P hysique de la M e r’
in the year 1725.
L e o n h a rd E u le r attem pted to study the
causative factors o f ocean tides, m ainly
forces w hich caused ocean tides. A fter
calculating the m agnitude o f tid e g en erat­
ing forces he opined in the y ear 1740 that
ocean tides are caused by the attractive
(gravitational) force o f the m oon.
B e n jam in F ra n k lin studied d ifferen t aspects
o f the G u lf Stream , and p resen ted the first
ocean chart o f the G u lf S tream during

1% ■: k m
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16
1769-70, which were regularly used by the
navigators who sailed across the North
Atlantic Ocean.
^ Captain James Cook
The study o f oceans received greater and
more focussed attention with the exploration of
n T ™ ClflC Region by CaPtain James Co<*
k '■ c °ok is given full credit for
gathering mass dataset and valuable information
i erent aspects o f oceans such as geography
o f oceans and environs, geology of coastal areas
n l » n t° Cean CrUSt’ m arine organisms including
tu re S' a n im a ls ' and niicro-organism s, tem pera-
ocean ° CCan WatCr’ ° CCan dynami« , namely
ocean currents and ocean tides etc He also
>*■»» o f coas.lines. Besides giving
“ J* uValUable in^ormati°n about the
oceans he” l l0gy ° f hethert0 un^P l« red
and heh ' 3 S° P^esented accounts on customs
and behaviours o f native people of discovered
locations. In fact, Cook was the first nav.gator
who c ° ncent d Qn the study Qf phys.cal J
o f the oceans. He was also the first navigator who
succeeded in sailing the polar seas of both the
hem ispheres by crossing the Arctic and Antarctic
circles. His voyages of the world oceans convering
almost the entire globe were completed in three
stages as follows :
• First voyage : Captain James Cook, an
English mariner, started his first major
voyage aboard HMS Endeavour in the
year 1768 and set out to explore Terra
A ustralis which was then considered to be
the Southern Land’, now better known as
Antarctica, which was supposed to exist
in the polar latitudes. He discovered New
Zealand and prepared the detailed charts
o f its shorelines. He opined that New
Zealand was not a part o f Terra Australis.
He believed that Terra Australis did not
exist, if it exists at all, it may be beyond
the polar ice fields. He then sailed
westward and reached eastern coasts of
A ustralia after crossing over the Great
Barrier Reef, where he lost one o f his
ships. He mapped the eastern coastlines
o f A ustralia and presented a detailed
chart thereof.
OCEANOGRAPHY
• Second voyage : Cook completed his sec­
ond voyage between 1772 and 1775
aboard the HMS Adventure, and HMS
Resolution. He sailed in the direction of
westerly winds to round the Cape o f Good
Hope and to circumnavigate the globe,
but in order to avoid icebergs he followed
almost 60 S latitude for the navigation
• Third voyage : Captain Cook started his
third voyage in the year 1778 and
ventured into the Pacific Ocean again to
discover numerous islands. He discov­
ered a number o f islands including
Hawaiian islands in the Pacific Ocean. He
sailed to the Bering Sea but could not
continue his voyage beyond 70°44' N
latitude due to the presence o f pack ice.
He then returned to the Hawaii where he
was killed by the natives o f Hawaii island
on Feb. 14, 1779.
Cook also used John H arrison’s chronom ­
eter to determine the vicinal location (longitudes)
of the discovered areas. Cook also compiled huge
data regarding coral reefs. He is given credit for
the preparation o f the first authentic world map
with vicmal locations. Captain Cook extensively
sailed m the largest ocean, ,the Pacific, and
prepared the detailed outline o f this great ocean It
h» r ’ 7 i fr° m the above mentioned facts
hat Captain Cook contributed much in the
advancement of scientific knowledge o f the
5’ Century016"* ° f ° cea"°9raphy in the 19th
The development o f the science ofoceanog-
19thyceSnty ma" nescience’ gained currency in the
h ,C ntUry' during " h ic h a number o f marine
expeditions were launched to understand the
secrets o f seas and oceans. This period is divided
into 3 stages o f the development o f knowledge o f
oceanography as follows :
^ sors°d ° f EdWar<l F° rb' S '“ d his Pred' ces-
*• period o f Challenger Expedition
post-Challenger period
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P¥
nature of o ceano g raph y
(1) Period of Edward Forbes
This period includes the tim e span from
1815 A.D. to 1854 A.D. The follow ing contrib­
uted in the advancem ent o f scientific knowledge
in the field o f oceanography :
>■ N a th a n ie l B o w d itc h made a significant con­
tribution in the field o f sea navigation by
publishing a navigational mannual in the
year 1802, popularly known as the ‘N ew
A m e r ic a n P r a c tic a l N a v ig a to r ' which ib very
often used in the present-day navigation.
>■ A great effort was made to prepare the
detailed chart o f the entire coastlines o f the
USA as per order o f the US President
Thom as Jefferson. The US Coast and
G eodetic Survey was established to ac­
com plice the preparation o f the charts o f
US coastlines.
S ir J o h n R o ss sailed to the Arctic Ocean to
explore Baffin Island o f Canada during
1817-1818. He measured the sea bottom by
sounding method and studied marine or­
ganism s upto the depth ot about 2 km.
A le x a n d e r M e r c a to r , a London-based Brit­
ish scientist studied the chemical com posi­
tion o f the oceans and concluded in 1820 that
the basic chem ical com position o f seawater
was alm ost sim ilar in all the oceans.
^ C h a r le s D a r w in an d B e a g le E x p ed itio n
The Beagle expedition under the command
o f Captain Robert started on 27 December,
1831 from D evonport o f England. C h a r le s
D a r w in was also aboard the HMS Beagle as
m em ber o f the expedition team. The main
objective o f the Beagle expedition was to
survey the coastlines o f Pantagon.a and
Terra del Fuego and to determ ine longitudes
and latitudes. D arw in, who was a natural­
ist, had the opportunity to study the plants
and anim als o f the surveyed locations The
close observation o f plants and anim als in
different environm ents and biom es le
D arwin to postulate his classical theory o
the evolution o f species on the basis ot
natural selection and adaptation. His views
regarding the origin o f species were
■■■ w
17
published in a book form entitled ‘Origin of
S p e c ie s ’ in 1859. He also studied coral reefs
in different environm ents and propounded
his ‘su b sid en ce theory o f coral reefs’ in the
year 1837. He m odified his theory in the
year 1842 during his voyage on Beagle.
This theory w ill be elaborated in the
chapter on coral reefs and atolls.
^ S ir J a m e s R o ss started his scientific expedi­
tion in the year 1839 and com pleted the
voyage in the year 1843. The main
objective o f this expedition was to study
the benthos organism s (bottom living
marine organism s) on the basis ot sam ples
derived from the depth o f 7 kilom eters.
» S ir E d w a rd F orb es (1815-1854) w as a
m arine biologist. His contribution to the
developm ent o f oceanography included
the study o f sea anim als upto the depth ot
230 fathoms near G reat B ritain, H ebrides,
and M editerranean Sea; study o f bottom
reliefs o f some parts o f the A tlantic O cean,
discovery o f sites o f subm erged ancient
cities near Lybian coast; distribution o f
marine life in the A egean Sea; preparation
o f map show ing w orld distribution o f
marine life etc. Forbes studied the star
fishes around B ritain and published the
history o f these fishes in a book form
entitled ‘T h e H is to r y o f B r itis h S ta r F is h e s ’ in
the year 1841. He also studied the m arine
life in different depths and published his
observations and findings in his fam ous
book, ‘D is tr ib u tio n o f M a r in e L if e ’ in the
year 1854. He concluded that m arine life
cannot survive below the depth o f 600
m eters (This observation was later on
invalidated by others as m arine benthos
life was found to exist even at m uch greater
depth).
> • M a tth e w F o n t a in e M au ry , a naval o fficer in
the US N avy, is given a credit to com pile
and analyse num erous data and inform a­
tion regarding ocean currents, w inds over
sea surface, and m arine w eather condi­
tions, w hich w ere recorded in the ship
logbooks o f the D epot o f N aval C harts and
Instrum ents o f the U.S. N avy, and sum m a­
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 18
rized the information and presented them
in a book form entitled ‘The Physical
Geography of the Sea’ in the year 1855.
^ Charles Wyville Thomson undertook his
ambitious expedition using HMS Light­
ning, and HMS Porcupine from 1868 to
1870 to measure the temperature of seawater
at greater depths. Thus, he collected ample
data o f deep-sea temperature. He also
found presence of marine life at great
depth. So, he disproved the findings of
Forbes that marine life cannot be possible
beyond the depth o f 600 m.
^ In order to study and monitor fish commu­
nities in the oceans the U.S. Fish Commis­
sion was established in the year 1871 and
was equipped with modem laboratory at
Woods Hole in the state of Massachusetts
ot New England Region of the U.S.A.
(2) Period of Challenger Expedition
Challenger expedition is considered to be
one o f the most significant and successful
scientific voyages as regards the search of both
abiotic and biotic components of the oceans. The
Challenger expedition was commanded by Charles
W yville Thom son and the expedition ship was
named HMS Challenger. Recommended by the
Royal Society and funded by the British govern­
ment the Challenger Expedition was assigned the
following objectives to study the secrets of the
sea, and to resolve tne conflicting findings about
the existence o f life in deep oceans, physical and
chemical conditions at great depths, the nature of
deep sea deposits etc :
>- to find out the distribution of marine
organisms including' both plants and ani­
mals (also microbes) at all depths of the
oceans starting from sea surface to the
ocean bottoms.
>■ to find out the physical environmental
conditions viz. temperature of seawater,
density o f seawater, sea dynamics at great
depths mainly in ocean basins.
>■ to find out chemical composition of seawater
at all depths from sea surface to sea
bottoms through photic and aphotic zones.
QGEANOGRAPHY
>■ to study the characteristics o f bottom
deposits in the oceans in terms o f their
physical and chemical composition, and to
find out the mode o f origin o f various types
o f sediments o f bottom deposits.
to assign scientific explanations to the
different ocean phenomena.
It is significant to point out that the
achievements o f the Challenger Expedition were
so great on scientific note that the year 1872, when
the expedition started in December, is considered
as the yeai' o f the birth o f ocea n o grap h y ’ in the
history of oceanography. The mission o f the
expedition was completed in May, 1876, when the
vessel Challenger returned back to England after
covering a long distance o f 127,500 kilometers,
and circumnavigating the globe. The expedition
adopted scientific methodology o f investigation
with uniform workplans at each station as follows
>- to measure and record the atmospheric and
meteorological environmental conditions
above the sea surface in and around the
work station.
>- to measure the depths o f ocean as accurate
as possible by using sounding method.
to callect the specimen o f marine organ­
isms at different depths. °
>■ to delineate sea bottom topography.
to collect samples o f marine sediments o f
ocean deposits at the bottom. *
^ to collect the sample o f water o f ocean
bottom to determine the chemical compo­
sition of seawater.
^ *° ™easure temperature o f seawater at all
depths in general and the bottom in
particular.
>■ to identify, name, and describe the species
ot marine organisms. 1
The findings of the Challenger expedition
made significant contributions in the fields
Of ocean bottom relief,, seawater tempemu e
marme depo!it5_ marine organisms £ . , •
featarerr
features „offthe
V rChallenger
, . ’Ii!,e f° " Expedition
0wing are (1872-1876
,he sali“ «
t.
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nature o f o ceanography
19

• The expedition follow ed the following ber, 1874 —» Japanese coast, June 1875 —>
routes w ith dates o f arrival and w ork at H ow aiian Islands, A ugust 1875 - » Peru
different locations (fig. 1.7): coast, O ctober, 1875 -» return, M ay 1876,
through A tlantic O cean.
start from U .K .. D ecem ber, 1872 —> N.E.
• The entire expedition program m e covered
c o a s to fth e U .S.A ., M ay 1873 -> Brazilean
a distance o f 127, 500 kilom ers.
coasts. Septem ber 1873 —» Cape Town,
• The expedition spent m ost o f 4 -y ear period
O ctober. 1873 —» K erguelen Island, Janu­
in the A tlantic and the P acific O ceans.
ary 1874 M anila (Philippines), Novem-

Fig. 1 .7 : Tracks of investigations followed by the Challenger Expedition ( 1872-1876).

• Soundings w ere m ade to determ ine ocean
depth at 492 locations, dredgings were also
accomplished at these locations and sediments
sam ples were collected.
• W ater sam ples were collected upto the
depth o f 1830 m eters, and tem peratures o f
seaw ater w ere recorded at 263 locations.
• 7,000 specim ens o f m arin e o rg an ism s
including plants and an im als w ere c o l­
lected, d escrib ed , and w ere p re serv e d fo r
their an aly sis in the lab o rato ries.
• M arine organism s w ere found to e x ist at
great depth, as deep as 9,000 m e te rs (9
km ).

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20
• A bout 5,000 new species o f marine organ­
ism s w ere found. These species were then
classified and catalogued.
• A w ater depth o f 8,185 m was recorded in
the M ariana Trench.
• It took a long period o f 23 years to process
and analyze all o f the data and specimen o f
various sorts which were collected during
4-year C hallenger Expedition.
• The final findings o f the expedition were
published in 55 volumes.
• The sam ples o f seawater, 77 in number,
w ere analyzed by a famous chemist William
D ittm ar in the year 1884 to determine the
chem ical constituents.
The follow ing are the m ajor findings and
ach ievem ents o f the C hallenger Expedition :
(1) The controversy o f existence or non­
existence o f m arine life beyond 600-m
depth was resolved. The concept o f Edward
Forbe about non-existence o f marine life
b eyond 600-m depth was summararily
rejected, and it was finally concluded on
the basis o f am ple and convincing evi­
dences o f collected specim ens o f marine
organism s from all depths that marine life
exists at all depths.
(2) O cean floor was not flat but was full o f
reliefs o f varying altitudes and depths
(such as M ariana Trench).
(3) M anganese nodules were discovered from
m arine deposits o f ocean bottoms.
(4) T h e chem ical com position o f seawater was
found alm ost uniform in all oceans. ‘Not
only w ere the ratios between various salts
v irtu ally constant across the surface from
o cean to ocean, but they were also distinc­
tiv ely constant at depth, establishing the
“ c o n sisten cy o f sea w a te r” principle (Thurman
and T rujillo , 1999), which is now known as
the ‘p rin c ip le o f c o n sta n t p ro p o rtio n ’ in terms
o f salin ity o f the oceans.
(5) M aps (sketch) o f bottom reliefs o f the
oceans, and distribution o f sedim entary
deposits on deep sea beds were prepared
for the first tim e.
o ceanography
(6) No study could be conducted in the
N orthern Indian O cean, and the A rctic Sea.
(7) The results o f the C hallenger Expedition
were published in a book entitled ‘Voyage*
of the Challenger-the A tlantic’ in the year
1877, while Charles Thom son published a
book on oceanography entitled ‘The Depths
of the Sea’ in 1873.
(3) Post-Challenger Period
The m om entum o f ocean searching gained
during the C hallenger expedition continued in the
later part o f the 19th century w herein Louis
Agassiz (1877-1880 A.D .), and N ansen contrib­
uted significantly in the developm ent o f oceanog­
raphy. Besides, a few group attem pts w ere also
made in this precarious field. The follow ing are a
few significant events o f ocean searching :
• Louis Agassiz made detailed study o f Florida
Reefs and Keys. He studied different
aspects o f the ocean from F lorida coast to
Sans Fransisco around South A m erican
coasts.
• John M urray (1841-1914) laid the fo unda­
tion o f m odern oceanography. H is m ajor
contributions, based on Triton (1882), and
Challenger Expedition (1872-1876) include
discovery o f subm arine ridge o f W ayville
Thom son Ridge located to the northw est of
Scottland, study o f planktons; deposits on
sea bottoms, form ation and origin o f coral
reefs; form ulation o f the theory o f the
origin o f atolls; determ ination o f fish
zones, and mud lines based on M ichael
Sars Expedition (1910); and preparation o f
map o f ocean deeps o f the A tlantic Ocean.
• Alexander Agassiz, an A m erican naturalist
and son o f Louis A gassiz, undertook
Survey covering a distance o f
160,000 km through Blacke and Albatross
Expedition during 1877-1880. H is m ajor
contributions include location and origin
ot the G u lf Stream betw een N ew foundland
an Florida, studies o f coral reefs near
Bahamas and Cuba, B erm uda and Florida;
Great B arrier Reefs o f A ustralia; Fizi
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n ature o f o c ea n o g ra ph y
Islands and M aldives etc. He rejected the
D arw inian sub sid en ce theory o f the origin
o f coral reefs and atolls. A ccording to him
atolls and b a rrie r reefs are form ed due to
b io lo g ical, m e ch a n ic al and chem ical p ro c­
esses. H e stu d ie d m arine life in the deep
sea. It m ay b e m e n tio n e d th at he perform ed
the stu d ies o f deep sea m arine life w ith the
ship B lake, p ro v id e d by the U .S. C oast and
G eodetic S u rv ey during 1877-1880. He is
given c re d it for estab lish in g the M useum
o f C o m p arativ e Z oology at H arw ard U n i­
v ersity , and first U .S. m arine station,
nam ed as ‘the A n d erso n School o f N atural
H is to ry ’ on P enikese Island, M assachu­
setts o f N ew E ngland R egion o f the U.S.A.
• E ffo rts w ere m ade to establish laboratories
to study the sam ples o f different species o f
m arin e organism s w hich w ere collected
from d ifferen t depth zones o f the oceans. In
the process, the M arine B iological L abora­
tory w as established in the year 1888 A.D.
at W oods H ole, M assachusetts.
• F r i d t j o f N a n se n , a N orw egian explorer, was
first to reach the N orth Pole (86° 14')
a b o ard his v essel the F ra m . He studied the
a tm o sp h eric and oceanic circulation pat­
tern s o f the A rctic Sea. N ansen concluded
th a t th ere w as no northern continent like
the so u th ern p o la r continent-A ntarctica.
N an sen stu d ie d the pattern s o f the m ove­
m ent o f p a c k ice'in the A rctic Sea. It m ay be
m entioned th a t his v essel Fram w as so
designed th at it could m ove, though slu g ­
gishly, through frozen sea surface but it
could not m ove upto the north pole as it was
stu c k in the ice and fell short o f 400 km
fro m th e n o rth pole. C onsequently, N ansen
and h is com panions left the vessel and
m ove on dog driven sledges to reach the
no rth pole.
6. Growth of Oceanography in the 20th Century
T he b eg in n in g o f the 20th century h eralded
the daw n o f m o d ern oceanographic researches
equipped w ith late st vessels, instrum ents, and
greater co o p eratio n and p articip atio n s at national
21
and international levels. The follow ing are the
salient features o f 20th century oceanography ;
>• D evelopm ent and pursuance o f elaborate
experim ent designs involving in terd isci­
plinary approach.
>- U se o f advanced and com plex instrum ents
for obtaining and analysing m ass datasets
o f different aspects o f biotic and abiotic
com ponents o f m arine biom es o f varying
spatial scales.
>■ D evelopm ent and ap p licatio n o f a p p ro p ri­
ate scientific sam pling devices for c o lle ct­
ing sam ples ° f m arine o rg an ism s, m arine
deposits, and seaw ater to d eterm in e its
physical and chem ical ch aracteristics.
>- D elineation o f rugged bo tto m to p o g rap h y
o f sea bottom s o f c o n tin en tal sh elv es,
continental slope, deep sea p la in s, and
deeps and trenches.
»- M easurem ent o f salinity, w ater te m p e ra ­
ture, and dissolved oxygen in v ertical
profiles o f oceans at n u m erous lo catio n s.
>- Initiation o f am bitious large o cean su rv ey s
by using latest tech n o lo g ies, m e th o d o lo ­
gies, and appropriate equipm ents.
>■ Positive im pacts o f tw o w orld w ars on th e
developm ent o f oceanic re search es, as the
w ars necessitated for the d ev elo p m en t and
design o f m ore so p h isticated v e sse ls (w a r­
ships) fitted w ith electro n ic e q u ip m e n t so
that the U .S. navy can u n d e rsta n d the
accurate nature and b e h a v io u r o f the
oceans and processes o p e ra tin g th e re in so
that the navy can b e tte r p lan th e sea
w arfare. This led to su b sta n tia l fin a n c ial
grant from the U .S. g o v ern m en t fo r o c e a ­
nographic researches.
>- ‘This financial su p p o rt by g o v ern m en t
agencies stim u lated la rg e -sca le research
en terp rises, and re stric ted the a c tiv itie s o f
m any o cean o g rap h ers to p ro b lem s that
w ere o f in terest m ainly to the m ilitary .
P o st-w ar g o v ern m en t-sp o n so red su p p o rt
led not only to g reat and ra p id ad v an ces in
in stru m en tatio n , b u t also e v en tu a lly to the
estab lish m en t o f sea -g ra n t c o lle g e s ’ (P.R .
P in et, 2000).
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^ Establishm ent o f marine institutions to
prom ote marine researches. Numerous
institutes o f oceanography with varying
nom enclatures were established in many
countries to develop and facilitate marine
reseasrches as follow s :
• E stablishm ent o f Friday H arbour O cea­
nographic Laboratory at Seattle, U.S.A.
in 1902.
• E stab lish m en t o f the Scripps Institu ­
tion o f B iological R esearch in 1903,
w hich w as later nam ed as the Scripps
In stitu tio n o f O ceanography, at La
Jo lla o f C alifornia in the U.S.A .
• E stab lish m en t o f the W oods Hole
O ceanographic Institution,at Cape Cod
o f M assachusetts, U .S.A ., in the years
1930.
• E stab lish m en t o f Lam ont G eological
O b serv ato ry at the U niversity o f C o­
lum bia in N ew York in the year 1949,
w hich w as later renam ed as Lam ont
D o h erty G eological O bservatory.
• A d o ption o f Sea G rant College by the
U .S. G overnm ent in 1966 to provide
fu n d in g for education and research in
the m arine sciences.
• E stab lish m en t o f the G eophysical In­
stitu te, the H ydrographic B iological
C om m ission in Scandinavia.
• T he U .K . founded the M arine B iologi­
cal A ssociation.
• C reation o f the N ational O ceanic and
A tm o sp h eric A dm inistration (N O A A )
by the governm ent o f the U.S A. in the
y e ar 1970.
• E stab lish m en t o f M arine B iological
A sso ciatio n in U .K .; the O cean o ­
g rap h ic In stitu te in Paris (F rance);
In stitu tes o f O ceanography in C anada
and R ussia.
• Establishment ofNational Hydrographic
O ffic e at D ehra D un, and the
Department o f Ocean D evelopm ent in
India.
OCEANOGRAPHY
>- Initiation o f in tern atio n al program m es
an d m u ltin a tio n a l o rg a n iz a tio n s and
cooperations in th e field o f m arine re­
searches as follow s :
• International C ouncil for th e E x p lo ra­
tions o f Sea (IC E S ) form ed b y D anish
m arine scientists and funded and backed
by the G ovt, o f D enm ark in the year
1902.
• International W haling C om m ission w as
organized in the y e ar 1932 to study
w hole com m unities in term s o f p o p u ­
lation o f d ifferen t w hale sp ecies, th e ir
illegal hunting, and trad e, and to
suggest m easures for c o n tro llin g w hale
hunting.
• 1957-1958 w as m ade In te rn a tio n a l
G eophysical year (IG Y ) to c o o rd in a te
researches being carried o u t in g e o ­
physical in v estig atio n s o f th e earth
including oceans and seas.
• The U nited N ations O rg a n iz atio n d e ­
clared the decade 1970s as th e In te rn a ­
tional D ecade o f O cean E x p lo ratio n
(ID O E ) in o rd er to c o o rd in a te, in te ­
grate, and p ro m o te m arin e re se a rc h
being co n d u cted in d iffe re n t p a rts o f
the oceans by d ifferen t g ro u p s o f
scientists and agencies.
• O rganization o f the G eochem ical O cean
Sections Study (G E O S E C S ) at in te r­
national level in the y e a r 1972 to get
m easu rem en ts o f ch em ical p ro p e rty o f
seaw ater so th at th e m o d e o f c irc u la ­
tion p attern s in the o cean s an d m ix in g
o f seaw ater h av in g v a ry in g c h em ica l
co m p o sitio n can b e e x p la in e d and
m onitored.
• T he y ear 1998 w as o rg a n iz e d as
In tern atio n al Y e ar o f th e O cean to
m ake th e g en eral p u b lic fa m ilia r w ith
the im p o rtan ce o f th e o c ea n s, m arin e
e n v iro n m en t, and m a rin e re so u rce s.
^ T h e 2 0th cen tu ry w as c h a ra c te riz e d b y the
lau n ch in g o f a n u m b e r o f o c ea n ex p ed i­
tio n s e q u ip p ed w ith te ch n o lo g ic a lly ad ­
vanced v e rsio n o f v e sse ls w ith latest
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NATURE OF OCEANOGRAPHY
equipments and trained scientists o f differ­
ent disciplines for comprehensive investi­
gations o f ocean phenomena. A few
investigation expeditions include the fol­
lowing :
• in the South Atlantic
M e te o r E x p e d itio n
Ocean from 1925 to 1927. This was a
Ge rma n effort using the vessel Meteor
for extensive research in the Atlantic
Ocean in general, and in the South
Atlantic Ocean in particular. This
expedition aimed at the study o f
physical oceanography. The scientists
aboard the Meteor used echo-sounder
for the first time in the history o f
scientific investigations o f the secret
o f the sea.
• The G a z e lle E x p e d itio n in the North
Atlantic Ocean.
• Fishing Commission, and Albatross
Expedition in the East Pacific Ocean.
• Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP)
with the vessel G lo m a r C h a lle n g e r , was
lanched by the U.S. Science Founda­
tion in the year 1968 for drilling the
sed im ent s and bedrocks o f the ocean
basins to understand the nature o f
ma rin e geological formations and
se diments resting upon them.
• The Deep Sea Drilling Project was
again reorganized and named as the
International Pr ogr am m e o f Ocean
Drilling (IPOD) in 1975 which was
sponsored and funded by France, U.K.,
the then Soviet Union, Japan, G er­
many, and the United States o f America.
This project was terminated in the year
1983, but the deep sea drilling re­
started with anot her vessel J o id e s R e so ­
lu tio n .
• The United Nations sponsored an
am bit io us plan o f the study o f Indian
Ocean. The first co-operative work for
the study o f various aspects o f the
Indian Ocean, was initiated in the year
1959 with the launching o f the In tern a­
tional Indian Ocean Expedition ( 110 E)
23
comprising 20 countries, and 38 re­
search ships.
>> Technological achiev em ent s include the
launching o f sea-satellites to get sea
images. Thus the r e m o te s e n s in g tec h n iq u e
and GIS were introduced in oceanographic
researches from 1970.
• Seasat-A. was the first oceanographic
satellite which was launched in the
year 1978.
• T O P E X / P o s i d o n s e a - s a te ll i te was
launched by N A S A (USA) in the year
1998 with the main objective o f getting
satellite images o f the ocean surfaces
which may help in moni tor ing the
trend o f fluctuations in we at he r and
climatic conditions.
• J a s o n - 1 satellite was launched join tly
by the United States o f Amer ic a
(NASA) and French Space A ge ncy in
the year 2000 A.D. inorder to get
accurate information o f ocean c u r ­
rents, atmospheric circulation over the
oceans so that there ma y be correct
forecast o f sea m o v e m en t and climatic
fluctuations.
>■ Several renowned o cea no gr ap h ers na m el y
Nansen, A m un ds en, Pettersson, Shepard
etc. enriched the science o f o c e a n o g r a p h y
through their elaborate studies o f different
aspects o f oceans and seas. F.B. T ay lor and
A.G. W ege ner postulated the con ce p ts o f
continental drift to ac co unt for the origin o f
continents and ocean basins. In the 1960s
Hary Hess (1960) p ro po un d ed the con ce pt
o f sea floor sp rea d in g w h ic h further
validated the hy pot he si s o f continental
drift. With the postulation o f plate tectonic
theory the riddle o f origin o f o c e a n basins,
bottom reliefs o f the oc ea ns, d is p la ce m e n t
and drifting o f co nt in en ts an d oc ea n basins
could be suc ces sf ull y solved. Recently,
new inf ormation abo ut m a ri n e e n v i r o n ­
ment and ma rine e c o l o g y are f o rth com ing
thro ugh the institutes o f o ce a n og r ap hy ,
oce an d e p a r t m e n t s and o c e a n expe dition s
es tab li sh ed a n d f u n d e d by several c o u n ­
tries and or ga ni za ti on s.
. ■ id !
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24
7. Future Trends in Oceanographic Researches
It may be pointed out that recently the study
o f occeanography has gained currency because
the economic and strategic importance o f seas and
oceans is increasing very fast. Thus, more
attention is paid towards applied oceanography
which includes the consideration o f delineation,
mapping, exploitation, utilization and m anage­
ment o f marine biotic and abiotic resources.
M arine ecology and marine ecosystem have
become the focal themes o f oceanography. There
is a need to introduce and develop ‘economic
oceanography’ (resource oceanography) as a new
branch o f oceanography.
The 21st century oceanography is destined
to be enriched by scientific researches involving
multidisciplinary and collective approaches through
international cooperations and application of
latest equipments, and remote sensing techniques
and GIS. The fluctuations o f sea level, say
possible rise in sea level as predicted by the IPCC
(Intergovernm ental Panel on Climate Change)
Reports 2001 and 2007, increase in the number
and severity o f tropical cyclones, massive coral
bleaching in the Indian Ocean during 1997-98,
increase in the incidence o f El Nino penomena,
m elting o f ice sheets o f the Arctic Sea, Southern
O scillation and W alker circulation, incidence of
killer Sumatra tsunami waves in the Indian Ocean
on December 26, 2004 etc. have made the
oceanographic researches more relevant in the
present century. The powerful large computers
have also facilitated the marine scientists to
process the data more quickly, efficiently, and
accurately. The study o f ocean-atm osphere inter­
actions has become relevant in order to m onitor
clim ate change.
R ecently, more attention is paid to investi­
gate the causes o f tsunam is by studying the nature
o f sea floors in terms o f undersea earthquakes
undersea volcanic eruptions, underw ater massive
landslides caused by sudden tectonic movements
such as faulting and rupture o f seabeds, collision
o f covergent plate boundaries and upthrusting.
The expedition team o f the experts o f several
disciplines including tsunami m odellers, marine
b io lo g ists, m arine ecologists, seism ologists,
OCEANOGRAPHY a
a
geochem ists etc., funded by the Discovery Channel,
spent 17 days on board the ship Perform er in M ay,
2005 to find out the exact cause o f the origin of
tsunam i o f 2004 in the Indian O cean. The team
found that h a lf o f the 2400 km long fault in the
Indian O cean ruptured on D ecem ber 2 6 ,2 0 0 4 due
to subduction o f Indo-A ustralian plate below
Burmese plate, a part o f A sian plate, and resultant
upthrusting o f seaw ater upto 12 m in height.
Summary of the History of Oceanography
The detailed accounts o f the grow th o f the
science o f oceanography during various phases o f
its developm ent, as discussed above, m ay be
sum m arized as follows :
»- The early phase o f the ancient period o f the
growth o f oceanography w as m arked by
individual efforts o f early m ariners. T his
trend continued from 4000 B.C. to 500
B.C. The Egyptians are believed to have
developed the art and skill o f m aking
vessels as early as 4000 B.C.
>- Phoenesians are considered to be first
navigators from Europe, w ho explored the
entire M editerranean Sea, R ed Sea and
Parts o f Indian O cean, and first circum ­
navigated A frica in 590 B.C.
Pytheas was probably the first navigator
from Greece, who circum navigated E ng­
land, measured the lengths o f the co ast­
lines o f England in 4th century B .C ., and
sailed to Iceland in 325 B.C.
>■ H ero d o tu s p ro d u c e d a m ap o f the
M ediferranean Sea in 450 B.C.
Eratosthenes determ ined the circum fer­
ence of the earth w ith great accuracy,
calculated the polar circum ference through
north and south poles as 40,000 km, which
fell short o f only 32 km from the present
day accurate polar circum ference o f 40,032
km.
**■ Ptolem y com piled the m ap o f entire Ro­
man w orld in about 150 A.D.
Middle age, very often known as dark age in
the scientific world, continued from the
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0P"
NATURE OF OCEANOGRAPHY
end o f the 2nd century A.D. to the 14th
century A.D. w hen no significant contribu­
tions could be m ade in the field o f
oceanography except some sporadic w orks
by the E uropeans like Bede (673-735 A.D.)
w ho found lunar control as the prim ary
cause o f ocean tides, V ikings from Scandi­
navia sailed to Iceland, southern G reen­
land and B affin Island.
>- The period from the 15th to 16th centuries
A.D. is called ‘the g re a t age o f discovery and
e x p lo ra tio n ’ because efforts w ere made
during this period to discover and explore
new areas. C olum bus discovered Am erica,
and M agellan circum navigated the globe.
S ignificant contributions w ere made in the
fields o f origin o f coastal landform s,
theoretical base o f the origin o f tides,
ocean currents, and sea waves during this
p e rio d o f re n a issa n c e . Significant contribu­
tions w ere m ade by Leonardo da Vinci
(1452-1519 A .D .), C hristopher Columbus,
Prince H enry the N avigator, Juan Pounce
de Leon, V asco N uneze de Balboa, Peter
M atyr, Ferdinand M agellan, Sebastian del
C ano, G eradus M ercator etc.
>- The 200-year period, 17th & 18th centu­
ries, is know n as th e p erio d o f th e scientific
in v e s tig a tio n s o f th e oceans, when the study
o f seas and oceans began on scientific and
technological basis. O cean tides became
the focal them e o f oceanic studies. D e­
tailed studies w ere carried out regarding
the m easurem ent and m apping o f ocean
depths, variation in the horizontal and
vertical distribution o f ocean salinity,
p ressu re o f seaw ater, ocean tides and
currents. The significant contributions in
d ifferent fields o f oceanography came
from R obert B oyle (ocean salinity, seaw ater
tem perature, density o f seaw ater), N ew ton
(origin o f tides), Luigi M arsigli (regional
oceanography), L. E uler (ocean tides),
B enjam in Franklin (G u lf Stream ), C aptain
Jam es Cook (exploration o f South Pacific
region, physical nature o f oceans, ex p lo ra­
tion o f polar seas o f both the hem ispheres,
p reparation o f w orld m ap) etc.
25
>- The developm ent o f the science o f ocea­
nography gained currency in the 19th
century during w hich a num ber o f ocean
expeditions w ere launched in order to
understand the secrets o f the seas and the
oceans. Significant contributions were
made by Sir John Ross (A rctic O cean and
B affin Island during 1817-1818), A lexan­
der Marcet (chemical composition o f oceans),
C harles D arw in (B eagle E xpedition, origin
o f species, subsidence theory o f coral
reefs), Sir Janies Ross (deep sea o rg an ­
isms), Sir Edw ard Forbes (1815, 1854,
study o f sea anim als, bottom reliefs o f
A tlantic Ocean, distribution o f m arine life
in the A egean Sea, m ap show ing w orld
distribution o f marine life), M athew Fontaine
M aury (com pilation and analysis o f n u ­
merous data o f ocean currents, w inds over
sea surface, and m arine w eather c o n d i­
tions, publication Physical G eography, the
Sea), Charles W yville Thom son (sea te m ­
perature, deep sea m arine life) etc.
C hallenger Expedition is considered to be
one o f the m ost significant and successful
scientific voyages as regards the search for
both biotic and abiotic com ponents o f the
oceans. The findings o f the C h allen g er
Expedition (1872 to 1876 A .D .) m ade
significant contributions in the fields o f
ocean bottom reliefs, seaw ater te m p e ra ­
ture, m arine sedim ents and deposits, m a­
rine organism s including coral reefs. The
previous concept o f non-existence o f m a­
rine life beyond 600m depth as pro po u n d ed
by Edw ard Forbes, w as rejected, and it w as
finally concluded that m arine life ex isted
at all depths.
The m om entum o f ocean search in g during
C hallenger E xpedition co n tin u ed during
p ost-C hallenger period w hen Lois A gassiz
(study o f F lorida R eefs and K eys), John
M urray (location o f W ayville T hom son
R idge, study o f planktons, deposits on sea
bottom s, form ation and origin o f coral
reefs), A lexander A gassiz (1877-1880,
coastal survey o f 160,000 k m ., location o f
G u lf Stream , G reat B arrier R eef, study o f
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26
coral reefs near Bahama and Cuba, Ber­
m uda and Florida), Nansen (sailed through
110 A rctic sea, reached almost North Pole,
only 400 km aw ay) made important contri­
butions in the developm ent o f oceanogra­
phy. '
■
Ss* The beginning o f the 20th century heralded
the dawn o f modern oceanographic re­
searches equipped with latest vessels,
instrum ents, and with greater cooperations
at national and international levels.
^ The 20th Century oceanography was marked
by the developm ent o f experim ent design
and adoption o f interdisciplinary approach;
use o f advanced and com plex instrum ents
for obtaining and analysing mass datasets;
developm ent and application o f appropri­
ate scientifc sam pling devices for collect­
ing sam ples o f m arine organism s, marine
sedim ents and deposits, seaw ater etc.;
delineation o f bottom reliefs o f the oceans;
m easurem ent o f salinity, seaw ater tem ­
perature, and dissolved oxygen in vertical
prof i les o f oceans at num erous locations;
initiation o f am bitious large ocean surveys
by using latest technologies, m ethodolo­
gies, and appropriate equipm ents; finan­
cial support by governm ent agencies;
establishm ent o f m arine institutions to
prom ote m arine researches; initiation o f
international program m es, and m ulti-na­
tional organizations and cooperations in
m arine researches; launching o f a num ber
o f ocean expeditions equipped with tech­
nologically advanced version o f vessels
with latest equipm ents and trained scien­
tists o f different disciplines etc.
»- The 21 st century oceanography is destined
to be enriched by scientific researches
involving m ulti-dissciplinary and co llec­
tive ap p ro ach es through internatio n al
cooperations and application o f latest
equipm ents, and rem ote sensing tech ­
niques and GIS. The pow erful large com ­
puters have also facilitated the m arine
scientists to process the data more quickly,
efficiently, and accurately. The study o f
ocean-atm osphere interactions has becom e
OCEANOGRAPHY
more relevant in order to m onitor climate
change.
1.8 ORIGIN OF ATMOSPHERE AND OCEANS
The exact m ode o f origin o f the earth’s
atm osphere and oceans is not precisely known.
There are two view points regarding their origin
namely ( I) external source, (2) internal source. It
is, thus, desirable to discuss both the sources and
modes o f origin o f the atm osphere and oceans.
1. Origin of Atmosphere
T.C. Cham berlin postulated his ‘planetesinal
hypothesis’ to explain the origin o f the earth in the
year 1749. He m aintained that in the initial stage
o f the origin o f the earth there was no atm osphere
on it but as the earth grew in size, it captured
‘atm ospheric m aterials and e lem en ts’ by gravita­
tional force which was continuously increasing
due to everincreasing size o f the earth.
The e arth ’s atm osphere was form ed from
two basic sources. (I ) External source-w hen the
earth grew in size it becam e successful in
capturing free atm ospheric m olecules. The supply
o f atm ospheric m olecules was m ore but it
decreased with the passage o f tim e as m ost o f the
molecules were already captured by the earth. (2)
Internal sources provided carbon dioxide, w ater
vapour and nitrogen gases. A n o th er source o f the
‘atm ospheric m a te ria l’ w as o f occluded gases
carried by the planetesim als captured by the
‘nu cleu s’ o f the earth. These occluded gas
particles cam e out o f the interior o f the earth
through volcanic eruptions and becam e part and
parcel o f the present day atm osphere. O xygen,
thus, was provided by the volcanic eruptions.
The process o f com ing out o f gases from
w ithin the earth is called outgassing. It is believed
that the nature o f in itial gases com ing o f the
e a rth ’s interior during volcanic eruptions was
sim ilar to gases w hich are p resently emitted
through volcanic eru p tio n s, hot springs and
geysers. T hese gases include largest proportion of
w ater vapour in the form o f steam , and sm aller ;
volum e o f carbon dioxide, hydrogen, oxygen etc. j
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wm
I '# ' : ■
nature o foceanography
s« '.
It is believed that there was no free oxygen
in the original earth’s atmosphere. The molecular
oxygen probably was formed only after the
development o f photosynthesising organisms due
to splitting o f water molecules by plant cells.
W ater is split by plant cells and is reconstituted in
about every 2 million years and thus oxygen
produced circulates in the atmosphere through
various components and is again recycled after
about 2000 years. Thus, it is obvious that the
residence time o f oxygen in the atmosphere is
much longer (2000 years, that is oxygen is
recycled in 2000 years) than the residence time of
carbon (300 years, that is the carbon released by
plants and animals through respiration is avail­
able again for them after 300 years). The oxygen
continued to concentrate in the atmosphere from
the time o f its formation and now it constitutes
about 21 percent o f the total gaseous composition
o f the atmosphere. It is important to note that
oxygen remains in molecular oxygen form ( 0 2)
for very short time because it readily combines
with C 0 2 or H?0 or with other oxide forms.
Oxygen is produced through the process of
photosynthesis by the autotrophic green plants of
terrestrial ecosystems and phytoplanktons of
marine ecosystems and to a lesser extent by the
reduction o f various mineral oxides. Oxygen, thus
produced, enters the atmospheric storage pool.
Every year some oxygen is also added to the
atm osphere from volcanic eruption through
outgassing mainly in the form o f C 0 2 and H20 .
Oxygen from the atmospheric storage pool is used
by marine and terrestiral animals during respira­
tion. Oxygen is also consumed during burning of
wood and fossil fuels. Some portion of oxygen in
the form o f oxides is incorporated in the drainage
water and ultim ately reaches the oceans and is
incorporated in the sediments. Thus, oxygen
enters the sedim entary storage pool and remains
there for considerably a longer period o f geologi­
cal time scale. Thus, the oxygen cycle involves
the input o f oxygen to the atm ospheric storage
pool from the photosynthesis o f marine and
terrestiral autotrophic plants and from volcanic
eruption and the loss o f oxygen from the
atmospheric storage pool through respiration o f
marine and terrestiral organism s and mineral
oxidation, burning o f wood, grasses and forest
fires, combustion o f fossil fuels (coal and
petroleum) etc.
2. Origin of Oceans
T.C. Chamberlin opined that the primitive
oceans were first formed under the fragmented
and crevice-ridden outer permeable zone o f the
earth’s surface. Later on the crevices were
cemented and thus water derived through the
condensation of water vapour accumulated in
these crevices and volcanic craters and the earth’s
surface, thus, looked as if filled with numerous
lakes. Gradually and graduallly these lakes were
connected due to their expanding areal extents
and thus different oceans were formed. Basic
materials were weathered and eroded and were
ultimately carried away by running w ater from the
upstanding land masses (continents) and were
deposited in the submerged areas o f the earth
(oceans). Thus, there was gradual increase in the
acidic material o f the landmasses because most o f
the basic material was removed in solution form
from the landmasses. This caused reduction o f the
specific gravity o f the continental m aterial. In
other words, the weight o f continental m aterial
started decreasing whereas there was increase in
the weight o f oceanic material. This caused
further submergence o f the lowlying parts o f the
continents. Continuous deposition o f w eathered
and eroded debris and the weight o f the w ater
itself further depressed the submerged parts o f the
earth (oceans). This process caused further
extension of the oceans. A ccording to J.A Steers
‘as long as the earth as a whole continued
appreciably to grow by the accession o f the
planetesimals, the oceanic regions expanded and
deepened.’
It is generally believed that vast volum e o f
water vapour was em itted during the process o f
outgassing from within the earth through volcanic
eruptions, hot spings, and geysers during the
initial period o f the evolution and developm ent o f
the earth. The w ater vapour was soon condensed
and fell down on the earth’s surface in the form o f
rainw ater, snow and other forms o f precipitation
and accum ulated in the low er portions o f the
earth’s surface to form the early prim itive w ater
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28 OCEANOGRAPHY

bodies about 4 billion years before present. These
prim itive w ater hndies gradually grew and devel­
oped lino the present form o f the world oceans.
1.9 OCEAN’S CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES
As stated earlier world oceans, representing
w ater sphere o f the earth comprise 70.8 percent of
the total surface area o f the earth against 29.2
percent area of the continents representing lithosphere.
A bout 97.2 percent water (including ice) o f the
world is stored in the oceans. The ocean surface
comprises aquasphere representing liquid portion
o f the oceans, and cryosphere, representing solid
portion o f the ocean (Savindra Singh, 2008).
Cryosphere includes frozen seas and oceans such
as the Arctic Ocean. The ocean surface including
both aquasphere and cryosphere, covers an area of
361 million square kilom etes (70.8 percent of
total surface area o f the globe) while the
continents occupy 149 m illion square kilometers
area (29.2 percent). The follow ing are the vital
statistics o f 4 m ajor oceans (table 1.1) :

Table 1.1 : W orld oceans

Oceans Area Average Percent o f Percent o f the

(106 km2) depth the area o f area o f ocean
(m) earth ’s surface surface

1. Pacific Ocean 181.344 3,940 35.5 50.1

2. Atlantic Ocean 94.314 3,844 18.4 26.0
3. Indian Ocean 74.118 3,840 14.5 20.5
4. Arctic Ocean 12.257 1.117 2.4 3.4

Source : H. V. Thurman and A.P. Trujillo, 1999.

The Atlantic and Indian Oceans are charac­
terized by m id-oceanic ridges, while the Pacific
Ocean does have oceanic ridge in its eastern part,
known as the East Pacific Rise. The Pacific Ocean
is characterized by the largest number o f islands
and longest coastlines which are subjected to
convergence o f plates, and consequent folding,
faulting, volcanic, seismic activities. The Pacific
coasts are surrounded by m ountain chains, and are
often frequented by tsunam is o f varying magnitude.

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CHAPTER 2 : O R IG IN O F OCEAN BASINS 29-58
d is trib u tio n a l c h a ra c te ris tic s o f co n tin en ts and ocean, 29
c o n tin e n ta l d rift th eo ry o f T ay lo r, 31
c o n tin e n ta l d rift th e o ry o f W ag en er, 32
p la te te c to n ic th e o ry , 39
s e a m o u n ts a n d ta b le m o u n ts, 35
on

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2.1 CONTINENTS AND OCEAN BASINS : DISTRI­
BUTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
One cannot think of ocean basins without
considering continents. In fact, continents and
ocean basins are inseparable major reliefs of the
globe. The ocean basins are huge depressions of
great depth, usually more than 2000 m, having
basaltic floors w ith varying topographic features.
The solid basaltic floors o f the ocean basins
representing the oceanic plates move, though very
slowly, away from the mid-oceanic ridges. This is
the reason that the ocean crust is much younger
than the continental crust. Before attempting the
origin and evolution o f ocean basins and conti­
nents it is desirable to discuss certain characteris­
tics o f the distributional patterns o f the continents
and ocean basins.
Continents and ocean basins being funda­
mental re lie f features o f the globe are considered
as ‘relief features of the first o rd e r’. It is,
therefore, desirable to inquire into their mode o f
possible origin and evolution. D ifferent views,
concepts, hypotheses and theories regarding the
origin o f the continents and ocean basins have
been put forth by the scientists from time to time.
2
ORIGIN OF OCEAN BASINS
Before examining these views about their origin
we should know the characteristic features o f the
distributional patterns and arrangem ent o f the
continents and ocean basins as seen at present
(fig. 2.1). About 70.8 per cent o f the total surface
area of the globe is represented by the oceans
whereas remaining 29.2 per cent is represented by
the continents. Even the distribution o f different
continents and oceans in both the hem ispheres is
not uniform. The following characteristic features
of the distributional pattern o f the continents and
ocean basins may be highlighted :
>- There is overwhelming dom inance o f land
areas in the northern hem isphere. M ore
than 75 per cent o f the total land area o f the
globe is situated to the north o f the equator
(i.e. in the northern hem isphere). Contrary
to this water bodies dom inate in the
southern hemisphere. If we devide the
globe in two such hem ispheres w here the
north pole stands located in the English
Channel and the south pole near New
Zealand, then the northern hem isphere
would be ‘land hemisphere’ w hile the
southern hem isphere as ‘water hemisphere1.
Thus, the land hem isphere w ould represent
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30
83 p er cent o f the total land area o f the
globe w hile the w ater hem isphere would
180° 150° 120" 90° 60°
Fig. 2.1 : Present position o f the continents and ocean basins.
>- C ontinents are arranged in roughly trian­
gular shape. M ost o f the continents have
their bases (o f triangle) in the north while
their apices are pointed towards south. If
we take N orth and South Am ericas to ­
gether, they represent equibilateral trian ­
gles, the base o f which w ould be along the
A rctic Sea w hile the apex would be
represented by Cape Horn. If we take these
tw o continents separately, again they form
tw o separate triangles. Sim ilarly, Eurasia
also assum es the form o f a triangle the base
o f which is along the A rctic Sea while its
apex is near East Indies. The base o f
A frican triangle is tow ards north w hile its
apex is the Cape o f Good Hope. A ustralia
and A ntarctica are the exceptions o f this
rule.
>• R oughly, the oceans are also triangular in
shape. C ontrary to the continents the bases
OCEANOGRAPHY
carry 90.6 per cent o f the total oceanic
areas o f the globe.
30° 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180'
o f oceans are in the south w hile their apices
are in the north. The base o f the Atlantic
Ocean extends betw een Cape Horn and
Cape o f G ood H ope w hile its apex is
located to the east o f G reenland. The base
o f the Indian O cean is in the south but its
two apices are located in the Bay o f Bengal
and A rabian Sea. The apex o f the Pacific
Ocean is near A leutian Islands while its
base lies in the south.
The north pole is surrounded by oceanic
w ater w hile south pole is surrounded by
land area (o f the A ntarctic continent).
>• There is antipodal arrangem ent (situation)
o f the continents and oceans. O nly 44.6 per
cent oceans are situated opposite to oceans
and 1.4 per cent o f the total land area o f the
globe is opposite to land area. M ore than 95
per cent o f the total land area is situated
diam etrically opposite to w ater bodies.
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 O R I G I N OFOCEAN BASINS
T here are only two cases o f exceptions to
this general rule i.e\ (i) Patagonia is
situated diam etrically opposite to a part o f
north China, and (ii) N ew Zealand is
situated opposite to Portugal and Spain
(the Iberian Peninsula)
>- The great Pacific Ocean basin occupies
alm ost one-third o f the entire surface area
o f the globe.
The validity and authenticity o f any hypoth­
esis or theory dealing with the origin and
evolution o f the continents and the ocean basins
would be determ ined in the light o f aforesaid
characteristics o f the distributional pattern o f the
continents and ocean basins. The presence o f the
great Pacific O cean basin and island arcs and
festoons o f the Pacific O cean is teething problem
before scientists who venture in the precarious
field o f the postulation o f the relevant theory o f
the origin o f the continents and ocean basins.
K eeping the above facts in mind Low thian Green
postulated his ‘T etrahedral H ypothesis’ to ex­
plain the intricate problem s o f the origin o f the
continents and oceans and characteristic features
o f their distributional pattern. Besides, Lord
K elvin, Sollas, Love etc. also attem pted to explain
the origin o f the continents and ocean basins but
th eir view s are not discussed here because they
are based on discarded and obsolete argum ents
and assum ptions. In fact, all the previous hypoth­
eses and theories dealing with the origin o f the
continents and ocean basins have faded away after
the postulation o f plate tectonic theory. T here­
fore, only continental drift theory is being
discussed here.
2.2 CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY OF TAYLOR
F.B. T aylor postulated his concept o f
‘horizontal d isplacem ent o f the co n tin en ts’ in the
year 1908 but it could be published only in the
year 1910. The m ain purpose o f his hypothesis
was to explain the problem s o f the origin o f the
folded m ountains o f T ertiary period. In fact, F.B.
Taylor w anted to solve the p eculiar problem o f the
d istributional pattern o f T ertiary folded m oun ­
tains. The n o rth -so u th arrangem ent o f the R ockies
and the A ndes o f the w estern m argins o f the N orth
and South A m ericas and w est-east extent o f the
A pline m ountains (A lps, C aucasus, H im alayas
etc.) posed a serious problem before Taylor w hich
needed careful explanation. H e could not find any
help from the ‘contraction theory’ to explain the
peculiar distribution o f T ertiary folded m ountains
and hence he propounded his ‘d rift’ o r displace­
ment theory’. The concept o f T aylor, thus, is
considered to be first attem pt in the field
o f continental drift though A ntonio S nider p re ­
sented his view s about ‘drift’ in the y ear 1858 in
France. M ain purpose behind the p o stu latio n o f
‘drift hypothesis’ o f Snider was to explain th e
sim ilarity o f the fossils o f the coal seam s o f
C arboniferous period in N orth A m erica and
Europe.
Taylor started from C retaceous perio d .
A ccording to him there w ere tw o land m asses
d u rin g C re tac e o u s p e rio d . L a u ra tia a n d
G ondw analand w ere located near the n o rth and
south poles respectively. He further assu m ed th a t
the continents w ere m ade o f sial w hich w as
practically absent in the oceanic crust. A cco rd in g
to Taylor continents m oved tow ards the equator.
The main driving force o f the co n tin en tal d rift w as
tidal force. A ccording to T aylor co n tin en ts w ere
displaced in two w ays e.g. (i) e q u ato rw ard
m ovem ent, and (ii) w estw ard m o v em en t b u t the
driving force responsible fo r b o th ty p es o f
m ovem ent was tidal force o f the m oon.
Lauratia started m oving aw ay from th e
north pole because o f enorm ous tid a l fo rce o f th e
moon tow ards the equator in a rad ial m an n er. T h is
m ovem ent o f land m ass re su lted into te n sio n al
force near the north pole w hich cau sed stre tch in g ,
splitting and rupture in the lan d m ass. C o n se ­
quently, B affin B ay, L ab rad o r S ea and D a v is
Strait w ere form ed. S im ilarly , th e d isp la ce m e n t o f
the G ondw analand from the so u th p o le to w a rd s
the equator caused sp littin g and d isru p tio n and
hence the G o n d w an alan d w as sp lit in to sev e ra l
parts. C onsequently, G reat A u stra lia n B ig h t an d
R oss Sea w ere fo rm ed aro u n d A n ta rc tic C o n ti­
nent. A rctic sea w as fo rm ed b e tw ee n G reen lan d
and Siberia due to eq u ato rw ard m o v e m e n t o f
L auratia. A tlan tic and In d ian o cean s w ere
supposed to have been fo rm ed b e ca u se o f fillin g
o f gaps b etw een the d riftin g co n tin en ts w ith
■I
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 32
w ater. Taylor assum ed that the landmasses began
to m ove in lobe form while drifting through the
zones o f lesser resistance. Thus, mountains and
island arcs were form ed in the frontal part o f the
m oving lobes. The H im alayas, Caucasus and Alps
are considered to have been formed during
equatorw ard m ovem ent o f the Lauratia and
Gondwanaland from the north and south poles
respectively while the Rockies and Andes were
form ed due to w estw ard movement o f the
landmasses.
Evaluation
Since F.B. Taylor’s main aim was to
explain the origin o f Tertiary folded mountains
and hence he made the continents to move at a
very large scale. In fact, some sort o f horizontal
movement o f the land masses was essential for the
origin o f m ountains but the displacem ent o f land
masses upto 32-64 km would have been sufficient
enough for the purpose. Contrary to this Taylor
has described the displacem ent o f the landmasses
for thousands o f kilometers. Secondly, the mode
o f drift as suggested by Taylor has also been
erroneous. If the tidal force o f the moon was so
enormous during Cretaceous period that it could
displace the landmasses forthousands ofkilometers
apart then it might have also put a break on the
rotatory motion o f the earth and thus the rotation
o f the earth m ight have stopped within a year.
A ccording to A. Holmes neither tidal force nor
any external force can drift the continents apart
and can help in the formation o f mountains. The
responsible force m ust come from within the
earth. Though the concept o f F. B. Taylor is not
acceptable but his hypothesis is considered to be
significant on the ground that Taylor raised his
voice very forcefully through deductive postula­
tion against the prevalent concept o f the perm a­
nency o f the continents and ocean basins and
forcefully objected to the ‘contraction theory’ and
showed a new direction to solve the problem o f
the origin o f the continents and ocean basins.
A. H olm es has rightly rem arked, ‘but Taylor
must be given credit for m aking an independent
and slightly an earlier start in this precarious
fie ld .’
OCEANOGRAPHY
2.3 CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY OF WEGENER ^
Aims and Objectives
Professor A lfred W egener o f G erm any was
prim arily a m eteorologist. He propounded his
concept on continental drift in the year 1912 but it
could not come in light till 1922 when he
elaborated his concept in a book entitled ‘Die
Entstehung der K ontinente and O zeane’ and his
book was translated in English in 1924. W egener’s
displacement hypothesis was based on the works
and findings o f a host o f scientists such as
geologists, palaeo-clim atologists, palaeontolo­
gists, geophysicists and others. The main problem
before W egener, which needed explanation, was
related to climatic changes. It may be pointed out
that there are ample evidences w hich indicate
widespread climatic changes throughout the past
history o f the earth. In fact, the continental drift
theory o f W egener ‘grew out o f the need o f
explaining the m ajor variations o f clim ate in the
p ast’ . The clim atic changes w hich have occurred
on the globe may be explained in two ways.
( 1) If the continents rem ained stationary at
their places throughout geological history o f the
earth, the clim atic zones m ight have shifted from
one region to another region and thus a particular
region might have experienced varying climatic
conditions from tim e to time.
(2) If the clim atic zones rem ained station­
ary the land m asses m ight have been displaced
and drifted.
W egener opted for the second alternative as
he rejected the view o f the perm anency of
continents and ocean basins. T hus, the m ain
objective o f W egener behind his ‘displacement
h y p o t h e s is ’ was to explain the global clim atic
changes w hich are reported to have taken place
during the past earth history.
Basic Premise of the Theory
Follow ing E dw ard Suess, W egener be­
lieved in three layers system o f the earth e.g. outer
layer o f ‘s ia l’, interm ediate lay er o f ‘s im a ’ and the
low er layer o f ‘n ife. According to W egener si*
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ORIGIN OF OCEAN BASINS
w as considered to be lim ited to the continental
m asses alone w hereas the ocean crust was
represented by upper part o f sima. Continents or
sialic m asses w ere floating on sim a without any
resistance offered by sima. He assum ed, on the
basis o f evidences o f palaeo-clim atology, palae­
ontology, palaeobotany, geology and geophysics,
that all the landm asses were united together in the
form o f one landm ass, which he named P angaea, in
C arboniferous period. There were several sm aller
inland seas scattered over the Pangaea which was
surrounded by a huge w ater body, which was
nam ed by W egener as ‘P a n th a la s a ’ (fig. 2.4)
representing prim eval Pacific Ocean. Lauratia
consisting o f present N orth A m erica, Europe and
A sia form ed northern part o f the Pangaea while
G o n d w a n a la n d consisting o f South America, Af­
rica M adagascar, Peninsular India, A ustralia and
A n tarctica represented the southern part o f the
Pangaea. South pole was located near present
D urban (near N atal in southern Africa) during
C arboniferous period. Thus, W egener’s theory o f
continental drift begins from Carboniferous pe­
riod, he does not describe the conditions during
pre-C arboniferous tim es “but the postulation o f a
C arboniferous Pangaea does not mean that he
disbelieves in pre-C arboniferous drift : events
before this tim e are known with much less
certainty, and the distribution o f plants and
anim als can largely be explained by movements
w hich have taken place since the C arboniferous’
(J. A. Steers, 1961,.p. 160). The Pangaea was
disrupted during subsequent periods and broken
landm asses drifted aw ay from each other and thus
the present position o f the continents and ocean
basins becam e possible.
Evidences in Support of the Theory
W egener has successfully attem pted to
prove the unification o f all landm asses in the form
o f a single landm ass, the Pangaea, during C arbon­
iferous period, on the basis o f evidences gathered
from geological, clim atic and floral records. He
claim ed that all the present-day continents could
be jo in ed to form Pangaea. The follow ing
evidences support the concept o f the existence o f
Pangaea during C arboniferous period.
■I
33
>- A ccording to W egener there is geographi­
cal sim ilarity along both the coasts o f the
A tlantic Ocean. B oth the opposing coasts
o f the A tlantic can be fitted together in the
sam e w ay as two cut o ff pieces o f w ood can
be refitted (jig-saw fit) (fig. 2 .2 ).
G eological evidences denote that the C aledo­
nian and H ercynian m ountain system s o f
the w estern and eastern coastal areas o f the
A tlantic are sim ilar and id entical (fig. 2.3).
The A pplachians o f the north-eastern
regions o f North A m erica are com patible
with the m ountain system s o f Ireland,
W ales and north-w estern Europe.
Fig. 2.2 ; Jig-sawfitting(juxtaposition) o f South America
and Africa.
>■ G eologically, both the coasts o f the A tlantic
are also identical. Du T oit, after detailed
study o f the eastern coasts o f South
A m erica and w estern coasts o f A frica, has
said that the geological stru ctu res o f bo th
the coasts are m ore o r less sim ilar. A cco rd ­
ing to D u T oit both the landm asses (i.e.,
South A m erica and A frica) can n o t be
actually brought to g eth er b u t n ear to each
other because a gap o f 400-800 km would
separate them due to the existence o f
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34
continental shelves and slopes o f these two
landm asses.
There is marked sim ilarity in the fossils
and vegetation remains found on the
eastern coast o f South America and the
w estern coast o f Africa.
It has been reported from geodetic evi­
dences that Greenland is drifting westward
at the rate o f 20 cm per year. The evidences
o f seafloor spreading after 1960 have
confirm ed the movement o f landmasses
with respect to each other.
The lemmings (small sized animals) o f the
northern part o f Scandinavia have a ten­
dency to run westward when their popula­
tion is enormously increased but they are
drowned in the sea water due to absence of
any land beyond Norwagian coast. This
Cretaceous Eocene Pre-Silurian
Silurian-Carboniferous
Fig. 2.3 : Geological similarity on the eastern coast of
South America and the western coast of Af­
rica.
OCEANOGRAPHY
behaviour o f lemmings proves the fact that
the landmasses were united in the ancient
times and the animals used to m igrate to far
off places in the western direction.
>• The distribution o f glossopteris flora in
India, South Africa, A ustralia, Antarctica,
Falkland islands etc. proves the fact that all
the landmasses w ere previously united and
contiguous in the form o f Pangaea.
>■ The evidences o f Carboniferous glaciation
o f Brazil, Falkland, South Africa, Peninsu­
lar India. Australia and A ntarctica further
prove the unification o f all landmasses in
one landmass (Pangaea) during Carbonif­
erous period.
Process of the Theory
As stated earlier the main aim o f W egener
behind the postulation o f his ‘drift theory’ was to
explain major climatic changes which are re­
ported to have taken place in the past geological
history of the earth, such as Carboniferous
glaciation o f major parts o f the Gondwanaland.
Besides, W egener also attempted to solve other
problems o f the earth e.g. origin o f mountains,
island arcs and festoons, origin and evolution of
continents and ocean basins etc.
(1 ) Force responsible for the d rift : According to
W egener the continents after breaking away from
the Panagaea moved (drifted) in two directions
e.g. (i) equatorw ard m ovem ent, and (ii) westward
movement. The equatorw ard movement o f sialic
blocks (continental blocks) was caused by gravi­
tational differential force and force o f buoyancy.
As already stated the continental blocks, accord­
ing to W egener, were formed o f lighter sialic
materials (silica and alum inium ) and w ere float­
ing w ithout any friction on relatively denser
‘sim a’. Thus , the equatorw ard m ovem ent o f the
sialic blocks (continental blocks) w ould depend
on the relation o f the centre o f gravity and the
centre o f buoyancy o f the floating continental
mass. G enerally, these two type o f forces operate
in opposite directions. ‘But because o f the
ellipsoidal form o f the earth, these forces are not
in direct opposition, but are so related that, if the
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S?V
ORIGIN OF OCEAN BASINS
A. Present
buoyancy point lies under the centre o f gravity,
the resultant (force) is directed toward the
equator’ (J. A. Steers, 1961, p. 164).
The westward movement o f the continents
was caused by the tidal force o f the sun and the
moon. According to Wegener the attractional
force o f the sun and the m o o n ,. which was
maximum when the moon was nearest to the earth,
•MM
35
dragged the outer sialic crust (continental blocks)
over the interior o f the earth, towards the west. It
may be pointed out that in any drift theory the
weakest point and the most difficult problem is
related to the competent force responsible for the
movement o f the continents. ‘Such a force (tidal
force/attractional force o f the sun and the moon) is
extraordinarily small, but, as in the case o f other
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38
f ig 2.6 : Different positions o f Poles and Equator.
Americas (e.g. Rockies and A ndes and other
m o u n t a i n chains associated with them) were
formed. Similarly, the Alpine ranges o f Eurasia
were folded due to equatorw ard m ovem ent o f
Eurasia and Africa together with Peninsular India
(equator was passing through Tethys sea at that
time). Here, W egener postulated contrasting view
points. According to W egener sial (continental
blocks) was floating upon sima without any
friction and resistance but during the later part o f
his theory he pointed out that m ountains were
formed at the frontal edges o f floating and drifting
continental blocks (sialic crust) due to friction and
resistance offered by sima. How could it be
possible? The question remains unanswered.
Inspite o f this serious flaw in the continental drift
theory of Wegener, S. W. W ooldridge and R.S.
Morgan have remarked, ‘certainly the problem o f
mountain building is one in which the hypothesis
of continental drift solves more difficulties than it
creates.’
(4) Origin of island a rc s : W egener has related
* e process of the origin o f island arcs and
estoons (of eastern Asia, W est Indies and the arc
and e.SOUt^ern Antilles between Tierra del Fugo
rnntin nta^ct*ca) to the differential rates o f
en drift. When the A siatic block (part o f
OCEAN)
A ngaraland) w as m o v in g w estw ard, the eastern
m argin o f this b lo ck co u ld n o t keep pace w ith the
w estv'ard m oving m a jo r landm ass, rather lagged
behind, co n seq u en tly the island arcs and festoons
consisting o f S akhalin, K u rile, Japan, Philippines
etc. w ere form ed. S im ilarly , som e portions of
N orth and South A m ericas w h ile they were
m oving w estw ard, w ere left b eh in d and the island
arcs o f W est Indies and so u th ern A n tilles were
form ed.
(5) C arboniferous glaciation : T here are
am ple evidences to d em o n strate that there was
large-scale g laciation d u rin g C arb o n ifero u s pe­
riod when B razil, F alk lan d , S o u th ern Africa,
P eninsular India, A u stralia, A n ta rc tica etc. were
extensively glaciated. A cco rd in g to W egener all
; continental blocks w ere u n ited to g e th e r in the
form o f one land m ass called P angaea. South pole
was located near the p resen t p o sitio n o f D urban in
N atal. Thus, south pole w as lo cated in the middle
o f Pangaea. C onsequently, ice sheets might have
spread from south pole o u tw ard at the tim e of
glaciation and the afo resaid land areas, which
w ere closer to south pole, m ight have been
covered w ith thick ice sheets. At much later date,
these land areas might have parted away due to
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ORIGrN OF OCEAN BASINS
disruption o f Pangaea and related continental
drift G lossopteris flora m ight have also been
distributed over the aforesaid areas w hen these
were united together.
Evaluation of the Theory
It may be pointed out that W egener’s
continental drift theory widely departed from the
contemporary orthodox geological ideas o f the
nineteenth century and the tim e-honoured ther­
mal contraction theory o f the mountain building
and thus it was obvious that the believers of
contraction theory should also discard it. It is
now w idely agreed that he (W egener) handled his
case as an advocate rather than as an impartial
scientific observer, appearing to ignore evidences
unfavourable to his ideas and distort other
evidences in harmony with the theory’ (Wooldridge
& M organ, 1959).
The follow ing flaws and defects have been
pointed out by different scientists in W egener’s
theory o f continental drift :
>- The forces (gravitational forces, tidal
forces o f the sun and the moon, and force of
buoyancy) applied by W egener are not
sufficient enough to drift the continents so
apart.
>- W egener described several contrasting
view points about ‘sial , and sima .
Both the coasts o f the Atlantic Ocean
cannot be com pletely fitted, and hence the
concept o f ‘jig saw fit’ cannot be validated.
»- W egener could not elaborate the direction
and chronological sequence o f the dis­
placem ent o f the continents.
>- The concept o f ‘pole w andering’ was also
invalidated in 1960s on the basis o f plate
tectonics. It may be mentioned that the
evidences o f ‘sea floor spreading’, and
p a la e o m a g n e tis m have proved the fact that
it is not the poles which move, rather
continents m ove, and hence the relative
position o f poles change over time.
It may be concluded that ‘even if all the
matter o f his theory is w rong, geologists and
39
others can but rem em ber that it is largely to him
that we owe our more recent views on world
tectonics’ (J.A. Steers, 1961, p. 174). Though
most points o f W egener’s theory were rejected
but its central theme o f horizontal displacement
was retained. In fact, the postulation o f plate
tectonic theory after 1960 is the result o f this
continental drift theory o f W egener. W egener is,
thus, given credit to have started thinking in this
precarious field.
2.4 : PLATE TECTONICS AND CONTINENTAL
DRIFT
The ocean basins are characterized by four
physiographic regions, namely continental shelves,
continental slopes, deep sea plains, and ocean
deeps and trenches. The most characteristic
features o f the ocean basins are m id-ocean ridges
and deep trenches. The mid-ocean ridges com ­
prised of volcanic rocks (igneous, mostly basalts)
run almost through the central positions o f the
oceans, and represent the zone o f sea floor
spreading, and creation o f new ocean crust
through continuous upwelling o f magma. Thus,
mid-ocean ridges are, in fact, sp r e a d in g z o n e s .
These mid-ocean ridges rise upto 2,500 m (2.5
km) from the ocean floor, and at places come out
of the sea level. These also represent active
volcanism and newest basalt rocks. As one goes
away from the mid-ocean ridges, the basaltic crust
becomes older. It is, thus, clear that m id-ocean
ridges are the centers o f divergence and accretion
o f new ocean crust. On the other hand, the ocean
trenches are the centers o f subduction o f crustal
part due to convergences o f crusts. Thus, the
subduction zones are centers o f loss o f ocean
crusts. Ocean trenches also represent deepest
parts o f the oceans. These characteristic features
o f ocean basins must be explained on the basis o f
any acceptable theory. It may be m entioned that
plate tectonic theory based on the evidences o f sea
floor spreading and palaeom agnetism offers
plausible explanation o f the origin o f ocean basins
and their characteristic features. It is, thus,
desirable to discuss salient aspects o f plate
tectonics and continental drift.
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40
The rigid lithospheric slabs or rigid and
solid crustal layers are technically called ‘p lates’.
The w hole m echanism o f the evolution, nature
and m otion o f plates and resultant reactions is
called ‘plate tectonics’. In other words, the w hole
process o f plate m otions is referred to as plate
tectonics. ‘M oving over the weak asthenosphere,
individual lithospheric plates glide slow ly over
the surface o f the globe; much as a pack o f ice o f
the Arctic Ocean drifts under the dragging force
OCEANOGRAPHY
o f currents and w in d s’ (A . N . Strahler and A . H I
Strahler, 1978, p. 373). Plate tecton ic theory, * *
great scien tific achievem en t o f the decade o f
1960s, is based on tw o major scie n tific concepts
e.g. (i) the con cep t o f continental drift, and (ii) the
concept o f sea floor spreading. L ithosphere is
internally m ade o f rigid p lates (fig . 2 .7 ). S ix major
and 20 m inor plates have been id en tified so far
(Eurasian plate, Indian-A ustralian plate, A m eri­
can plate, P acific plate, A frican plate and Antarc­
tic plate).

EURASIAN
PLATE NORTH
AMERICAN

’ PLATE^ EURASIAN
^ JU AN DE
" K' 2 8 ^ — p LATE
,4.0 \ u r .A
FUCA p i ATP
PLATE A
A ndreas
ndreas f
Faull^XARIBBEANy'2'5
’HILIPPINE 1 p la te : . r 2 /
PLAT
ARABIAN
COCOS KLAI
PLATEh ^ — J- s _____PLATE 3 0 ^ ^ 1
- - / “ ■i f ------- 1 « / E-ast
12
1 2 0° '-'6:- ]v s oO uU tThH^ S)
S ^ - r4:- —►—►N \ PjAfricar
JXlNDO-AUSTRALIANy\ PACIFIC I ~~ V^M ERICANf " 3r"- ) \ ( Rift
PLATE -v -^ . PLATA/ AFRICAN ' V a lle y
PLATE if ! -■£- p l a t e ' s / ^

' V i / «, • J « ^
„ ' - ' r' ; f t
ANTARCTIC
PLATE
' ■i s ™
\ . i r r ’C v v ''. PLATt —

AN p u t e TIC .f t a n t a r c t i c p la th

g 27 7 ^ ^ ej ^ d8eS- ArrOWS indiCate direction movements.

was first “s e d Cby ^ ^ r i ^ c o X S t r T at m id -ocean ic ridges and destroyed at the

oceanic o n ,., WM c o ^ ^ c ^ f o ™
renc es. Isacks and S yk es confirm ed the ‘paving
stone h y p o th esis’ in 1967. W J . M organ and Le
ichon elaborated the various aspects o f plate
ecton ics in 1968. N o w the continental drift and
^ isplacem ent are considered a reality on the basis
o f plate tectonics.
.

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ORIGIN OF OCEAN BASINS
It may be hig h lig h ted that te c h n ic a lly plate
boundaries or plate m argins are m ost im portant
because all tectonic activities occur along the
plate boundaries e.g. seism ic events, vulcanicity,
41
m ountain b u ilding, faulting etc. T hus, the detailed
study o f p late boundaries is not only desirable but
is also necessary. Plate b o u n d aries are generally
divided into three groups, as follow s :

Fig. 2.8 : Diagramatic presentation o f main aspects o f plate tectonics (based on A.N. Strahler, 1971).

(1) Constructive or Divergent Plate Boundaries

C onstructive plate boundaries are also called
divergent plate boundaries or accreting plate boundaries.
C onstructive plate m argins (boundaries)
represent zones o f divergence where there is
continuous upw elling o f m olten m aterial (lava) and
thus new oceanic crust is continuously form ed. In
fact, oceanic plates split apart along the m id-
oceanic ridges and move in opposite d irections
(fig. 2.9).
There is continuous creation o f new cru st at
the trailing ends o f divergent plates w h ich m ove

Continental V£ iC CONVERGENCE DIVERGENCE

crust S e a floor spreading
O ceanic crust (basalt)

Fig. 2.9: Diagramatic presentation of different types o f plate boundaries.

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 OCEANOGRAPHY
42
tran sfo rm faults, (v) o ccurrence o f shallow focus
in op p osite directions from m id-oceanic ridges.
earth q u ak es, (vi) d riftin g o f oceanic p lates etc.
T his is V uy d iv e rg e n t plate boundaries are called
accreting plate boundaries.
(2) Convergent Plate Boundaries
D iv e rg e n t plate m argins are constructiv e in
th e sen se th at there is continuous form ation o f C onvergent plate bo u n d aries are also called
new cru st along th ese m argins because o f cooling
d e s tru c tiv e p la te b o u n d a rie s or co n su m in g plate
and so lid ific a tio n o f basaltic lava w hich com es up
b o u n d a rie s because tw o p lates m ove tow ards each
as m agm a due to riftin g o f plates along the m id-
other or tw o p lates converge along a line and
o ceanic ridges. D iv erg en t m ovem ent o f plates
leading edge o f one plate overrides the other plate
(i.e. m ovem ent o f tw o plates in opposite d irec­
and the overridden p late is subducted or thrust
tio n s) resu lts in (i) volcanic activity o f fissure
into the m antle and thus part o f cru st (plate) is lost
flow o f b a sa ltic m agm a, (ii) creation o f new
in the m antle (fig 2.10). These are the centres of
o ceanic crusts, (iii) form ation o f subm arine
deep ocean trenches.
m ountain ridges and rises, (iv) creation o f

Continental O cean ic

Fig. 2.10 : Convergent plate boundaries, and subduction zone representing the region o f loss o f plate.

The zone o f collision o f convergent plates is plates), (ii) continent-continent collision (colli­
also called as ‘collision zon e’, ‘subduction zone- and sion o f two continental plates), and (iii) ocean-
continent collision (collision o f oceanic an
‘B enioff zo n e’ (after the scientist Hugo B e m o f^
continental plates). O cean-ocean collision involves
C onvergence, collision and resultant subduction
collision o f two convergent plates having oceanic
o f heavier plate m argin under lighter plate margin
crusts where one oceanic crust having relative y
results in (i) the occurrence o f explosive type o f
denser m aterial is subducted into upper mantle.
volcanic eruptions, (ii) deep focn earthquakes,
Such collision and subduction occurs along eas
(iii) form ation o f folded m ountains, island arcs
Asia and the resultant tectonic expression oipia.
and festoons, oceanic trenches etc.
collision and subduction includes deformation
Plate collisions are o f three types viz. (i) crustal area, vulcanism , metam orphism ,
ocean— ocean collision (collision o f two oceanic

1 . :: ■
■
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ORIGIN OF OCEAN BASINS
tion o f oceanic tre n c h e s , is la n d arcs and festoons
etc., and o c c u rre n c e o f e arth q u ak e s. Ocean-
co n tin en t collision in v o lv e s c o llisio n o f one oceanic
plate h a v in g o c e a n ic c ru st and o th er one o f
co n tin ental p la te h a v in g c o n tin e n ta l crust along
Benioff zone (su b d u c tio n zo n e) and the resu ltan t
te cto n ic e x p re ss io n s are d efo rm atio n o f crustal
ro c k s, m e ta m o rp h ism , v o lc an ic eruptions, fo rm a­
tio n o f fo ld e d m o u n ta in s and occurrence o f deep-
fo cu s e arth q u ak e s. C o llisio n o f A m erican and
P a c ific p la te s is a ty p ic a l exam ple o f this category
and fo rm atio n o f m ajestic w estern co rdillera o f N.
A m e ric a an d A ndes o f S. A m erica is significant
re su lta n t te c to n ic ex p ressio n o f such situation. It
m ay be m e n tio n e d th a t one o f the m anifestions o f
c o n tin e n t-o c e a n ic p la te collisio n is the exposure
o f d eep o c ea n ro ck s th ro u g h their thrusting in
re s u lta n t m o u n ta in m asses. T his process is called
obduction w h ich is o p p o site to su b d u ctio n as the
fo rm e r im p lie s th ru stin g up w hile the latter m eans
th ru s tin g dow n.
C o n tin en t-co n tin en t collision involves co lli­
sio n o f tw o c o n tin e n tal plates along B en io ff zone
an d is re sp o n sib le for the creation o f folded
m o u n ta in s and o ccu rren ces o f earthquakes o f
v a ry in g m a g n itu d e s. The collision o f A siatic-
In d ia n p la te s, A n d E uro p ean -A frican plates is
ty p ic a l e x a m p le o f such situation and the form a­
tio n s o f A lp in e and H im alay an m ountain chains
are m a jo r m a n ife stio n s.
(3) Conservative Plate Boundaries
C o n se rv a tiv e p late bou n d aries are also
c a lle d sh ea r p la te b o u n d a ries or transform b oun d a­
ries b e c a u s e o f th e fo rm atio n o f tran sfo rm faults.
H e re tw o p la te s p a ss or slide past one another
alo n g tra n s fo rm fa u lts and thus cru st is n either
created n o r d e stro y e d .
T he significant te c to n ic e x p re ssio n o f such
situation is th e c re a tio n o f tra n sfo rm faults w hich
m ove, on an a v e ra g e , p a ra lle l to the d ire c tio n o f
plate m otion. T ra n s fo rm fa u lts o ffse t m id-o cean ic
ridges. B esid e s o c e a n ic tra n sfo rm fau lts, th ere are
also c o n tin e n tal tra n sfo rm fa u lts e.g ., San A ndreas
fault (C a lifo rn ia , U S A ), A lp in e fa u lt (A frica) etc.
It m ay b e m e n tio n e d th a t S an A n d re as fau lt is
43
ridge to ridge transform f a u l t ’ The other m anifesta­
tions o f conservative plate m argins include no
volcanic activity, seism ic events, creation o f
ridge and valley, fractures zone etc.
H. H ess pro stu lated the concept o f ‘plate
te cto n ics’ in 1960 in su p p o rt o f co n tin en tal drift.
The continents and oceans m ove w ith the m ove­
m ent o f these plates. The p resen t shape and
arrangem ent o f the continents and ocean basins
co u ld be a tta in e d b e c a u se o f c o n tin u o u s
relative m ovem ent o f d ifferen t p lates o f the
second Pangaea since C arboniferous period. Plate
tectonic theory is based on the evidences o f
(1 ) sea-floor spreading, and (ii) p alaeom agn etism .
1. Forces of Plate Movements
It has been finally agreed th at the forces
responsible for the m ovem ent o f p lates in
d ifferent directions cannot be external rath er they
com e from w ithin the earth. It has been com m only
agreed that therm al convective currents o rig in at­
ing in the upper m antle o f the interior o f the earth
(fig. 2 . 11) are responsible for dragging the p lates
in different directions i.e. in opposite d irectio n s
(divergent m ovem ent o f p lates), in face to face
direction (convergent m ovem ent), and la te ral and
parallel but in opposite d irectio n (c o n v erg en t
m ovem ent o f plates).
The divergent m ovem ent o f p lates is cau sed
by rising (ascending) therm al co n v ectiv e c u r­
rents. The ascending th erm al co n v ectiv e cu rren ts
diverge ju st below the m id -o cean rid g es (fig.
2 . 11) and thus drag the o cean cru st in o p p o site
directions and cause sp read in g o f sea floor,
u p w ellin g o f m agm a in the form o f b a sa ltic lavas
w hich cool and so lid ify to .fo r m new b asaltic
ocean crusts (accretio n o f p lates). O n the o ther
hand, tw o sets o f th erm al co n v ectiv e cu rren ts
c o m in g fro m o p p o site d ire c tio n s c o n v erg e
below the cru st (fig. 2 . 11) and thus m ake
the p la te s c o llid e a n d s u b d u c tio n th e re o f
at su b d u ctio n or B e n io ff zone re su ltin g into
fo rm atio n o f m o u n tain ran g es an d d eep ocean
tren ch es.
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44
oceanography i

Mid-Ocean
ridge Plateau Deep-sea
basalts trench

Fig. 2.11 : Pattern of thermal convective currents and plate movements.

2. Sea-Floor Spreading

The concept o f sea floor spreading was first

propounded by professor Hary Hess o f the
Princeton U niversity in the year 1960. His
concept w as based on the research findings o f
num erous m arine geologists, geochemists and
geophysicists. M ason o f the Scripps Institute o f
O ceanography obtained significant information
about the m agnetism o f the rocks of sea-floor of
the Pacific Ocean with the help o f magnetometer.
Later on he surveyed a long stretch o f the sea-floor
o f the Pacific Ocean from M exico to British
C olum bia along the w estern coast o f North
A m erica. W hen the data o f magnetic anomalies
obtained during the aforesaid survey were dis­
played on a chart, there emerged well defined
patterns o f stripes (fig. 2.12). Based on these
inform ation Hary Hess propounded that the mid-
oceanic ridges were situated on the rising thermal
convection currents coming up form the mantle
(fig. 2.11). The oceanic crust moves in opposite
directions from m id-oceanic ridges and thus there
is continuous upw elling o f new molten materials
(lavas) along the m id-oceanic ridges. These
m olten lavas cool down and solidify to form new
crust along the trailing ends o f divergent plates
(oceanic crust). Thus, there is continuous creation
o f new crust along the m id-oceanic ridges. This, Fig. 2.12 : Patterns of positive magnetic anomalies off
according to Hess, proves the fact that sea-floor the coast of Sanfransisco.

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 45
ORIGIN o f o c e a n b a s in s

spreads along the m id-oceanic ridges and the (iv) there is p arallelism in the tim e sequence o f
expanding crusts (plates) are destroyed along the palaeom agnetic epochs and events calcu ­
oceanic trenches. T hese facts prove that the lated for 4.5 m illion years on the basis o f
continents and ocean basins are in constant m agnetism o f basaltic rocks or sedim en­
tary rocks. Fig. 2.13 depicts the p osition o f
motion.
m agnetic stripes on eith er side o f the m id-
W .G . V ine and M attheus conducted the oceanic ridge along w ith the tim e-scale o f
m agnetic survey o f the central part o f Carlsberg
their form ation.
R idge in Indian O cean in 1963 and computed the
m agnetic profiles on the basis o f general m agnet­
ism. W hen he com pared the com puted magnetic
profiles with the profiles o f m agnetic anomalies
plotted on the basis o f actual data obtained during
the survey, he found sizeable difference between
the two profiles. W hen he plotted the magnetic
profiles on the basis o f alternate bands o f normal
and reverse m agnetism in separate stripes o f 20
km w idth on either side o f the ridge, he found
complete parallelism betw een the computed
profiles and observed profites.
Vine and M attheus have opined on the basis
o f the evidences o f tem poral reversal in the
geomagnetic filed and the concept o f sea-floor
spreading as propounded by Deitz and Hess that
when m olten hot lavas come up with the rising Fig. 2.13 : Diagramatic presentation o f magnetic stripes
therm al convection current along the mid-oceanic on either side o f the mid-oceanic ridge accord­
ridges and get cooled and solidified, these (lavas) ing to Vine and Matheus, The period o f the
also get magnetized, at the same time, in formation o f these stripes have been named
accordance with the then geomagnetic field and after known scientists (e.g. Gillbert, Gass,
thus alternate bands or stripes of magnetic Matuyama and Bruhnes).
anomalies are formed on either side o f the mid-
oceanic ridge. In other words, when molten lavas
are upw elled along the mid-oceanic ridges, these It may be concluded, on the basis o f above
divide the earlier basaltic layer into two equal discussion, that there is continuous spreading o f
halves and these basaltic layers slide horizontally seafloor. New basaltic crust is continuously
on either side o f the mid-oceanic ridges. The formed along the m id-oceanic ridges. T he new ly
findings o f Cox, Doell and Dalrympal (1964), formed basaltic layer is divided into tw o equal
Opdyke (1966) and H eritzler (1966) have vali­ halves and is thus displaced aw ay from the m id-
dated the follow ing facts : oceanic ridge. A lternate stripes o f positive and
(i) there is reversal in the m ain m agnetic field negative magnetic anom alies are found on either
o f the earth (know n as geocentric dipole side o f the m id-oceanic ridges. Such m agnetic
magnetic field), anomalies (positive and negative) are form ed
because o f tem poral reversal in the geom agnetic
(ii) normal and reverse m agnetic amomalies
are found in alternate m anner on either side field. The rocks form ed during norm al m agnetic
o f the m id-oceanic ridges, field contain positive m agnetic anom alies w hile
the rocks form ed during reverse polarity (re­
(iii) there is com plete parallelism in the m ag­
netic anom alies on either side o f the mid- versed geom agnetic field) denote negative m ag­
oceanic ridges, and netic anomalies.

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46
Rates of Plate Movements and Sea Floor
Spreading
T he age o f m agnetic stripes, the rate o f sea
floor spreading and the tim e o f drifting o f
different continents are calculated on the basis o f
above facts. The dating o f the m agnetic stripes
form ed upto 4.5 m illion years before present has
been com pleted on the basis o f inform ation
obtained from the survey o f palaeom agnetism o f
the sea floor o f different oceans. The rate o f sea
floor spreading is calculated on the following two
bases:
**■ on the basis o f the age o f isochrons
(isochrons are those lines which join the
points o f equal dates o f m agnetic stripes
plotted on the map), and
^ on the basis o f distance between two
isochrons.
Thus the rates o f spreading (drifting) o f
different oceans have been determined on the
basis o f above principles. It may be mentioned
that the rate o f sea floor spreading always means
oceano g raph y
the rate o f expansion only on one side o f the mid­
ocean ridges. F o r exam ple, if the rate o f sea floo^
spreading is reported to be 1.0 cm p er year, the
total spreading o f the concerned ocean w ould be 1
+ 1 = 2 cm per year. Though d ifferent rates o f plate
m ovem ents and sea floor spreading have been
reported by different sources but the generalized
average rates are as follow s :
5=* The m axim um spreading o f the Pacific
Ocean is 6 to 9 cm per year along the
eastern Pacific ridge betw een equator and
30° S latitude, w hile it ranges between 2.5
cm to 3 cm per year along the western
North A m erican coasts (fig. 2.14).
>■ The southern A tlantic Ocean is expanding
along the southern A tlantic ridge at the rate
o f 2 cm per year.
The Indian Ocean is expanding at the rate
o f 1.5 cm to 3 cm per year.
All o f the above m entioned spreading rates
are only on one side o f the m id-ocean ridges. The
figures should be doubled to get total rate o f sea
floor spreading.
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ORIGIN OF OCEAN BASINS
3. Evidence of Palaeomagnetism
Palaeom agnetism refers to the preservation
o f m agnetic properties in the older rocks o f the
earth. It may be m entioned that when any rock,
w hether sedim entary or igneous, is formed it gets
m agnetised depending on the presence o f iron
content in the rock and is preserved (frozen at
tem perature below C urie point, which is gener­
ally 600°C). It was the year 1600 A.D. when
W illiam G ilbert, the physician o f Queen Eliza­
beth, postulated that the earth behaved like a giant
m agnet and m agnetism o f the earth was produced
in the inner part o f the earth. The magnetic field o f
the earth is like a giant bar magnet o f dipoles,
located in the centre (core) o f the earth and is
aligned approxim ately along the axis o f rotation
o f the earth. W hen the long axis o f dipole bar
m agnet is extended it intersects the earth’s surface
at two centres which are called north and south
m agnetic poles. It may be pointed out that
m agnetic south pole o f the earth is near its
(earth’s) geographical north pole and vice-versa
(i.e. m agnetic north pole is located near geo­
graphical south pole). If an ordinary small magnet
is freely suspended at the earth’s surface then the
earth ’s south m agnetic pole attracts north pole o f
sm all m agnet and earth’s north magnetic pole
attracts south pole o f small magnet. It may be
clarified that as per general rule when two
m agnets are brought together, then their similar
poles repel each other but opposite poles attract
each other.
(1) S o u r c e o f G e o m a g n e tic Field
The origin o f geom agnetic field is in no case
related to m antle rath er it is related to the outer
core o f the earth because o f the fact that there is
gradual w estw ard m igration o f geom agnetic field
at the rate o f 0.18° p e r year w hich proves that the
rotation o f geom agnetic field is slow er than the
rotation o f the earth. This indirectly proves that
the core o f the earth rotates at slow er rate than the
overlying m antle. It m ay be stated that the
magnetic field cannot be a perm anent property o f
the material o f the c o r e ........... m ust therefore be
continuously produced and m ain ta in ed ’ (A, and
47
Doris L. Holmes, 1978). I f perm anent geom agnetic
field is not possible then the continuous produc­
tion and m aintenance o f geom agnetic field m ay be
possible only when there would be presence o f
materials o f high electrical conductivity in the
core so that electrical currents m ay be generated.
It is further pointed out that the generation o f
electrical currents is possible only in m etallic
liquid m aterials and such situation is found in the
outer core o f the earth which functions as self
exciting dynam o. Thus, the energy coming out o f
the core is transform ed into electrical currents
which in association with m etallic liquid sub­
stances produce geocentric dipole m agnetic field.
(2) Remanent Magnetism
The geocentric axial dipole m agnetic field
represents 95 per cent o f a earth’s total m agnet­
ism. The remaining portion is represented by
irregular, scattered and weak m agnetic fields. It
may be pointed out that there is no such giant bar
magnet inside the earth but there is more
concentration o f m agnetism in the rocks o f the
core o f the earth in the shape o f a bar m agnet. The
hot and liquid lava and m agm a w ith high
ferrom agnesian contents, when cooled and solidi­
fied to form igneous rocks, get m agnetised, the
records o f which are preserved in the rocks. Such
magnetism preserved (frozen) in the rocks are
called re m a n en t or palaeo m ag n etism . It is to be
remembered that the newly form ed rocks are
magnetised in the direction o f existing geom agnetic
field, and thus the m agnetic inclination/dip o f
newly formed rocks is the same as that o f the
geom agnetic field at the tim e o f the form ation o f
said igneous rocks. Thus, it is evident that the
o rie n ta tio n and m a g n etic in c lin a tio n o f
palaeom agnetism preserved in the rocks is alw ays
in accordance w ith the prevailing m agnetic
inclination o f geom agnetic field. The intensity o f
such palaeom agnetism /rem anent m agnetism de­
pends on the com position o f m inerals o f lava and
m agm a at the tim e o f cooling and solidification
and on the intensity o f geom agnetic field o f that
period (w hen the concerned igneous rocks were
form ed). Sim ilarly, sedim entary rocks, at the time
o f their form ation, are also m agnetised, the
am
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48
intensity o f w hich depends on the am ount o f
ferrom agnesian m inerals present therein. Som e­
tim es, the m agnetism (w eak) o f sedim entary
rocks is destroyed due to chem ical changes.
R em anent m agnetism preserved in the rocks is
recorded w ith the help o f galvanometer.
(3) Reconstruction of Palaeomagnetism
The reconstruction o f palaeom agnetism
involves the collection o f rock sam ples o f the
sam e age from different places and determ ination
and recording o f their orientation. It may be
pointed out that som e changes may take place in
the original orientation o f m agnetism due to
tectonic events. Any w ay, after the determ ination
o f orientation o f palaeom agnetism , the m agni­
tude, declination and inclination o f local force are
m easured w ith the help o f m a g n e to m e te r. It is
assum ed th at generally at the tim e o f m agnetisa­
tion o f rocks (palaeom agnetism ) the geom agnetic
field is dipolar in shape and there is approximate
coincidence betw een average geom agnetic field
(average, because it varies temporally) and
contem porary geographical poles. B ased on this
assum ption average palaeom agnetic inclination/
dip o f rocks o f a certain place and o f a certain time
is determ ined, on the basis o f w hich the latitude o f
that place existing at that tim e is determ ined on
the basis o f the follow ing equation :
tan I = 2 tan A
w hen I = m agnetic inclination
^ = latitude
T hus, the latitude, so determ ined helps in
determ ining the distance o f poles and the direc­
tion o f poles is determ ined on the basis o f
palaeo m agnetic declination (D). On the basis o f
distance and direction o f geographical poles from
the selected place (from w here the rock sam ples
are co llected) the position o f poles o f the globe, at
the tim e o f the form ation o f the sam ple rocks, is
determ ined. There m ay be som e errors in the
aforesaid p rocess o f determ ination o f the position
o f the globe viz. (i) at the tim e o f palaeom agnetic
reconstruction the im pact o f only geom agnetic
field is considered w hile m inor m agnetic fields
are ignored; (ii) sam pled rocks m ight have
OCEANOGRAPHY
experienced m ag n etic changes; (iii) so m e errors I
m ay crop up at the tim e o f o rien tatio n etc. In order
to rem ove th ese erro rs sev eral ro ck sam p les o f
sam e age are co lle cte d and the p o sitio n o f poles is
determ ined after the study o f their palaeom agnetism
and calcu latio n o f av erag e v alu e o n the b asis o f
statistical m ethods.
B ased on th e ab o v e m eth o d th e p o sitio n s o f
poles w ere d eterm in ed in Jap an , Ita ly , F ran c e etc.
on the basis o f p alaeo m ag n etic re c o n stru c tio n o f
C enozoic lavas. B lack ett and h is asso ciates
determ ined the p o sitio n o f p o le s b e fo re 200
m illion years in B ritish Isles on th e b a sis o f
p alaeom agnetic re c o n stru ctio n o f san d sto n es.
The study revealed co n sid e ra b le c h a n g e s in the
positions o f poles in the p ast. T h is stu d y , thus,
revealed the fact, 'that m agnetic p o le s have
changed their positions and there has been
considerable wandering in the position o f poles. ’
On the basis o f this rev elatio n tw o in fe re n c e s m ay
be draw n :
^ The poles m ust have ch an g ed th e ir p o s i­
tions and the co n tin en ts and o c ea n b asin s
m ight have rem ained statio n ary at th e ir
places th ro u g h o u t g eo lo g ical tim e.
>- Polar w andering has o ccu rred d ue to
continental drift i.e. c o n tin en ts ch an g e d
their relative p o sitio n s w h ile m a g n etic
poles rem ained stationary.
Polar w andering curves are p re p a re d fo r
different continents on the b asis o f d a ta d e riv e d
through palaeom agnetic reco n stru ctio n .
As per rule if there has not been continental
rift, then the polar wandering curves o f different
continents at a certain time p erio d (same tim e f o r
all the continents) shall be the same, but i f the
continental drift has occurred then these polar
curves would be different f ° r each
The m ag n etic p o lar w an d erin g curves
p erlo V d iffc ^ <!;fferen, “ « — «■ * » -
clearlv ,hA c° " rab li' from cach o th er. This
positions P° leS have n o t c h an ged their
relative n o ^ f W C° ” tin en ts have ch an g ed their
relative po sitio n s. T hus it is co n clu d ed t h a t :
and n , I he C° ncepts ° f Permanency o f continents
and ocean basins, and polar wandering stand
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 ORIGIN OF OCEAN BASINS
rejected and continental displacement and drift
becomes a reality. ”
It is, thus, validated that if the relative
positions o f continents have changed, the position
o f magnetic pole determ ined on the basis o f
contem porary rocks o f a continent would differ
from the position o f magnetic pole (of same
period) o f the other continents. It may be further
elaborated. So long as two continents are joined
together or are not drifting in relation to one
another, the m agnetic polar wandering curves for
same period would be the same for both the
continents. According to A.G. W egener all the
continents were joined together in the form of
Pangaea till late Perm ian period. If this was so,
then there should be only one palaeomagnetic
pole for all the continents during Palaeozoic era.
This inference became true when the palaeomagnetic
pole w andering curve was prepared for Palaeozoic
Pangaea by join in g all the present day continents
together so as to conceive the situation in
Palaeozoic era.
It is, thus, finally concluded that :
“Based on p o le wandering curves o f differ­
ent periods fo r different continents on the basis o f
data derived fro m palaeom agnetic reconstruction
and evidences o f sea jlo o r spreading, not only the
concept o f continental drift is validated but the
mechanism o f disruption o f W egener's Pangaea,
separation o f different continents and their large-
scale displacement and drifting are also validated.
(4) Reversal of P olarity
The study o f palaeom agnetism also re­
vealed that m agnetization o f som e rocks was not
conformal to the geom agnetic field i.e. the rocks
Were magnetized in opposite direction o f main
geomagnetic field. It w as further substantiated
during the decade 1950-60 that the occurrence o f
Aversely m agnetized rocks was not rare phenom ­
enon rather it was universal phenom enon. The
available data o f palaeom agnetism reveals the
fact that about 50 percent o f the rocks o f the crust
ave got m agnetized in opposite direction to the
geomagnetic field. T here m ay be tw o possibilities
111 this regard :
I
i
49
>- At the time o f m agnetization o f rocks at
given tim e period some rocks might have
been m agnetized in opposite direction to
the geom agnetic field or initially all the
rocks were m agnetized in the direction o f
geom agnetic field but at a later date the
direction o f some rocks m ight have changed
and hence o p p o site d ire c tio n o f
palaeomagnetism o f rocks m ight have
become possible. This m echanism o f re­
versal o f polarity is called self reversal.
>- Alternatively, originally the m agnetiza­
tion o f reversely m agnetized rocks m ight
have taken place in the direction o f
geomagnetic field but at a later date there
might have been reversal in the direction o f
geomagnetic field itself. This m echanism
o f reversal o f polarity is called geomagnetic
field reversal.
The first possibility o f reversal o f polarity
i.e. self reversal of polarity, as referred to above,
could not be substantiated on the basis o f
available field data though Neel suggested a few
theoretical possibilities to validate self reversal.
Most o f the scientists are o f the opinion that
terrestrial rocks are m agnetized alw ays in the
direction o f geomagnetic field, but there is
reversal in the direction o f geom agnetic field, i. e .,
north-south direction o f geom agnetic field after
certain time becomes south-north. For exam ple, if
the geomagnetic field is in norm al direction
(north-south), all the rocks o f all the continents
formed at that time are m agnetized in norm al
direction but when the norm al direction o f
geomagnetic field gets reversed (south-north), all
the rocks o f all the continents at that tim e (during
reversed direction o f geom agnetic field) are
m agnetized again in the direction o f geom agnetic
field but this time the direction o f m agnetism o f
rocks is opposite to the direction o f previously
formed and m agnetized rocks because now the
direction o f geom agnetic field has got reversed
itself. It is generally believed that field reversal
occurs at regular interval o f time.
Scientists have measured magnetic polarity
o f rocks upto 4.5 million years which denotes
definite and perfect time sequence. The rocks
formed at the same time period in all the
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50 OCEANOGRAPHY

continents denote sam e polarity. Fig. 2.15 shows (e.g. G ilbert and M atuyam a) arc o f reverie
tim e sequence o f reversal o f geom agnetic field ot polarity. Polarity events within different geomagnetic
polarity reversal upto 4.5 m illion years. It is polarity epochs have been nam ed after the placc
evident from fig. 2.15 that there are four polarity w here rem anent m agnetism (palaeom agnetism )
epochs w herein two epochs (e.g. Gauss and w as studied first.
Bruhnes) are o f n o rm a l p o la rity w hile two epochs
4. Plate Tectonics and Actual Continental Dis­
~T placement
4>
c _ TO O
c
On th e b a sis o f th e e v id e n c e s o f
< i S 5* jQ
!S '♦r
•
V-' C
t ®
>». < o palaeom agnetism and sea floor spreading it has
been now validated that the continents and ocean
basins have never been stationary or perm anent at
their places rather these have alw ays been m obile
throughout the geological history o f the earth and
they are still m oving in relation to each other. The
scientists have discovered am ple evidences to
dem onstrate the opening and closing o f ocean
basins. For exam ple, the M editerranean sea is the
residual o f once very vast ocean (T ethys sea) and
the Pacific O cean is continuously contracting
because o f gradual subduction o f A m erican plate
along its ridge. On the other hand, the A tlantic
Ocean is continuously expanding for the last 200
m illion years. Red Sea has started to open (to
expand). It may be m entioned that continental
m asses come closer to each other w hen the oceans
begin to close while continents are displaced
away when the oceans begin to open (expand).
Though the sequence o f events o f co n tin en ­
tal displacem ent based on the evidences o f
palaeom agnetism and sea floor spreading vs
available only for the last 200 m illion years but on
the basis o f general m echanism o f plate tectonics
and the evidence from the continents the sequence
o f earlier events may be reconstructed. V alentine
and M oors (1970) and Ilallam (1972) have
attem pted to reconstruct the chronological se­
quence o f the continents and ocean basins from
the beginning to the present tim e. A bout 700
m illion years ago all the landm asses w ere united
together in the form o f one single giant landmass
know n as Pangaea 1. A bout 600-500 m illion years
before present, first Pangaea w as broken because
o f therm al convective currents com ing from
w ithin the earth, m ost probably from the mant e
and different landm asses drifted apart. These
Fig. 2.15 : Time scale o f reversal o f geomagnetic field
landm asses w ere again united together due o
(after A. Cox, 1969).

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ORIGIN OF OCEAN BASINS
plate m otions in one land m ass known as Pangaea
II about 300-200 m illion years before present.
A ccording to A. H allam Second Pangea began to
break during early Jurassic period and N.W.
A frica broke aw ay from N. A m erica and drifted
away. The zone o f sea floor spreading continued
to extend tow ards north and south. The separation
o f South A m erica and A frica was accomplished
during m iddle C retaceous period, and North
A m erica and Europe began to move away from
each other (Fig. 2.16).
600 500 400 300 200 100
_I_ _ i__ _i_ _i_ _i_ _I_
000 000 years B P (Before Present)
Fig. 2.16 : The probable pattern o f continental movement
during the last 700 million years (based on
Valentine and Moors, 1970)
The opening o f North A tlantic was accom­
plished in m any phases. After the separation o f
North A m erica from A frica, Europe and Green­
land broke away from Labrador during late
Cretaceous period (about 80 m illion years before
present) and thus Labrador sea was formed. This
newly form ed sea continued to remain for some
time as northern extension o f the Atlantic Ocean.
Rockall plateau was separated from Greenland
during Tertiary period (about 60 million years
before present). Labrador Sea and North Atlantic
continued to expand between Europe and Green­
land upto m iddle M iocene period because the
European and American plates continued to move
eastward and w estward respectively. The spread­
ing of Labrador Sea stopped by middle Miocene
period (about 47 million years before present) but
North Atlantic continued to expand.
51
Fault
N America _ t _ Africa/Europe
S edim ent Proto Atlantic
Supply i
M E
Atlantic
Mi E1 M2 E2 Atlantic
Miogeocline Eugeocline
Fig. 2.17 Evolutionary history o f the Atlantic Ocean
during the past 700 million years. 1. Forma­
tion of new ocean basins 700 million years
ago. 2. Deposition of miogeosyncline and
eugeosyncline on the margins about 500 mil­
lion years ago. 3. Closing of the Atlantic
Ocean and the formation o f part o f the
Applachians due to convergence o f Eurasian
and American plates about 400 million years
ago. 4. Atlantic closed completely and the
formation of the Applachians of North America
and Hercytiian mountains o f Europe was com­
pleted about 300 million years ago. 5. Reopen­
ing o f the Atlantic due to plate motion about
150 million years ago . 6. Present situation,
beginning of theformation o f new geosynclines
(after Dietz, 1973).
Indian Ocean did not exist before C reta­
ceous period. Indian plate began to move towards
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52 OCEANOGRAPHY

A siatic plate through ‘Tethys S ea’ and Austral­
ian-Antarctic plates after breaking away from
African plate began to move southward during
Cretaceous period. Dan Mackenzie and John
Sclater have presented the chronological se­
quence o f the evolution o f Indian Ocean on the
basis o f the study o f magnetic anomalies. Accord­
ing to them Indian plate began to m ove northward
at the rate o f 18 cm per year during early Tertiary
period but the movem ent stopped during Eocene
period. The same time Antarctica broke away
from Australia. Thus, the Pacific Ocean began to
shrink in size because o f expansion o f the Atlantic
and Indian Oceans.

Fig. 2 .1 8 : The evolution o f the continents and ocean basins on the basis o f plate tectonics since Triassic period and the
probable future pattern o f events upto 50 million years hence. I. Triassic period. 200 million years ago. 2. Late
Triassic period, IHOmillion years ago. 3. Late Jurassic period, 135 million years ago. 4. Late Cretaceous period,
65 million years ago. 5. Present position, and 6. 50 million years hence. Arrows indicate the directions of
movement o f the continents (after Dietz and Holden, 1973).

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»■

ORIGIN OF OCEAN BASINS 53

Fig. 2.19 : Diagramatic presentation o f the separation of Africa and Arabia due to spreading of Red Sea and Gulf o f Aden.
Arrows indicate directions of the movement of the plates and spreading of Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. A and B
denote the poles o f rotation (after A. M. Quennel, 1958).

Fig. 2.17 depicts chronological events of
the A tlan tic O cean during past 700 million years.
The Atlantic Ocean began to open about 700
million years before present because of breaking
of F irst P an g aea when the American and Africa-
European plates began to move in divergent
directions and thus the Atlantic continued to
expand till 400 million years before present when
the Atlantic again began to close. Because o f the
closing of the Atlantic Ocean Applachian moun­
tains o f North America were formed. The Atlantic
Ocean again began to open up about 150 million
years before present when Second Pani'aeu was
broken into several landmasses and it still
continues to expand because o f the m ovem ent o f
American and European plates in opposite direc­
tions. It may be pointed out that the Atlantic
Ocean is continuously expanding for the past 200
million years but the Pacific Ocean is contracting
in size because o f westward movement o f the
Pacific Ocean. Fig. 2.18 depicts the probable
situation o f the continents and ocean basins
during 50 million years hence.
The following examples dem onstrate the
trends and patterns o f continental displacem ent,
sea-floor spreading and contraction in the size o f
the oceans :

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 Fig. 2. 20 : Gulf o f California (A), and San Andreas Fault (B).
R ed Sea a n d G u lf o f Aden : R ed Sea is an
exam ple o f axial trough w hich is located betw een
A frica and A rabian peninsula (fig. 2.19). The
surveyed m agnetic anom alies in this area show , as
observed by A .W . G irdler, the pattern o f stripes
and these are sim ilar to the m agnetic anom alies o f
the ocean basins. F.J. V ine calculated the rate o f
the spreading o f Red Sea on the basis o f the data
o f m agnetic anom alies in the year 1966. A cco rd ­
ing to him the Red Sea is sp read in g at the rate o f
one centim eter per year (to tal sp read in g 2 cm/
year) since the past 3-4 m illio n y ears. A len and
M orelli calcu lated the sp read in g rate in 1969 as
1.1 cm /y ear (total sp read in g 2.2 cm /year). Sim i­
larly. the rate o f sp read in g o f the G u lf o f A den has
been calcu lated on the basis o f strip p ed m agnetic
anom alies as 0.9 to 1.1 cm /y ear (to tal spreading
1.8 to 2.2 cm /year). The R ed Sea and the G u lf of
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CRlGfct OF OCEAN BASINS
Adea an? located at the junction o f three plates viz.
I M i t t plate. Somali plate and Arabian plate.
Nubian and Somali plates are separated by
Ethiopian Fault. Fig. 2.19 denotes the location o f
Red Sea. G ulf o f Aden, Arabian, Nubian and
Somali plates and the pole o f rotation.
Gutf of California and San A d r e a s F a u lt
T he Pacific Ocean is a w aning ocean
because it is continuously being contracted in its
s ire because o f gradual encroachm ent o f west­
w ard m oving A m erican plates. It is believed that
like m id-A tlantic ridge there might have been a
m id-oceanic ridge in the Pacific Ocean but it has
now been rem arkably deform ed due to plate
m ovem ent. The m agnetic survey o f the G ulf o f
C alifornia revealed the presence o f stripped
m agnetic anom aly. This situation validates two
facts viz. (i) East Pacific Rise (ridge^ is also
located in the G u lf o f California and there has
been continuous spreading o f the gulf along the
rid g e since the past four m illion years, and (ii)
B aja, the C alifornian peninsula, was previously
united w ith the m ainland o f North America but
later on it broke aw ay from the continent due to
spreading o f sea floor.
Trench
Fig. 2 .2 / . Illustration offormation of new' ocean crust at spreading zone c f mid-ocean ridge.
55
2.5 SEAMOUNTS AND TABLEMOUNTS
Seamounts and tablem ounts are significant
mobile topographic features o f volcanic origin on
ocean floors, and are the results o f plate move­
ments, and witnesses o f sea floor spreading. In
fact, seamounts and tablem ounts are the testi­
mony o f plate tectonics. Sea m ounts are tall
volcanic peaks having cone-shaped top (conical
volcanic peaks). These are generally not seen
above the sea surface (sea level) but som etim es
they project above the seaw ater surface. On the
other hand, flat topped volcanic peaks are called
tablemounts or guyots, after the name o f Swiss
scientist Arnold Guyot. It may be m entioned that
guyots are always submerged under seaw ater and
are characterized by flat top surfaces covered w ith
shallow deposits. It is believed that these guyots
o f volcanic origin were initially o f conical shape
but at later dates they were flattened by m arine
erosion. The origin o f both seam ounts and guyots
are associated with tectonic activities occurring at
mid-ocean ridges which represent active spread­
ing zones caused by divergent plate m ovem ents
under the influence o f divergent therm al convec­
tive currents originating from w ithin the m antle o f
the interior o f the earth.
Mid-Oceanic
Ridge
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56 OCEANOGRAPHY

A ctive volcanoes are associated with m id-
oceanic ridges. U nder the influence o f rising
th erm al convection currents oceanic plates (crust)
are sep arated and tw o plates m ove in opposite
d irectio n s from the ridge crests. B ecause o f
d iv erg en ce o f tw o plates the confining pressure o f
su p erincum bent load is released and conse­
quently m elting point is low ered w hich causes
partial m elting o f upper m antle and form ation o f
th o leiite basalt w hich m oves upw ard through
ascending therm al convection currents and ap­
pears as fissure flow o f basaltic lava. This basaltic
tholeiite lava after cooling and solidification
form s new oceanic crust (fig. 2.21). The volcanic
m echanism leads to form ation o f ridges parallel to
m id-oceanic ridges. The new ly form ed basaltic
crust is divided into tw o equal halves and are
em placed on either side o f the ridge. These
parallel basaltic stripes placed on eith er side o f the
ridge m ove aw ay from the m id-oceanic ridge due
to sea-floor spreading effected by ascending
thermal convection currents and associated upwelling
o f lava and basaltic stripes are accreted at the
trailing m argins o f divergent plates. This is also
validated on the basis o f p arallel but alternate
pattern o f positive and negative anom alies o f
palaeom agnetic stripes (fig. 2 .2 2 ,also see figs.
2.12 and 2.13). ’

+ / \ /\ /
- / >. / \ /

Ocean
floor

IO ---
A scending
A sce n d in g
m agm a
m agm a
NORMAL MAGNETISM
NORMAL MAGNETISM

Fig. 2.22 : Formation o f ocean floor (magma) stripes on either side o f mid-oceanic ridge and magnetization. A. Ascending
magma after reaching the ridge crest is solidified on cooling and is magnetized in accordance with the direction
o f geomagnetic field. This is the present case o f normal magnetization. B. Formerly created basaltic layer (1)
moves away from the ridge and new basaltic stripes form ed due to further upwelling o f magma and the solidified
stripe gets magnetized in accordance with reversed geomagnetic field (indicated by arrow). This is the case of
reversed magnetism. C. Geomagnetic field returns to its normal position (upward arrow) and the newly formed
magma stripe close to the ridge is magnetized in accordance with normal geomagnetic field, a case o f normal
magnetism. The upper part o f the diagram denotes positive (shown by +J and negative (shown by —) magnetic
anomalies, after—M.J. Bradshaw, A.J. Abbott and A. P. Gelsthorpe, 1978.

Iceland presents an ideal exam ple o f this
m echanism because it is situated on both the sides
o f m id-A tlantic ridge i.e. m id-A tlantic ridge
(locally called as R eykjanes ridge) passes through
the m iddle o f Iceland through w hich m agm a
upwells from tim e to time. The eruption o f
H elgafell volcano in 1973 presents evidence in
support o f this proposition. T here is continuous
grow th in the surface area o f Iceland due to
basaltic lava. It is estim ated that the island has
grow n in size by 400 km since the beginning of.
T ertiary (65 m illion years B .P.) epoch, which
indicates average grow th rate o f 0.6 cm/yr. T

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ORIGIN OF OCEAN BASINS 57

age o f lava (basalt) increases aw ay from the ridge year-old lava aw ay from the ridge and 65 m illion-
as re c e n t lava is found close to the ridge, 2 m illion year old lava at the m argin o f the island.

Fig. 2.23 : Sea-floor spreading, vulcanicity andformation of volcanic islands. A-Formation o f1st volcanic island 70 million
years ago, B-present situation, gradual shifting o f volcanic islands due to sea-floor spreading, Volcanic island
in A (shown by 1) has moved fa r away to position I in B. (after M.J. Bradshaw et. al, 1978).

The aforesaid inference is also validated on
the basis o f evidences o f volcanic islands situated
on the ocean floor. For exam ple, the volcanic
islands o f A tlantic O cean are w ithout doubt
associated w ith the m id-A tlantic ridge. The most
active volcanic islands are nearest to the ridge
w hereas dorm ant and extinct volcanoes are
located at the farthest distance from the ridge. It
m ay be pointed out that volcanic islands are
form ed near the ridge due to upw elling o f magma
from below . As the sea floor spreads these
volcanic peaks m ove away from the ridge and
m agm a source. W hen they move far away from
the ridge the supply o f m agm a com es to an end and
thus m ost o f these volcanic islands are subm erged
under sea w aves and becom e sea mounts or guyots
(fig. 2.23). It m ay be m entioned that not all the
volcanic peaks subm erge beneath sea waves as a
few o f them project from 1500 to 3000 m above
sea-level. The study o f basaltic lava o f the
volcanic islands o f the A tlantic O cean has
revealed the fact that volcanic islands located
nearest to the ridge are characterized by recen t
lava while those located at the farthest d istan ce
from the ridge have oldest lava. For ex am p le, the
oldest lava o f A zores islands located on eith er side
o f the m id-A tlantic ridge is 4 m illio n y ears old
while the oldest lava o f Cape V erae island located
near A frican coast (farthest from the ridge) is 120
m illion years old. Fig. 2.23 rep resen ts sea -flo o r
spreading, vulcanicity, form ation o f v o lcan ic
islands and their d isplacem ent from the rid g e.
The island arcs w ith volcanic peaks and
associated oceanic trenches are form ed w hen
oceanic plate is subducted below c o n tin en tal belt.
Seism ic shocks and heat are g en erated at the depth
o f 700 km due to friction o f co n tin en tal p late and
subducted oceanic plate. C o n seq u en tly , u pper
m antle, basaltic crust o f o cean flo o r and o v erly in g
sedim ents get m elted and thus m agm a is form ed.
It m ay be pointed out th at v o lcan ic peaks o f islan d
arcs have been form ed o f so d iu m -rich basalt.
Such basalt is form ed w hen v o lcan ic eru p tio n
occurs in oceanic w ater. S o d iu m -rich b a sa lt is

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covered w ith andesite o f relatively lesser density
but rich in silicon in com parison to underlying
basalt.
R egarding the origin o f andesite-dacite-
rhyolite along the circum -Pacific folded m ountain
chain two contrasting views have been floated.
(1) Ringwood (1974) has stated that andesite—
dacite— rhyolite are form ed due to partial m elting
o f am phibolite o f subducted B enioff zone and
m elting o f quartz eclogite at greater depth in the
mantle.
(2) A ccording to Gilluly andesite— dacite—
rhyolite are form ed due to partial m elting of
oceanic tholeiite or am phibolite or eclogite and its
-m ixing with sedim ents o f ocean floor such as
sandstone, chert and radiolrrian ooze.
Apparently, the explanation o f volcanoes o f
Hawai Island does not fit in the framework of
plate tectonic theory but the problem may be
solved if we look into the entire mechanism
involved in the volcanic process in the east Pacific
Ocean. The Hawai Island is south-eastern exten­
oceanography
sion o f M idw ay Island-E m peror sea m ounts—
K am chatka Island A rcs and is located far away
from the East Pacific R idge but H aw ai Island is
characterized by active volcanic activities whereas
the above m entioned island arcs are dom inated by
dorm ant volcanoes and ancient lava (25 to 75
m illion years old). It is believed that there is active
plume (m agm a source) beneath H aw ai Island
which ensures continuous supply o f m olten
m agm a for longer duration o f tim e. T here has
been upw elling o f lava in the H aw ai Island for the
last 70 m illion years. Due to plate m ovem ents the
Pacific Oceanic floor after being separated from
East Pacific Ridge continued to m ove in n o rth ­
westerly direction at the rate o f 9 cm p er y ear w ith
the result volcanic peaks having plum e u n d er­
neath also m oved north-w estw ard. Thus, the
plume beneath Hawai Island continued to supply
lava to the volcanoes o f the island. On the other
hand, as the other islands m oved far aw ay from the
centre (plume) o f lava supply due to sea-flo o r
spreading, the lava supply dried up and the
volcanoes becam e dorm ant.
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CHAPTER 3 : OCEA N M O R PH O LO G Y AND BOTTOM R ELIEF 59-89
m arin e provinces, 59
co n tin en tal m argins, 61
co n tin en tal shelf, 62
co n tin en tal slope, subm arine canyons, 65
d istrib u tio n o f subm arine canyons, 67
origin o f subm arine canyons, 68
d eep sea fans and continental rise, deep ocean basins,, abyssal plains, 70
abyssal hills, ocean deeps and trenches, . . 71
m id-ocean ridge, 72
bottom reliefs o f A tlantic O cean, 74
bottom reliefs o f Pacific O cean, 79
bottom reliefs o f Indian O cean, 83
bottom reliefs o_____ f Arctic
_„
O cean, / I H ^ T 117 A
y-« j-vwi
A j\ a
86
«^ a

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OCEAN MORPHOLOGY AND BOTTOM RELIEF
3.1 INTRODUCTION
A bout three-fourth o f the globe is covered
by hydrosphere. Out o f the total surface area of
the globe (509,950,000 km 2) hydrosphere and
lithosphere cover 361,060,000 km2 (about 71 per
cent) and 148,890,000 km 2 (about 29 per cent)
respectively. The hydrosphere is divided on the
basis o f size and location into oceans, inland seas,
sm all enclosed seas, bays etc. The Pacific Ocean
(165,000,000 km2), the Atlantic Ocean (82,000,000
km2) and the Indian Ocean (73,000,000 km2) are
im portant among the oceans whereas significant
seas are A rctic Sea, M alay Sea, M iddle American
Sea, M editerranean Sea, Bering Sea, Barnets Sea,
K ara Sea, East Siberian Sea, Japan Sea, East
C hina Sea, O khotsk Sea, Yellow Sea, Andman
Sea, South C hina Sea, Yellow Sea, Caribbean
Sea, N orth Sea, Celebes Sea, Labrador Sea,
Beaufort Sea, A rabian Sea, Red Sea etc. Like
lithosphere, the hydrosphere is also characterized
by various types o f re lie f features like mid-
oceanic ridges, trenches, deep sea plains, basins,
submarine canyons etc. The average depth o f the
oceans is 3,800 m against 840 m average height
o f the lithosphere. The different height and depth
3
zones o f the lithosphere and the hydrosphere are
represented by hypsographic or hypsom etric
curve. The ocean basins are characterized by four
relief zones e.g. continental shelves, continental
slopes, deep sea plains and oceanic trenches (fig.
3.1).
3.2 OCEAN MORPHOLOGY : MARINE PROV­
INCES
It may be m entioned at the very outset that
the morphology o f the ocean basins m eans
configuration o f the ocean basins in term s o f
reliefs o f various nature and dim ension w hile the
marine provinces denote the relief zones o f ocean
basins having common characteristic features. In
the beginning o f the growth o f know ledge about
the oceans and developm ent of the science o f
oceanography people believed in m onotonous
character o f the configuration o f ocean basins and
these were considered to be featureless surfaces
and hence they were least interested in the study o f
the ocean floors. But with the launching o f ocean
exploration expeditions lashed with advanced
version o f vessels equipped with sophisticated
instruments, m easuring devices, and scientists o f
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60

sev e ra l d isc ip lin e s, the secrets o f the topographic
v a ria b ility o f the ocean floors began to be
u n ra v e lled . C onsequently, the scientists becam e
m o re in te re ste d in studying and understanding the
c o n fig u ra tio n o f ocean basins and bottom reliefs.
S c ie n tific a lly sound m ethod o f b a th y m e try
w as d ev elo p ed to m easure different depth zones
o f th e o cean basins. In fact, bathym etry is the
m e asu re m e n t and study o f depth zones o f the
ocean b a sin s by so u n d in g tec h n iq u e . B athym etry
co n sists o f tw o w ords, bathos m eans depth, and
m etry m eans m easurem ent. On the other hand,
h y p s o m e try (h y p s o g ra p h y ) is the m easurem ent of
e a rth ’s e lev atio n above sea level. It is, thus, clear
th at h y p o sm etry relates to the m easurem ent o f
reliefs o f the e a rth ’s surface above sea level while
b y th y m etry is the m easurem ent o f depths o f the
o cean basin s below sea level. Thus, hypsom etry
denotes p o sitiv e reliefs w hile bathym etry indi­
cates negative reliefs o f the earth.
T hough the m easurem ent o f ocean depths in
the M ed iterran ean Sea started as back as 85 B.C.
bu t the first scientifically devised bathym etry o f
ocean depths w as initiated in the year 1872 A.D.
during HMS C h a lle n g e r ex p e d itio n . B athym etry
w as fu rth er enriched by the use o f echosounder,
w hich w as first used in M eteo r expedition in the
y ear 1925 A .D ., w hen undersea m ountain range
w as lo cated in the central South A tlantic Ocean.
T he b athym etry becam e more accurate and useful
w ith the developm ent o f p recisio n d e p th re co rd e r
(P D R ) in the decades 1950s. A t present oceanogra­
phers are lashed with advanced m ultibeam echosounders
(like seab eam ) and side-scan s o n a r and thus have
becom e m ore efficient in m apping the ocean
floors and recording reliefs o f various dimen­
sions. N ow the side-scan sonar system consists of
m ore advanced Sea M A R C (Sea M apping and
R em ote C haracterization), and G L O R IA (Geo­
logical Long R ange Inclined A ccoustical instru­
m ent) and thus enables the oceanographers to
obtain detailed pictures o f the configuration ofthe
ocean floor.
The ocean provinces representing different
depth zones and undersea topographic features
are divided differently by oceanographers and
scholars as follow s :
(1) On the basis o f ocean bathym etry the ocean
floors have been divided into the following
3 m ajor provinces by H .V . Thurm an and
A.P. Trujillo (1999) :
> - C o n tin e n ta l m a rg in s
(shallow w ater areas close to the
continents, like continental shelves
and continental slopes.
>■ deep ocean b asin s
(deep seaw ater zones aw ay from conti­
nental m argins)

High mt
C ontinental
Shelf

100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

Area (000,000 kmz) ' , I

Fig. 3.1: Hypsometric (kypsographic) and bythemetric curves o f the earth.

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o c e a n m o r p h o l o g y a n d b o t t o m r e l ie f 61
>» mid-ocean ridges Continental Margins

(shallow seaw ater areas near the m id­

dle o f oceans) C ontinental m argins represent the bounda­
ries o f lands tow ards oceans. In fact, continental
The aforesaid division o f the ocean floors
m argins represent plate boundaries having shal­
into above m entioned 3 m arine provinces is not
low seaw ater. Thurm an and T rujillo (1999) have
m uch elastic so as to include other undersea relief
included continental s h e lf and s h e lf break, conti­
zones such as deeps and ocean trenches.
nental slope, and continental rise into continental
(2) The trad itio n al classification o f depth m argins as a single ocean province but the
zones o f the ocean floors includes the m orphology o f these 3 features (continental
follow ing four m arine provinces : shelves, continental slope and con tin en tal rise) is
>• continental shelves, so varied that these cannot be considered together
>- continental slopes, but as regards geological form ations, these
represent one unit as they are form ed o f co n tin en ­
>- deep sea plains, and
tal rocks (granites) w hereas ocean basins re p re ­
>■ oceanic trenches sent basalt. On this ground the zonation o f
(3) I f we m erge the above m entioned marine Thurm an and Trujillo is justified. M oreover, the
provinces o f Thurm an and Trujillo, and of presence o f subm arine canyons gives continental
slope an independent and separate entity as a
traditional classification, the following
marine province. The continental m argins are
five m arine provinces m ay be identified : generally divided into the follow ing 2 types :
continental shelves, > - active co n tin en tal m argins
>■ continental slopes, including subma­ (i) transform active m argins
rine canyons, (ii) convergent active margins.
>- deep sea plains, >■ passive continental margins
>- m id-ocean ridges, and The active co n tin en tal m arg in s represent
>- ocean trenches lithospheric or continental plate boundaries w hich

P a ssiv e continental margin Convergent active continental margin

Continental sh elf S ea level Continental sh elf Land

Land S ea level
Continental
WWVWWWSNWVWVVNVW', Continental slope Abyssal f
w w w w w V

y\\\\\NN\\NN'NWWl‘«''V\W> slope
vwwwvwwwwnwwwwA plain 4 km km AWWNNVWWWWWWWWWWWWW
S,XXXNXXX\\\\\X>XXXXX\X\XXXXXXX* Continental rise (SWXWV.WWWWVWNVVWWWWWWV,
Ocean kXXX\X\X\X\XXX\\XXXXXXX\\X\X\XXX\\\\\\VS
^x\xx\\xxxx\\\xx\x\xx\\x\\xx\xxx\xxxxx
Ocean floor .WWNWWWWWNWWNWmWWWXWVi
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Fig. 3.2: Configuration of ocean floors; modified from Thurman and Trujillo, 1999.

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62
a re a s s o c ia te d w ith te c to n ic a c tiv itie s lik e fa u ltin g
and fo ld in g re s u ltin g into the fo rm atio n o f fo ld ed
m o u n ta in s , v u lc a n ic ity , seism ic a c tiv itie s etc. O n
th e o th e r h a n d , p a s s iv e c o n tin e n ta l m a rg in s re p re ­
se n t no m a jo r te c to n ic a ctiv itie s.
T h e c o n tin e n ta l m a rg in s c o n sist o f c o n ti­
n e n ta l sh e lv e s, c o n tin e n ta l slo p e, s h e lf b re a k , and
c o n tin e n ta l rise.
3.3 CONTINENTAL SHELF
“ T he c o n tin e n tal s h e lf is d efin ed as a sh elf­
lik e zo ne e x ten d in g from the sh o re ben eath the
o cean su rface to a poin t at w h ich a m arked
in crease in slope angle occurs. T his point is
re fe rre d to as the s h e lf b reak , and the steep er
p o rtio n b ey o n d the s h e lf b reak is know n as the
c o n tin en tal slo p e ” (T hurm an and T ru jillo , 1999).
In fact, c o n tin en tal m arginal areas, subm erged
u n d er ocean ic w ater w ith average w ater depth o f
100 fathom s (one fathom = 6 feet or 1.8 m eters) or
180 m, and gently sloping (1° to 3°) tow ards the
oceans, are called co ntinental shelves.
A ccording to P.R . Pinet (2000) “ the nearly
flat p lains, or terraces, at the top o f the sed im en ­
tary w edge ben eath the drow ned edges o f the
Submarine
volcanoes 0
Sediment
Fig. 3.3 : Morphology o f the ocean basins. Source : based on P. R. Pinet (2000).
OCEANOGRAPHY
c o n tin e n ts are c o n tin e n ta l sh e lv e s ” . T h e conti­
n e n tal sh e lv e s te rm in a te at s h e lf b reak point
w h ic h is a t a v e ra g e w a te r d e p th o f 130 m or
so m e tim e s m o re th a n 2 0 0 m . T h e s h e lf breaks
slo p e at a v e ra g e a n g le o f 1° - 4° (fig . 3.4).
T h e w id th o f c o n tin e n ta l sh elv es varies
from 60 km to m o re th a n 1,500 km . T h e w idth of
c o n tin e n ta l sh e lv e s la rg e ly d e p e n d s on the nature
o f local and re g io n a l re lie fs o f th e co astal land as
fo llo w s :
T h e sh e lv e s are n a rro w w h e re high moun­
tain s are v e ry c lo se an d p a ra llel to the
coast. F o r e x a m p le , th e P a c ific continental
s h e lf a lo n g th e w e ste rn c o a st o f South
A m e ric a is n a rro w (o n ly 16 km wide)
b e ca u se o f the p re se n c e o f the Andes
m o u n ta in s.
5^ T he sh e lv e s are w id e w h ere the coast lands
are w id e p la in s.
T h o u g h th e c o n tin e n ta l sh elv es are gener­
ally w id e r in fro n t o f th e riv er m ouths but
the s h e lf o f f th e M ississip p i river m outh is
e x c e p tio n a lly n arro w .
O n an a v e ra g e , th e w id th o f continental
sh elv es is ab o u t 48 km th o u g h Sheppard has taken
■*Si
.W-
" '■•' "* :r‘'
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 63
oow , m o rph o lo g y a n d b o tto m r e l ie f
the coast o f East Indies, in the Arctic Sea, China
67 km (42 miles) as average width. The Pacific
Sea, A driatic Sea, A rafura Sea etc. Continental
C e n ta l s h e l f o f South America represents the
shelves represent 8.6 per cent o f the total area of
£ 5 * « o w shelf (16 km), the Atlantic
the ocean basin. Regionally, these cover 13.3 per
R e n t a l shelf o ff the east coast o f North
cent, 5.7 per cent and 4.2 per cent o f areal
A m e ric a r e p re s e n ts the example o f medium size
coverage o f the A tlantic O cean, the Pacific Ocean
s h e l v e s (96-120 km) and extensive shelves having
and the Indian Ocean respectively.
width o f a few hundred kilometres are found off

R elief W ater D epth

Marine Provinces Width
and Features
< 20 m < 150 m
Continental shelf < 300 km
> 2 km drops from
Continental slope < 150 km
100 ± 2000 m

< 300 km < 40 m 1.5 to 5.0 km

Continental rise
1-15 km 20-2,000 m 20-2,000 m
Submarine canyons
30-100 km > 2 km 5,000-12,000 m
Deep sea trench
100-100,000 m 1-1,000 m variable
Abyssal hills
(0.1-100 km)
2-100 km > 1,000 m variable
Seamounts
1-1,000 km 0 > 3 km
Abyssal plains
500-1,500 km < 1 km > 3 km
M idocean ridge flank
500-1,000 km < 2 km 2-4 km
M idocean ridge crest
Source : P. R. Pinet, 2000.

It may be mentioned that the passive
continental m argins are characterized by rela­
tively w ider continental shelves, such as the
continental shelves o ff the east coasts o f North
and South Am ericas, than the active continental
margins, such as the continental shelves o ff the
west coasts o f Americas. The average depth of
ocean water o f sh elf breaks is generally 135 m but
it is about 350 m around Antarctica. The northern
coast o f Siberia, and North America in the Arctic
Ocean, and the A laskan coast are characterized by
the broadest continental shelves. The wider and
shallow continental shelves weaken the ferosity
o f tsunamis.
Ecologically, continental shelves are very
significant hecanse these provide ideal habitats
for marine life including both plants and anim als
(including m icro-organism s). These also provide
ideal fishing grounds. The coral reefs are consid­
ered the frontline natural bu ffers against storm and
tidal surges, and pow erful tsunam is because these
absorb most o f the disruptive forces o f storm
surges and tsunam is and thus w eaken them and
protect the coastal inhabitats from the onslaught
o f these natural hazards and disasters. It m ay be
remembered that rich coral reefs on the continen­
tal shelves o f M aldives saved hum an lives from
the fury o f Sum atra tsunam i o f D ecem ber, 267
2004, as the human deaths w ere m inim ised to only
98. The shallow continental shelves near the
coasts support rich m angrove forests w hich
provide ideal natural habitats for m arine as w ell as

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64
land anim als, such as B engal tigers in the
Sundarban (m angrove forest) o f w est Bengal.
Pichhavaram o f Tam il Nadu and Bhitarkanika o f
O rissa have rich mangroves w hich acted as
protective w alls against the onslaught o f Sumatra
tsu n a m i (D ecem ber, 2 6 ,2 0 0 4 ) w hich badly struck
the east coasts o f India in 2004.
Continental Shelves of India
T he m axim um seaw ard lim it o f the c o n ti­
nen tal shelves o ff the Indian coasts is dem arcated
b y 100 fathom contour. The continental shelves
along the eastern and the w estern coasts o f India
are 50 km and 150 km w ide re sp ectiv ely . The
sh elv es are narrow (30-35 km ) o ff the m ouths o f
the G anga, the M ahanandi, the G odaw ari. the
K rish n a and the C auvery rivers but these are w ider
o ff the estuaries o f the N arm ada, the T api and the
M ahi rivers. T he average slope o f the continental
shelves o ff the este m Indian coast is about 21°
w h ereas it is 10° n ear C ape C om orin and only 1°
n ear the G u lf o f C om bay.
Origin of Continental Shelves
T he N ature, com position, extension and
depth o f continental shelves are so varied that it
becom es difficult to explain their exact m ode o f
origin through a single m echanism and process.
The follow ing different view s have been ex­
p ressed by several authorities to explain the
co m p lex origin o f continental shelves :
(1) Continental shelves are the result of marine erosion
and fluvial deposits.
C o n tin en tal shelves are basically the ex­
ten d ed form o f continental platform s. M arine
w aves and cu rren ts erode the continental m argins
an d th u s form extensive platform s w hich receive
d ep o sits o f sedim ents brought dow n by the rivers
an d sea w aves. T hese sedim ents are continuously
c o n so lid a te d und er sea w ater and ultim ately
e x te n siv e c o n tin en tal shelves are form ed. T hus,
the c o n tin e n ta l shelves are the result o f m arine
e ro sio n and fluvial deposits.
(2) C o n tin en tal sh e lv e s a re form ed d u e to terrig e n o u s
fluvial d e p o sits.
Continental sh elves are formed through
prolonged deposition o f detritus (under sea water)
brought by the rivers alone. Such type o f
continental shelves is formed only in those areas
where sea conditions are calm so that prolonged
sedimentation goes on uninterruptedly resulting
into subsidence and thus allow ing more and more
sedimentation. Such continental sh elves are con­
structional and are m ost extensive.
(3) Continental shelves are the result of subsidence of
the continental margins.
R ising th erm al co n v ectiv e currents from
beneath the co n tin en ts and the ocean basins
converge along the co n tin en t-o cean boundary and
descend. The resu ltan t com p ressiv e force causes
subsidence o f the co n tin en tal m argins and thus
continental shelves are form ed.
(4) Continental shelves are formed due to faulting and
consequent subsidence of continental margins.
Som etim es, p arallel faults are created in the
continental m argins. T his event causes subsid­
ence o f the m arg in al land areas and consequent
subm ergence u n d er sea w ater. Such submerged
land areas b ecom e c o n tin en tal shelves, w hich are
generally called as tectonically form ed continental
shelves.
(5) Continental shelves are formed due to glacial control
and marine erosion.
C ontinental sh elv es are form ed through
m arine erosion o f the co n tin en tal m argins when
there is negative ch an g e in sea-level (fall in sea
level) either d u rin g ice ages o r due to subsidence
o f oceanic floors. A cco rd in g to R .A . daly the sea
level fell by 38 fathom s during Pleistocene Ice
A ge, w ith the resu lt the continental margins
w hich w ere prev io u sly subm erged becam e frce
from sea w ater. T hese exposed land areas
glacially eroded an d extensive platform s were
form ed. Due to d eg laciatio n the sea level rose
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OCEAN MORPHOLOGY AND BOTTOM RELIEF
again and these platforms were submerged under
seawater and thus extensive continental shelves
were formed. This concept o f the origin o f the
continental shelves belongs to glacial control
theory.
(6) Continental shelves are formed due to cliff erosion
(and recession) and submergence of wave-cut plat­
forms.
T h e c o a sta l lan d s are e ffe c tiv e ly e roded
t h r o u g h a b ra s iv e w o r k o f s tro n g se a w a v e s and
s e v e ra l s e a c liffs are f o rm e d . T h e s e cliffs g r a d u ­
a lly b u t c o n tin u o u s ly re c e d e to w a rd s the land due
to b a s a l e r o s i o n a n d c o n s e q u e n t fall o f their
h a n g in g c re s ts a n d th u s e x te n s iv e w a v e -c u t
p la tf o rm s a re fo rm e d . T h e s e p la tf o rm s are s u b ­
m e r g e d u n d e r sea w a t e r to fo rm c o n tin e n ta l
s h e lv e s .
(7) Continental shelves are formed due to tilting.
T h e s u b m e r g e n c e o f c o n tin e n ta l m arg in s
d u e to tiltin g o f land to w a rd s the sea results into
th e f o r m a ti o n o f c o n tin e n ta l shelves. T h is p rocess
a ls o le a d s to the e x te n s io n o f e x istin g continental
s h e lv e s .
T h e c o n t i n e n t a l shelves o f India have been
f o rm e d d iff e re n tly . T h e c o n tin e n ta l shelves o f f
the G a n g a , the G o d a w a r i, the K rish n a and the
C a u v e r y m o u th s h a v e b e e n fo rm e d th ro u g h delta
fo rm a tio n . T h e co n tin e n ta l shelves from M idinapur
to M a d u r a a re the r e s u lt o f s e d im e n ta tio n and
c o n s e q u e n t s u b s id e n c e w h ile the sh e lv e s o f
A n d m an N icobar, L akshadw eep, G u lf o f M anar
( b e t w e e n I n d ia and Sri L a n k a ) are o rig in a te d due
to c o ra l re e fs . T h e c o n tin e n ta l sh e lv e s o f w estern
c o a st a re d u e to fa u ltin g a n d c o n s e q u e n t s u b m e r ­
g e n c e.
3.3 CONTINENTAL SLOPE
The zone o f steep slope extending from the
continental sh elf to the deep sea plains is called
continental slope (fig. 3.4) which varies from 5°to
more than 60° at different places e.g. 40° near St.
Helena, 30° o ff Spanish coast, 62° near St. Paul, 5°
to 15° near Calicut coast (India) etc. The depth o f
water over continental slope varies from 200m to
2,000m. C ontinental slopes occupy only 8.S ner
cent o f the l ota I n r q u ilm c -a i& a n b a jim lM .it
Z Z i Z from one ocean to the other e.g.. 12.4 per
Sent in the AtlanticTTc^an, 7 per cent in the Pacific
Ocean and 6.5 per cent in the Indian Ocean. The
m o s t ^ e x t e n s i v e e o n .i n e n .n l s l o p e s a re found
betw een 20“ N and 50" N latitudes and on 80° N
and 70° S latitudes. G enerally, the steep g radient
o f the ^ n tin g n in l Slopes does not allow any
marine ^ p o s i t s because the m aterials com ing
Hown from the continental sh elv es are im m edi­
ately removed dow nw ard b ut in som e cases a thin
veneer o f denosits does exist. The m ost sig n ifi­
cant reliefs on the continental slopes are subm a­
rine canyons and trenches w hich are g en erally
transverse to the continental shelves and the
coasts.
The origin o f continental slopes have been
related by various authorities to e ro sio n a l, tec­
tonic and aggradational processes. The erosion
theory o f the origin o f continental slopes is based
on the presence o f subm arine canyons. A cco rd in g
to this theory slopes are form ed due to erosion by
marine processes mainly sea waves. A ccording to
tectonic theory faulting is held responsible for the
origin o f continental slopes. Som e exponents
believe that the continental slopes are form ed due
to bending and warping o f continental shelves
followed by sedim entation.
Since submarine canyons are sig n ifican t
features o f continental slopes and hence they need
separate elaborate discussion under sep arate
heading as follows :
3.4 SUBMARINE CANYONS
1. Introduction : Characteristics
Long, narrow and very deep valleys and
trenches located on the continental shelves and
slopes with vertical walls resembling the conti­
nental canyons are called submarine canyons (fig.
3.4) because o f their location under oceanic water.
On the basis o f morphogenetic processes these are
classified into (i) glacially eroded canyons, and (ii)
non-glacial canyons. The non-glacial submarine
canyons being more in number than the glacial
canyons and widely spread in all the oceans have
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66
been studied in much detail. The non-glacial
canyons, thus, w ill be described as su ™^rine
canyons in the follow in g discussion. T hese,
b esid es a few exceptions, are found transverse to
the coasts and in front o f the mouths o major
rivers.
On an average, there is little difference in
the transverse and longitudinal profiles o f subma­
rine and subaerial (continental) canyons. A ccord­
ing to Sheppard the submarine canyons are
Submarine
Shelf canyon
Fig. 3.4 : Continental slope and submarine canyons. Source : based on P. R. Pinet (2000).
Though the gradient o f longitudinal pro­
files o f the canyons varies significantly but on an
average it is 1.7 per cent. The canyons facing the
river mouths are usually long (e.jg. Congo
Canyon) but have gentle gradient. The canyons
located near the island are deep with steepest
gradient (13.8 per cent). According to the studies
o f 102 submarine canyons by Sheppard and Beard
average gradients o f the upper, middle and lower
segm ents o f the canyons are 11.62 per cent, 6.63
per cent and 4.76 per cent respectively. The
depths o f submarine canyons vary from 610m to
9 1 5m. At few places the depth has been noted upto
OCEANOGRAPHY
sim ilar to the youthfu l river v a lle y s on the land but 1
are d ecid ed ly deeper and a few o f them have
dendridtic pattern o f tributaries o f secondary
canyons. The longitudinal course o f submarine
canyons is u sually sinuous w h ile that o f the
subaerial canyons is generally straight. The
gradient o f subm arine canyons is steeper than the
continental canyons. The subm arine canyons are
generally several kilom eters w id e at their heads
and their average length is 16 km .
Shelf
Fan
break ^ km
3,048m . The subm arine canyons carry various
types o f ocean deposits but the steep valley sides
are d e v o id o f u n c o n so lid a te d m aterials.
The floors o f the canyons have coarser materials
than the adjacent continental sh elv es. The
deposits inclu de sands, c la y s, silt, gravels
and pebbles. Som e o f the marine canyons are so
large and deep that they are com parable to land
canyons formed by rivers. For exam ple, the
M onterey Canyon o f f the coast o f Califomia_of
the U .S .A . is very much comparable to the^ lSS^
Canyon o f the Colorado river in A rizona o f the
U .S .A . •
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OCEAN MORPHOLOGY AND BOTTOM RELIEF 67

Table 3 .2 : Submarine canyons o ff the east coast o f India.

Location D epth Shape o f the valley

N ame o f the canyons
11° 35' N -79°56' E 329m V
1. C uddalore canyon
11° 50’ N -80°00°’E 466m u
2. Pondichery canyon
3. Palar canyon 37 km SSE from ••'
P alar river m outh
12° 06' N-79° 52' E 1,141m V
4. Pulicat canyon 1304 5 'N -8 0 0 25' E — V
5. A rm agon canyon 13° 45' N-80° 25' E — V
6. Sw arnam ukhi canyon 140 14' N-80° 19' E 80-108m ---
7. G udur valley 14° 24’ N-80° 1 9 'E 30-40m u
8. Penner canyon East o f Penner
river m outh
14° 41' N-80° 16' E 225m u
9. K rishna canyon O pposite to the
K rishna river mouth 30m V
15°35’N -80°50'E
10. V asistha-G odavari canyon 16° 10' N-81° 50' E 30-60m —
11. G odavari canyon 16° 45' N-82° 32' E —
off the mouth o f
N ilarevu river 60-250m —
12. K akinda canyon 16° 55' N-82° 30' E 10-20 m —
13. M ahadeva canyon 18° 00' N-84° 0 0 'E 350m V
14. Paradip depression 20° 5' N-86° 42' E — —
15. G anga canyon
(Swatch o f N o G round) O ff the Ganga Delta variable V
21° 15' N-21° 23' N 278 to 421m
89° 28' E-89° 33' E in the norhtem
portion; 543m to
892m in the m iddle
portion; a few dep­
ressions are 1,050m
to 1,088 deep

2. Distribution of Submarine Cayons G enerally, subm arine canyons are m ore

The w orld distributional pattern o f subm a­
rine canyons does not reveal any control o f
latitudes on their distributions and location.
Francis Sheppard and C harles B eard have located
102 submarine canyons in the world on the basis
° f soundings o f the continental shelves and
slopes.
abundantly found along the straight coasts than
highly indented and crenulated coastlines T hey
are found along the stable and unstable coasts
alike. They are m ore com m only found o ff the east
coast o f the USA from C anada to C ape H atteras;
o ff the C alifornian and M exican coasts; along the
north M editerranean, Philippines., Jappan and
A leutian islands: o ff the coast o f w est A frica; o ff
the east coast o f India etc.

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W
WSST*]
68
A tlantic Ocean* : S ig n ific a n t su b m arin e
c a n y o n s o f the A tla n tic O ccan arc H udson
C a n v o n (fa c in g th e m o u th o f the H udson riv er,
8 2 7 m d e e p ), C h esa p ea k C an y o n , M ississip p i
T ro u g h , F o sse de C ape B ren to n C anyon (in the
B ay o f B isc a y o f f the so u th -w e ste rn c o ast o f
F ra n c e ), N a za re C an y o n ( o f f the w estern c o a st o f
P o rtu g a l, 4 0 0 0 m d e ep ), C o n g o C an y o n (n ear the
m o u th o f th e C o n g o riv e r) etc.
Pacific Occan : C o lu m b ia C anyon; M o n terey
C an y o n (w h ic h h as sev e ra l trib u tary can y o n s like
A scen sio n c an y o n , S oquel can y o n , C arnel canyon
e tc.); M u g u can y o n , S crip p s canyon and D um e
can y o n (all are o ff the C alifo rn ia n co ast); P anam a
can y o n (o f f B u ric a P e n in su la ) etc. are the
im p o rtan t can y o n s on the w estern coast o f N orth
A m e ric a w h ile P iseu C h an g canyon (o ff the coast
o f K o re a), P h ilip p in e can y o n (on the m ain coast o f
L u z o n ), S a g a n in can y o n , Fizi canyon etc, are a
few p ro m in e n t c an y o n s o f the w estern Pacific
O cean.
I n d ia n O c e a n : C anyons are found along the
e astern c o ast o f India (table 3.2), in front o f the
In d u s riv e r, along the north-easterr. coast o f Sri
L an k a, along the eastern coast o f A frica etc.
3. Origin of Submarine Canyons
T hough th e re are d iv erg en t opinions about
the m ode o f orig in o f subm arine canyons but
m ajo rity o f the ex p o n en ts c o n sid er them as recent
geologic p h en o m en a o f C anozoic era, m ainly o f
Q u aternary p e rio d . A few canyons are still in the
process o f form ation. T he follow ing theories have
been p u t forth to explain the origin o f subm arine
canyons.
(1 ) D ia» tro p h ic th e o ry : A few exponents
(A ndrade, L aw son, D e la R oche Ponie, J. W.
G regory, Y anasaki, Jensen, B ourcart etc.) have
related th e origin o f subm arine canyons to various
types o f earth m ovem ents and tectonic im p lica­
tio n s (fa u ltin g , fo ld in g , w arn in g , sinking o f sea
flo o r e tc.1). T he tensional forces caused by earth
m o v em ent due to endogenetic forces result in the
form ation o f faults and graben on the continental
sh elv es and slopes. T hese fault-troughs and
g raben b eco m e subm arine canyons. Sim ilarly,
OCEANOGRAPHY
w a rp in g an d ste e p fo ld in g g iv e birth to synclinal
b a sin s an d s y n c lin a l tro u g h s re sp e c tiv e ly which
b e co m e su b m a rin e c an y o n s. A c co rd in g to De
A n d rad e su b m a rin e c a n y o n s are fo rm ed due to
c re atio n o f a se rie s o f g ra b e n -lik e v a lle y s during
local c o a sta l d isp la c e m e n ts. S u c h tecto n ically
o rig in a te d su b m arin e c a n y o n s h a v e b e en reported
by L aw son o f f th e C a lifo rn ia n c o a st, b y D e la
R o ch e P o n ie n e a r th e c o a s t o f C y p ru s and
M o ro cco , by J. W . G re g o ry (H u d so n C an y o n and
St. L aw ren ce T ro u g h ), b y Y a n a sa k i (n e a r Japan
co ast) etc. A c co rd in g to J e n s e n an d B ourcart
su b m arin e c an y o n s w ere fo rm e d d u rin g Q uater­
nary perio d due to su b sid e n c e a n d d ro w n in g o f
riv e r v alley s a lo n g th e c o n tin e n ta l m arginal
flexure.
T h is d ia stro p h ic th e o ry o f th e origin o f
su b m arin e can y o n s is c ritic is e d m a in ly on three
counts.
>■ M ajo rity o f can y o n s are found
tra n sv erse to th e c o ast w h ereas faulting
g en erally o c c urs p a ra lle l to th e coasts.
»■ M any o f the su b m arin e canyons have
d en d ritic p a tte rn o f th e ir trib u taries which
can n o t be e x p lain ed th ro u g h faulting.
>* N ot all the c o n tin e n tal sh elv es and slopes
show ev id en ces o f fa u ltin g.
T his th eo ry m ay ex p lain the form ation o f
canyons alo n g th e P acific coasts (w estern
co asts o f N o rth and South A m ericas and
eastern co asts o f A sia) and M editerranean
Sea w h ere T e rtiary and Q uaternary earth
m ovem ents w ere m ost active bu t the
canyons alo n g the w estern (eastern coasts
o f N orth and South A m ericas) and eastern
(o ff the w estern co asts o f Europe and
A frica) o f th e A tlan tic O cean may not be
ex p lain ed in the ab sen ce o f such move­
m ents. T he can y o n s on th e eastern coast of
N orth A m erica cut acro ss the lithology o f
T ertiary and Q uaternary periods.
(2) S u b a e ria l e ro sio n th e o ry : Several expo
nents { £ £ ;JJJD ;J ) a n a 1j y \ _ S h e £ £ a ^ ^ 011
the basis o f resem blance o f subm arine canyons to
the continental canyons in shape and deposition
have related the form ation o f th e form er to the
entrenching o f river valleys by running w a t e r and
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 OCBAN M0RI*H0UX>Y AND HOTlX)M KKLIIW
subsequent drowning o f those valleys due to
subsidence and subm ergence ot' continental mar­
gins. According to them the rivers eroded their
valleys very deep forming deep gorges during the
period o f emeruencc when laud toso highci well
above the sealavaLand the channel giiulicnt was_
sttcepcned, Later on the continental margins were
either subsided due to earth movements or the
senlevcl rose (due to deglaciation) and thus Ihcsc
deep and long valleys were drowned and subma­
rine canyons were formed. The drowned valleys
in Java Sea. Philippine CtuiYOn. Monterey Can­
yons etc. have been cited as typical exam ples o f
submarine canyons formed due to subaerial
erosion because their longitudinal profiles show
upward concavity like continental canyons and
there is significant terrigenous deposits in them.
W.M. P avis w hile contradicting the above
theory argued that the formation o f submarine
canyons through subaerial erosion required verti­
cal oscillation o f land say upheaval o f the
continental margins upto thousands o f feet above
sealevel and subsequent equivalent regional
subsidence to submerge the entrenched river
valleys. This would require long geological
period as the aforesaid tectonic mechanism is not
possible within short geological tim e. Secondly,
if the submarine canyons are the result o f
subaerial erosion during emergence and subse­
quent drowning during submergence, these can­
yons must have continued over the land also but
these are found far away from the river mouths.
Emery and Sheppard w hile reacting to the first
objection o f W. M. Davis maintained that the
lowering o f sealevel upto 1000 m during Pleistocene
glaciation provided ideal continental platforms
for the entrenching o f valleys by the rivers and
subsequent rise o f the sealevel due to deglaciation
submerged the deeply entrenched valleys to form
submarine canyons. If this explanation is ac­
cepted. the submarine canyons beyond the depth
QpfrOO m remain imexplainciL
(3) Submarine density current theory : Holimann
X1883). A d o lf V on Sid is (t 1HH41 and F ln rej have
related the formation o f submarine canyons to the
submarine density currents. These density cur­
rents are originated due to difference in density
caused by temperature and salinity variations.
Such density currents erode the continental
shelves and form trenches w hile stagnant water on
either side o f the trenches allow s sedim entation
and dyke formation (le v e es). The density currents
are originated m ainly in front o f the river mouths
because o f differences (in terms o f temperature
and salinity) in the water brought by the rivers and
sea water. It may be pointed out that density
currents are con lined to en closed sea s, reservoirs
and lakes only and these are seld o m originated
over shallow continental sh elv es and thus density
currents may not be taken as causative factors o f
the formation o f submarine canyons.
(4) T u rb id ity c u r r e n t theory : Turbidity
currents having fine materials in su sp en sion have
been held responsible by several exponents (W .
M. Davis, W. E. Rither, Tangier Sm ith, P. D.
Trask, Lawson, Daly. Buchanan etc.) for the
origin o f submarine canyons in one w ay or the
other. Strong onshore winds pile up water near the
sea-shore with the result undercurrents are g en er­
ated which flow towards the sea. T hese undercur­
rents bring fine materials in suspension and so
they are called turbidity currents. The higher
density o f these currents due to suspended
sediments with them forces them to flow seaw ard
under the surface water. The turbidity currents
erode the continental shelves and form subm arine
valleys and canyons. A ccording to D aly there is
increased rate o f erosion o f coastal land through
marine w aves due to fall in sea -lev el during
glacial period, with the result trubidity o f sea
water is increased due to w hich density o f sea
water is also increased, consequently seaward
turbidity currents are originated. T hese currents
while moving over the continental sh elv es and
slopes erode ihem in linear manner and form
submarine cayons and valleys.
Many critics (Zeppelin, H eim , Bucher etc.)
have doubted the efficien cy o f turbidity currents
to form submarine canyons. A ccording to them
the velocity o f these currents is not such that they
can powerfully erode the hard rocks o f continental
shelves to form canyons. Bucher is o f the opinion
that currents generated through earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions are more rapid and pow erful
and hence are more capable o f eroding the
continental shelves to form canyons.
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F o llo w in g K u n en it m ay be fo rw a rd e d th at
su b m a rin e c an y o n s in d e ffe re n t lo c alitie s h®VI" £
v a ry in g lith o lo g ie s an d stru c tu re s sh o u ld be
e x p la in e d sep a ra te ly . T he c an y o n s d ev e o p e in
sta b le a reas o f c o m p ac t and te n ac e o u s lith o lo g ie s
are fo rm ed due to d ro w n in g o f su b ae ria l v a lle y s,
w h ile th o se carv ed in u n c o n so lid a te d lith o lo g ie s
m ig h t have been fo rm ed th ro u g h la n d slid e s,
tu rb id ity c u rren ts etc.
3.5 DEEP SEA FANS AND CONTINENTAL RISE
D eep sea fans are fa n -sh ap e d , or lo b ate-
shaped, o r ap ro n -sh ap e d d e p o sitio n al fe a tu re s at
the b ase o f the c o n tin e n tal slope, and at the
m ouths o f the su b m arin e can y o n s. T he deep sea
fan s, o ften called as su b m arin e fans, resem b le the
co n tin en tal allu v ia l fans. T hey are form ed due to
g radual d e p o sitio n o f sed im en ts b ro u g h t by the
su b m arin e tu rb id ity c u rren ts m oving dow n the
slo p e to w ard s deep sea p lain s th ro u g h subm arin e
canyons. W hen a few deep sea fans co alesce, the
re su ltan t d e p o sitio n al featu res is c alled continental
rise h av in g v ary in g m o rp h o m etric ch aracteristics.
M any o f the o c ean o g rap h ers have stu d ied the
n atu re o f th ese c o n tin e n tal rise in d ifferen t
lo catio ns. T hese are found ab u n d an tly in the
A tlan tic and In d ian O ceans bu t are few in the
Pacific O cean. T he av erag e w idth o f the c o n tin e n ­
tal rise is less than 300 km and the a m p litu d e o f
reliefs is less than 40 m eters. T he depth o f w ater
o v er co n tin en tal rise ranges betw een 1.5 to 5.0
km .
A s reg ard s the o rig in o f c o n tin e n tal rise , the
su b m arin e tu rb id ity c urrents are b eliev ed to be th e
p o ten t fa c to r for th eir o rigin and d e v e lo p m e n t. A s
tKe tu rb id ity c u rren ts m ove thro u g h the subm arin e
can y o n s, they erode them and tran sp o rt the ero d ed
sed im ents in su sp en sio n dow n the slo p e i.e.
to w ard s deep sea plains. A s these c u rren ts cross
the can yon m ouths, they are slow ed dow n in th eir
speed b ecau se o f m arked d ecrease in the g rad ien t.
C o n seq u en tly , the su sp en d ed sed im en ts settle
dow n n ear the m ouths o f subm arine canyon s, and
thus are d eposited. T he dep o sitio n is w ell graded
i.e. the larg er sed im en ts are d ep o sited ju s t in front
o f su b m arin e can y o n s., and size o f sed im en t
d ecreases to w ard s deep sea plains. T he resu ltan t
OCEANOG1
d e p o sitio n is c h a ra c te riz e d b y graded bedding.
m ay b e m e n tio n e d th a t th e re is a lso v ertical
g ra d in g o f se d im e n ts , i.e. s e d im e n ts becom e
p ro g re s siv e ly fin e r u p w a rd w ith in a sin g le se­
q u e n c e o f d e p o s itio n a l u n it, w h ic h g rad u ally
g ro w s in size an d a ss u m e s th e s h a p e o f a fan or
lo b e (fig . 3 4 ). It is to be re m e m b e re d th a t the
fo rm a tio n an d g ro w th o f d e e p s e a fa n s is a gradual
p ro c e ss o f o p e ra tio n o f s e v e ra l tu rb id ity currents
at d iffe re n t tim e s. It m a y b e fu r th e r elab o rated .
T h e p ro c e ss o f th e fo rm a tio n o f d e e p sea fans
b e in g s w ith th e d e p o s itio n o f g ra d e d m aterials
(se d im e n ts) by th e firs t s e t o f tu rb id ity c u rre n ts at
one tim e. L a te r on th e n e x t tu rb id ity currents
ero d e so m e o f th e a lre a d y d e p o s ite d graded
sed im en ts an d d e p o sit a n o th e r s e q u e n c e o f
m a te ria ls u p o n p re v io u s ly d e p o s ite d seq u e n c e of
m a te ria ls. T h is p ro c e ss c o n tin u e s th ro u g h subse­
q u en t tu rb id ity c u rre n ts a n d th u s sev e ra l se­
q u en ces o f g ra d e d d e p o s its a re la id do w n one
upo n an o th er. T h is re s u lts in h o riz o n ta l and
v e rtic al grow th o f d e e p se a fa n s o f se v e ra l m eters
in h e ig h t, u su a lly b e lo w 4 0 m e te rs. .Such p iles o f
g rad ed d e p o sits are c a lle d turbidite deposits.
3.6 DEEP OCEAN BASINS AND ASSOCIATED
FEATURES
T h e d eep o c e a n b a sin s are c h a ra c te riz e d by
the fo llo w in g s ig n ific a n t r e lie f fe a tu re s o f eleva­
tio n (lik e a b y ssa l h ills ) an d d e p re ssio n s (like
o cean tre n c h e s a n d o c ea n d eep s). T h e m ost
e x ten siv e fe a tu re s a re d eep sea p la in s, v e ry often
called as abyssal plains but these are physiographically
m o n o to n o u s b e c a u se o f th e ir fla ttish c h arac te r o f
v ast terrain .
>- a b y ssa l p la in s
>- a b y ssal h ills
>■ sea m o u n ts (g u y o ts) an d seatablemounts
o c ea n d e ep s a n d o c e a n tre n c h es.
1. Abyssal Plains
A b y ssal p la in s, k n o w n as d eep s e a j riglB?
(fig. 3.3) are th e m o st e x te n siv e b u t the flattest
te rra in u n its to be fo u n d on th e e a rth ’s surface
in clu d in g c o n tin e n ts. T h e a v erag e gradient
s l o p e ,
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 OCEAN MORPHOLOGY AND BOTTOM RELIEF
j<f afrrmt 0.5°. It m ay be m entioned that the basal
surface o f volcanic rocks, say so lid ified basalt
crust is overlain by terrigenous d eposits w hich are
“ not consolidated but are layered. It is believed that
the sedim ents o f land origin have been transported
by the subm arine tu rbidity currents across subm a­
rine canyons and have been regularly deposited
on the solid but irregular crustal surface o f
volcanic origin. V olcanic deposits have also been
reported at few places in different oceans. In fact.
deep sea plains are ch aracterized by pelagic
d ep o sits o f plants, m arine anim als and siliceous
rem ains to gether w ith terrigenous m aterials.
D eep sea plain characterized by flat and
rolling subm arine plain is the m ost extensive
re lie f zone o f the ocean basins. T hese deep-seated
plains having the depth from 3000m to 6000m
co v er 75.9 percent o f the total area o f the ocean
b asin s b u t this areal coverage varies from one
o cean to the o th e r (80.3 per cent in the Pacific
O cean , 80.1 per cent in the Indian O cean and 54.9
per c en t in the A tlantic O cean). R em arkably low
areal c o v erag e o f deep sea plains in the A tlantic
O cean in c o m p ariso n to the Pacific and Indian
O cean s is attrib u te d to larger extent o f co n tinen tal
sh elv e s in the fo rm er. T hough vast and extensive
d eep sea p lain s are g en erally featureless but a few
long, n arro w and elo n g ated ridges, guyots etc. are
sig n ific a n t reliefs. The subm arine ridges with
' stee p sid e -slo p e s som etim es reach the sea level
and ev en p ro je c t above the w ater surface and
a p p e a ra s islands. M id -A tlan tic ridge, E astP acific
R ise and m id -In d ian O cean ridge are typical
ex am p les.
M ore d o m in an ce o f abyssal plains in the
A tlan tic and the Indian O ceans is because o f
d ifferen c e in the n ature o f plate m argins in these
oceans. G e n erally , e x ten siv e a b y ssa l plains are
found in the re g io n s o f passiv e plate m argins such
as in the A tlan tic and Indian O ceans, w hile lim ited
abyssal p lains are a sso c iate d w ith active plate
m arg in s, as rep resen ted by P acific plate m argins.
It m ay be m entioned that in the zones o f active
p late m argins, i.e. active subduction (convergent
zone) zo n es, ocean tren ch es are form ed, and these
tren ch es trap the sed im en ts o f land origin and
hence do not a llo w them to m ove in the deep ocean
basins, w ith the re su lt ex ten siv e abyssal plains are
71
n o t form ed. On the o th er hand, passive plate
m argins do n o t allo w the form ation o f enormous
ocean trenches. T h u s, in the absence o f deep
ocean trenches sed im en ts travel dow n to deep
ocean and settle dow n on ocean basins to form
extensive abyssal plains. T his is w hy the A tlantic
and Indian O ceans have e x ten siv e deep sea plains.
2. Abyssal Hills
A variety o f hills o f v o lcan ic o rig in p ro ject
above the deep sea p lain s (ab y ssal p la in s), nam ely
volcanic hills and isla n d s, sea m o u n ts, ta b le m o u n ts or
guyots etc. The volcanic h ills are e ith e r dom e
shaped or are elongated hills w ith ex ten siv e bases.
W hen these hills appear above sea w ater su rface
(sea level), they are called volcanic islan d s or
sim ply islands. U sually, these hills are 1000 m
high from the ocean floor w hile th eir w id th ranges
betw een 0.1 km to 100 km. T he v o lcan ic h ills o f
low er height are called a b y ssa l hills or s e a k n o lls .
The conical volcanic hills subm erged u n d er ocean
w ater, i.e. alw ays below sea level, are called sea
m o u n ts, w hile flat-topped v o lcan ic hills are called
ta b le m o u n ts or g u y o ts (fig. 3.3). The sea m ounts are
the relict o f extinct subm arine volcanic m o u n tain s
w ith average height o f 1,000 m from ocean floor,
but they are alw ays below ocean w ater. S o m e­
tim es seam ounts also rep resen t activ e v o lcan ic
peaks. The sides o f seam ounts are o f steep slopes.
They may be found on the o cean flo o r in iso latio n
or in groups. W hen num erous ab y ssal h ills are
found in clu ster on ocean flo o rs, the re su ltan t
m orphological features are called a b y s s a l hill
p ro v in ce s. The deep sea p lain s o f the A tlan tic and
Indian O ceans are d otted w ith su ch clu stered
num bers o f abyssal v o lcan ic hills. M ost o f the
subm arine v o lcan ic hills on deep o cean flo o rs are
the result o f d iv erg en ce o f p lates and con seq u en t
sea floor sp read in g resu ltin g into v o lcan ic a ctiv i­
ties and fo rm atio n o f n u m ero u s v o lcan ic hills.
3. Ocean Deeps and Trenches
O cean deeps rep resen tin g d ep ressio n s and
trenches on the ocean flo o rs are the d eep est zones
o f the ocean basins. T h ese are g en erally located
p arallel to the co asts facing m o u n tain s and along
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72 OCEANOGRAPHY

the islands. O cean deeps are grouped into two
categories according to size viz. (1) very deep but
less extensive depressions are called deep s, while
(2) long and narrow linear depressions are called
tre n c h e s . These deeps and trenches are character­
ized by very steep slopes. Som etim es, these rise
alm ost to verticality. These deeps and trenches
have been usually nam ed after the explorers and
their geographical locations e.g. M urrary Deep
(after J. M urrary), Japan and Sunda Trenches
(after geographical location). O ut o f the explored
and surveyed 57 deeps, the Pacific Ocean, the
A tlantic O cean and the Indian O cean account for
3 2 ,1 9 , and 6 deeps respectively. M ariana Trench
located to the w est o f Philippines in the N orth
Pacific O cean is the d eepest (11.02 km deep) o f all
the ocean d eep s.
On an average, the ocean trenches are 3 to 5
km in depth from the surrounding surface o f ocean
floor. It is significant to m ention th at these long,
narrow and deep depressions are alw ays found
near the land areas, say coastlands. and Island
arcs, w hich represent active plate m argins, where
tw o plates converge and collide, and the relatively
heavier plate is subducted below the lighter plate.
This is w hy m ost o f ocean trenches are found in
the eastern and w estern parts o f the Pacific
O ceans and near Jap an -P h ilip p in es island arcs.
O cean trenches are seldom found in m id-ocean
regions. A few im portant ocean trenches have
been presented in table 3.2.

Table 3.3. : M ajor O cean D e e p s (Trenches)

N am e Location D epth in metres

1. C hallenger or N. Pacific 11,022 m

M ariana Trench
2. A ldrich or Central S. Pacific 10,882 m
Tonga Trench
3. Swire or N.W . Pacific 10,475 m
Philippine Trench
4. N ares or Puerto O ff W est Indian 8,385 m
R ico Trench Islands
5. K urile Trench O ff Sakhalin, 10,498 m
K am chatka
6. T izard or Rom anche S. A tlantic 7,631 m
Trench
7. Java Trench E. Indian O cean 7,450 m

4. Mid-Ocean Ridge
are the ch aracteristic com m on features o f mid­
ocean ridges :
M id-ocean ridges, o f volcanic origin, are
the m ost extensive re lie f features not only o f the M id-ocean ridges are the longest mountain
ocean basins but o f the entire globe. N ot all the chains o f the globe ru n n in g for a distance
m id-ocean ridges are centered in the ocean basins. o f 60,000 to 65,000 km across deep ocean
The m id-A tlantic R idge, and the m id-Indian basin. They occupy about one-third o f the
O cean R idge are exam ples o f central locations in ocean floor.
the ocean basins, but the East Pacific Rise is N ot all o f the m id-ocean ridges occupy
certainly o f non-central location. The follow ing central locations in the deep ocean basins­
. . ,::d n

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OCEAN MORPHOLOGY AND BOTTOM RELIEF
For exam ple, the E ast P acific R ise is far
away from the central axis o f the deep
ocean b asin o f the P acific O cean.
>- T he m id-A tlantic R idge and the East
P acific R ise are the m ost extensively
ex p lo red and studied ridges.
^ A ll o f the m id-ocean ridges are o f volcanic
origin and consist o f basaltic pillow lava.
>- T hey are alw ays associated w ith divergent
p late m argins and sea floor spreading.
>- T he crestal parts o f m id-ocean ridges are
eith er dom e-shaped w ith rounded top, or
are characterized by rift valleys, w hich are
the creation o f sea floor spreading and
a sso ciated faulting.
5s- T h ough the w idth o f m id-ocean ridge
c o n sid erab ly varies but on an average it is
1,000 km . The average height o f these
rid g es from the deep sea plains is about
2,500 m.
>- M id-ocean ridges are characterized by
active volcanism s and seism ic events.
M id -o cean ridges are also characterized by
the follow ing features in the crestal rift
v alley zones.
Inactive fracture
<-------- zone-------
(Both blocks move
in same direction)
■j*. ; '.'j \ • i • #: ‘ v: .>’ ' .
Fig. 3.5 : Transformfaults andfracture zones. Source : based on W.K. Hamblin and E. H. Christiansen, 1995.
T he processes and m echanism o f the origin
o f m id-ocean ridges have been explained in the
■. • r m
' 'V.
73
( 1 ) H y d ro th e rm a l v en ts are in fact h o t
springs. It hap p en s d u rin g th e fau ltin g
o f the crestal parts o f m id -o cean rid g es
th at seaw ater seeps into th e ocean cru st
through the fractu res, is h eated , and
finally gushes out as h o t sp rin g s. T hey
appear as w h ite s m o k e rs w h en te m p e ra ­
ture ranges b etw een 30° and 350° C,
and as b la c k s m o k e rs , w hen tem p eratu re
exceeds 350° C.
(2) O cean ic rid g e s rep resen t th o se sectio n s
o f m id-ocean ridges w hich have steep
side slopes and are o f irre g u la r m o r­
phology.
(3) O cean ic rises represent th o se seg m en ts
o f m id-ocean ridges w hich hav e g en tle
side slopes.
(4) Transform faults : The re g u la rity o f
m id-ocean ridges is broken by n u m er­
ous transform faults across them .
These transform faults are cau sed due
to divergence o f tw o plates and re su lt­
ant spreading o f sea floor along m id ­
ocean ridges. These are p erp en d icu lar
to the axis o f spreading zone o f sea
floor (fig. 3.5).
Active fault Inactive fracture
— zone — ----- zone -----
(Blocks move in (Both blocks move
opposite directions) in same direction)
. • .- : ' ii . • . .i..;
preceding 2nd chapter. H ow ever, briefly it m ay be
re8tated that the m id-ocean ridges are form ed due
• • • '-*• ■ ' ■*- ■“ < 1 — i.
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I i»|M
| HjhH'IH .

OCEANOORA
74
A frica in the east covers an area o f 82,000,
to m ovem ent o f oceanic plates in opposite
directions and resultant spreading o f ocean oors.
km2 w hich is l/6 th o f the geographical area o f the J
globe and h a lf o f the area o f the P acific Ocean.
W hen tw o ocean plates break away and m ove in
T h e ‘S ’ sh ap e o f the ocean indicates the fact that
opposite direction, faults are created, th e pressure
landm asses (continents) on its either side were
o f superincumbent load is reduced, and hence the
once a contiguous part. The A tlantic Ocean was
rocks o f upper mantle melts. The m olten materials
form ed due to drifting o f North and South
rise in the form o f magma under the force ot
A m ericas to the w est due to plate tectonics. The
violent gases and steam. After reaching the ocean
ocean w idens to the south o f equator and attains
water surface these are cooled and solidified and
the m axim um w idth o f 5 ,9 2 0 km at 35° S latitude.
finally new basalting crust is formed along the
It narrows dow n tow ards the equator. It is only
constructive plate boundaries. The repetition o f
2560 km w ide betw een Liberian coast and Cape
this process o f active volcanism causes pilling o f
Sao Roque. The w idth further increases north­
basalt lava and the formation o f extensive m assive
ward and it b ecom es 4 8 0 0 km at 40° N latitude. It
m id-ocean ridges all along the spreading zone in
narrows dow n in the extrem e north where it
the deep ocean basins. These m id-ocean ridges
maintains its contact w ith the A rctic Ocean
denote the zone o f active volcanism s and seism ic
through N orw egian Sea, D enm ark Strait and
activities. The process o f the formation o f m id­
D avis Bay. The average depth o f the ocean is less
ocean ridges w ill be explained in detail with the
exam ple o f m id-A tlantic R idge in the succeeding than the P acific O cean b eca u se o f extensive
continental sh elv es and m arginal and enclosed
section 3.7.
seas. A bout 24 per cent o f the A tlantic Ocean is
less than 915 m deep.
3.7 BOTTOM RELIEFS OF ATLANTIC OCEAN
The A tlantic O cean w as first formed about
700 m illion years ago due to seafloor spreading
The ocean basins o f the Atlantic Ocean is
(see fig. 2.17 chapter 2) and eastward movement
most extensively explored and studied and hence
o f the Eurasian and A frican plates from the mid-
more details are available about the m orphologi­
Atlantic ridge. A bout 3 00 m illio n years B. P.
cal characteristics o f this great ocean basin. The
(before present) the A tlantic O cean w as closed
basin-centered m id-Atlantic R idge attracted a
due to convergence o f the A m erican and Eura-
large number o f geoscientists to study different
aspects o f the ocean basins. The convincing sian-A frican plates. The ocean again started to
geological, palaeonotological and palaeomagnetic open about 150 m illio n years B .P. due to the
evidences^enabled the scientists to formulate the m ovem ent o f aforesaid p lates in opposite direc­
revolutionary theory o f plate tectonics on the basis tions. The w idenin g o f the ocean still continues
o f evid en ces o f sea floor spreading and w hich is evidenced through sea flo o r spreading at
palaeomagnetism in 1960s. Plausible explana­ an average rate o f 4 cm per year.
tions were offered for the evolution o f varied
m orphological features o f the ocean basins such (2) Continental Shelf
as continental shelves, continental slopes, abyssal
plains, ocean trenches, submarine canyons, trans­
C ontinental sh e lv es have developed along
form faults, volcanic hills, seamounts, guyots,
mid-ocean ridges etc. In the light o f these facts let both the coasts o f the A tlantic O cean and the
us discuss the characteristic features o f ocean w idth ranges from 2 -4 km to m ore than 80 km. Id
basins morphology o f each ocean. fact, the w idth o f continental sh elv es has been
largely controlled by the reliefs o f the c o astal
lands. T hese b ecom e sig n ifica n tly narrow where
(1) Introduction
mountains and h ills border the coasts e.g■
African sh elves betw een B ay o f B isca y and Cape
The Atlantic Ocean located between North o f Good H ope and B razilian sh elv es between 5
and South Americas in the w est and Europe and and 10° S latitudes. The sh elv es becom e 200 to

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OCEAN M O R PH O L O G Y AND BOTTOM R E L IE F

400 km wide along the north-eastern coast o f
North America and the northwestern coast o f
Europe. Extensive shelves are found around
Newfoundland (Grand Bank) and British Islands
(DoggarBank). Similarly, the continental shelves
around G reenland and Iceland are quite wide.
Very extensive continental shelves are found in
the South A tlantic Ocean mainly between Bahia
Blanca and A ntarctica (fig. 3.6). M any marginal
seas are located on the continental shelves in the

Fig 3-6 • Generalized bottom reliefs o f the Atlantic Ocean.

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76
N o rth A tla n tic b u t such seas are p ractically absent
in th e S o u th A tlan tic. A m ong the con tin en tal s h e lf
sea te d seas sig n ific a n t are the H udson B ay, the
B altic Sea, the N orth Sea, the D avis S trait, the
D e n m ark Strait etc. T he C aribbean and M ed iter­
ran ean seas rep resen t enclosed seas. T here are
sev e ra l islands w hich are located on the co n tin e n ­
tal sh elves e.g. B ritish Isles, Iceland, F aeroes,
A zores, A scension, T ristan da C uncha, N ew ­
fo u n d land, W est Indies, M aderia, St. H elena,
T rin id ad , F alkland, South O rkneys, S hetlands,
G eorgia, Sandw itch, C anaries, C ape V erde etc.,
are sig n ifican t islands representing differen t
lo catio ns and origin.
(3) Mid-Atlantic Ridge
The m id-A tlantic ridge representing the
zone o f divergent or constructive plate m argins
(A m erican plates m oving w estw ard and Eurassian
and A frican plates m oving to the east) is the m ost
striking re lie f feature w hich having S shape
extends for 14,450 km from Iceland in the north
and to B ouvet Island in the south. Though
sw inging w est and east it m aintain its central
p osition and now here goes dow n m ore than 4,000
m below sea level. The ridge is know n as D olphin
R ise to the north and C hallenger R ise to the south
o f equator. It is know n as W yville Thom pson
R idge b etw een Iceland and Scotland. The ridge
becom es quite extensive to the south o f G reenland
and Iceland and is called T elegraphic Plateau
because first cabbies w ere laid dow n in this area.
A sig n ifican t branch em erges from this central
ridge n ear 50°N latitude and extends n o rth ­
w estw ard as N ew foundland R ise and continues
upto N ew foundland. A nother im portant branch
know n as A zores R ise bifurcates from the m id-
A tlantic R idge to the south o f 40° N latitude and
extends upto A zores Islands. A t the eq u ato r the
ridge sends o ff tw o branches. Sierra L eone R ise
extends tow ards n ortheast and P ara R ise stretches
in no rth-w est direction. G uinea R idge, a m inor
branch o f the central ridge, runs north-eastw ard
and extends upto G uinea coast. Tw o significan t
branches com e out o f the central ridge near 40° S
latitude. T he W alvis R idge extends tow ards
n o rth -easf and m erges w ith A frican continental
' ■
OCEANOGRAPHY |
s h e lf w h ile R io G ran d e R ise e x te n d s towards
S outh A m erican co ast.
T h o u g h m a jo r p a rt o f th e m id -A tlan tic
R idge is su b m erg ed u n d e r o c ea n ic w a ter b u t a
host o f peaks and sea m o u n ts p ro je c t w ell above
the w a ter su rfa ce and fo rm isla n d s. T h e Pico
Inland o f A zo res is the h ig h e st p e a k w h ich rises
8,229.6m (2 7 ,0 0 0 feet) a b o v e th e sea flo o r and
2 1 3.36m to 2 4 3 .8 4 m a b o v e sea lev el. B esid e s, the
m id -A tlan tic R id g e h as se v e ra l w ell m arked
fractu re zo n es e.g. G ib b s F ra c tu re Z o n e (n e a r 40°
N ), A tla n tic F ra c tu re z o n e (n e a r 30° N ),
O cean o g rap h ic F rac tu re Z o n e (32° N ), K ane
F ractu re Z one (25° N ), V e m a F ra c tu re Z o n e
(10° N ), R o m an ch a F rac tu re z o n e (n e a r equator)
etc.
As reg ard s the o rig in o f th is u n iq u e feature
all the p rev io u s th e o rie s b a se d on co m p ressiv e
and ten sio n al fo rces sta n d re d u n d a n t due to
advent o f p late te cto n ic th eo ry . T h e m id -A tlan tic
R idge is the re su lt o f w e stw a rd m o v em en t o f
A m erican p late and e a stw a rd m o v em en t o f
E urasian and A frican p la te s. T h e rid g e represents
the zone o f the d iv e rg e n t o r c o n stru c tiv e plate
m argins w here b a sa ltic lav as rise continuously,
get so lid ified and are slid e d e q u a lly on b o th sides
o f the ridge. T he d iv e rg e n c e o f p la te s from this
ridge is ev id en ced by the p re se n c e o f several
tran sfo rm fau lts (frac tu re z o n es, as referred to
above).
It m ay be m e n tio n e d th a t th e b asaltic crust
o f the A tlan tic O cean is the n e w e s t at the m id-
A tlan tic rid g e, bu t as o n e p ro c e d e s eith er east­
w ard or w estw ard th e c ru s ta l b a sa lt becom es
older. T his c h ara c te ristic fe a tu re o f the ocean
flo o r co m p o sed o f b a sa lt o f th e A tlantic O cean has
been show n in fig u re 3 .7 . It is, th u s, evident that
th ere is g rad u al sp re a d in g o f o cean floor at
m id -A tlan tic rid g e an d th e re is continuous
accretio n o f new b a sa ltic c ru st at the rear
ends (constructive p la te m a rg in s) o f divergent
(m oving eastw ard and w e stw a rd ) p lates. The |
y o u n g est cru st at th e c re st o f m id -A tlan tic Ridge
is from latest to 5 m illio n y ears old. T he sequence
o f the ag es o f b a saltic crusts fro m m id-A tlantic
R idge to the co n tin e n tal m arg in s (fig. 3.7) is as .J|
fo llo w s :
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OCBANMORPHOLOGY AND BOTTOM UBUIBF 77

(1) U olooene to Pliocene crust 0-5 m illion years

(2) M iocene crust 5-23 m illion years

23-35 m illion years
(?) QUgocene crust
35-56 m illion years
(4) Eocene crust
56-65 m illion years
(5) Pliocene crust
65-146 m illion years
(6) Cretaceous crust
146-157 m illion years
(7) Late Jurassic crust
(8) M iddle Jurassic crust 157-178 m illion years

Holocene to Pliocene (0-5MY) Paleocene (56-65 My)

M iocene (5-23 MY) Cretaceous (65-146 MY)

Late Jurassic (146-157 MY)
tm Oligocene (23-35 MY)
Eocene (35-56 MY) Middle Jurassic (157-178 MY)

Fig 3 7 ' Ages o f basaltic crust of the Atlantic Ocean floor. The sequence o f the ages o f the crust from the crest o f the
A tlantic Ridge representing youngest one is towards the east and west upto the continental margins representing
the oldest crust (157-178 million years). Source : based on W.K. Hamblin and E. H. Christiansen, 1995.

(4) Ocean Basins

and West Atlantic Basins. There are few im por­
The mid-Atlantic Ridge divides the Atlan­ tant basins within these two major basins (figs. 3.8
tic Ocean into two major basins (fig. 3.6) viz. East and 3.9).

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 OCEANOGRAPHY

bordered by A zores R ise in the south and extends

upto 50° N latitude. The average depth is 5,000m.
(5) N orth and South C an ary basin is com­
prised o f two almost circular basins and is 5,000m
AVW
A v sV
(\\w\v
fvwwsw
deep.
/w'X XwxwV
/v\\\1A\"w«'V .^N N \\\« .V \\V V N \V
(6) C ape V erde basin is located between the
/\\\\'\S\\\\N'>NNN'WW''v
kwwwwwm .vwwwwwwwww"'1
.
s'kVVW'^' ^WWWWW..
VWVVSVWSV
" wwswsvswww,
<\\\\\V\\X\\\\\\\\\\SV\WWvW''-WSSNNNVSSSSSXVVNVV'NVV'NXV'Y'
Knn«.\\\nsss'vV»ssvvsw"‘W^v^,"'''v'*wvvwnv'‘wsnxssvvs''nsnn^
m id-A tlantic R idge and w est African coast and
.vvvl1>\\\\\smm\\vwN^^''^'vw
U\v.vsn\v\v\\n\n\\wnw\^w,‘N,‘''w'‘w''N'*nx*S‘N
sv's'N
AvvL/vsmwww^\\vss\ vss\\\ wnssvwvv\ w w n W^v^ ^ nvx^ ^
xsv'‘sN
sv''N
wnSnN
nN
nV
vV
V
NS's'lN
V ' extends from 10° N to 23° N . A verage depth is I
5,000m but at few places it becom es 5,000m or
more.
Fig. 3 .8 : Cross-section o f the North Atlantic Ocean. 1.
P uretarico basin, 2. North American basin, 3.
(7) G uinea basin extends from north-east to
North A tlantic Ridge, 4. Cape Verde basin, south-w est in elongated shape betw een Guinea
and 5. W est African coast. R idge and Sierra Leone R ise and measures 4,000
to 5,000m in depth.
(8) A ngola b a sin is lo cated betw een the
eq u ato r and 30° S latitude. It stretch es from the
A frican coast in the n o rth -east to the knot o f the
m id-A tlantic R idge and W alvis R idge in the
south-w est. T he basin is m ost ex ten siv e near the
A frican coast and narrow s dow n tow ards south­
w est. The average depth is 5,000 m.
Cape B asin (25° S-45° S), A gulhas Basin
(40°S-50°S), A rg en tin a B asin (35°S-50°S, depth
Fig. 3.9 ■' Cross-section o f the South Atlantic Ocean, 1. 5,000m -6,000m ) and A tlan tic-A n tarctic Basin
' east South American coast, 2. Argentina ba­ are the other sig n ifican t b asin s o f the Atlantic
sin, 3. South Atlantic Ridge, 4. Walvis Ridges, O cean.
5. Cape basin, and 6. Cape Town.

(5) Ocean Deeps and Trenches

(1 ) L a b r a d o r b a s in extends betw een the
continental sh e lf o f Greenland in the north and The num ber o f deeps in the A tlantic Ocean
N ew found land R ise in the south covering latitudi­ is far less than in the P acific O cean because o f the
nal extent o f 40° N to 50° N where the depth o f the absence o f the effects o f T ertiary orogenic
basin ranges from 4 ,0 0 0 to 4,500 m. m ovem ents along the A tlan tic coasts. M urray has
(2) N o rth A m e r ic a n b a s in is the most exten­ identified 29 deeps upto the depth o f 3,000
siv e basin o f the Atlantic Ocean and extends fathom s (5,486.5m ) in the A tlan tic O cean. Nares
betw een 12° N and 40° latitudes. The east-w est D eep (6,000m ), P u reto R ico D eep (8,385m),
section lie s betw een the continental shelves o ff H atteras D eep (5,445m ), C o lu m b iaD eep (5,125m,
the east coast o f N . A m erica and 50° W m e d ia n . south o f H aiti), V ald iv ia D eep (3,134 fathoms),
The depth o f the basin is more than 5,000m but T izard or R om anche D eep (9,370m ), Buc^a?o9
few deeps measure more than 6,000m depth. D eep (3,063 fath o m s), M o seley D eep (3,j>
fathom s), V em a D eep (4,900m ) etc. are a te
(3) B ra z ilia n b a s in is confined betw een the
im p o rtan t ocean deeps o f the A tlantic Ocean.
equator and 30° S latitude and east coast o f Brazil
in the w est and Para R ise in the east. The depth is The Mediterranean Sea, Caribbean1 ^
G ulf o f M exico are significant marginal ^
m ore than 4,000m .
the Atlantic Ocean. The Mediterranean 'r'd
(4) Spanish basin is locatedbetw een the mid-
divided into two major basins (East
A tlantic R idge ahd Iberian Peninsula. It is
jp r

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I ocean MORPHOLOGY AND BOTTOM RELIEF
has only a few islands. T he islan d s o f th e P acific
Basins) by 4.000m deep m id-sea ridge w hich runs
O cean are grouped in the fo llo w in g 3 categ o ries :
Twui me southern Italian coast to the north
African coast. The East M editerranean Basin is
further divided into Ionian (4,600m deep) and
Lavantine B asins (2,000-3,000m deep) by the
ridge located betw een the southern coast o f
Greece and the northern coast o f Africa. The W est
M editerranean B asin is divided into two sub­
basins (A lgiers-Provencal Basin and Tyrrhenian
Basin) by a 1,000m deep ridge running between
Italy and Tunisia. Broad continental shelves (80
km to 240 km wide and 1,000m deep) are found
along Spanish (eastern), Italian (western), Greek
(western), Egyptian (northern), Tunisian and
Lybian (north-eastern) coasts.
The G u lf o f M exico and Caribbean Sea are
separeted by a 1,600m deep ridge running
betw een Yucatan Peninsula and Cuba Island. The
prom inent basins are M exico basin and Caribbean
basin. The latter is further divided into four sub­
basins e.g. Y ucatan basin, Cayman trough,
C olum bia basin and Venezuela basin.
3.8 BOTTOM RELIEFS OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN
1. Introduction
the following four sub-regions :
The Pacific Ocean, the largest ocean o f the
w orld having one-third area o f the globe, extends
from east to w est for 16,000 km from the east
coast o f A sia in the west to the west coasts o f
Americas in the east and for 14,880 km from north
to south betw een Bering Strait in the north to Cape
Adre (A ntarctica) in the south. The overall shape
o f the ocean is triangular if its extent in both the
hem ispheres is considered separately. Average
depth o f the ocean is 4,572 m. Both the coasts
(east and w est) o f the Pacific are paralleled by the
chains o f folded m ountains and therefore the
descent from the coast to the abyssal plains is very
steep. M ore or less uniform broad and extensive
ocean floor is characterized by several *"■
rises, sea m ounts and depressions (trenches and
deeps). The O cean has the largest num ber o f
islands (more than 2,000). It may be pointed out
that the w estern coast is studded with islands,
island arcs and festoons w hile the eastern coast
79
( 1 ) T h e c o n tin e n ta l is la n d s : A leu tian islands,
islands o ff B ritish C o lu m b ia o f C an ad a and
C hilean islands.
(2) Isla n d s a rc s a n d fe sto o n s : K u rile, Japanese
A rchipilago, P h ilip p in es, an d In d o n esian
Islands.
(3) S c a tte re d sm a lle r i s l a n d s : T h ese islan d s are
further subdivided in two maj or, subcategories
as follow s :
Islands based on racial g ro u p in g s su ch
as
(a) M a la n e sia : e.g. S o lo m an s, N ew
H ebrides, Fizi.,
(b) : e .g . M a r s h a lls ,
M ic ro n e s ia
C arolines, G ilbert, and E llice.
(c) Polynesia: e.g. S ociety, C o o k and
Tuam otu.
>- Islands form ed o f v o lcan ic m a te ria ls
and coral reefs : e.g. H aw aii Is la n d s-o f
1c origin, Fizi, F au n afu ti, E llice
etc.-coral islands.
Johnson has divided the Pacific O cean into
(1) The N orthern Pacific rep resen ts th e d e e p ­
est part o f the w hole Pacific w here av erag e
depth ranges betw een 5,000m and 6 ,000m .
This region m akes contact w ith th e A rctic
Sea through B ering Strait.
(2) The C entral Pacific is c h aracterized by
largest num ber o f islands m ost o f w h ich are
o f volcanic and coral origin. H .H . H ess has
identified 160 flat-topped sea m o u n ts in
this region. There are a few su b p arallel
island chains w hich have been nam ed by E.
Suess as O ceanides.
(3) The South-W est Pacific carries a large
num ber o f islands, m arginal seas, ex ten ­
sive co ntinental sh elv es and o cean ic
trenches.
(4) The South-East Pacific has the m ost
striking re lie f o f the Pacific O cean as the
East Pacific R ise or R idge b u t th ere is
absence o f m arginal seas.
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80
2. Continental Shelf
T here is sig n ifica n t difference in the extent
and ch aracteristics o f continental sh elv es on the
oceanography
eastern and w estern coasts o f the Pacific. The
sh elv es are quite broad and exten sive along the
eastern coasts o f A ustralia and A sia where the
w idth varies from 160 km to 1600 km and the

Fig. 3 .1 0 : Bottom reliefs o f the Pacific Ocean.

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SP-V.
OCEAN MORPHOLOGY AND BOTTOM RELEF
depth ranges b etw een 1,000 m and 2,000m .
Several islands are seated on these b road c o n ti­
nental shelves (viz. K u riles, Japanese islands,
Philippines, In d o n esia, N ew Z ealan d etc.). T hese
continental shelves also carry num erous m arginal
seas like B ering Sea, O khotsk Sea, Japan Sea,
Y ellow Sea, C hina Sea, Java Sea, C oral Sea,
T asm ania Sea, A rafura Sea etc. The continental
shelve are less extensive along the w estern coasts
o f A m ericas because o f nearness o f cordillerean
chains o f folded m ountains to the coastal lands.
The average w idth is 80 km.
3. East Pacific Rise
T he P acific O cean does not have central or
m id-oceanic ridge like the A tlantic and the Indian
O ceans, albeit there are a few scattered ridges
having local im portance. The East Pacific Rise or
R idge know n as A lbatross Plateau is 1600 km
w ide and it extends from north o f New Zealand to
the C alifornian coasts. It sends o ff two branches
betw een 23° S-35°S. The eastern branch merges
w ith C hilean coast w hile the other branch moves
southw ard in the nam e o f Eastern Island Rise. A
m inor ridge know n as G alapagos Ridge runs
p arallel to the East Pacific Rise in the east
betw een the E astern Island Fracture Zone and
t . . the m iddle o f the basins. A v erag e d e p th ra n g e s
G alapagos islands from w here it moves m two
branches viz. (i) C arnegie R idge, and (ii) Cocos
R idge in no rth -east direction. The New Zealand
R idge is about 200m to 2,000m below sea level
and w idens near Fiji island to form Fiji Plateau
w hich is 2,000m below sea level. The Hawaiian
Rise extends from north-w est to south-east
direction betw een 35°N-17°N for a distance o f
960 km. T his is the m ost extensive ridge (2640 km
wide) o f the P acific O cean. The other m inor
ridges are N azca R idge o ff Peru coast, Lord Howe
Rise o ff eastern coast o f A ustralia betw een 20°S
and 40°S latitude. N orfolk Island R idge betw een
New C aledonia and N ew Z ealand (23°S-35°S),
Eauripik-N ew G uinea R ise north o f New G uinea
and parallel to 140° E longitude, C aroline-
Soloman R idge n o rth o f Solom an Islands etc.
81
T h e E a st P a c ific R ise (rid g e ), lik e m id -
A tlan tic R id g e, has a lso b e e n fo rm e d d u e to
d iv e rg e n t p la te m o v e m e n ts a n d s e a flo o r s p re a d ­
ing, w h ich is v a lid a te d by th e te m p o ra l seq u e n c e s
o f b a saltic o cean c ru st s ta rtin g fro m th e y o u n g e st
H o lo cen e-P lio cen e c ru st (0-5 m illio n y e a rs o ld ) at
the crest o f th e E a st P a c ific R ise to th e o ld e st
m iddle Ju rassic c ru st (1 5 7 -1 7 8 m illio n y e a rs o ld )
near the co n tin en tal m a rg in s on e ith e r sid e o f th e
ridge (fig. 3.7).
B esides, th ere are a few fra c tu re z o n e s
running from w est to east e.g. (fro m n o rth to
south) M endocino F ractu re Z o n e (40°N ), M u rra y
Fracture Z one (30°N ), M o lo k ai F ra c tu re Z o n e
(25°N), C larion F racture Z one (20°N ), C lip p e rto n
Fracture Zone (10°N ), E astern Isla n d F ra c tu re
Zone (30°S), C h allen g er F ractu re Z o n e (4 0 °S ) etc.
4. Ocean Basins
There a re d ifferen t b asin s o f d iffe re n t
shapes and sizes, T hese basins are se p a ra te d b y
ridges and ‘rise s’. The fo llo w in g are a few
im portant basins o f the P acific O cean.
(1) P h ilip p in e b a sin is lo cated to th e e ast o f
Philippines and extends from so u th o f Jap a n to
5°N latitude. K yushu-P aian R idge ru n s th ro u g h
from 5,000m to 6,000m .
(2) F iji b a sin is lo cated to the so u th o f
Fiji Island betw een 10°S and 32°S la titu d e s an d
the average depth is 4,000m . T he b a sin to th e
north o f 20°S is know n as N o rth F iji B asin
w hereas the South Fiji B asin b etw een 20°S an d
32°S is bordered by N o rk o lk Islan d R id g e in
the w est and K arm adec-T onga T ren ch es in th e
east.
(3) East A ustralian basin is situ ated b etw een
the east coast o f A ustralia and N ew Z ealan d R id g e
w ith average depth o f m ore than 5,000m .
(4) South A ustralian Basin also k now n as
Jeffreys B asin is located to the so u th -east o f
A ustralia having average depth o f 5,000m .
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 OCEANOGRAPHY
82
6 0 °S la titu d e s and e x te n d s u p to 1 3 0 «W
- .5 (5 ) P e r u b a s in in located to the w est o f Peru
longitude.
co ast b e tw ee n 5°S and 24°S latitudes and extends
upto 110°W longitude. The average depth o f the
5. Oceans Deeps and Trenches
b a sin is 4 ,000m .
(6) S o u th -W e s te rn P acific b asin is an elo n ­
T h ere are sev eral tre n c h e s and d eep s in the
g ated b a sin stretching betw een 20°S and 50°S
P acific O cean. T h ese d e p re ssio n s are located
la titu d e s and 180-129°W longitudes. K arm adec
e ith er along the isla n d arcs o r m o u n ta in chains. It
T ren ch w ith the depth o f 10,047m is located to the
m ay be p o in ted o u t th a t th e tre n c h e s are found
w est o f this basin.
m ainly in the w estern P a c ific O cean . T h e follow ­
(7) P a c ific -A n ta rc tic B asin is located to the ing are the sig n ific a n t tre n c h e s (ta b le 3 .4 ) .
so u th -w est o f C hilean coast betw een 40°S and

Table 3.4 : M ajor Trenches of the Pacific Ocean

T ren ch es D epth in m etres T renches D ep th in m e tre s

M arian a 11,002 M iddle A m erican 6,5 6 2

T onga 10,882 Ryukyu 6,395

K urile 10,498 B onin —
P hilippine 10,475 Yap Palau —
Japan 10,375 Solom an —
K arm adec 10,047 N ew B ritain —
P eru-C hile 8,025 N ew H ebbrides —
A leutian 7,679

T h e g enesis o f oceanic tre n c h e s and deeps is
related to geotectonic activities caused by conver­
g ent p late m ovem ents and subduction o f two
co nv erg ing plates along B en io ff zone. The fo l­
low ing exam ple o f the origin o f Japan T rench very
w ell explains the genesis o f num erous m arine
tren ch es o f various dim ensions in the Pacific
O cean :
H onshu is bordered by Japan T rench in the
east and Japan Sea in the w est. T he w estern part o f
the island is m ore frequented by volcanic activ i­
ties than the eastern part. The island is ch aracter­
ized by tw o belts o f m etam orphic rocks on either
side. It is believed that the Japan T rench was
form ed due to subduction o f Pacific O ceanic plate
u nder the oceanic crust to the east o f Japan.
A ccording to plate tectonic theory the subducted
p ortion o f plate after reaching a depth o f 100 km
o r m ore starts m elting due to high tem perature
r A
p rev ailin g in the u p p er m a n tle . T he m ag m a, thus
form ed, ascends and ap p ea rs as v o lc a n ic eruption
about 200 km aw ay fro m the o cea n ic tre n c h . Since
Japan is very close to the Jap a n T re n c h an d hence
w estern p art o f Jap a n is m o re freq u e n te d by
volcanic activ ities. T h is p ro c e ss is still continuing
as the Pacific plate is b ein g co n tin u o u sly subducted
under the o cean ic c ru st a lo n g the Jap a n Trench
(fig. 3 . 11). T he eru p tio n s o f v o lc a n o in th e m onth
o f June, 1991 in Jap an a fte r a d o rm a n t p eriod o f
about 200 years and the e ru p tio n o f M t. Pinatubo
on June 9 , 1991 in M an ila, P h ilip p in e s, v a lid a te
the a u th en ticity o f th is th e o ry o f p la te tectonics
T he v o lcan ic eru p tio n s c au se d by su b d u ctio n o f
o ceanic p lates u n d er the o cean ic cru st o f f the
Jap an ese coast re su lted into c o n tin u o u s accum u­
lation o f v o lcan ic ro ck s and c o n seq u en t increase
in the h eight o f island arc an d thus th e form ation
o f volcanic m o u n tain s co u ld be po ssib le.

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OCEAN MORPHOLOGY AND BOTTOM RELIEF
83
It is, thus, e v id en t th a t Jap a n T ren c h w as is an ex am p le o f o c ea n cru st-o cean crust collision
form ed due to su b d u ctio n o f the P a c ific o cean ic and su b d u ctio n . y
crust below ocean c ru st to th e east o f Jap an . T his

West HONSHU
P erm otriassic Cretaceous
belt___
M etam orphic
Flysch Japan
belt
SEA OF JAPAN wedge trench

-----/
Rapid
sedim entation

High tem perature, high

p ressu re
M etamorphic
belt
Blueschist-high p ressure,
low tem perature
M agm a g en era ted from
__Surface erosion, plate below 100 km
transport

^ Rising m agm a

Fig. 3 .11: Formation o f island arcs aiui Japan Trcnch on the basis o f plate tectonics (Reproducedfrom M.J. Bradshaw ct.
al, 1978, this diagram o f Dewey and Bird was reproduced in Cox, 1973).

less in num ber th an the P acific and the A tla n tic

3.9 BOTTOM RELIEF OF INDIAN OCEAN
1. Introduction
T he Indian O cean is sm aller than the Pacific
and A tlan tic O cean in areal extent and is bounded,
on all o f its sides, by A sia in the north, A frica in
the w est, A sia in the east, A u stralia in the so u th ­
east and A n tarctica in th e south. T he ocean has
contact w ith the P acific and the A tlantic oceans in
the south n ear A n tarctica. The average depth o f
the ocean is 4,000m . M ajor p arts o f the coastal
lands o f the Indian O cean form ed by the block
m ountains o f G o n d w an alan d are com pact and
solid. T he coasts o f the E ast Indies are bordered
by fold m ountain chains. T he m arginal seas are
oceans. S ig n ifican t m arg in al seas are M o z a m ­
bique C hannel, R ed Sea, P ersian G u lf, A n d m an
Sea, A rabian Sea, B ay o f B en g al etc. M alg asy
(M adagascar) and Sri L anka are th e b ig islan d s
w hereas Suqutra, Z an zib ar, C o m o ro , R eu n io n ,
S ecychclles, P rince E d w ard s, C ro zet, K erg u elen ,
St. Paul, R odriges, M ald iv e, L accad iv e, A ndm an-
N icobar, C hristm as etc., b elo n g to the c ateg o ry o f
sm all and tiny islands. Indian su b co n tin en t in the
north divides the Indian O cean into A rab ian Sea
and B ay o f B engal. The ocean w idens in the south.
Johnson has div id ed the Indian O cean in 3 zones
on the basis o f reg io n al c h aracteristics; (1) The
W estern Z one betw een A frican co ast and th e m id-
Indian O ceanic R idge has large n u m b er o f islands
and the average depth is 3650m (2 0 0 0 fathom s).

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84
(2 ) T h e E a s te rn Z o n e is d e e p e st o f all th e zo n es
w ith a v e ra g e d e p th o f 55 0 0 m (3 0 0 0 fath o m s).
T h e c o n tin e n ta l sh e lv e s are n arro w bu t h av e steep
s lo p e s , (3 ) T h e C e n tra l Z o n e re p re se n ts the
m id -o c e a n ic rid g e w h e re m an y tin y isla n d s are
lo c a te d .
2. Continental Shelf
T h e re is w id e ra n g e o f v a ria tio n in the
c o n tin e n ta l sh e lv e s o f th e In d ia n O cean. Q u ite
e x te n s iv e sh e lv e s are fo u n d alo n g the m a rg in s o f
A ra b ia n S e a and B ay o f B en g al. S im ilarly ,
e x te n s iv e sh e lv e s are o b se rv e d alo n g the easte rn
c o a s t o f A fric a a n d a ro u n d M a d a g a sc a r w h ic h is
its e lf lo c a te d on th e c o n tin e n ta l sh elv es. O n an
a v e ra g e , th e c o n tin e n ta l sh e lv e s are v e ry w ide
(6 4 0 k m ) in the w e st w h e re a s th e se are n arro w
(1 6 0 k m ) a lo n g th e c o a st o f Ja v a and Sum atra.
T h e se b e c o m e fu rth e r n a rro w alo n g the n o rth e rn
c o a st o f A n ta rc tic a .
3. Mid-Ocean Ridge
T h e c e n tra l rid g e o r m id -o c e a n ic rid g e
k n o w n as M id -In d ia n O c e a n ic R id g e (fig. 3.12)
e x te n d s fro m th e so u th e rn tip o f In d ia n P e n in su la
in th e n o rth to A n ta rc tic a in th e so u th a lm o st in
n o rth -so u th d ire c tio n an d fo rm s a co n tin u o u s
c h a in o f h ig h la n d s. W h e re v e r th e c e n tra l rid g e or
its b ra n c h e s e m erg e ab o v e th e sea lev el, isla n d s
a re fo rm ed . T h e m a in c e n tra l rid g e starts fro m the
c o n tin e n ta l s h e lf o f th e so u th ern tip o f In d ia n
P e n in s u la w ith a v erag e w id th o f 320 km . T h is p a rt
o f th e rid g e is k n o w n as L a c ca d iv e -C h ag o s R id g e
(a lso k n o w n as M a ld iv e R id g e). T he rid g e fu rth e r
e x te n d s s o u th w a rd a n d w id e n s n e a r eq u ato r. It is
c a lle d C h a g o s-S t. P a u l R id g e b e tw ee n eq u ato r
an d 30° S la titu d e w h e re the a v erag e w id th
b e co m e s 320 km . T h e rid g e fu rth e r w id en s to
1,600 k m b e tw e e n 30° S and 50° S la titu d e s and is
k n o w n as A m ste rd a m -S t P aul P lateau . T he cen tral
rid g e b ifu rc a te s to th e sou th o f 50° S latitu d e. T he
w e ste rn b ra n c h k n o w n as K e rg u elen -G a u ssb e rg
rid g e e x te n d s in N W -S E d ire c tio n b e tw ee n 48° S
a n d 63° S a n d th e eastern b ran ch is kno w n as
In d ia n -A n ta rc tic R idge.
Branches of the Central Ridge
(1 ) S ocotra-C hagos R id g e also known as
C arlesbreg R idge em erges from the central ridge
at 5°S latitude and exten d s in north-westerly
direction upto G ardafuli P eninsu la o f N .E . Africa.
(2) S ey ch elles-M a u ritiu s ridge bifurcates
from the main ridge around 18°S latitude near
M auritius Island and runs in roughly north-west
direction in arcuate shape upto Seych elles and
Am irante islands.
(3) M adagascar R id g e stretches from the
southern tip o f M adagascar (M alagasy) to 40«S
latitude. Its further southw ard ex ten sio n is known
as Prince E dw ard-C rozet R id g e betw een 40°S-
48°S latitudes.
(4) The south -w estern branch near 23°S
latitude is know n as S. W . Indian R idge.
(5) N in ety E ast R id g e extends from the
continental s h e lf o f f the Irrawadi river mouth and
runs in alm ost north-south d irection parallel to
90°E longitude upto 40°S w here it m erges with
A m sterdam -St Paul Plateau.
4. Ocean Basins
The m id-Indian O cean ic R id g e divides the
Indian O cean into tw o m ajor basins-the eastern
and the w estern basins. T h ese basins are further
divided into sub-basins b y the branches o f the
central ridge (fig . 3 .1 2 ).
(1) O m an b asin fa ces the G u lf o f O m an and
is spread over the e x te n siv e contin en tal s h e l f with
average depth o f 3 ,6 5 8 m .
(2) Arabian basin is located in almost
circular shape b etw een L accadive-C h agos ridge
and Socotra-C hagos R id g e w ith the depth o f
3 ,6 0 0 m -5 ,4 8 6 m .
(3) Somali basin is bordered by Socotra-
C hagos ridge in the north -w est, Central Ridge in
the east, S e y c h e lle s - M auritius R idge injjj®
sou th -w est and A frican coast in the west, i
average depth is 3 ,6 0 0 m . .
(4) Mauritius basin is located b e tw e e n
Indian R idge and South M adagascar Ridge
extends from 20°S to 40°S l a t i t u d e . The
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 Fig- 3.12 : Bottom reliefs o f the Indian Ocean. A-Socotra-Chagos Ridge, B-Chagos Ridge, C-Seychelles Ridge, D-Chagos-
St. Paul Ridge, E-Amsterdam-St Paul Ridge, F-lndian-Antarctic Ridge. G-Kerguelen-Gassberg Ridge, H-

basin, 5. Natal basin, 6. Atlantic-lndian-Antarctic Basin, 7. Andaman Basin. 8. Indian-Australia basin and 9.
Antarctic basin.

L - ' ■■■ ■ g iU i

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varies b etw een 3 ,600m and 5,486m . T he d eep est
part m easures 6 ,391m depth.
(5 ) M ascarene basin M a u ritiu s
b e tw e e n M a d a g a sc a r and y
R l 8 <6) Agulhas-Natal basin is an elongated basin
• thp <? F A frican c o a st in tne w esi
in the east and the b .n . A ir
and n o rth -w est. A verage depth is 3,600m .
(7) A tlantic-Indian-A ntarctic basin is in fa c t
the eastw ard c o n tin u atio n o f A tla n tic - A n ta rc tic
B asin. It stretch es upto 70°E lo n g itu d e an d is
bord ered by P rin ce E dw ard C ro z et R id g e in th e
north, A n tarctica in the so u th and K e rg u e le n
G assberg R idge in the n o rth -east. A v e rag e d ep th
is 3,600m .
(8) E a s te r n I n d ia n - A n ta r c tic b a s in is lo c ated
betw een A m sterdam - St. P au l P la te a u and In d ia n -
A ntarctic R idge in th e n o rth and n o rth -e a st and
A ntarctica in th e south. T he depth v aries fro m
3,600m to 4,800m . K e rg u elen -G a ssb e rg R id g e
separates the b a sin from the A tla n tic -In d ia n -
A ntarctic B asin.
(9) West Australian basin is th e m o st e x te n ­
sive basin and form s re c ta n g u la r sh ap e s u r­
rounded by S.E. In d ian R id g e in th e so u th -w e st,
N inety E ast R idge in the w est, c o n tin e n ta l sh elv e s
o f Java-S um atra in the n o rth -e a st and th e c o n ti­
nental s h e lf o f w est A u stralia. A v e rag e d e p th
varies from 3 ,600m to 6 ,100m b u t the c e n tra l p a rt
o f the b asin is 6,459m deep.
(10) Mid-Indian basin is b o rd e re d b y th e
central rid g e in the w e st and th e so u th -w e st, b y
Meters
Pig- 3.13: cross-section o f the Indian Ocean 1 Re u„
ion. 2. Indian-Australia Basin.
- coct Ridee in the east and by the Bengal
Nmety north The average depth o f outer
F r a n s e s from 3 , 600 m to 6 ,8 0 0 m w h ile the
£ p t h o f t h e cen tra l part o f th e b a s in ranges
b e tw e en 4,800m and 6,100m.
5. Deeps and T re n c h e s
There are very few deeps and trenches in the
,„dian Ocean. About 60 per cent o f * e Ocean
consists of deep sea p l a i n s w.th depth rangmg
from 3.600m to 5,487m Important deep sea
plains are Somali Abyssal plam^ Ceylone (Sn
Lanka) Abyssal pl?in, Indian Abyssal Plam,
(4 380m) etc. Significant trenches are Java or
Sunda Trench (7,450m deep), Ob Trench (6,875m
deep), Mauritius Trench, Amirante Trench etc.
3.10 BOTTOM R E L IE F OF ARCTIC OCEAN
1. C h a ra c te ris tic F e a tu re s
Almost frozen and o f circular shape the
Arctic Ocean has a great climatic significance for
the inhabitants of the planet earth. It is believed
that if the present state o f global wanning and
consequent increase in the atmospheric tempera­
ture continues most o f the Arctic ice would melt
and thus enormous volume o f melt-water would
result in substantial increase in sea level which
would trigger a chain effect. It has also been
demonstrated through scientific researches that
about 4 billion tonnes o f carbon and methane are
buried in subsurface geomaterials. If the Arctic
ice melts, the buried carbon and methane w o u l d be
uncovered and would be released to the atmos­
phere. It may be mentioned that carbon dioxide
and methane are greenhouse gases, and hence the
greenhouse effect and consequent global wann­
ing would be further augmented.
R eco rd in g o f ic e c o v e r s o v e r
B S e » and
e r i n g
A rctic Sea h a v e r e v e a le d g ra d u a l bu t regulaf
sh rin k in g o f th eir areas as f o llo w s :
There has been 5 percent decrease in areal
coverage o f Bering Sea ice since I960.
^ The sea ice area over the Arctic Sea b
decreased by about 9 0 ,0 0 0 km2 since 19 78-:
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OCEAN M O R P H O L O G Y AND BOTTOM RELIEF

>- The ice cover area o f the Arctic Sea around >- ‘The Arctic is rapidly becoming the clear­
North Pole registered a record shrinkage est demonstration o f the effects o f man­
during 2005-06 as reported by Walt Meier, kind’s impact on the global climate. The
a researcher at the U.S. National Snow and temperature is rising twice as fast as the
Ice Data Center, Colorado in 2006.

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88
to seven degrees by 210U a .u . i. y A rctic O cean it w a s th o u g h t that th e ocean
in H indu, 2006).
» T he scientists believe that i f the piresen
trend o f m elting o f A rctic ice continues
the A rctic Sea w ill lose m ost o f its ice by
2030 A.D.
T he follow ing are the characteristic fe a ­
tures o f the A rctic O cean .
• The A rctic O cean is o f m ore or less
circular shape w ith N orth Pole at its center.
• The ocean is surrounded by land areas from
all sides w ith a few openings such as (1)
through B am ets Sea and N orw egian Sea
tow ards the A tlantic O cean, (2) through
Baffin Bay betw een G reenland, and B affin
Islands to the A tlantic O cean; (3) through
Bering Strait and B ering Sea betw een
Alaska o f the USA, and R ussia to the
Pacific Ocean, etc.
• The areal coverage o f the ocean as reported
by various sources ranges between 10,000,000
km 2 to 14,200,000 km 2, w hich is only 2.4
percent o f the total surface area o f the
globe, and 3.4 percent o f all ocean su r­
faces. Its area is only 8.3 percent o f the
total surface area o f the Pacific O cean.
• The average depth o f the ocean is 1 ,1 1 7 m.
• The first near successful attem pt to n a v i­
gate the Arctic Ocean and to reach N orth
Pole was made by N ansen and F rederick
Nansen aboard vessel Fram in 1893 but
they could reach only upto 86° 14' N
latitude and finally dropped the idea to
reach the destination because th eir vessel
was stuck in the ice packs o f the A rctic
ocean.
• The subsequent voyages to reach N orth
( i m T r ma?e by Peary (1909). Byrd
926 ' SC" ' E"SWonh “ d N o b ile
eached n p ? " ' Na“Hlus (19S8>- Peary
(airship) on May 12, ,,2 6 ; Anderson c
in
\ OCEANOGRAPHY 1
% ’\ * . •
U S.S . N a u tilu s rea ch ed N o rth P o le on
Aug- 3, 1958 b y n u clea r subm arin e.
. In the b eg in n in g o f th e e x p lo r a tio n o f the
w as w ith ou t any cen tral rid g e as is the case
o f o th e r o c e a n s but the R u ssia n e x p ed itio n s
r e v e a l e d the p r e se n c e o f a cen tral ridge
w h ich runs th rou gh th e N . P o le .
• The greatest depth o f th e A r c tic O cea n is
5,3 6 0 m .
2. Continental Shelf
The A rctic O cean is c h a r a cter iz ed b y the
w idest contin en tal s h e lv e s o f a ll th e o c e a n b a sin g
The continental sh e lv e s o f f th e S ib er ia n c o a sts of=
R ussia are w id est s h e lv e s w h ic h ran ge in w idth
from 4 8 0 km to 2 ,0 0 0 km . T h e c o n tin e n ta l sh e lv e s
are also quite w id e to the north o f C anada. It m ay
be m entioned that num erous, isla n d s o f C anada are
located on the co n tin en ta l s h e lv e s , su ch as the
Canadian A rch ip ela g o . T he c o n tin e n ta l sh e lv e s
o f f the northern c o a sts o f A la sk a and G reenland
are com paratively narrow er as th e y ran ge in w idth
from 96 km to 192 k m .~ ^
3. Mid-Ocean Ridge
Like the A tla n tic and In d ian O c e a n s, the
A rctic O cean is a lso c h a r a cter iz ed b y a central
ridge o f v o lc a n ic o rig in . T h e rid g e k n o w n as
L om on osov R id g e w a s d is c o v e r e d b y R ussian
polar ex p ed itio n in 1 9 4 8 -1 9 4 9 . T h is rid g e runs
from the co n tin en ta l s h e lf o f th e S ib eria n coast
through the N orth P o le to th e c o n tin e n ta l s h e lf o f
ana a near E lle sm er e L a n d , and d iv id e s the
rctic O cean into 2 great o c e a n b a sin s. It is
beh eved that sin c e the rid g e is sim ila r to the mid-
exten m ° r i g i n a n d h e n c e il is ^
o f f l a t t e r . T h is cen tra l rid g e p lays an
water in^h r°A con tro llin g th e circu la tio n o f
from th c t*° ® c e a n. T h e h e ig h t o f the ridge
whUe u°m SUrface o f the ocean is 3 ’300m’
depth o f9 6 0 n W fr8ed 006811 WatCr Upt° ^
6 0 m ( fron* th e w a ter su r fa c e ).
N ansenR encS18nAflCant b a sin s are Fram Basin,
’ A m era sia B a sin , C an ad a B a sin .
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 OCEAN MORPHOLOGY AND BOTTOM RELIEF
Besides, one sm all ridge has also been
located to the north o f G reenland, i.e. in the
northern G reenland Sea. S ubm erged pingos o f
" periglacial origin have been d isco v ered in the
m arginal seas. It is believed that these pingos
(elevated surface w ith m assive ice core) m ight
have been form ed in the continental m arginal
areas o f S iberia and C anada d uring P leistocene
Ice age. D u rin g p o st-g la c ia l p erio d , these
pingos w ere subm erged u nder seaw ater due
to tran sgression o f the sea caused by rise in sea
level as a resu lt o f po st-g lacial recovery o f sea
level.
4. Marginal Seas
The o u ter ring o f the A rctic O cean is
c h aracterized by a n u m b er o f m arginal seas w hich
are situ ated o ff the coasts o f landm asses. For
exam ple, E ast Siberian Sea and Laptev Sea are
located o ff the Siberian coasts. T he East Siberian
Sea is quite extensive but L aptev Sea, located o ff
the L een a delta, is com paratively sm all sea. The
o th er im p o rtan t m arginal seas are K ara Sea (o ff
th e Y en isey delta, and the Y am al peninsula),
B arn ets Sea, N orw egian Sea (som etim es it is also
co n sid ered as the part o f the A tlantic O cean),
G reen land Sea (o f f the east coast o f G reenland),
89
B ea u fo rt S ea (o f f the e ast co asts o f Canada and
A lask a) etc.
5. Islands
T he A rctic O cean is e n d o w e d w ith n u m er­
ous islands o f v ary in g sizes a n d h e ig h ts (fro m sea
level). B ro ad ly sp ea k in g th e lo c a tio n s o f islan d s
o f the A rctic O cean m ay be d iv id e d in to tw o
groups, nam ely (1) m a rg in a l lo c a tio n s, a n d (2)
central locations. A s re g a rd s th e m a rg in a l lo c a ­
tions, the islands are lo cated m a in ly o f f th e c o a sts
o f Siberia, and C anada. T he islan d s p a ra lle lin g th e
Siberian coasts include the isla n d s o f N o v a y a
Z em lya Island, B o lsh eick Islan d , S e v e rn a y a
Zem lya Island, F ad d ey ev sk iy Isla n d , S ib e ria n
Island, K otelnyy, L yakhov, N ew S ib e rian Isla n d ,
B ear Island, W rangel Islan d etc. T h e sig n ific a n t
islands located o ff the C an ad ian co asts are B an k s
Island, V ictoria Island, M ack en zie Islan d , B o rd e n
Island, Q ueen E lizab eth Islan d , E lle f P in g n e s
Island, H eiberg Island, P rin ce o f W ales Isla n d ,
Prince o f Patric Island, E llesm ere Islan d etc. T h e
islands o f alm ost cen tral lo catio n are situ a te d to
the east and so u th -east o f N o rth Pole w h e re in
im portant islands are F ranz Islan d , R u d o lf Jo se p h
Land, G eorge Land, A lex an d ra land, G rah am B e ll
Island etc.
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 W W V U I » y
CHAPTER 4 : PH Y SIC A L PR O PE R T IE S OF OCEAN W ATER 90-110
h y d ro lo g ic a l cycle, 90
c o n stitu e n ts o f seaw ater, 92
p h y sica l p ro p e rtie s o f seaw ater, 93
sea te m p e ratu re, 94
d e n sity o f ocean s, 105
re la tio n s h ip betw een d en sity , tem perature and salinity, 107
111.1M

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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF OCEAN WATER
4.1 NATURE OF SEAWATER
The water in the oceans and above the
oceans are found in 3 states, nam ely (1) in liquid
state, (ii) in solid state i.e. in the form o f ice such as
the cryosphere o f the Arctic O cean, and the
Southern Ocean (Antarctic O cean). Cryosphere
represents the frozen surfaces o f the oceans, as
w e ll as the continents, and (iii) in gaseous state, i. e.
in the form o f water vapour above the ocean
surface. The ocean water plays major role in
m aintaining and controlling the global hydrologi­
cal c y c le as fo llo w s :
Hydrological Cycle
The h yd rological cy cle refers to a m odel o f
exchange o f water over the surfaces o f the earth
from oceans via atm osphere, continents (land
surface), and back to the oceans. Thus the
hyd rological cy cle at a global scale involves the
fo llo w in g m echanism s :
»• evaporation o f water from ocean water
surface through heat energy o f insolation
(solar energy),
4
(Temperature and Density)
>- co n v ersio n o f w ater into w a te r v a p o u r or
hu m idity (first and s e c o n d p h a se s are
alm ost the sa m e),
>- horizontal transport o f a tm o sp h er ic m o is ­
ture (w ater vapou r) o v er th e o c e a n s and
continents by g lo b a l a tm o sp h eric c ir c u la ­
tion (a d v ectio n a l m e c h a n ism ),
>• release o f atm osp h eric m o istu re in the
form o f p recip itation , eith er in liq u id form
as w ater or in so lid form as s n o w and ic e
and other m inor form s as d e w , fo g s e tc .,
over the contin en ts and o c e a n s, and
eventual return o f w ater r e c e iv e d at the
earth s surface to the o c e a n s v ia v ariou s
routes and ru n o ff and rivers (fig 4 .1 )
The ocean w ater is h eated b y in so la tio n
(solar heat energy) and thus w ater is transform ed
(only a sm all fraction o f o cea n ic w ater) into
gaseous form -water vapour or m oistu re. T h is
m oisture is horizontally transported across the
oceans and over the contin en ts by atm ospheric
circulation (w inds). T he air is c o o le d b ecau se o f
its ascent and thus the m oisture is released as i
p r e c ip ita tio n o v e r th e o c e a n s and th e J
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r?>r
m
91
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF OCEAN WATER
cepted rainfall is evaporated from the
~s'v leaves and the rem ainder reaches the
v
Condensation j- >
Moist air Evaporation ground through the branches and stem s o f
mass moves from oceans plants as stem flow or aerial streams.
• Some portion o f rainfall reaches the
ground directly as through fall. Some
portion o f rainfall is lost to the atm osphere
through evapo-transpiration from vegeta­
tion. Some portion is also lost to the
atmosphere through evaporation from lakes,
ponds, tanks, reservoirs, and rivers.
• A sizeable portion o f rainfall reaching the
g ro u n d su rfa c e b e c o m e s e ffe c tiv e
overlandflow w hich reaches the stream s as
surface runoff.
Fig. 4 .1 : Global hydrological cycle involving different • Some portion o f rainw ater in filtrates and
pathways o f water e.g. from the ocean through reaches groundw ater storage.
the atmosphere and the lithosphere back to the
• The ch an n el sto ra g e re c e iv e s w a te r
ocean.
from surface storage through surface ru n ­
off.
The precipitation falls on the continents in Thus the initial input o f p recip itatio n finds
a v ariety o f ways as follows : exit through tw o paths o f output e.g. (i) to the
• Som e precipitation falls directly in the atm osphere through evaporation from rivers,
stream s, lakes and other w aterbodies o f the lakes, ponds, soil, evapotranspiration from v eg ­
land. This precipitation fall is called direct etation and evaporation o f falling rains, and (ii) to
fall w hich is directly disposed o ff back to the oceans through channel ru n o ff or stream flow .
the oceans. This process is repeated every year to m ake the
• Som e portion o f rainfall is intercepted by w ater or hydrological cycle at global scale
vegetation. Some portion o f this inter- effective (fig. 4.2).
W ater vapour
517 km1 ------ ► ----------
Condensation

Precipitation
Evaporation
+ 108 km1
/ , \ Precipitation
j * - 455 km* + 409 km1

Infiltration

Numbers in 000.
Fig. 4.2 : Global hydrological balance. Source: data from M.L Budyko{l971). , • : US

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92
OCEANOGF
Hif, b e P o in te d o u t th a t th o u g h th e
te r e n t h y d ro lo g ic a l p ro c e ss e s as e la b o ra te d re tu rn e d to th e o cean s th ro u g h p re cip itatio n ,
an n u m . T h u s th e re is n e t loss o f 46,000 cubic kr
a b o v e m a in ta in th e g lo b a l h y d ro lo g ic a l cy cle
o f w a te r fro m th e o cean s ev ery y e ar O n the nth-
th r o u g h th e o c e a n s , th e a tm o sp h e re a n d the
h a n d , 6 2 ,0 0 0 c u b ic k m o f w ater is evap0^ d ,
c o n tin e n ts b u t o u t o f th e to ta l m o istu re o f the
fro m d iffe re n t w a te r b o d ie s o f the lan d annuallv '
b io s p h e r e 95 p e rc e n t is n e v e r a v a ila b le to
b u t 108,000 cu b ic k m o f w a ter is annually'
h y d ro lo g ic a l c y c le b e c a u s e it is (e s tim a te d q u a n ­
re c e iv e d at th e la n d th ro u g h p recip itatio n . Thus
tity b e in g 2 ,5 0 ,0 0 0 x 1020 g ra m s) lo c k e d in th e
th e re is a n e t g ain o f 4 6 ,0 0 0 c u b ic km o f w ater on
ro c k s o f th e e a r th ’s c ru st. T h u s o n ly 5 p e r c e n t o f
the lan d ev ery year. T h is is b e c a u se o f the fact that
th e to ta l m o is tu re o f th e b io s p h e re is a v a ila b le to
4 6 ,0 0 0 cu b ic km o f e v a p o ra te d w a te r from the
th e g lo b a l h y d ro lo g ic a l c y cle . O f th is 5 p e r c e n t o f
o c ea n s is ad d ed to a tm o sp h e ric b u d g e t of moisture
m o is tu re a b o u t 9 7 .2 p e r c e n t is sto re d in the oceans
o v er the land. T he a d d itio n al am o u n t o f 46,000
a n d th e re m a in d e r 2.8 p e r c e n t is re p re se n te d by
cubic km o f w ater is d isp o se d o f f to th e oceans
2 .1 5 p e r c e n t m o is tu re s to re d in p o la r icecaps and
th ro u g h stream ru n o ff ev ery y e a r (fig. 4.2).
p e rm a n e n t g la c ie rs , 0 .6 2 p e r c en t m o istu re in the
fo rm o f g ro u n d w a te r (w h ic h is in c ircu latio n ) and
Constituents of Seawater
0 .0 3 p e r c e n t m o is tu re in the stream s, soils,
fre s h w a te r la k e s , sa lin e la k es an d inland seas.
T he o cean w a te r is c h a ra c te riz e d b y the
I t is b e lie v e d th a t ta e g lo b a l h y d ro lo g ica l
fo llo w in g c o n stitu e n ts :
c y c le in v o lv e s th e b a la n c e b e tw e e n e v ap o ratio n
a n d p r e c ip ita tio n o v e r th e e a r th ’s su rface b u t the so lu tes in sea w ater, i.e. sa lt c o n te n t
p a tte r n o f b a la n c e b e tw e e n e v a p o ra tio n and n u trien ts
p r e c ip ita tio n is n o t u n ifo rm o v e r th e ocean s and >■ gases
th e la n d . A c c o rd in g to th e e stim a te o f M . L.
>- trace elem en ts
B u d y k o (1 9 7 1 ) e v a p o ra tio n e x c e e d s p re c ip ita tio n
o v e r th e o c e a n s b e c a u s e 4 5 5 ,0 0 0 cubic k m o f ^ o rg a n ic co m p o u n d s
w a te r is e v a p o ra te d fro m th e o c ea n s ev ery y e ar (1 ) T h e m a jo r c o n s titu e n ts o f s e a w a te r c
w h e re a s o n ly 4 0 9 ,0 0 0 c u b ic k m o f w a te r is p rise m a in ly p r i m a r y s o lu te s in th e fo rm o f cations

Table 4.1 : Major so lu te co nstituents of sea w a ter

S a lt io n W e ig h t Io n s by w eig h t C u m u lativ e
(in g ra m p e r k ilo g ram (in p ercen t) p e rc en ta g e
w e ig h t o f
s e a w a te r)
C h lo rid e 1 8.980 55.04 55 .0 4
S o d iu m 10.556 30.61 85.65
S u lp h a te 2 .6 4 9 7.68 93.33
M a g n e s iu m 1.272 3.69 97.02
C a lc iu m 0 .4 0 0 1.16 98.18
P o ta s s iu m 0 .3 8 0 1.10 99.28
B ic a rb o n a te 0 .1 4 0 0.41 99.69
B ro m id e 0 .0 6 5 0.19 99.88
<§
B o ric a c id 0 .0 2 6 0.07 99.95
99.99
I
S tro n tiu m 0 .0 1 3 0 .0 4 ,i
F lo rid e 0.001 0 .00 9 9 .9 9
T o ta l 3 4 .4 8 2 9 9 .9 9 99.99

Source : H .U . S v e rd ru p , M .W . Jo h n so n , a n d R . H . F le m in g , T h e O cean s, 1942, in P. R . P in et, 2000.

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 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF OCEAN WATER
and anions o f w hich ch lo rid e and sodium are by
far the m ost sig n ifican t so lu tes as they com bined
together re p re se n t m ore than 85 percent (85.65) o f
all the solutes (d isso lv ed substances in ocean
w ater) p resen t in seaw ater. T hese tw o ions, i.e.
ch lo ride and sodium , are responsible to m ake
halites w hich then becom e responsible for the
salin ity o f seaw ater. I f fo u r m ore solutes, nam ely
su lp h ate, m agnesium , calciu m and potassium are
c o n sid e re d w ith ch lo rid e and sodium , then these 6
so lu tes co m p rise 99 p e rc en t o f d issolved su b ­
stan ces o f seaw ater. ‘B ecause the concentrations
o f th ese m a jo r c o n stitu en ts in seaw ater vary little
o v er tim e at m o st lo calities, they are described as
conservative ions o f the o c e a n s ’. (P. R. Pinet,
2000 ).
(2) N u tr ie n ts in s e a w a te r : The m ajor n u tri­
ents in seaw ater, w hich enable marine phytoplanktons
to c o n v ert th e m into o rganic m atter through the
p ro c e ss o f p h o to sy n th esis include the com pounds
o f n itro g en (0.5 ppm ), silicon (3 ppm ), and
p h o sp h o ro u s (0.07 ppm ). T hese nutrients are
c o n c e n tra te d in the near-surface o f seaw ater. It
m ay be m en tio n e d th at m arine organism s, both
m a rin e p la n ts and anim als, m ostly use phosphate
an d n itra te as th ey are unable to utilize elem ents o f
n itro g e n and p h o sphorous. T he concentration o f
n u trie n ts in seaw ater, unlike salt constituents,
v a rie s b o th sp a tia lly and tem porally, and hence
th e se are c a lle d as n o n -c o n se rv a tiv e ions.
(3 ) G a s e s : T hough there is concentration o f
several gases w ith varying proportions in seaw ater,
n a m ely n itro g en (N 2), oxygen ( 0 2), carbon
d io x id e, h y d ro g e n (H 2) and a few m inor gases
su ch as argon, neon, h elium etc., but only
d isso lv e d o x y g en and carbon dioxide play m ajor
ro le in p h o to sy n th e sis by m arine phytoplanktons.
T here are sp a tia l and tem poral variations in the
co n cen tratio n o f th e se tw o gases in seaw ater and
h en ce 'th ese are c alled n o n -c o n s e rv a tiv e gases. The
sp atio -tem p o ral v a ria tio n s in the activ ities o f
p h o to sy n th e sis by m arin e p la n ts are respo n sib le
fo r sp atio -te m p o ra l v a riatio n s in n itro g en gas and
carb o n d io x id e in d isso lv e d form in the oceans. It
m ay b e m e n tio n e d that the o cean s are the second
larg est sin k o f a tm o sp h eric c a rb o n dioxide.
The 2 0 0 7 report o f the IPCC (Intergovern­
mental P anel on C lim ate C hange) l$ s revealed the
93
fact th at the cap acity o f the Southern O cean to
absorb m ost o f carbon dio x id e em itted from
hum an sources has d ecreased because o f the
effects o f clim ate change, m ainly increase in
w ind speed over the ocean, and d epletion o f ozone
over A n tarctica and environs. A ccording to this
report the efficien cy o f the S outhern O cean as a
potent carbon sin k has d ecreased b y 30 percent.
The hum an sources pum p 9.3 b illio n tonnes o f
additional C 0 2 in the atm o sp h ere an n u ally , o f
w hich 0.7 b illion tonnes are soaked b y the
Southern O cean alone. It m ay be m en tio n ed th at
the atm ospheric C 0 2 abso rb ed by the oceans is
stored in the deeper parts o f the oceans. T he
increased w ind speed due to g lo b al w arm in g
causes m ore m ixing o f seaw ater, due to w hich
colder w ater saturated w ith disso lv ed CO?, at great
depth com es upw ard and hence it c an n o t absorb
additional CO?.
(4) T ra c e e le m e n ts : p resen t in seaw ater
include m anganese, lead, m ercury, gold, iodine,
iron etc. The co n cen tratio n s o f th ese trace
elem ents vary from 1 ppm to 1 ppb (p art p e r
billion) or even 1 p p t (part p e r trillio n ). E ven v ery
low concentration o f these trace elem en ts in
seaw ater is o f param ount sig n ifican ce fo r m arin e
organism s. Som etim es relativ ely h ig h e r c o n ce n ­
tration o f a few trace elem ents such as m ercu ry
and lead m akes the seaw ater toxic and th u s k ills
m arine organism s.
(5) M a rin e o rg a n ic c o m p o u n d s : in clu d e fats,
proteins, carbohydrates, vitam ines, h arm o n es etc.
w hich are produced by sea organism s b u t th ese are
present in very low concentrations.
Physical Properties of Seawater
The ph y sical p ro p erties o f seaw ater include
h e a and tem p eratu re (therm al co nditions), den-
t _______
sity, colour, odour etc. Heat present in ocean
water is o f vital significance as it determines the
en ergy m o tio n s in m arine en vironm ent.
The detailed discussions on thermal conditions
and density o f seawater are included in this
chapter.
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■ .
94
4.2 SEA TEMPERATURE : IMPORTANCE
The tem perature o f seaw ater is directly very
im portant for m arine organism s and is indirectly
im portant for all the biota on this planet earth
including both lithospheric and oceanic environ­
m ents because o f the follow ing facts :
>■ O ceans are great store house for heat
energy because they receive and store solar
energy and thereafter release heat energy
in various form s.
>■ The solar energy received at the w ater
surfaces o f the oceans help in the process o f
photosynthesis by phytoplanktons o f m a­
rine environm ent. Thus, sea tem perature
b ecom es very im portant also for zoo
planktons as they derive their food from
phytoplanktons.
>- The sea tem perature plays vital role in
influencing global radiation balance and
heat budget.
>■ T h e th e rm a l c o n d itio n s o f o cean
w ater determ ine and control planetary
w ind belts and surface currents in the
o cean s.
>■ The tem perature o f seaw ater affects the
w eather and clim ate o f coastal areas
through diurnal rhythm o f land and sea
breezes, evaporation and m oisture condi­
tions. In fact, oceans have m oderating
e ffe c ts on w e a th e r c o n d itio n s o f
coastal areas and gives birth to m arine
clim ate.
>- Since the seaw ater has higher specific heat
than land areas and hence its heating
and co o lin g process are m uch slow er
than these processes on lands, and hence
oceans have high storage capacity o f
heat.
>• T he sea tem p eratu re plays vital role in
m aking the global h ydrological cycle
functional.
>■ The sea tem perature determ in es ev ap o ra­
tion pro cess and p recip itatio n .
>• The salin ity and density o f ocean w ater are
closely re la ted to sea tem perature.
• -
OCEANOGRAPHY
1. Sources of Heat of the Oceans
The m ajor source o f the h eat and thus
tem perature o f ocean w ater is the insolation
received from the sun. The rad ian t energy
transm itted from the o u ter surface o f the sun.
called as p h o to s p h e re , in the form o f electrom ag­
netic shortw aves and received at the ocean surface
is called in so la tio n . B esides, som e energy, though
insignificant, is also receiv ed from b elo w the
ocean bottom s as g eotherm al h eat energy, and
through the com pression o f seaw ater.
The am ount o f in so latio n to be receiv ed at
the sea surface depends on the angle o f s u n ’s ra y s ,
length o f day, distance o f the earth from th e sun
and effects o f the a tm o sp h ere. T he m e ch a n ism o f
the heating and co o lin g o f ocean w a ter d iffers
from the said m echanism on land b e c a u se b esid es
horizontal and v ertical m o v em en ts o f w a ter, the
evaporation is m ost active o v er the o cean s.
As per rules v ertical ray s b rin g m ore
insolation than oblique rays. In o th e r w ord s, as the
angle o f the su n ’s rays d ecreases p o lew ard , the
am ount o f in so latio n receiv ed on th e w ater
surface o f the oceans also d ecreases fro m the
equator tow ards the poles. T his la titu d in a l v a ria ­
tion in heat energy receiv ed from th e sun a t ocean
surface causes d ecrease in tem p eratu re o f su rface
w ater o f the oceans polew ard.
If all the o th er co n d itio n s a ffe ctin g the
receipt o f in so latio n at the w ater su rfa ce o f the
oceans are favourable and eq u al, th en lo n g er
duration o f sunshine (or length o f day) and sh o rter
duration o f night enable the o cean w a ter su rfa ce to
receive larger am ount o f in so latio n . O n th e o th er
hand, shorter the d u ratio n o f su n sh in e and lo n g er
the period o f night, the le sse r th e a m o u n t o f
insolation received at the o cean w a ter su rface. JItt
may be m entioned th at inspite o f in creasin g
length o f day from the eq u ato r tow ards the north
pole during sum m er so lstice and from the eq u ato r
tow ards the south pole d uring w in ter so lstice the
am ount o f in so latio n receiv ed at the o cean w ater
su rface d ecreases co n sid erab ly p o lew ard because
o f d ecrease in the angle o f s u n ’s ra y s .
Inspite o f the lo n g est len g th o f day at the
poles in so latio n becom es m inim um because
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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF OCEAN WATER
(.) tfr? sun’s ravs become more or less parallel to
fjjjTprnimd surface, and (ii) the ice cover reflects
mnst of the solar radiation. It is apparent that the
angle o f the sun’s rays controls the amount of
insolation received more effectively than the
length o f day. It may be thus, concluded that the
places having longer length o f day and vertical
sun’s rays will certainly receive maximum insola­
tion.
Since the electrom agnetic shortwave solar
radiation has to pass through thick atmosphere
and hence the atmosphere largely controls the
distribution o f solar heat energy at the surface of
ocean water. The atm osphere affects insolation
thrm iph the processes o f absorption, scattering,
and reflection.
A b so r p tio n : If the total amount o f energy
radiated from the sun towards the earth and its
atmosphere (which is 1.2 billionth part of the total
energy radiated from the p h o to sp h e r e o f the sun) is
taken to be 100 per cent, about 14 per cent o f this
am ount is absorbed by the atmospheric gases (e.g.
by ozone in the stratosphere to larger extent and
oxygen and carbon dioxide to very limited
extent), w ater vapour, haze etc.). The process of
absorption is selective in nature. The shortest
w avelengths ranging between 0.02 micron and
0.29 m icron are absorbed by oxygen ( 0 2) and
ozone ( 0 3) gases. Ozone also absorbs ultraviolet
? rays o f the w avelengths varying from 1,000
angstrom s to 4,000 angstroms and thus prevents
these ultraviolet radiation waves from reaching
the earth ’s surface. W ater vapour absorbs the
incom ing solar radiation waves o f the w ave­
lengths ranging between 0.9 micron and 2.1
microns.
Scattering : Some portion o f the incoming
electromagnetic solar radiation (23%) is scattered
, in the atmosphere by dust particles and haze. Six
per cent o f this scattered energy is sent back to
space while 17 per cent reaches the earth’s
surface. The process o f scattering is selective in
nature. Scattering becomes possible when the
diameter o f invisible dust particles suspended in
the air and the m olecules o f the atmospheric gases
is shorter than the wave-lengths o f the solar
radiation waves. Blue light o f the incoming
shorter w avelengths is more scattered than red
• T; ’
95
light. This is the reason that the sky looks blue.
Similarly, the picturesque reddish hue o f the sky
during sunrise (dawn) and sunset (tw ilight) is the
result o f scattering o f all the colour spectra except
the red and orange because at the tim e o f sunrise
and sunset the oblique rays have to pass through
the longest path o f the atm osphere.
R e fle c tio n : The scattering o f incom ing solar
radiation waves by dust particles and m olecules o f
water vapour (clouds) when the diam eter o f these
particles is longer than the w avelengths o f
incoming solar radiation is c a l l e d d iffu se reflectio n
which sends some portion o f incom ing solar
energy back to space w hile som e p ortion rem ains
in the lower atm osphere. The d iffused and
scattered solar energy present in the low er
atmosphere enables us to see even the dark portion
o f the moon. One can also see (if not suffering
from cataract) even in the pitch darkness o f night.
Some o f the scattered and diffused so lar energy
reaches the earth ’s ground surface. Such energy is
called as diffuse b lue light o f th e sky or d iffu se d ay
light. Some portion o f incom ing solar radiation is
reflected back to space by high clouds (27 per
cent) and by the ice-covered surface (2 percent).
The portion o f incident radiation energy
reflected back from a surface is called a lb e d o .
Various attem pts have been m ade to m easure total
albedo o f the earth (including its atm osphere).
Various data derived so far indicate the e a rth ’s
average albedo fluctuating betw een 29 p er cent
and 34 per cent (including the energy reflected
through the m echanism o f d iffu se re fle c tio n by dust
particles, w ater m olecules etc., (fro m the cloud
surface and from the e arth ’s surface). T he albedo
o f other planets has also been estim ated e.g. M oon
(7% ), M erecury (6% ), M arr (16% ), V enus
(76% ) and the rem aining outer p lanets (73% to
94%).
It may be pointed out that the processes o f
absorption, scattering and reflection are not as
simple as discussed above rather they are highly
com plex. Further more, the figures used here to
indicate the quantity o f solar radiation lost during
its p a ssa g e through the atm osph ere by
different processes are mere estim ates and these
vary from the estim ates o f one scientist to the
other.
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96
2. Dally Rang* of Tamparatura of Saawalar
Stnndnrd typo o f thermnmeter I n used to
measure the surface temperature o f ocean water.
Such thermometers record the temperature upto
the accuracy ± 0.2° ccntrigrade.
The difference o f maximum and minimum
temperatures o f a day (24 houra) in known a« daily
range o f temperature. The daily range o f tempera­
ture o f surface water o f the occana i?i almost
insignificant as it is around l"C only. On ari
a v erage, the m axim um and minimum
temperature o f sea surface water arc recorded at
2 P.M. and 5 A.M. respectively. The daily range
o f tem perature is usually 0.3°C in high
latitudes.
The diurnal range depends on the condi­
tions o f sky (cloudy or clear sky), stability or
instability o f air and stratification o f seawater.
The heating and cooling o f occan water is rapid
under clear sky (cloudless) and hence the diurnal
range o f temperature becom es a bit higher than
under overcast sky and strong air circulation. The
high density o f water below surface water causes
very little transfer o f heat through conduction and
hence the diurnal range o f tem perature becomes
low.
3. Annual Range of Temperature of Seawater
The maximum and minimum annual tem­
peratures o f ocean water are recorded in A ugust
and February respectively (in the northern hemi­
sphere). Usually, the average annual range o f
temperature o f ocean water is -12°C (10°F) but
there is a lot o f regional variation which is due to
regional variation in insolation, nature o f seas,
prevailing winds, location o f seas etc. Annual
range o f temperature is higher in the enclosed seas
than in the open sea (Baltic Sea records annual
range o f temperature o f 4.4°C or 40°F). The size o f
the oceans and the seas also affects annual range
o f temperature e.g. bigger the size, lower the
annual range and vice versa. The Atlantic Ocean
records relatively higher annual range o f tempera­
ture than the Pacific Ocean.
OCEANOGRAPHY
4, Distribution of Tamparatura of 8eawatar
The distributional pattern o f temperature o f
ocean water is studied in two ways viz, (i)
horizontal distribution (temperature o f surface
water), and (ii) vertical distribution (from surface
water to the bottom). Since the ocean has three
dimensional shape, the depth o f oceans, besides
latitudes, is also taken into account in the study o f
temperature distribution. The follow ing factors
affect the distribution o f temperature o f ocean
w ater:
(1) Latitudes
The tem perature o f surface water decreases
from equator towards the poles because the sun’s
rays become more and m ore slanting and thus the
amount o f isolation decreases polew ard accord­
ingly. The tem perature o f surface w ater between
40''N and 40'JS is low er than air temperature but it
becomes higher than air temperature between
40th latitude, and the poles in both the hem i­
spheres.
(2) U nequal D istribution of Land and W ater
The tem perature o f ocean water varies in
the northern and the southern hemispheres be­
cause o f the dom inance o f land in the former and
water in the latter. The oceans in the northern
hem isphere receive more heat due to their contact
with larger extent o f land than their counter-parts
in the southern hemisphere and thus the tempera­
ture o f surface water is comparatively higher in
the former than the latter. The isotherms are not
regular and do not follow latitudes in the northern
hemisphere because o f the existence o f both warm
and cold landmasses whereas they (isotherms) axe
regular and follow latitudes in the southern
hemisphere because o f the dominance o f water.
The temperature in the enclosed seas in low
latitudes becom es higher because o f the influence
o f surrounding land areas than the open sea s e.g.
the average annual temperature o f surface water at
the equator is 26.7°C (80°F) whereas it is 37.8°C
(100°F) in the Red Sea and 34.4°C (94°F) in the
Persian Qulf.
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 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF OCEAN WATER
(3) Nature of Land and Water
The contrasting nature o f land and water,
surfaces in relation to the incoming shortwave
solar radiation largely affects the spatial and
tem poral distribution o f temperature. It may be
pointed out that land becomes warm and cold
more quickly than the w ater body. This is why
even after receiving equal amount o f insolation
the tem perature o f land becomes more than the
tem perature o f the w ater body. The following
reasons explain the differential rate o f heating and
cooling o f land and w ater
>- The su n ’s rays penetrate to a depth o f only
3 feet in land because it is opaque but they
penetrate to greater depth o f several metres
in w ater ^because it is transparent to solar
radiation. The thin layer o f soils and rocks
o f land., thus, gets heated quickly because
o f greater concentration o f insolation in
'm u c h sm aller mass o f m aterial o f ground
surface. Sim ilarly, the thin ground layer
em its heat quickly and becom es colder. On
the other hand, the same amount o f
insolation falling on w ater surface has to
heat larger volume o f w ater because o f the
penetration o f solar rays to greater depth
and thus the tem perature o f ground surface
becom es higher than that o f the w ater
surface though the am ount o f insolation
received by both the surfaces may be equal.
>- T he heat is concentrated at the place where
insolation is received and there is very
slow process o f redistribution o f heat by
conduction because land surfaces is static.
It m ay be noted that dow nward distribution
o f tem perature in the land surface w ithin a
day (24 hours) is effective upto the depth
o f only 10 centim etres. Thus, the land
surface becom es w arm during day and cold
during night very rapidly. On the other
hand, w ater is m obile. The upper surface o f
w ater becom es lighter w hen heated by
insolatio n and thus m oves aw ay ho rizon­
ta lly to o th er places and the solar rays have
to h eat fresh lay er o f cold w ater. Secondly,
h e at is re d istrib u te d in w ater bodies by sea
w aves, ocean currents and tid al w aves. A ll
- ■
these extend the period o f w arm ing o f
w ater surface. •
>- There is more evaporation from the seas
and the oceans and hence more heat is
spent in this process w ith the result oceans
get less insolation thar^ the land surface. On
the other hand, there is less evaporation
from the land surface because o f very
lim ited am ount o f w ater.
>■ The specific heat (the am ount o f heat needed
to raise the tem perature o f one gram o f a
substance by 1°C) o f w ater is m uch greater
than the land because the relative density
o f w ater is much low er than that o f land
surface. It m eans m ore heat is required to
raise the tem perature o f one gram o f w ater
by 1°C than one gram o f land. M ore
specifically, the heat required to raise the
tem perature o f one cubic foot o f w ater by
1°C is two tim es greater than the h eat
required for the equal volum e o f land (one
cubic foot). It is apparent that sam e am ount
o f insolation received by sam e m ass o f
w ater and land w ould increase the tem ­
perature o f land m ore than the tem perature
o f equal m ass o f w ater.
>- The reflection (albedo) o f incom ing solar
radiation from the oceanic w ater surface is
far more than from the land surface and thus
water receives less insolation than land.
>- Oceanic areas are generally clo u d ed and
hence they receive less insolation than land
surface. B ut clouds absorb outgoing te rre s­
trial radiation and counter-radiate h eat
back to the earth ’s surface. T his process
retards the loss o f heat from the oceanic
surfaces and hence slow s dow n the m ech a­
nism o f cooling o f the air lying over the
oceans. On the other hand, land surfaces
receive m ore insolation at faster rate
because o f less cloudiness and sim ultane­
ously lose m ore h eat through outgoing
terrestrial radiation very quickly.
(4) Prevailing winds
Wind direction largely affects the distribu­
tion o f temperature o f ocean water. The winds
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98
blowing from th e land tow ards the oceans and
seas (e.g. o ffsh o re w in d s) drive w arm surface
w ater away from the coast resu ltin g into upw elling
o f co ld b o tto m w ater from below . T hus, the
re p la ce m e n t o f w arm w ater by cold w ater
in tro d u ce s lo n g itu d in a l v ariatio n in tem peratu re.
C o n tra ry to th is, the o n sh o re w inds pile up w arm
w a te r n e a r th e c o ast and thus raise the te m p e ra ­
tu re. F o r e x am p le, trade w inds cause low te m ­
p e ra tu re (in th e tro p ics) along the e astern m argins
o f th e o c ea n s o r the w estern coastal regions o f the
c o n tin e n ts b e ca u se th ey b lo w from the land
to w a rd s the ocean s w h ereas these trade w inds
ra ise th e te m p e ra tu re in th e w estern m argins o f the
o c e a n s o r the eastern co asta l areas o f the
c o n tin e n ts b e c a u se o f th e ir onshore position.
S im ilarly , the e a ste rn m a rg in s o f the oceans in the
m id d le la titu d e s (w e stern coasts o f E urope and
N o rth A m e ric a ) h a v e re la tiv e ly h igher tem p era­
tu r e th a n th e w e s te r n m a rg in s o f th e
o c e a n s b e c a u se o f the onsh o re p osition o f the
w e ste rlie s.
(5) Ocean Currents
S u rfa ce te m p e ratu res o f the oceans are
c o n tro lle d by w arm and cold currents. W arm
cu rre n ts raise the te m p e ratu re o f the affected
areas w h e rea s cool cu rren ts lo w er dow n the
te m p e ratu re. F o r exam ple, the G u lf Stream raises
th e te m p e ra tu re n e a r th e eastern coasts o f N.
A m e ric a an d the w e ste rn co asts o f E urope. K uro
S h iv o d riv e s w arm w a te r aw ay from the eastern
c o a st o f A sia and raises the tem p eratu re near
A la sk a . L a b ra d o r cool cu rre n t low ers dow n the
te m p e ra tu re n e a r n o rth -e a st co ast o f N. A m erica.
S im ila rly , th e te m p e ra tu re o f the eastern co ast o f
S ib e ria b e c o m e s low due to K u rile cool current. It
m ay be m e n tio n e d th a t w arm cu rren ts raise the
te m p e ra tu re m o re in the n o rth e rn h em isp h ere than
in th e so u th e rn h e m isp h e re w hich is ap p aren t
fro m the fa c t th a t th e 5°C iso th erm re a ch e s 70°
la titu d e in th e n o rth e rn A tla n tic O cean w h ereas it
is e x ten d ed upto o n ly 50° la titu d e in th e so u th ern
A tla n tic O cean . T h is is b e ca u se o f m ore d o m in an t
effe cts o f th e w arm B ra zil c u rre n t in the so u th ern
A tla n tic O c ea n .
OCEANOGRAPHY
(6 ) Minor Factors
' -M
nM
M in o r fa c to rs include (i) subm arine ridges,
(ii) local w eath er co n d itio n s like storm s, cy­
clo n es, h u rrican es, fog, clo u d in ess, evaporation
and co n d en satio n , and (iii) lo catio n and shape o f
the sea. L o n g itu d in ally m o re ex ten siv e seas in the
low latitu d es have h ig h e r tem p eratu re than the
latitu d in ally m ore ex ten siv e seas as the M ed iter­
ran ean Sea reco rd s h ig h er tem p eratu re than the
G u lf o f C alifornia. T he en clo sed seas in the low
latitudes reco rd relativ ely h ig h e r tem p eratu re
than the open seas w hereas the en clo sed seas have
low er tem p eratu re than the open seas in the high
latitudes (B altic Sea records 0°C (32°F) and open
seas have 4.4°C or 40°F).
5. Horizontal Distribution of Seawater Tem pera­
ture
The se a so n a l te m p e r a tu r e s o f th e e a rth ’s
surface in clu d in g both lan d and o cean su rfa c e s are
show n through iso th erm s o f Jan u a ry fo r w in ter
season and July fo r su m m er sea so n (fig s. 4 . la n d
4.2).
Is o th e r m s are th e im a g in a ry lin es d raw n on
the m aps jo in in g p la ce s o f e q u al te m p eratu re
red u ced to sea level. It is n e c e ssa ry to re d u c e the
actu al te m p e ratu res o f all p la ce s at sea level
b e fo re d raw in g iso th erm s. It is, th u s, o b v io u s th at
iso th erm s do n o t re p re se n t th e real te m p e ra tu re of
the p laces th ro u g h w h ic h th ey p a ss ra th e r they
show te m p e ratu re o f th e p la ce s at se a lev el. This
is w hy the iso th e rm m ap s are n o t u se fu l for
farm ers b e ca u se th ey n e e d re a l te m p e ra tu re of a
p a rtic u la r p la ce fo r g ro w in g cro p s. N orm ally,
iso th erm s run e ast-w e st an d are g e n e ra lly p arallel
to latitu d es. T h is tre n d sh o w s stro n g c o n tro l of
latitu d es on the h o riz o n ta l d is trib u tio n o f te m ­
peratu re. G en erally , iso th e rm s are stra ig h t but
they b en d at th e ju n c tio n o f c o n tin e n ts and o cean s
due to d iffe re n tia l h e atin g and c o o lin g o f lan d and
w ater. Iso th e rm a l lin es are m o re irre g u la r in the
n o rth e rn h em isp h ere b e ca u se o f larg e e x ten t o f
co n tin e n ts b u t th ey are m o re re g u la r in the
so u th ern h e m isp h ere d u e to o v e r-d o m in a n c e o f
o cean s. Iso th e rm s are g e n e ra lly c lo se ly sp aced in
th e n o rth e rn h e m isp h ere b u t th e y are w idely
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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OP OCEAN WATER
spaced in the southern hem isphere. The clo u d y
spaced isotherm* denote rapid rate o f change o f
tem perature and steep tem perature gradient. On
the other hand, w idely spaced isotherm s indicate
slow rate o f tem perature changc and low tem pera­
ture gradient. On an average, isotherm s trending
from land tow ards the ocean bend equatorw ard
during sum m er and polew ard during w inter. On
the other hand, isotherm s trending from the
oceans to the continents bend polew ard during
sum m er and equatorw ard during w inter. I he
isotherm s during the m onths o f January and July
are taken as representatives for the study o f
horizontal distribution o f tem perature during
w inter and sum m er seasons respectively because
they represent seasonal extrem es.
The m onths o f m axim um (June, northern
hem isphere,) and m inim um (D ecem ber, northern
h em isphere) insolation do not coincide w ith the
m onths o f h o ttest and coldest m onths (July and
January in th e northern hem isphere) respectively
and hence the m onths o f July (hottest in the
n o rth ern hem isphere and coldest in the southern
h e m isp h ere ) and January (coldest in the northern
h e m isp h ere and hottest in the southern h em i­
sp h ere) are taken a.s representatives to describe
Fig. 4.3 : Isotherms representing horizontal distribution o f temperature in January.
the seasonal (and also annual) distribution o f
average tem perature. Fig*. 4 .4 and 4,3 illustrate
distribution o f average tem perature in July
(representing tem perature d u ring sum m er season)
and January (rep resen tin g tem perature during
w inter season). T he tw o iso th erm m aps reveal the
follow ing trends :
>- T he m onths o f July and January are
w arm est and co ld est in the no rth ern h em i­
sphere w hereas the w arm est an d co ld est
m onths in the so u th ern h em isp h ere are
January and July resp ectiv ely .
>• Jloth the m aps (F igs. 4.3 and 4 .4 ) show
latitudinal shifts o f iso th erm s in a c c o rd ­
ance with seasonal sh iftin g o f o v erh ead
sun but this sh iftin g o f iso th erm s is m ore
pronounced on the co n tin en ts.
>■ T he m axim um tem p eratu res in Jan u a ry an d
July are alw ays reco rd ed on the c o n tin e n ts.
M inim um tem p eratu re in Jan u ary is o b ­
served in A sia and N orth A m erica.
>• January isotherm s su d d en ly b en d p o lew ard
w hile passin g th ro u g h w arm p o rtio n s o f
the oceans and bend eq u ato rw ard w h ile
passing through the co ld p o rtio n s o f th e
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oceans in January in the northern hem i­
sphere w hile the trend is opposite in July.
O n the other hand, the isotherm s are more
or less regular and straight in the southern
hem isphere because o f over-dom inance o f
oceans.
^ Temperature gradient is more pronounced
during winter than summer.
^ The January isotherm s denote steep tem ­
perature gradient in the northern hemi-
Fig. 4.4 : Isotherms representing horizontal distribution o f temperature in July.
On an average, the temperature o f surface
w ater o f the oceans is 26.7°C (80°F) and the
tem perature gradually decreases from equator
tow ards the poles. The rate o f decrease of
tem perature with increasing latitudes is generally
0 5°F per latitude. The average temperatures
become 22°C (73°F) at 20° latitude, 14°C (57°F) at
40° latitude, and 0°C (32°F) near the poles. The
oceans in the northern hemisphere record rela­
tively higher average tem perature than in the
southern hem isphere. The highest tem perature is
OCEANOGRAPHY
sphere as revealed b y th eir clo ser spacings
(fig. 4.4) w hile relatively w idely spaced
isotherm s in the southern hem isphere
denote gentle (low ) tem perature gradient
because o f the dom inance o f the oceans. In
the northern hem isphere the eastern coasts
register steeper tem perature gradient (1.5°C
per latitude) than the w estern coastal areas
(0.5°C per latitude).
not recorded at the equator rather it is a b it north
o i. e average annual tem perature o f all the
oceans is 17.20C (63°F). The average annual
temperatures for the northern and southern
hemispheres are 19.4°C (67°F) and 16.1°C(610F)
respectively. The variation o f tem peratures
in the northern and southern hem ispheres is
because o f unequal distribution o f land and ocean
water.
The decrease o f tem perature w ith increas­
ing latitudes in the northern A tlantic Ocean (figs.
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 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF OCEAN WATER
101
4.5 and 4.6) is very low because o f w arm ocean
currents. The average tem perature betw een 50°-
70°N latitudes is recorded as 5°C (41 °F). The
decrease o f tem perature w ith increasing latitudes
is more pronounced in the southern Atlantic
Ocean. A ccording to K rum el the highest tem pera­
ture o f surface w ater o f the oceans is at 5°N
latitude w hereas the low est tem perature is re­
corded betw een 80°N and the north pole and
between 75°S and the south pole. The average
annual tem perature o f the Pacific Ocean is
slightly higher than the A tlantic O cean (16.91°C
or 60°F) and the Indian O cean (17°C or 60.6°F).
The low est (3.3°C or 35.94°F) and the highest
(32.2°C or 89.96°F) tem peratures o f the oceans
are recorded near N ew Scottland and in the
w estern Pacific O cean respectively. The highest
tem perature o f the Indian ocean (25°C or 82.4°F)
is recorded in the A rabian Sea and Bay o f Bengal !g. 4.6 : Horizontal distribution o f temperature in the
but the enclosed seas o f the Indian O cean record Pacific Ocean (August), temp, in degree
centrigrade.
still higher tem peratures (Red Sea = 32.2°C or
90°F and Persian G ulf = 34.4°C or 94°F). The
average seasonal tem peratures (February and
A ugust) o f surface w ater o f the oceans have been
rep resen ted through isotherm s (figs. 4.5, 4 .6 ,4 .7 ,
4.8, 4.9 and 4.10).

Fig- 4.5. Horizontal distribution o f temperature in the

Fig. 4. 7 : Horizontal distribution o f temperature in the
Pacific Ocean (February), temp, in degree Indian Ocean (February), temp, in degree
centigrade.
centrigrade.

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102 OCEANOGRAPHY

Fig. 4.8 : H orizontal distribution o f temperature in the

Indian Ocean (August), temp, in degree
centrigrade.

Fig. 4.10 : Horizontal distribution o f temperature in the

Atlantic Ocean (August), temp, in degree
centrigrade.

The tem perature o f the surface w ater o f the oceans

is higher than the air tem p eratu re above the ocean
surface w hich m eans ocean surface gives o ff heat
to the atm osphere. This phen o m en on influences
the generation o f oceanic circu latio n m ainly sea
w aves and ocean currents. It has been observed
that the air tem perature at the h eig h t o f 8m from
the sea surface betw een 20°N and 55°S latitu d es in
the A tlantic O cean is co o ler by 0.80°C than the sea
surface. There is a lot o f variation in th e heat
em itted from the oceans to the atm osphere during
w inter and sum m er and this phenom enon causes
differences o f air tem perature over the oceans and
the continents m ainly during w inter season. ‘The
tem p eratu re for January is 22.2°C hig h er o v e r the
oceans betw een 20° and 80°N, w hile in July it is
4.8°C low er. The m ean annual tem perature is 7°C
Fig. 4 .9 : Horizontal distribution o f temperature in the
Atlantic Ocean (February), temp, in degree
h ig h er over th e w ater m e rid ia n ’ (C .A .M . King,
centrigrade.
1975). T he d ifference betw een a ir and sea surface

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 p , r :, . -

PH Y SICA L PR O PE R T IE S O F O C E A N W A T E R i qo

Table 4 .1 : Surface Water Temperature of the Oceans (in O0C)

Latitudes N. Hemisphere N. Hemisphere N. H em isphere

70-60 -
5.60
60-50 5.74 8.66
50-40 9.99 13.16
40-30 18.62 20.40 _
30-20 23.38 24.16 26.14
20-10 26.42 25.81 27.23
10-0 27.20 26.66 27.88
Latitudes Pacific Ocean Atlantic Ocean Indian O cean
0-10 26.01 25.18 27.14
10-20 25.11 23.16 25.85
20-30 21.53 21.20 22.53
30-40 16.98 16.90 17.00
40-50 11.16 8.68 8.67
50-60 5.00 1.76 1.63
60-70 -1.30 -1.30 -1.50
S. Hemisphere S. Hemisphere S. H em isphere

tem peratures causes fogs over the seas and the
oceans. This happens when warm air passes over
a cold sea surface having the temperature below
dew point, o f the air. Consequently, the air over the
sea surface is cooled from below and sea fog
occurs. G enerally, sea fogs are frequently formed
during spring and early sum m er because air
com ing from over the land is w arm er while the sea
surface is still cold. Sea fogs are very com m on in
the high latitudes but are generally absent in the
tropics.
6. Vertical Distribution of Temperature of Seawater
It m ay be pointed out that m axim um
tem perature o f the oceans is alw ays at their
surface because it directly receives the insolation
and the heat is transm itted to the low er sections o f
the oceans through the m echanism o f conduction.
In fact, the solar rays very effectively, penetrate
upto 20m depth and they seldom go beyond 200m
depth. Consequently, the tem perature decreases
from the ocean surface w ith increasing depth but
the rate o f decrease o f tem perature w ith in creas­
ing depth is not uniform every w here. The
tem perature falls very rapidly upto the depth o f
200m and thereafter the rate o f decrease o f
tem perature is slow ed dow n. From this stand
point the oceans are vertically divided into two
zones.
^ Photic zone represents the up p er surface
upto the depth o f 200m and is heated
directly through solar radiation.
^ Aphotic zone extends from 200m depth to
the bottom o f the oceans w here solar
radiation is unable to penetrate.
The photic zone is b iologically very im por­
tant because m arine plants, and called as m arine
phototrophs o r phytoplanktons produce th eir food
energy through the process o f photosynthesis.

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 104 OCEANOGRAPHY

These phytoplanktons becom e rich marine pas­ The follow in g are the characteristic fea­
tures for marine animals o f the category o f tures o f vertical distribution o f temperature of
zooplanktons. ocean w a t e r :

Table 4 . 2 : Vertical distribution o f temperature in the oceans

D epth in fathom s D epth is T em p eratu re T em p eratu re

(fm ) m eters (m) °F °C

100 183 60.7 16

200 366 50.1 10
500 915 45.1 7.3
1000 1830 36.5 2.3
1500 2745 35.5 2.0
2200 4026 35.2 1.7

>- T hough the sea tem perature decreases with
increasing depth but the rate o f decrease o f
tem perature is not uniform . The change in
sea tem perature below the depth o f 2000m
is negligible. The trend o f decrease in
tem perature w ith increase in depth has
been reported by M urray during his C hal­
lenger E xpedition (table 4.2). It is apparent
from table 4.3 that change in ocean w ater
tem perature beyond 500m depth is very
slow .
>- D iurnal and annual ranges o f tem perature
cease after the depth o f 5 fathom s (30 feet)
and 100 fathom s (600 feet) respectively.
>- The rate o f decrease o f tem perature with
increasing depth from equator tow ards the
poles is not uniform . Though the surface
tem perature o f the seas d ecreases from
equator tow ards the p o les b u t the tem pera­
ture at the ocean b o tto m s is u n ifo rm from
the eq u ato r tow ards the p o le, w hich means
that the rate o f decrease o f tem perature
w ith increasing d ep th is m o re rap id near
the eq u ato r than to w ard s the poles. The
result o f G erm an A n tarctic E x p ed itio n in
1911 rev ealed that the tem p eratu re at the
depth o f 100m at 7.30°N latitu d e equalled
the surface tem p eratu re at 40°N latitude.
Sim ilarly, the tem p eratu re at 20 0 m depth
at 7.30°N latitu d e eq u alled the tem perature
o f sea surface at 50°N latitu d e and the
tem perature at the depth o f 7 0 0 -8 0 0 m was
the sam e as it w as at the su rface at 60°N
latitude. T able 4.3 rev eals th ese trends.

Table 4.3 : Comparison o f Temperature at Sea Surface at Different Depths

L atitudes (N ) 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70

Surface T em perature (°C) 26.88 25.60 23.90 20.30 12.94 8.94 4.26
D epth at 7.30°N (m eters) 0 100 200 400 800 1000
T em perature (°C) 26.86 18.57 10.71 7.70 5.13 4.81

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PH Y SIC A L PROPERTIES OF OCEAN WATER
The areas from w here sea surface w ater is
driven aw ay by offshore w inds resulting
into u p w elling o f w ater from below record
low tem p eratu re at sea surface and thus the
rate o f d ecrease o f tem perature with
increasing depth becom es low. C ontrary to
this, th e areas w here there is pilling o f sea
w ater b ecau se o f onshore w inds, record
relativ ely high tem perature at sea surface
and thus the rate o f decrease o f tem perature
w ith in creasin g depth becom es rapid.
>■ In som e areas high tem perature is recorded
at g re a ter depths e.g. in Sargasso Sea, R ed
Sea, M ed iterran ean Sea, Sulu Sea etc. The
M ed iterran ean Sea records 24.4°C at the
depth o f 1,829m w hereas the Indian O cean
has o n ly 1.1 °C tem perature at the sam e
depth. Such anom alous conditions are
n o tic e d in the enclosed seas o f low
latitu d es. T he enclosed seas o f high lati­
tudes reg ister inversion o f tem perature i.e.
the tem p eratu re o f sea surface is low er than
the tem p eratu re below .
>- T h e re is clear-cu t leyered therm al structure
o f o cean w ater. V ertically the oceans are
d iv id e d into 3 layers from the stand point
o f th e rm a l conditions o f seaw ater, in the
lo w e r an d m iddle latitudes as follow s :
(1) T h e up p er layer represents the top-
la y e r o f w arm w ater m ass w ith a
th ic k n e ss o f 500 m eters w ith average
te m p e ratu re ran g in g betw een 20°C to
25°C . T his lig h ter ocean w ater m ass
flo ats o v e r the thickest heavy w ater
m ass o f the oceans extending upto the
o cean bottom s. T his layer is p resen t
w ith in the tro p ics th roughout the year
bu t it d e v elo p s in m id d le latitudes only
d u rin g su m m e r season.
(2) The lower layer extends beyond 1000m
depth upto the ocean bottom s. This
layer is very cold and represents
denser ocean water m ass.
(3) The upper and low er ocean water
m asses are separated by a transitional
zo n e o f rapid change o f temperature
w ith increasing depth. This zone o f
105
ocean w ater m ass is called therm odine
which extends betw een 300m-1000m
depth. 1
B esides, there are seasonal therm odines
betw een the depth o f 40m and 100m.
These seasonal th e rm o d in e s are formed
due to heating o f w ater surface through solar
radiation during sum m er season. T here are also
diurnal therm odines w hich form in shallow w ater
depth usually less than 1 0-15m. T he polar seas
have only one layer o f cold w ater m ass from the
ocean surface (sea level) to the deep o cean floor.
4.3 DENSITY OF OCEANS
Meaning and Significance
D ensity refers to the am ount o f m ass per
unit volum e o f substance. It is u su ally m easu red in
gram (am ount o f m ass) p er cubic cen tim eter o f
volum e and is expressed g/cm 3. T he d en sity o f
pure (distilled) w ater is 1.00 g /cm 3 at the
tem perature o f 4°C. The den sity o f pure w ater is
taken as standard for the m easu rem en t o f density
o f other substances. Since the seaw ater carries a
few dissolved substances such as salt in it, its
density is slightly hig h er than th at o f pure w ater.
In fact, the average density o f sea w ater is
1.0278g/cm 3 (1.02677 g/cm 3) w h ich is 2 to 3
percent higher than the density o f p u re w ater
(1.00g/cm 3) at 4°C tem perature. T h e d en sity o f
seaw ater gradually increases w ith d ecreasin g
tem perature and h ig h est density is re c o rd ed at the
tem p eratu re of-1.3°C .
It m ay be m en tio n ed th at it becom es
cum bersom e and u n p racticab le to use density
value upto 5 d ecim al p o in ts and h en ce sig m a t (a t)
value is d eriv ed to sim p lify the d en sity value as
fo llo w s :
1.02677 g lc n v _ 1 02677
l.OOOOOg/cm
Thus, the units (g/cm 3) have been removed.
In order to derive c t (sigm a value) first 1 is
substracted from 1.02677 and then the derived
value is m ultiplied by 1000 as follow s .
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 106
o t = (1.02677 - l ) x 1000
= 26.77
T he density is very im portant physical
property o f seaw ater because it determ ines the
d ynam ics o f ocean w ater i. e. w hether the seaw ater
w ill sink (subsidence and hence dow nw ard
v ertical m ovem ent o f seaw ater), or w ill float
(ex p ansion and hence horizontal m ovem ent)
depends upon its density. As per rule, relatively
lig h ter seaw ater (less dense seaw ater) floats and
m oves h orizontally, w hereas heavier seaw ater
(m ore dense w ater) sinks (dow nw ard m ovement).
T his is the reason that a person floats over
seaw ater having high salinity because salinity
in creases density o f seaw ater.
Controlling Factors of Density of Seawater
T he density o f seaw ater is related to the
follow ing 3 factors in one way or the other :
>- tem perature -» therm al expansion
>- pressure —> com pressive effects
>- salinity —» addition o f dissolved sub­
stances
(1) T e m p e ra tu re is the m ost significant
controlling factor o f density o f seaw ater. T em ­
perature and density o f seaw ater are, on an
average, inversely related i.e. higher the tem p era­
ture, low er the density, and low er the tem perature,
higher the density. In fact, seaw ater is heated
through insolation w hen m ore insolation is
received on the sea surface and hence seaw ater
expands. This phenom enon is called th e rm a l
ex p a n sio n due to insolational heating resulting into
low density. On the other hand, low tem perature
causes cooling o f seaw ater and hence th e rm a l
c o n tra c tio n resulting into decrease in volum e and
increase in d ensity o f seaw ater. Thus, w arm w ater
having large volum e but low density easily floats
on cold seaw ater o f less volum e and relatively
m ore density. It is sig nificant to point out that the
role o f tem perature in controlling seaw ater
density is m ore pronounced in low latitudes areas
(tropical and su btropical oceans), w hereas the
im portance o f tem perature in controlling seaw ater
den sity decreases polew ard. ‘T hus, a change in
tem p eratu re o f w arm , low -latitude w ater has
OCEANOGRAPHY |
about three tim es the effect on density o f an equal
change in tem perature occurring in colder, high
latitude w aters’ (Thurm an and T rujillo, 1999).
It is also im portant to note that tem perature
o f seaw ater below freezing po in t cannot increase
seaw ater density because at 0°C tem perature
w ater starts freezing w ith the fo rm ation o f ice
erystalls w hich do not allow the w ater m olecules
to com e closer and coalesce ra th e r th ey are kept
apart and hence few w ater m o lecu les are present
in per unit volum e (one cubic cen tim eter) o f
seaw ater. Thus, the seaw ater b eco m es less dense.
This is why ice floats in w ater. It is th u s apparent
that cooling effect on increase in th e seaw ater
density continues upto 4°C te m p e ratu re only.
Since there is less v ariatio n in te m p e ratu re of
seaw ater in p o lar areas, and h en ce th e role of
tem perature as con tro llin g fa c to r o f seaw ater
density is m inim ised.
(2) S alin ity is directly p o sitiv e ly related t
seaw ater density i.e. on an av erag e, seaw ater
density increases w ith in c re asin g salin ity and
decreases w ith d ecrease in salin ity . This is
because o f the fact that d isso lv e d salt in the
seaw ater b ecom es m ore d en se th an pure w ater. It
is also im portant to note th a t salin ity factor is
som etim es o ffset by tem p eratu re factor. Simi­
larly, som etim es tem p eratu re fa c to r is suppressed
by salin ity v ariab le. A s alread y described that the
density o f p u re w ater is 1.00g/cm 3 whereas
density o f sea w ater o f 4°C tem perature and
carry in g 35%o salin ity is 1.028 g/cm 3. This is why
fresh w ater flo ats o v e r sa lin e w ater. It may also
happen th at w ater w ith h ig h salin ity m ay He over
less salin e w a ter, i f th e te m p e ratu re o f high
salin e w a ter is m u ch h ig h e r th a n th e tem perature
o f u n d e rly in g c o ld less s a lty w a ter. T his is the
re a so n th a t in so m e a re a s o f tro p ic a l oceans and
seas h ig h sa lin ity w a rm w a te r m as o v erlies low
salin ity co ld w a te r m ass. T h is is b ecau se o f the
fact th a t g re a te r e v a p o ra tio n o f su rfa ce w ater o f
the o cean s and seas in tro p ic a l areas increases
sea w ater sa lin ity . T h u s su ch u n iq u e situ atio n o f
high sa lin ity s e a w a te r a b o v e an d low salinity
w a ter b elo w is c a u se d d u e to evaporation
factor.
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 PHYSICAL p r o p e r t ie s o f ocean w ater

. fable 4 .4 . R e latio nship betw een tem perature and density o f ocean water

T e m p e r a tu r e 0 10 20 25 30
(°C)
D e n s ity (g /c m 3) 1.0281 1.0270 1.0248 1.0234 1.0217

(3) P ressure is d ire c tly p o sitiv ely related to Increasing density

ocean w a te r d e n sity th ro u g h its com pressive effects, Increasing temperature -
seaw ater d e n sity in c re ase s w ith increasin g p re s­ 4 8 12 16 20 24
sure, and d e crea se s w ith d ecrease in pressure o f
High
seaw ater. It m ay be m e n tio n e d th a t unlik e air latitudes
seaw ater (ev en w ater) is not m uch com pressible,
rather ‘it is n e arly in c o m p re ssib le ’, and hence it 1000
exerts n eg lig ib le c o n tro l over seaw ater density.
1500
T hus, p re ssu re is co n sid ered as m inor factor o f
seaw ater density. T he effect o f pressure o f th ick 2000
w ater m ass on density m ay be observed only in
deep sea m ainly in deep sea trenches, but here too Q
<U. 2500
D
th e density o f seaw ater at the bottom o f trenches
3000
is o nly 5 p ercen t higher than that o f the sea surface A and B
area. 3500

Relationships Between Density, Temperature 4000

and Salinity

Fig. 4.11 : Variations o f seaw ater temperature with in­

A s sta te d above, d en sity o f seaw ater and
te m p e ra tu re are in v e rsely pro p o rtio n al i.e. if
te m p e ra tu re o f se a w a te r in creases, its density
d e c re a se s and v ice versa. It is ap p aren t from fig.
4.11 th a t te m p e ra tu re o f seaw ater sharp ly d e­
c lin e s fro m 2 00m depth to 1000m depth in low
la titu d e s a reas (tro p ic a l and su b tro p ic al re ­
g io n s), and th e re a fte r th ere is no v a ria tio n in
s e a w a te r te m p e ra tu re w ith in c re asin g d ep th
(cu rv e A in fig . 4 .1 1 ). O n th e o th e r h an d , th e re is
no c h a n g e in s e a w a te r te m p e ra tu re w ith in c re a s ­
in g d e p th in h ig h la titu d e s a re a s (p o la r
reg io n s, c u rv e B in fig. 4 .1 1 ). T h e zone o f sh arp
ch an g e o f s e a w a te r te m p e ra tu re (d e c re a se in
te m p e r a tu r e w ith in c r e a s in g d e p th u p to
1000m ) b e tw e e n 2 0 0 m a n d 1000m is c a lle d
th e rm o c lin e .
creasing depth in low and high latitudes areas .
Based on Thurman and Trujillo, 1999 .
C ontrary to seaw ater te m p e ratu re, th e d e n ­
sity o f seaw ater in creases sh arp ly w ith in creasin g
depth b etw een 200m and 1000m in low latitu d es
areas (curve A in fig. 4 .1 2 ) b u t in h ig h latitudes
areas (p o lar regions) th ere is no change in
seaw ater d en sity (fig. 4 .12) as is rev ealed by curve
B. T his zone o f 200m to 1000m d ep th ch aracter­
ized by sh arp ch an g e in d en sity o f seaw ater
(in crease in seaw ater d en sity w ith increasing
dep th ) in tro p ical and su b tro p ical regions is called
pycnocline (p ycno m eans den sity , cline m eans
slo p e o r g rad ien t). It is e v id en t from figs. 4.11 and
12 th at th e d en sity o f seaw ater and tem perature
are in v ersely p ro p o rtio n al in tropical and su -

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 108 OCEANOGRAPHY

tropical oceans. It m eans zones o f pycnocline and D ensity (g/cm 3)

th e rm o d in e are confined to the depth zone o f 1 .0 2 8 1 .0 2 7 1 .0 2 6 1.0 2 5
2 0 0 m -1 0 0 0 m in tropical and subtropical oceans i i i i
(figs. 4.11 and 4.12). Temperature (°C) "■3
0 4 8 12 16 20 24

300m
Increasing tem perature - 500 Thermodi
* Increasing den sity (g/cm 3) >■and
High 0 1 .0 2 8 1.0 2 7 1.026 1.025 Pycnoclin-
1000
S/L
latitudes
300m 1500
V Pycnocline
2000

? 2500

| 3000
o
3500 D eep w ater

& 2500 4000

3000 A and B 4500

3500 5000

Fig. 4.13 : Illustration o f the close relationship between

4000
seaw ater temperature and density. Based on
Thurman and Trujillo, 1999.

Fig. 4.12 : Variation o f seaw ater density with increasing

depths in low (tropical and subtropical re­
gions) and in high latitudes (polar) regions.
B ased on Thurman and Trujillo, 1999.
T he co in cid en ce o f th erm od ine and
p y c n o c lin e in the sam e depth zones denoting very
c lo s e relationship b etw een seaw ater density and
tem perature is d e a r ly seen in fig. 4.13 w herein the
sam e curve (A ) denotes decrease in seawater
tem perature and increase in ocean water density
w ith in creasin g depth from 2 0 0 m to 1000m depth.
S a lin ity d ecreases w ith increasing depth
b etw een the depth zo n e o f 2 0 0 m - 1000m in the low
latitudes region s w hereas it increases w ith in­
creasin g depth in h igh latitudes areas. Thus the
depth zo n e o f 2 0 0 m - 1000 m o f the oceans denotes
sharp ch an ge in ocean sa lin ity —> decrease in
s a lin ity w ith in crease in depth in the tropical and
su b tro p ical region s. T his zo n e o f sharp d eclin e o f
sea w a te r sa lin ity is ca lled halocline (sharp salinity
gradient). I f w e compare figs. 4 .1 1 , 12, 13 and 14
it becom es evident that salinity factor has little
control over seawater density atleast in the
tropical and subtropical oceans w hereas seawater
temperature em erges as the m ost potent factor o f
seawater density.
Density Stratification of Oceans
It is evident from the above d iscu ssion that
there are 3 layered structures i.e. 3 strata o f
seawater colum ns from sea surface to the ocean
bottom s as fo llo w s :
\
>■ surface layer o f lo w est density,
>- p ycn oclin e layer o f sharp density gradient,
and
>• deep or bottom layer o f h igh est but uniform
density.
(1 ) Surface layer represents the thin top
layer o f the o cean s ranging in thickness o f 100 to
■
- ••

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 p h y s i c a l pro perties o f o c e a n w a t e r
^__ Decreasing density
Increasing salinity (%0) — >
33 34 35 36 37
Fig. 4.14 : Relationships between ocean depth, seawater
.salinity and seawater density, and halocline.
Modified from Thurman and Trujillo, 1999.
200m. This layer is also called as photic zone which
is directly penetrated by solar radiation and hence
it is illum inated layer. This surface layer carries 2
percent o f total volum e o f ocean water. Because
o f therm al expansion o f seaw ater due to direct
insolational heating density becomes minimum in
this layer, in the tropical oceans but due to more
evaporation in the subtropical oceans, density
becom es a bit higher than the low latitude areas
because o f increased salinity consequent upon
more evaporation. Since this layer is subjected to
tem poral variations (diurnal, seasonal and an ­
nual) in the tem perature and salinity o f seaw ater
due to its (o f surface layer) direct contact with the
atmosphere and hence density in this zone is also
liable to tem poral variations. This zone is very
significant for m arine plants (phytoplanktons)
because this is the only zone w here there is
photosynthesis, through w hich phytoplanktons
prepare th eir food and becom e source o f food
energy to zooplanktons. E xtrem ely low tem pera­
ture due to least insolational heating o f sea surface
109
water in the polar regions cause higher density
than in the tropical and subtropical regions, with
the result dense w ater sinks in the polar oceans.
This is why there is no sharp density gradient in
polar oceans and hence there is absence of
pycnoclinc.
(2) Pycnocline lay er represents a transition
zone o f rapidly changing seaw ater density be­
tween low density upper surface (sea surface)
w ater layer (w ater mass) and high density deep
seaw ater below. In fact, pycnocline consists o f
two words, namely pycno, which m eans density,
and cline, which means slope or gradient. The
pycnocline layer is found betw een 300m -1000m
depth o f ocean water. As already stated pycnoline,
th erm o clin e (therm o, means heat, tem perature, and
cline, means slope or gradient, steep gradient o f
change o f tem perature o f seaw ater), and halocline
(sharp increase in salinity, salinity gradient)
occupy alm ost the same depth zones o f 300m -
1000m. Pycnoline layer is characterized by sharp
increase in seaw ater density, therm ocline layer
denotes sharp decrease in seaw ater tem perature,
and halocline indicates sharp increase in salinity
with increasing depth betw een 300m -1000m in
the tropical and subtropical oceans (figs. 4.11,
4.12, 4.13).
The Pycnocline layer carries 18 percen t o f
total volume o f ocean water. It is interesting to
note that the pycnocline layer coincides w ith the
thermocline layer o f the ocean w ater m ass in the
tropical and subtropical oceans w hereas it co in ­
cides with the halocline in the m iddle latitudes.
The pycnocline layer having high degree o f
gravitational stability stops vertical m ixing o f
ocean w ater m asses lying above and below it. It is
significant to note there is absence o f pycnocline
and therm ocline in the polar areas o f the oceans
because o f least insolational heating o f sea
surface due to receipt o f m inim um am ount o f
insolation. In fact, tem perature o f the surface
layer rem ains very low throughout the year, and
hence therm ocline and pycnocline are not devel­
oped.
(3) Deep lay er represents high density
w ater mass w hich extends from 1000m depth to
the ocean floor, and carries 80 percent o f total
volum e o f the ocean water. E xtrem ely low
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 OCEANOGRAPHY

no ... nf Isotherms, are th e im a g in a ry lin e s d ra w n on

the m ap s jo in in g p la c e s o f e q u a l te m p e ra tu re
tem perature in the polar “ p r a i s e ' in
co ntraction o f w ater a ^ o f h igh re d u c ed to sea lev el.
seaw ater density. T h'* ' ions „nd causes Photic /.one, T h e u p p e r 2 0 0 m d e e p w ater
density w ater mass o p » ^ ^ h e sinking lay er o f th e o c e a n s, w h ic h is d ire c tly p e n e tra te d
still high density o f deep latitu des causes by so la r ra d ia tio n , is c a lle d p h o tic z o n e.
o f high density seawater in U ^ la titu des photosphere, T h e b rig h t o u te r s u rfa c e o f the
undersea flow o f w a sut faee sun is c a lle d p h o to s p h e re b e c a u s e o f th e d o m i­
S T A - . ~ in the tro p ical n an ce o f p h o to n s.
J
regions. P y c n o c lin e , is a la y e r o f s e a w a te r m ass
b e tw ee n th e d e p th s o f 3 0 0 m - 10 0 0 m w h e re in th ere
4 .4 im p o r t a n t DEFINITIONS is sh arp c h an g e o f d e n s ity in th e v e rtic a l s e c tio n o f
seaw ater.
A b so rp tio n , refers to the retain in g o f a R e fle c tio n , T h e p o rtio n o f in c id e n t ra d ia tio n
portion o f incident energy (rad iatio n ) by a (e n e rg y ) re tu rn e d b a c k fro m a s u rfa c e o f a b o d y is
substance and its conversion into h eat energy called alb ed o , o r re fle c tio n c o e f fic ie n t o r sim p ly
(sensible heat).
re flectio n .
A p h o tic zo n e, represents
n o n -illu m in ated S a lin ity , is a m e a s u re o f th e q u a n tity o f
portion o f the oceans extending b etw een 200m d isso lv e d so lid s (s a lts) in th e o c e a n . It is m e a s u re d
depth to the ocean floor. in p a rt p e r th o u sa n d i.e. 0 /0 0 .
D en sity , refers to the am ount o f m ass per S c a tte r in g , re fe rs to th e p ro c e s s o f d iffu sio n
unit volum e o f substance, u su ally m easured in o f a p o rtio n o f in c o m in g s o la r ra d ia tio n in
gram p er cubic cen tim eter (g /cm 3). d iffe re n t d ire c tio n s b y p a rtic u la te m a tte r (d u sts)
H a lo c lin e , denotes sharp salin ity change in and m o le c u le s o f g a se s in c lu d in g v a p o u r in the
the v ertical section o f the oceans betw een 300m - atm o sp h ere.
1000m depth. S p e c ific h e a t, is th e a m o u n t o f h e a t w h ic h is
H y d ro lo g ic a l cycle, m eans a m odel o f ex ­ re q u ire d to in c re a se th e te m p e ra tu re o f o n e g ram
change o f w ater over the surface o f the earth from o f a su b sta n c e b y o n e d e g re e c e n tig ra d e . T he
oceans via atm osphere, continents, and b ack to sp ec ific h e a t o f w a te r is o n e c a lo rie .
the oceans.
Therm ocline, is th e la y e r o f o c e a n w a ter
In so la tio n , T he radiant energy receiv ed by b e tw ee n th e d e p th z o n e o f 3 0 0 m -1 0 0 0 m ch arac­
the earth and its atm osphere from the sun is called te riz ed b y sh a rp c h a n g e o f te m p e ra tu re in the
insolation. v e rtic al se c tio n o f se a w a te r.

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CHAPTER 5 : SALINITY OF SEAWATER
m ea n in g and derivations,
p rin cip les o f constant proportion,
c o m p o s itio n o f seaw ater,
so u r ce s o f o cea n salinity,
c o n tr o llin g factors o f salinity,
h orizon tal distribution o f salinity,
vertical distribu tion o f salinity,
s ig n ific a n c e o f salin ity,

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5.1 SALINITY : MEANING AND DERIVATION
S a lin ity o f th e ocean w ater sim ply m eans
the p re se n c e o f d isso lv e d salts in the seaw ater.
T he c h e m ic a l o c e a n o g ra p h ers define salinity in
m o re te c h n ic a l te rm s w h ile gen eral ocean o g ra­
phers an d g e o g ra p h e rs d escribe salinity o f
seaw aters in s im p le r w ays as follow s :
S a lin ity is d e fin e d as the ratio b etw een the
w eight o f th e d isso lv e d solid m aterials and the
w eig ht o f the sam p le seaw ater. G en erally , salin ity
is d efin ed as th e to ta l am o u n t o f solid m aterials in
gram s c o n tain ed in o n e k ilo g ram o f seaw ater and
is ex p ressed as p a rt p e r th o u san d (%o) e.g. 30%o
(m eans 3 0 g ram s o f sa lt in 1 0 0 0 g ram s o f
seaw ater).
It m ay b e re m e m b e re d th a t one o f the
fundam ental d iffe re n c e s b etw ee n pure w ater and
seaw ater is th a t th e la tte r co n tain s salt in d isso lv ed
form . T he fo llo w in g are th e b a sic featu res o f
salinity :
• S alin ity m e an s th e p resen ce o f d isso lv ed
solids (su b sta n c e s) in w ater.
• T he m a te ria ls m u st have the p ro p erties o f
so lid state.
5
SALINITY OF SEAWATER
• T he m a te ria ls (s u b sta n c e s o r s o lid s ) m u s t
have the p ro p e rty o f s o lu b ility in w a te r, i.e.
the so lid s m u st be in d is so lv e d s ta te in
w ater and n o t b e sim p ly su sp e n d e d .
• Salinity is no t o n ly c o n fin e d to s e a w a te r,
ra th e r it ap p lies to all w a te r o n th e e a r th ’s
surface. T hus, w h en w e m e a n s a lin ity o f
the oceans, w e m u st a lw ay s c le a rly m e n ­
tion as salin ity o f seaw ater.
F rom the v iew p o in t o f c h e m ic a l o c e a n o g ­
rap h ers salin ity is d efin ed as fo llo w s :
‘‘S a lin ity is the to ta l m a ss e x p r e s s e d in
g ra m s o f all the su b sta n c e s d is s o lv e d in o n e
kilogram o f seaw ater, w hen a ll th e c a rb o n a te h a s
been c o n verted to oxide, a ll th e b ro m in e a n d
iodine have been re p la c e d b y c h lo rin e, a n d a ll
o rganic co m p o u n d s h a v e been o x id iz e d a t a
tem p era tu re oj'480°C . “ (P. R. P in et, 2000).
Such tech n ical d e fin itio n o f sa lin ity w ith
ch em ical o v erto n e b e co m e s d ifficu lt an d cu m b er­
som e for g eo g rap h ers and h en ce se a w a te r sa lin ity
should be d efin ed in m o re sim p le te rm s ‘as th e
p resen ce o f to tal w eig h t o f d isso lv e d so lid s in
gram s in seaw ater p e r 1 k ilo g ram o f sam p le
se a w a te r’.
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 112
T h e a v erag e salin ity o f seaw ater is 3.5%
(p arts p er hun d red ) but it is alw ays m entioned as
35%o (p a rts p er th o u san d ) in o rd er to avoid
d ecim als.
A sim ple w ay to determ ine the am ount o f
sa lin ity in sea w ater is to evaporate one kilogram
o f se a w a te r and fin ally to w eigh the residue in
g ram s. F or ex am p le, if the w eight o f solids after
one k ilo g ram (1000 gram s) o f seaw ater is
e v a p o ra te d , is 30 grains, then the salinity o f
se a w a te r is d eriv ed and read as 30%o (30 gram s o f
sa lts in 1000 gram s o f seaw ater). T his m ethod o f
d e riv a tio n and d eterm in atio n o f seaw ater salinity
is o v e r-g e n e ra liz e d and lacks in accuracy because
th e c o m p o sitio n o f seaw ater varies both spatially
(v a ria tio n s in salin ity from one area to the other
are a) and tem p o rally (variations in salinity from
on e tim e span (daily, m onthly, seasonal and
y e a rly ) to the oth er tim e unit. Thus, the follow ing
a lte rn a tiv e m ethod is applied to determ ine salinity
o f seaw ater.
Principle of Constant Proportions
The chem ical analysis o f sam ples o f seaw ater
collected during the C hallenger Expedition by
W illiam D ittm ar revealed startling facts about the
com position o f ocean w ater. The analysis re ­
vealed the fact that though the am ount o f total
d isso lv e d substances in one kilogram o f sam ple
se a w a te r m ay change from place to place and tim e
to tim e (like 25%o, 30%o or 35%0) but the
p ro p o rtio n s o f m ajor constitu en ts o f dissolved
so lid s in sea w ater rem ain constant in all the
o c e a n s and seas. T his revelation led W illiam
D ittm a r to p o stu la te the ‘principle of constant
p ro p o rtions’ w hich states that :
‘The m a jo r d is so lv e d co n stitu en ts that
c o m p ris e th e s a lin ity o f s e a w a te r o ccu r n early
e v e r y w h e re in th e ocean in the exa ct sam e
p r o p o rtio n s , in d e p en d e n t o f sa lin ity. ’
Let us e x p lain this p rin c ip le . S uppose the
s a lin ity o f d iffe re n t o cean s and seas is 30%<>, 33%»,
40%o etc. T h is m ean s that there is spatial variation
in th e a m o u n t o f total d isso lv e d so lid s o f all
c o n s titu e n ts , but the p e rc e n ta g e (ratio or p ro p o r­
tio n ) o f d iffe re n t c o n stitu e n ts such as ch lo rid e
OCEANOGRAPHY
(Cl"), sodium (N a+), potassium (K+), calcium
(C a2+) etc. alw ays rem ain the sam e for the
afo resaid salin ity (3 0 % o , 33% o, 35%o and 37%,,)
Thus based on the ‘principle of constant
proportions’ c h lo rid e ion (Cl*) is m easured to
d erive chlorinity, w hich is the w eig h t o f chloride
ion in a sam ple seaw ater, say one kilogram of
seaw ater. W hy ch lo rin ity is used to determine
salinity? because ch lo rid e ion is the m ost domi­
nant c o n stitu en t o f salin ity an d is e asily measured.
It m ay be m entioned th at m e asu re m e n t o f chloride
ions in all the o ceans has rev e ale d th at it accounts
for 55.5 p ercen t o f the total am o u n t o f dissolved
solids in the o ceans o r sea w a ter w h ereas average
ch lo rin ity is 19.2%o (in one k ilo g ram o f seaw ater).
‘T h erefo re, by m e asu rin g o n ly the chloride
ion co n cen tratio n , the total sa lin ity o f a seaw ater
sam ple can be d e term in ed by the follow ing
re la tio n sh ip ’ (T hurm an and T ru jillo , 1999) :
S alinity (%0) = 1.80655 x c h lo rin ity (%o)
w here 1.80655 is the c o n sta n t
A verage ch lo rin ity o f all o cean s = 19.2%o
T herefore salin ity = 1.80655 x 19.2%o
= 3 4 .7 %0
S alin o m eter in stru m en t is u sed to measure
seaw ater salin ity very a cc u ra te ly , i.e. upto the
accuracy o f 0.003%o, o r even m ore.
The co n stan t 1.80655 is d e riv e d from
d ividing 1 by 0 .5 0 4 4 , w hich is the p ro p o rtio n o f
chloride ion in seaw ater h av in g 5 5.04 percent
co ncentration. It m ay be m e n tio n e d th at the actual
quotient com es ou t to be 1.S16S6 bu t it has been
com m only ag reed to have 1.80655 as a co n stan t to
derive ocean salinity.
Table 5 .1 : Chlorinity a n d salinity value
ch lo rin ity salin ity
(°/«o) ~(%o) : J
5 9 .0 3
10 1 8 .0 7
<• „ '
15 2 7 .1 0
20 3 6 . 13 j|
25 4 5 .1 6 S j
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SALINITV OF SEAWATER
5 2 COMPOSITION OF SEAWATER
Sea w a ter co n tain s a com plex solutio n o f
several m ineral su b sta n c es in d ilute form because
it is active solvent. T h e total am ount o f salt in
seaw ater is g ra d u a lly in creasin g because it is
brought from the land every y ear b u t the recent
findings h ave re fu te d th is b e lie f as average ocean
salinity has re m a in ed m o re or less co n stan t over
the past 1.5 b illio n years. S everal efforts have
been m ade to estim ate the to tal am ount o f salt in
113
the oceans and th e seas. T h e estim ates o f Joly,
M urray, an d C larke p u t the to tal salt in the oceans
and seas at 50 b illio n to n s, 5 b illio n tons and 2.7
b illio n tons resp ectiv ely . A cco rd in g to Joly if all
the salts o f all the oceans and seas are d ried up and
are spread o v er th e g lo b e th e se w ill form a 45.72
m th ick lay er and i f th ese salts are sp read only
over the land, th ese w ill form 152.4 m in th ick
layer I f all th e salts are re m o v e d fro m th e oceans
and seas, th ere w ill be fall in sea le v el b y 30.5
m eters.

Table 5 .2 : D issolved m aterials in sam ple seaw ater having 35%o sa lin ity (35 gram s in one kilogram o f
seawater) _______ ___________________________

M ajor constituents in %o (parts per thousand)

Constituents Concentration Ratio o f total constituents
(%0) (salts) in percent

19.3 55.04
Chloride (Cl')
10.7 30.61
Sodium (Na+)
2.7 7.68
Sulphate ( SO4- )
M agnesium (M g2+) 1.3 3.69

Calcium (Ca2+) 0.41 1.16

Potassium (K +) 0.38 1.10

Total 34.79%o 99.28%

minor constituents
(in part per million, ppm)
Gases
C onstituents C oncentration (ppm )
Carbon dioxide (C 0 2) 90
N itrogen (N 2) 14
Oxygen ( 0 2) 5
Nutrients
Silicon (Si) 3.0
N itrogen (N) 0.5
P h o sp h o ro u s(P ) 0.07
Iron (Fe) 0.002
O thers
B rom ine (Br) 65.0
C arbon (C) 28.0
Strontium (Sr) 8.0
Boron (B) 4.6

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 OCEANOGRAPHY
114
Trace elements
C oncentration
Constituents
(ppb, parts p er b illion)
60
Iodine (I)
2
M anganese (Mn)
0.03
L ead (P b )
0.03
M ercury (Hg)
0.005
Gold (Au)

Source : A d o p ted from T hurm an and T ru jillo , 1999

m e n tio n e d th a t the p ro p o rtio n o f v a rio u s elem ents

D ittm a r d u ring his C h allen g er E x p ed itio n
re m a in s c o n sta n t in s e a w a te r e v e ry w h e re though
in 1884 re p o rte d the existence o f 47 types o f salts
the to ta l sa lin ity m ay v a ry fro m p la c e to place.
in seaw ater out o f w hich 7 are m ost im po rtan t.
T he av erag e s a lin ity v a rie s fro m 33%o to 37%o in
S odium chloride or com m on salt is by far the m ost
d ifferen t o cean s an d sea s. T h e re are num erous
im p o rtant c o n stitu en t o f sea salt. T able 5.3
n u trien ts in the s e a w a te r w h ic h are u se d by living
rep resen ts the w eig h t o f salt in gram s p er 1000
m arin e o rg an ism s. T h e se e le m e n ts are silicon,
gram s (%o) and p e rc en ta g e s o f 7 im p o rtan t salts
n itro g en , and p h o sp h o ro u s. B e s id e s, a rsen ic , iron,
w ith a total salin ity o f 35%o as given by D ittm ar.
m an g an ese and c o p p e r a re a lso fo u n d in the
B esides salts, silv er, go ld and radium also sea w ater th o u g h in sm a lle r q u a n titie s. S alin ity is
o ccu r but in m in u te p ro p o rtio n in seaw ater. T hese m e asu re d b y E le c tric S a lin ity M e te r to the
elem en ts are 0.3, 0.006 and 0.0 0 0 ,0 0 0 ,2 m g p er
accu racy o f ± 0.003%o.
m etric ton or p a rt p e r th o u san d m illion. It m ay be

Table 5.3 : S ignificant salts in the oceans

Salts C oncentration P ercent

(°/oo) (% )
1. Sodium C hloride (Nacl) 27.213 77.8
2. M agnesium C hloride (M gc^) 3.807 10.9
3. M agnesium Sulphate (M g S 0 4) 1.658 4.7
4. C alcium Sulphate (C a S 0 4) 1.260 3.6
5. Potassium Sulphate (K2SO4) 0.863 2.5
6 . C alcium C arbonate (C a C 0 3) 0.123 0.3
7. M egnesium B rom ide (M gB r2) 0.076 0.2

Total 35.00%o 100.0%

5.3 SOURCES OF OCEAN SALINITY also a few m in o r so u rces. T h u s, o c ea n sa lin ity is

B asically , the m ost sig n ific a n t so u rce o f
sea w ater sa lin ity is th e c h em ical w e ath e rin g o f
co n tin e n tal ro c k s and tra n sp o rt o f w eath ered
m a te ria ls by th e riv e rs to th e o cean s b u t th ere are
d eriv ed from th e fo llo w in g th re e so u rces and
p ro c e sses :
• c h em ica l w e a th e rin g o f c o n tin e n ta l rocks
and th e ir tra n s p o rt b y th e riv e rs to the-
o cean s.

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' v> •"

SALINITY OF SEAWATER

• degassing by the earth i.e. undersea
volcanic eruption.
• atm osphere and biological interactions.
R iver ru n o ff is the m ost significant contribu­
tor o f seaw ater salinity. The continental rocks are
subjected to chem ical w eathering through differ­
ent processes, nam ely carbonation, oxidation,
solution, hydration, hydrolysis, chellation etc.
and w eathered m aterials containing different
dissolved substances (table 5.4) are carried by
surface ru n o ff and overland flow and are b rought
to the rivers w hich fin ally dum p these dissolved
m aterials into the oceans. B esides, rivers also
erode rocks o f th eir v alley s and thus carry ions o f
salts to the oceans. B efore d iscu ssin g th e im p o r­
tance o f riv er ru n o ff it is d esirab le to study the
difference in the p ro p o rtio n s o f d isso lv ed su b ­
stances in the riv ers and seaw ater (tab le 5.4).

Table 5 .4 : Comparison o f dissolved su b stances o f seaw ater a n d river runoff

Seaw ater River ru n o ff

Constituents
Ratio o f C on centratio n Ratio o f
Concentration
total %0 total
(parts per thousand)
constituents co nstituents
%0
(salts) in (salts) in

percent per cent

55.04 7.8 6.5

C hloride (C1‘) 19.3
30.61 6.3 5.2
S o dium (N aT) 10.7

7.68 1.2 9.3

S ulphate ( S O 4 - ) 2.7
3.69 / 4.1 3.4
M ag n esiu m (M g 2+) 1.3
0.4 1.16 15.0 12.4
C alciu m ( C a 2")
0.38 1.10 2.3 1.9
P otassium (K")
— — 58.8 48.7
C arb o n ate ( C 0 32 )
— — 13.1 1 0. 8
Silica (SiCK)
— ---- 1.0 0.8
N itrate ( N 0 3 )

calcium is c o n su m ed by m a rin e o rg a n ism s. T h is

S u rp risin g ly , th ere is a lot o f v ariatio n in the
asp ect is fu rth er e la b o ra te d a t th e e n d o f th is
c o m p o sitio n o f sea salt and riv e rin e salt as sectio n . A c co rd in g to an e stim a te th e w o rld riv e rs
calciu m su lp h a te c o n stitu te s 6 0 p e rc en t o f riv er carry 2.5 x 1015 to 4 x 1015 g ra m s o f d isso lv e d
salin ity w h ile so d iu m c h lo rid e d o m in ates in the su b sta n c es p e r y e a r in to th e o c ea n s.
salinity o f o c ea n as it a c c o u n ts fo r 77.8 p e rc en t
T h e sec o n d so u rc e o f s e a w a te r sa lin ity is
(table 5 . 3 ) o f to tal s e a w a te r sa lin ity . T able 5 . 4
v u l c a n i c it y in th e o c ea n s. It m ay b e re m e m b ered
reveals the fact th a t c a lc iu m (C a 2+) in the riv e r
th a t th e re is fre q u e n t v o lc a n ic a c tiv ity a lo n g the
w ater (1 5%o) is a b o u t 3 0 tim e s g re a te r th an the
d iv e rg e n t p la te b o u n d a rie s re p re se n tin g d iv e r­
calcium in se a w a te r ( 0 . 4 % o ) . R iv e r ru n o ff c o n ­
g en ce zo n e o f sea flo o r sp re a d in g a n d c o n v e rg e n t
tains only 2 p e rc e n t o f so d iu m c h lo rid e . T h is is
p la te b o u n d a rie s re p re se n tin g su b d u c tio n zo n e.
why som e s c ie n tists do n o t a c c e p t th e riv e r ru n o ff
T h e se u n d e rs e a v o lc a n ic e ru p tio n s sp ew c h lo rid e
as the m a jo r so u rc e o f s a lin ity o f the o cean s b u t it
an d su lp h a te w h ic h are a d d e d to th e o c e a n w ater.
m ay be p o in te d o u t th a t th e m a jo r p o rtio n o f

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116
T h e o th e r insign ificant s ° u rc e s o f s e a w a te r
saiinity include atmospheric and bio j js s o jve(j
C ertain g ases from the atm o sp h e
in ocean w ater and contribute to the increase m th
ocean salinity. C ertain b io lo g ical in teract.o r
also add som e sort o f salt in the oceans.
The addition o f salt in se a w a te r from
various sources is called s o u rc e or i n p u t . It m ay-be
m entioned that the w orld rivers and o th e r s o u ic e s
are regularly adding salts in the o cea n w a te r sin ce
the origin o f oceans about 3.4 b illion y ears b e fo re
present but there has been very in s ig n ific a n t
chang e in the salinity o f the o ceans sin ce the last
1.5 billion years. This clearly in dicates c o n s ta n c y
in the salinity o f the o cean s w h ich m e an s th ere
m ust be som e m e ch an ism o f re m o v a l (o u tp u t) ot
salts from the oceans. I f this m e c h a n is m w o u ld
have not been o p erativ e the o cea n salin ity w o u ld
have substantially increased by now . T h u s it
appears that there is annual b alan ce b e tw e e n input
o f salts in the o cea n s and o u tp u t (rem o v a l) ot salts
from the oceans. T h is state o f b alan ce o f input and
output o f salts in the o cean s is called ste a d y s tate
equ ilib riu m .
The outputs o f salts from the o ceans are
called sinks of ocean salinity, w hich include e v a p o ­
ration, salt spray by tidal surges from the oceans,
new basalts w h ich are extruded alon g the mid-
oceanic ridges due to div ergen t m o v e m en ts o f
plates and resultant sea floor sp read in g, a d s o rp ­
tion etc. T he new ly created basalts from the
undersea volcanic activity at the ocean floors and
along mid oceanic ridges co n su m e disso lved ions
o f m ag nesium , sulphate etc. The p rocess o f
ad so rp tio n involves sticking o f cations o f p o ta s ­
sium and m a g n esiu m to clay m inerals w h ich form
ferrom ang anese n odules w hich are then e m b e d ­
ded in the ocean floor. W hy certain d isso lv ed ions
o f calcium and carb o n a te b ro u g h t by the rivers in
ab undance in the oceans acc o u n t for rela tiv e ly
low proportion in the se a w a te r salin ity ? T h e
an sw er is that the salt ions b ro u g h t by the rivers
have long resid en c e tim e, u ltim a tely th e se arc
consum ed by certain m arine o rg a n is m s th ro u g h
organic p rocesses, and c ertain a m o u n ts are
extracted by inorganic processes. S uch e x tra c te d
salt ions are e m b ed d ed in s e d im e n ta ry d e p o s its o f
the ocean floors. T hus, the p ro p o rtio n o f c a lc iu m
OCEANOG
su lp h ate b r o u g h t b y th e riv e rs in to th e oceans
su b sta n tia lly re d u c ed .
‘T h e r i v e r - s u p p l i e d io n s ( o f s a lts) rem ain in
ocean w a te r fo r a lo n g tim e , b u t e v en tu a lly are
ex tra cte d by in o rg a n ic a n d o rg a n ic p ro c e sses and
b eco m e p a rt o f the o c e a n ’s s e d im e n ta ry record’
(P .R . P in e t, 2 0 0 0 ).
‘T h e d iffe re n c e in th e re la tiv e com position
o f so lu te s in s e a w a te r an d riv e r w a te r is a resu lt o f
the re s id e n c e time o f io n s ( o f s a lts ) in th e ocean,
w h ich is sim p ly th e a v e ra g e le n g th o f tim e that an
ion rem ain s in s o lu tio n th e r e ’ (P .R . P m e t, 2000).
It m ay be m e n tio n e d th a t th e re s id e n c e tim e (time
taken by an ion o f sa lt to re m a in in so lu tio n form
in w ater) o f c a lc iu m h as r e la tiv e ly lo w residence
tim e o f 8 x 106 y e ars b e c a u s e th is is c o n su m e d by
lim e sec re tin g m a rin e o rg a n is m s . It m ay be
m en tio n ed th at c a lc iu m s u lp h a te d o m in a te s in
riv er w ater. On th e o th e r h a n d , s o d iu m ions,
w hich d o m in ate in o c e a n w a te r h a v e relativ ely
long resid en ce tim e o f 2 6 0 x 106 y e a rs in the
oceans.
Table 5 .5 : Residence tim e o f certain constituents
o fse aw ater
Substances R e s id e n c e tim e (y ears)
C hloride (Cl ) 00
Sodium (Na^) 260 x 1 0 6
Potassium ( K 1) 11 x 10 6
C alcium (C a 2f) 8 x 106
5.4 CONTROLLING FACTORS OF SALINITY
T h ere is a w id e ra n g e o f v a ria tio n in the
spatial d istrib u tio n o f s a lin ity w ith in th e oceans
and the seas. T h e fa c to rs a ffe c tin g th e a m o u n t o f :
salt in d iffe re n t o c e a n s a n d se a s a re c a lle d as
c o n tro llin g fa c to rs o f o c e a n ic s a lin ity . E v ap o ra­
tio n , p re c ip ita tio n , in flu x o f riv e r w a te r, prevail*
ing w in d s, o c ea n c u rre n ts an d se a w a v e s, m elting
o f ice etc. are s ig n ific a n t c o n tro llin g facto rs.
It m ay be re m e m b e re d th a t th e re is spatial
v a ria tio n in to ta l s a lin ity (i.e. c o n c e n tra tio n o f .
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SALINITY OF SEAWATER
salts per unit w eight o f seaw ater, usually am ount
o f salts in gram in one kilogram o f seaw ater) b u t
the proportions o f d ifferen t co nstituents o f salin ­
ity do not change, as per ‘p rin c ip le o f c o n s t a n t
p r o p o r tio n ’ (alread y d iscu ssed in sections 5.1).
The factors and p ro cesses w hich affect spatial
distribution o f o cean salin ity are grouped into the
follow ing tw o c ate g o rie s :
>- factors th at increase ocean salinity, ex­
am ples: ev ap o ratio n , form ation o f ice.
>■ factors th at d ecrease ocean salinity, ex­
am ples : p recip itatio n , river runoff, m elt­
ing o f ice.
It m ay be m entioned that influx o f fresh
w ater from various source reduces seaw ater
salinity w hile ex tractio n o f w ater from oceans
through ev ap o ratio n and ice form ation increases
salin ity o f the oceans.
Evaporation
T here is direct positive relationship be­
tw een the rate o f evaporation and salinity e.g.
g reater the evaporation, higher the salinity and
v ice versa. In fact, salt concentration increases
w ith rapid rate o f evaporation. Evaporation due to
hig h tem perature w ith low hum idity (dry condi­
tion) causes m ore concentration o f salt and overall
salin ity becom es higher. For exam ple, salinity is
h ig h er n ear the tropics than at the equator because
b o th the areas record high rate o f evaporation but
w ith dry air over the tropics o f C ancer and
C apricorn. A ccording to W ust ( 1 9 3 5 ) the average
annual rate o f evaporation in the A tlantic Ocean is
9 4 cm to the north o f 4 0 ° N , 1 4 9 cm at 2 0 ° N and
1 0 5 cm n ear the equator (say thermal equator
w hich is at 5 ° N ) . Salinity is 3 4 .6 8 % o at 5 ° N and
m ore than 37%o at 2 0 ° N . E vaporation in the
southern A tlantic O cean is 1 4 3 cm (per year) at
1 0 ° S and only 4 3 cm at 5°S. In general, subtropical
high pressure belts and trade w ind belts record
rapid rate o f e v ap o ratio n w hich in creases
salinity but cloudy sky w ith high hum idity and
influx o f rain w ater (direct and through rivers)
lower dow n salinity in the equatorial belt. It may
be pointed o ut that salinity also controls evapora­
tion.
Ice Formation
F o rm atio n o f ice in th e h ig h latitu d es areas
o f the oceans in creases se a w a te r salin ity . It m ay
be n oted th a t th e fo rm atio n o f ice in th e oceans
requires e x tractio n o f se a w a te r and th e re after
freezing o f su ch w ater. W h en e v e r te m p e ratu re o f
seaw ater b eco m es at o r b e lo w free zin g p o in t,
w ater m o lecu les are re m o v e d fro m se a w a te r and
are frozen to form sea ice. T h u s, se a ice co n tain s
fresh w ater and o n ly less th a n 30 p e rc e n t o f
seaw ater salin ity w here w a ter free ze s to fo rm sea
ice. F or exam ple, i f the sa lin ity o f s e a w a te r o f a
part o f an ocean is 33%o, and i f th e se a w a te r
freezes and is changed to sea ice, it c o n ta in s o n ly
30 percent o f seaw ater salin ity o f 33%o, i.e. a b o u t
10%o only. It appears th a t th e sea ice c o n ta in s
m ostly fresh w ater. This re su lts in th e re d u c tio n o f
volum e o f fresh w ater in the oceans. T h is situ a tio n
causes increase in seaw ater salin ity . T h e o p p o site
process o f sea ice fo rm ation is m e ltin g o f se a ice,
w hich increases volum e o f fresh w a ter an d h e n ce
the salinity o f seaw ater is reduced.
Precipitation
P re c ip ita tio n is in v ersely re la te d to sa lin ity
e.g. higher the p recip itatio n , lo w er th e sa lin ity
and vice versa. This is w hy th e re g io n s o f h ig h
rainfall (equatorial zone) re c o rd co m p arativ ely
low er salinity than th e reg io n s o f low ra in fa ll
(sub-tropical high p ressure b elts). T he e x tra w a te r
in the tem perate regions su p p lied b y m e lt-w a te r o f
ice com ing from the p o lar areas in creases th e
volum e o f w ater and th erefo re red u ces .salinity. It
may be sim ply stated th at th e v o lu m e o f fresh
w ater in the oceans is in creased due to h eav y
rainfall and thus the ratio o f salt to th e to tal
volum e o f w ater is reduced.
Influx of River Water
Though the riv ers b rin g salt from ,the land to
the oceans but b ig and volu m in o u s riv ers p o m
dow n im m ense volum e o f w ater into th e oceans
and thus salin ity is red u ced a t th e ir m ou th s. F o r
exam ple, co m p arativ ely low salin ity is fo u n d n ear
the m ouths o f the G anga, the C ongo, th e N izer, the
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118
A m azon, the St. L aw rence etc. T he effect o f
in flu x o f riv er w a ter is m ore p ronounced in the
en clo sed seas e.g. th e D anube, the D n eister, the
D n e ip er etc. red u ce the salin ity in the B lack Sea
(18%o). S alin ity is red u ced to 5%o in the G u lf o f
B o th n ia due to influ x o f im m ense volum e o f w ater
b ro u g h t by the rivers. O n the other hand, w here
ev ap o ration exceeds the influx o f fresh river
w aters, there is increase in salinity (M editerra­
nean S ea records 40%o). T here is seasonal
v ariatio n o f surface salinity w ith m axim um and
m inim um ru n o ff from the land i.e. salinity
d ecreases w ith m axim um ru n o ff during rainy
season and increases in the season o f m inim um
runoff.
T he com position o f river w ater in term s o f
d isso lv ed substances i.e. ions o f salts, has been
show n in ta b le 5.4 w h e re in c a lc iu m
sulphate constitutes about 60 percent o f river
salinity.
Atmospheric Pressure and Wind Direction
A nticyclonic conditions w ith stable air and
high tem perature increase salinity o f the surface
w ater o f the oceans. Sub-tropical high pressure
belts represent such conditions to cause high
salinity. W inds also help in the redistribution o f
salt in the oceans and the seas as w inds drive away
m ore saline w ater to less saline areas resulting
into decrease o f salinity in the form er and increase
in the latter. In other w ords, in the areas o f
upw elling o f w ater less saline w ater m oves up
from below (and hence low salinity) w hereas the
areas w here w ater is piled up, salinity is in­
creased. For exam ple, trade w inds drive away
saline w aters from the w estern coasts o f the
continents (or eastern m argins o f the oceans) and
pile them up near the eastern coasts (or w estern
m argins o f the oceans) causing low salinity in the
form er area and high salinity in the latter. This is
why the G ulf o f M exico records 36%o to 37%o
salinity w hereas it is only 34%o in the G u lf o f
C alifornia. W esterlies increase the salinity along
the w estern coasts o f the continents w hereas they
low er the salinity along the eastern coast.
Som etim es, w inds m inim ize the spatial variation
in salinity.
■:W
OCEANOGRAP
Circulation of Ocean Water
O cean c u rre n ts a ffe c t th e s p a tia l d i s t r i h u - t |
tion o f salin ity by m ix in g se a w a te rs. E q u a to ria J P
w arm cu rren ts d riv e aw ay salts fro m th e w e ste rn
co astal areas o f th e c o n tin e n ts a n d a ccu m u late ^
them alo n g th e e aste rn c o a s ta l a re as. The high
salin ity o f the M ex ic a n G u lf is p a rtly d u e to this
factor. The N o rth A tla n tic D rift, th e ex ten sio n of
the G u lf Stream increases sa lin ity , along the
n o rth -w estern co asts o f E u ro p e . S im ila rly , salin ­
i t y is red u ced a lo n g th e n o rth -e a s te rn co asts of N.
A m erica due to co o l L a b ra d o r c u rre n t. O cean
currents h ave le a st in flu e n c e o n sa lin ity in the
e n c lo s e d seas b u t th o se m a rg in a l seas w hich have
c o m m u n i c a t i o n w ith o p e n sea s through wide
openings are c e rta in ly a ffe c te d by currents in
term s o f salin ity . F o r e x a m p le , the N o rth A tlan tic
D rift raises the sa lin ity o f th e N o rw e g ian and the
N orth Seas.
A cco rd in g to W u st s a lin ity is affe cted and
c o n t r o l l e d m ain ly b y 3 fa c to rs as fo llo w s :
• S alin ity is re d u c e d b y p re c ip ita tio n .
• S alin ity in c re a se s d u e to e v ap o ratio n .
• S alin ity v a rie s d u e to m ix in g o f w a ter o f
d ifferen t c h arac te r.
The facto rs and p ro c e ss e s w h ic h a ffe c t and
control ocean sa lin ity as e la b o ra te d m ay be
sum m arized in the fo llo w in g m a n n e r :
• S alin ity is re d u c e d d u e p re c ip ita tio n .
• S alin ity d e crea se s d u e to in flu x o f river
ru n o ff at th e riv e r m o u th s in th e oceans.
• S alin ity is re d u c e d d u e to m e ltin g o f sea
ice.
• S ain ity is in c re a se d d u e to e v ap o ratio n .
• S alin ity in c re a se s d u e to h ig h atm os­
p h eric p re ssu re an d a n tic y c lo n ic condi­
tions.
• S alin ity is in c re ase d d u e to freezin g o f
sea w ater and ic e fo rm a tio n in high
latitu d es.
• S alin ity v a rie s due to m ix in g o f seaw ater
o f d iffe re n t ch arac te r.
• O cean cu rre n ts an d p re v a ilin g w inds
cause sp atial v a ria tio n in s e a w a te r salin-
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SALINITY OF SEAWATER
ity. B e s id e s , t h e y a l s o h e l p in t h e m i x in g
o f s e a w a te r s a lin ity .
There are also tem p o ral variatio n s
s e a w a te r salinity. T he oceans in the northern
hem isphere record m ax im u m and m inim um sa lin ­
ity during June (in creased ev ap o ratio n ) and
D e c e m b e r (low ev ap o ratio n ) respectively.
5.5 DISTRIBUTION OF SALINITY
The average salin ity in the oceans and the
seas is 35%o b u t it sp atially and tem p o rally varies
SEA-SURFACE SAL8INITY (%o) IN AUGUST
Fig. 5 .1 : Horizontal (latitudinal) distribution o f surface salinity o f seawater.
Horizontal Distribution of Seawater Salinity
Horizontal distribution o f surface salinity
o f seawater at w orld lev el is studied in relation to
latitudes but regional distribution o f seawater
salinity in terms o f individual ocean s and seas is
119
in d ifferen t o cean s, seas, and lakes. T he variation
in salin ity is b o th h o riz o n ta l and v ertical (w ith
d epth). S alin ity also v aries fro m en clo sed seas
in th ro u g h p artia lly c lo sed seas to o p en seas. Thus,
the sp atial d istrib u tio n o f salin ity is stu d ied in tw o
w ays e.g. (1) h o riz o n ta l d istrib u tio n , and (2)
v ertical d istrib u tio n . F ig. 5.1 sh o w s g en eralized
picture o f h o riz o n ta l (la titu d in a l) d istrib u tio n o f
su rface salin ity o f seaw ater.
• h o rizo n tal o r su rfa ce sa lin ity v a ria tio n .
• v ertical o r d ep th sa lin ity v a ria tio n .
eq u ally im p o rtan t in o c ea n o g ra p h y fo r d iffe re n t
p u rp o se s, n am ely d e sa lin iz a tio n o f se a w a te r fo r
d o m estic p u rp o ses. B esid es th e stu d y o f p a tte rn s
o f sp atial d istrib u tio n o f se a w a te r sa lin ity in
in d iv id u al o cean s su ch as th e P a c ific , A tla n tic and
In d ia n O cean s, th e p a tte rn s o f sp a tia l d istrib u tio n
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 OCEANOGRAPHY.

120 m zone (10° to 20° la titu d e s Oft

E q u a to r ia l
o f salin ity o f seaw ater in enclosed seas, e i t h e r o f th e e q u a to r) o f re la tiv e ly low
s i d e

en clo sed seas, and open seas is also c
Latitudinal Distribution of Seawater Salinity
O n an average, salin ity decreases from
eq u ato r tow ards the poles. It m ay b e m entio n ed
that th e highest salin ity is seld o m reco rd ed n e a
th e eq u ato r though this zone records hig h tem
p eratu re and ev ap o ratio n b u t h ig h ra in fa ll red u ces
the relative p ro p o rtio n o f salt. T hus the eq u ato r
accounts fo r only 35% o salin ity . The h ig h e st
salin ity is o b serv ed b etw een 2 0 M 0 N ( 3 6 / o o )
because this zone is ch arac te riz ed by hig h
tem p erature, h ig h ev ap o ratio n b u t sig n ific a n tly
low rain fall. T he av erag e sa lin ity o f 3 5 /oo is
reco rd ed b e tw ee n 1 0 ° - 3 0 0 la titu d e s in the so u th ­
ern h em isp h ere. T h e zone b etw ee n 4 0 ° - 6 0 °
latitu d es in b o th the h e m isp h ere s reco rd s low
salin ity w h ere it is 31% o and 33% o in the n o rth e rn
and the so u th ern h e m isp h ere s re sp ec tiv e ly . S a lin ­
ity fu rth er d ecreases in the p o la r zones b ecau se o f
in flu x o f m e lt-w a te r. O n an av erag e, the n o rth e rn
and th e so u th ern h e m isp h ere s re c o rd av erag e
salin ity o f 34% o an d 35% o re sp ec tiv e ly .
O n th e b a sis o f la titu d in a l d istrib u tio n o f
su rface sa lin ity o f o cean w a te r (fig. 5.2) 4 zo n es o f
o cean salin ity m ay be id e n tifie d as fo llo w s :
Temperature
sa lin ity , w h ic h is d u e to e x c e ssiv e rainfall.
(2 ) T r o p i c a l z o n e (2 0 °-30°N a n d S latitu d es)
m a x im u m s a lin ity d u e to lo w ra in fa ll, high
e v a p o ra tio n an d h ig h a tm o s p h e ric pressun
c a u se d b y s u b sid e n c e o f a ir (an ticy clo n i
c o n d itio n ).
(3) T e m p e r a te zone o f lo w s a lin ity .
(4) S u b - p o l a r a n d p o l a r z o n e o f m in im u m salin­
ity d u e to n e g l i g i b l e e v a p o ra tio n , more
m e lt w a te r etc.
It is a p p a re n t fro m fig . 5 .2 th a t there is
in v e rse re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n te m p eratu re and
su rfa c e s a lin ity o f s e a w a te r in th e equatorial zone
b u t p o s itiv e re la tio n in th e h ig h latitudes.
It m ay b e p o in te d o u t th a t th e m arginal areas
o f th e o c ea n s b o rd e rin g th e c o n tin e n ts have lower
sa lin ity th a n th e ir c e n tra l p a rts b e c a u s e freshw a­
te r is a d d e d to th e m a rg in a l a re a s th ro u g h the
riv e rs. T h e s a lin ity v a rie s in th e o p en seas
a c c o rd in g to th e la titu d e s th o u g h it d ep en d s on the
o c e a n c u rre n ts b u t th e re is n o c o n tro l o f latitudes
o n th e d is trib u tio n o f s a lin ity in th e in la n d seas.
S a lin ity o f p a rtia lly e n c lo s e d se a s in th e higher
la titu d e s is s e ld o m c o n tro lle d b y la titu d e s rather it
d e p en d s o n in flu x o f m e lt w a te r. T h is is w hy the
B altic S e a re c o rd s c o m p a r a tiv e ly lo w e r salinity
th a n th e N o rth S e a th o u g h th e la titu d in a l extent of
b o th th e se a s is th e s a m e . T a b le 5.6 presents
la titu d e -w is e d is trib u tio n o f o c e a n ic salinity ®
b o th th e h e m is p h e re s .

Table 5 .6 : L a titu d in a l d istrib u tio n o f surfac*]

salinity

N o rth e rn H e m isp h e re
L atitu d in al zones S alin ity (%o)
7 0 °- 50° 3 0 -3 1
5 0 ° -4 0 ° 3 3 -3 4
4 0 ° -1 5 ° 35 - 36
1 5 °- 10° 34.5 - 35
North Latitude South S o u th ern H e m isp h e re
1 0 ° -3 0 ° 3 5 -3 6
30° - 50° 3 4 -3 5
Fig. 5.2 : Latitudinal distribution o f surface salinity o f
seawater. Source: Thurman and Trujillo, 1999. 50° - 70° 33 - 34

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 salin ity o f s e a w a t e r 121
Regional Distribution of Surface Salinity Just to the south o f high salinity zone (betw een 15°
- 2 0 ° S ) in the southern P acific as referred to above
R e g io n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s u r f a c e s a l i n i ty o f
(3 6 % o ) it becom es low along the Peruvian and
seaw ater is c o n s i d e r e d in th e f o l l o w i n g tw o
C hilean coasts (3 3 % o ). Low salin ity is noted
infront o f riv er m ouths (Y ellow R iv er = 3 0 % o , and
w a y s:
Y angtzekiang = 3 3 % o ).
> s a lin ity d i s t r i b u t i o n in i n d i v id u a l o c e a n s ,
and
>» s a lin ity z o n e s o f a ll th e o c e a n s to g e th e r .
Jenkins has divided the oceans and seas on
the basis o f variations in surface salinity into 3
categories as follow s :
(1) Seas h a v in g salinity ab ove n o rm a l —(a) Red
Sea ( 3 4 - 4 l% o ), (b ) Persian G u lf (3 7 - 3 8 % o ) ,
and (c ) M editerranean Sea (3 7 - 3 9 % o ) .
( 2 ) Seas h a v in g n o rm a l salinity —(a) C aribbean
Sea and G u lf o f M exico (3 5 - 3 6 % o ) , (b)
B ass Strait (3 5 .% o ), and (c) G u lf o f
C alifornia ( 2 5 - 3 5 . 5% o).
( 3 ) Seas h aving salinity below no rm al —(a) Slightly
less; (i) A rctic O cean ( 2 0 - 3 5% o), (ii) N orth
A ustralian Sea (3 3 - 3 4 % o ), (iii) B ering Sea
(2 8 - 3 3 % o ) , (iv) O khotsk Sea (3 0 - 3 2 % o ) , (v)
Japan Sea (3 0 - 3 4 % o ) , (vi) C hina Sea ( 2 5 -
3 5 % o ), (vii) A ndm an Sea (3 0 - 3 2 % o ), (viii)
N orth Sea ( 3 l- 3 5 % o ), (ix) English Channel Fig. 5. 3 : Horizontal distribution o f salinity in the P a ­
( 3 2 - 3 5 % o ) , and (x) G u lf o f St. Lawrence cific Ocean.
( 3 0 - 3 2 % o ) ; (b) M uch below : (i) B altic Sea
( 3 2 - 1 5% o ), (ii) H udson B ay ( 3 - 1 5% o).
Salinity Variation in the Atlantic Ocean
Salinity Variations in the Pacific Ocean
The average salin ity o f th e A tla n tic O cean
T here is w ide range o f salinity difference in is 3 5 .6 7 % o . The h ig h est salin ity is n o t o b se rv e d at
the Pacific O cean because o f its shape and larger the equator rather it is reco rd ed b etw een 15° - 20°
areal extent (fig. 5 . 3 ) . S alinity rem ains 3 4 .8 5 % o latitudes. Salinity reco rd ed at 5 ° N , 15°N a n d 15°S
near the equator. It increases to 35% o betw een 1 5 ° as 3 4 .9 8 % o , 3 6% o and 3 7 .7 7 % o re sp ec tiv e ly in d i­
- 20° latitudes in the northern hem isphere but it cates increasing trend o f salin ity fro m e q u ato r
becomes still h ig h er (3 6 % o ) in the southern Pacific tow ards the tropics o f C an cer and C ap rico rn . T h e
Ocean betw een the sam e latitudes. S alinity again central zone o f the N o rth A tlan tic O cean lo cated
decreases further n o rth w ard in the w estern parts betw een 20°N and 30°N and 20°W - 60°W reco rd s
o f the Pacific w here it becom es 3 1 % o in the m axim um salin ity (3 7 % o ) and it g ra d u a lly d e ­
Okhotsk Sea and 3 4 % o n ear M anchuria because o f creases fu rth er n o rth w ard but w ith v ary in g tren d s.
influx o f m elt w ater b ro u g h t by the O yashio T he eastern m arg in al areas o f th e N o rth A tlan tic
current com ing from the B ering S trait and due to bey o n d 40° latitu d e reco rd c o m p arativ ely h ig h e r
weakening o f K uroshio w arm current. S alinity salin ity than the w estern m arg in (east A m erican
also decreases along the C alifornian, M iddle co ast) because the G u lf S tream c arrie s salin e
American and Peruvian C oasts due to tran sfer o f w ater from the A m erican co ast to th e n o rth ­
water and upw elling o f cold w ater from below . w estern E uropean coast. M ax im u m sa lin ity o f

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 |P
OCEANOGRAPHY
122
hand, records low salinity due to influx o f river;
37%o in the southern Atlantic is found in B " 8 ^ " water. Further northw ard sa lin ity co n tin u es to
demarcated by 12<*S-200S lati t u t o a n d j o w
d ecreases as it b e c o m e s 7 to 8%o around Rugen
15°W longitudes. Salinity, there®^ ’ * f 5A
Island. It b e c o m e s as lo w as 2%o in the G ulf 0|
decreases southward. It is appare margin
t h salinity is higher along the western margin
a t B othn ia due to in flu x o f fresh w ater. S a lin ity o f g
to 1 l%o is recorded to th e so u th o f S w e d e n (around
B orn holm in B a ltic S ea ). T h e Mediterranean Sea
VW
kVW
WVW
WW
WV'’""'"""
""'' records h ig h sa lin ity d u e to ev a p o ra tio n and little
w vsvvvvw "'
.V W W W W 'V 'V m ixture o f A tla n tic w ater. S a lin ity in crea ses from
/Uv'vVSVNV
ftNWWW\XWW'w'VW^ the w estern part o f th e Sea
M ed iterran ean
N. America
( 3 6 . 5 % o ) to the eastern part ( 3 9 % o ) but it is
WWW""'"’
rem arkably red u ced to 1 7 -1 8%0 in the B la ck Sea
due to enorm ous v o lu m e o f fresh w a ter brought by
the D n eip er, the D a n u b e etc. T here is h igh salinity
in the G u lf o f M e x ic o ( 3 6 % o ) and the Caribbean
Sea due to m ore sa lin e w ater b rou gh t by the north
equatorial current.

Salinity V ariations in the Indian Ocean

The spatial d istribu tion o f sa lin ity in the

Indian O cean is m ore variab le and c o m p le x than
the P a cific and A tla n tic o c e a n s. A n average
salin ity o f 3 5 % 0 is fou nd b e tw e en 0 ° - 1 0 ° N but it
gradually d ecrea ses northw ard in the B a y o f
B en g a l ( 3 3 . 5 % o at 1 0 ° N lat to 3 0 % o at th e m o u th o f
the G anga) b eca u se o f in flu x o f im m en se volu m e
o f freshw ater brought b y the G anga river. O n the
other hand, the A rabian S ea record s higher
sa lin ity ( 3 6 % 0) than the B a y o f B e n g a l because
Fig. 5.4: there is high er rate o f ev a p o ra tio n due to
Horizontal distribution o f salinity in the Atlan­
tic Ocean. rela tiv ely le ss hum id co n d itio n s and lo w influx o f
freshw ater as com pared to the B a y o f B en g a l. The
w estern co a st o f A u stralia records h ig h er salinity
W h h M la n ™ h ^ rg m b 'f 1 0 ° ' 3 0 0 in th e due to dry w eather. T he p artially e n c lo se d seas
al™8 the African coast J?Welling. o f water have high er sa lin ity e.g. it is 37%o at the head and
40%° in the interior o f th e P ersian G ulf. T he Red
3 ° ,r t : r of t , S ea r eco rd s th e h ig h e s t s a lin ity (v a ry in g
etw een 36%0 and 41%0 in its d ifferen t parts)
eca u se o f lo w p recip ita tio n and v ery high
evaporation. ’
o f the Atlantic Oceans. The N m h y0enclosed s ^as
^ location i„ higher l a ' f e S in ^ of It m ay be m en tio n ed that spatial distribu-
ion of surface sa lin ity o f the o c ea n s and the seas
salinity due to more saline water K CCords 34%0
Is ^ePresented by isohalines w h ic h are the lin es that
North Atlantic Drift. B a ltic T e a o T f t by tho
P^a ces ° f equal sa lin ity at the sea surface
(on the m ap). - M

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': 7•

123
SALINITY OF SEAWATER
Vertical Distribution of Salinity

N o d efin ite trend o f d istrib u tio n o f salinity

w ith depth can be sp elt o u t because b oth the trends
o f increase and decrease o f salin ity w ith in creas­
ing depths h ave been observ ed . F or exam ple,
salinity at the sou th ern b o u n d ary o f th e A tlan tic is
3 3% o at the su rface b ut it in creases to 3 4 .5 % o at the
depth o f 2 0 0 fathom s ( 1 2 0 0 feet). It fu rth er
increases to 34.75% at the d ep th o f 6 0 0 fath o m s.
On the other hand, su rface salin ity is 3 7 % o at 2 0 ° S
latitude but it decreases to 3 5 % o at g re a te r depth.
The follow ing ch aracteristics o f v e rtic al d is trib u ­
tion o f salin ity m ay be stated :
S alinity increases w ith in c re asin g d ep th
from 300 m eters to 1000 m eters in h ig h
latitudes i.e. th ere is p o sitiv e re la tio n sh ip
b etw een the am o u n t o f salin ity a n d d ep th
because o f d en ser w ater b elo w (fig . 4 .1 4 ,
c h ap ter 4) but salin ity b e co m e s m o re o r
less co n stan t b ey o n d 1000 m dep th .
>- Salinity d ecreases b etw een th e d ep th z o n e
o f 300 m eters to 1000 m e te rs in th e lo w
latitudes (fig. 4.1 4 , c h ap te r 4 ) b u t it
Fig. 5.5 : Horizontal distribution o f salinity in the In­ becom es m ore o r less c o n sta n t b e y o n d
dian Ocean. 1000 m depth.
>- It appears from the above m e n tio n e d tre n d s
o f v ertical d istrib u tio n o f sa lin ity th a t th e re
Salinity Variations in Inland Seas and Lakes is rapid rate o f ch an g e o f sa lin ity (b o th
increase and d ecrease) in th e d ep th z o n e o f
T he am ount o f salt in the inland seas and 3 00m -1000m . T his zo n e o f steep g ra d ie n t
lakes is c o n tro lled by the rate o f evaporation, o f salin ity (fig 4 .1 4 , c h a p te r 4 ) is c a lle d
tem perature, influx o f riv e r w ater and the p re s­ halocline.
ence or absence o f outlets. W herever a river S alin ity is low at the su rface at th e e q u a to r
com es o ut o f a lake or inland sea, salin ity is due to high ra in fall and tra n s fe r o f w a te r
th ro u g h e q u ato rial c u rre n ts b u t h ig h e r
reduced b ecause salt is taken out o f the w ater
salin ity is n o ted b elo w th e w a ter su rfa c e . It
bodies by the river. The in flu x o f fresh w ater
again b eco m es low at th e b o tto m . M ore
brought by the riv e r into the lakes and inland seas stu d ies and d ata o f salin ity d istrib u tio n at
also low ers dow n the salinity. F o r exam ple, low re g u la r d ep th s in d iffe re n t o cean s and seas
salinity o f the n o rth ern p art o f C aspian Sea (1 4% o ) are req u ired so th at d e fin ite ch arac te ristic
is because o f ad d itio n o f eno rm o u s volum e o f featu res o f v e rtic al d istrib u tio n o f salin ity
water brought by the riv ers like V olga, U ral etc. m ay be d eterm in ed .
but it b ecom es as high as 1 7 0 % o in the southern »• M ax im u m salin ity is fo u n d in the u p p er
part i.e. the G u lf o f K arabugas. V ery high salin ity lay er o f the o cean ic w ater. S alin ity d e­
is found in G reat S alt lake (2 2 0 % o , U tah, U SA ), c reases w ith in creasin g depth. T h u s, the
Red Sea ( 2 4 0 % o ) , L ake V an ( 3 3 0 % o , T urk ey ), u p p er zone o f m ax im u m salin ity and the
lo w er zone o f m inim um salin ity is sep a
D ead Sea ( 2 3 8 % o ) etc.

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r a te d b y a tra n s itio n z o n e w h ic h is c a lle d as
halocline, o n an a v e ra g e ab o v e w h ich h ig h
s a lin ity is fo u n d in the low la titu d e s w h ile
lo w s a lin ity is fo u n d in th e h ig h la titu d e s. It
m a y b e re m e m b e re d th a t this sh o u ld n o t be
ta k e n as a g e n e ra l ru le b e ca u se th e v ertic al
d is trib u tio n o f s a lin ity is v e ry co m p licated .
»• It m ay b e m e n tio n e d th a t the d ep th zone o f
o c e a n s b e tw e e n 3 0 0 m and 1000m is
c h a ra c triz e d b y v a ry in g tren d s o f vertical
d is trib u tio n o f te m p e ra tu re (fig. 4.1 1 ,
c h a p te r 4 ), d e n sity o f se a w a te r (fig. 4.1 2 ,
c h a p te r 4 ), and sa lin ity o f o cean w ater (fig.
4 .1 4 , c h a p te r 4). T his zone is c h aracterized
b y ra p id ch an g e o f sea w ater den sity
(in c re a se in d e n sity w ith in creasin g depth
in lo w la titu d e s, b u t co n stan t high den sity
in h ig h latitu d es) and is know n as pycnocline,
w h ile th is zone rep resen ts rapid decrease
o f te m p e ra tu re w ith in creasin g depth upto
1000m in low la titu d es (fig. 4.11, ch ap ter
4 ), and is c alled as therm o dine. O n the
o th e r h an d , this zone, re p re se n tin g rapid
c h an g e o f salin ity (d ecrease in seaw ater
salin ity w ith in c re asin g depth in low
la titu d e s, an d in c re ase in sea w ater salin ity
w ith in c re asin g d ep th in hig h la titu d e s) is
kno w n as h alo clin e (fig. 4.14). It is
a p p aren t fro m fig. 4.13 (c h a p te r 4) that
th e rm o d in e and pycnocline rev eal opp o site
tren d s o f v e rtic al d istrib u tio n o f te m p e ra ­
tu re and d e n sity o f seaw ater, w hile fig.
4 .1 4 show s p o sitiv e re la tio n sh ip betw een
salin ity and d en sity o f seaw ater.
5.6 SIGNIFICANCE O F SALINITY
T he ocean sa lin ity has sig n ific a n t effects on
p h y sical p ro p erty o f sea w ater and o th er aspects o f
the o cean s as follo w s :
>- T he freezing and b o ilin g p o ints are greatly
affected and con tro lled by add itio n or
su b stractio n o f salts in seaw ater. T he salin e
w ater freezes slow ly in co m p ariso n to
fresh w ater. It is know n to all th at pure
w ater freezes at the tem p eratu re o f 0°C
freezing p oint. I f the salin ity o f seaw ater
becom es 35%o then it w ould freeze at the
OCEANOGRAF
te m p e ra tu re o f - 1.91°C . O n th e o th e r hand, |
th e b o ilin g p o in t o f sa lin e w a te r (se a w a te r)1
is h ig h e r th a n fresh w a ter.
>■ S a lin ity an d d e n sity o f s e a w a te r are posi­
tiv ely c o rre la te d i. e. th e sa lin ity o f seawater
in c re ase s its d e n sity b e c a u s e so lu te s (here
s a lts ) in w a te r h a v e g r e a te r atom ic
w e ig h t th a n th e m o le c u le s o f fresh
w a te r. T h is is w h y m a n is seldom
d ro w n e d in th e s e a w a te r w ith v ery high
salin ity .
>• E v a p o ra tio n is c o n tro lle d b y s a lin ity o f the
o cean s. In fa c t, s o lu te s (s a lts) in water
lo w ers the ra te o f e v a p o ra tio n in the
oceans. T h u s m o re sa lin e w a te r is less
e v ap o ra te d th a n le ss s a lin e w a te r. It m ay be
m e n tio n e d th a t e v a p o ra tio n a lso controls
salin ity o f se a w a te r. M o re evaporation
red u ces th e v o lu m e o f s e a w a te r and hence
the c o n c e n tra tio n o f s a lts in creases (i.e
se a w a te r s a lin ity in c re a s e s).
5=- S p atial v a ria tio n in p e a w a te r salin ity be­
co m es p o te n t fa c to r in th e o rig in o f ocean
cu rren ts.
T he o c ea n s a lin ity a ffe c ts the marine
o rg a n ism s an d p la n t c o m m u n ity .
5.7 IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
A dsorption : T h e p ro c e s s o f adsorption
in v o lv es stic k in g o f c a tio n s o f p o ta ssiu m and
m a g n e s iu m to c la y m in e r a ls w h ic h form
fe rro m an g a n ese n o d u le s w h ic h are th e n embeded
in the o cean floor.
C hlorinity : C h lo rin ity is th e w eig h t of
c h lo rid e ion in a sa m p le s e a w a te r, u s u a lly in one
k ilo g ram o f sea w ater.
H alo clin e : H a lo c lin e d e n o te s a z o n e ofsharp
salin ity ch an g e in th e v e rtic a l se c tio n o f tb®
o cean s b e tw e e n 3 0 0 m -1 0 0 0 m d e p th .
Principle of constant p ro p o rtio n : T h e princl*
p ie o f c o n sta n t p ro p o rtio n sta te s th a t ‘the major
d isso lv e d c o n stitu e n ts th a t c o m p rise the salinity
o f sea w ater o c c u r n e a rly e v e ry w h e re in the oceans
in the e x ac t sam e p ro p o rtio n , independent °*
s a lin ity ’. -■
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SALINITY OF SEAWATER
Pycnocline: P y cn o clin e is a layer o f seaw ater
mass betw een the d ep ths o f 3 0 0 m -1000m w herein
there is sharp ch an g e o f d en sity in the vertical
section o f seaw ater.
R e sid e n c e t i m e : T he re sid en c e tim e o f ions
(o f salts) in th e o cean s is sim ply the average
length o f tim e th a t an ion rem ain s in solution.
S a lin ity : S a lin ity is d efin ed as the ratio
betw een the w e ig h t o f the d isso lv e d solid m ateri­
als and the w eig h t o f sam ple seaw ater, usually one
k ilogram . It is e x p re ssed as p a rt per thousand
(%o).
S a lin o m e te r : Salinom eter is an instrum ent
w hich is used to m easure salinity o f seaw ater very
accurately i.e. upto the accuracy o f 0.003%o or
even m ore.
Sinks o f ocean salinity : The outputs (w ith­
draw al) o f salts from the oceans are called sinks o f
ocean salinity w hich include evaporation, salt
spray, new basalts, adsorption etc.
T h e r m o c lin e : T herm ocline is the layer o f
ocean w ater betw een the depth zone o f 300m -
1000m characterized b y sharp change o f tem pera­
ture in the vertical section o f seaw ater.
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 (X)

production, transportation and deposition o f m arine sed im en ts, 127

man's im pact on marine sedim ents, 128
factors o f marine sedim entation, 130
sources o f marine sedim ents, • : ^ ;- .. U 'tS w
m ode o f marine sedim entation, ; 132
classification o f marine sedim ents,. 133
lith ogen ic sedim ents, 134
volcan ogen ic sedim ents, b iogen ic sedim ents, , 136
hydrogenic sedim ents, 13g
classification o f ocean deposits, 139
distribution o f ocean deposits, 24^
> ’T . A T A /f n C D T J F D T ? C T A TMTTTT1 A P T T fW T C . . __________

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6.1 MARINE SEDIMENTS : NATURE AND SIG­
NIFICANCE
T he u n co n so lid ated m aterials, derived from
vario u s sources and d ep o sited at the ocean floors
are c alled m arine sedim ents, w hich include
w eath ered and eroded p articles o f rocks, frag ­
m en ts o f dirt, dust, volcanic ashes, rem ains o f
m arin e organism s, fragm ents o f m eteorites etc.
T h e settlin g o f m arine sedim ents on the ocean
flo o rs is called ‘marine snow fall’. B esides, the
b ro k en p arts o f sunken ships and boats through
ages have also becom e parts o f ocean floor
m aterials. T hus, the ocean floors are the repository
of sediments o f various sorts and d ifferen t tim e
perio d s and act as the library of the e a rth ’s geological
history.’ T he u n co n so lid ated m arine sedim ents are
lith ified due to tecto n ic activ ities and thus w e find
layered co n so lid ated m aterials on the deep ocean
floors. Such co n so lid ated m arine sedim ents are
called ocean deposits. In fact ocean deposits
includeds both loose and u n co n so lid ated m a te ri­
als lying on the ocean floors, and layered
co n so lidated sedim ents in the form o f sed im en ­
tary rocks. It m ay be m en tioned th a t m o st o f the
sedim entary rocks o f the earth are o f m arine
I
6
I
MARINE SEDIMENTS AND DEPOSITS
o rig in i.e. th e se w e re d e p o s ite d in th e o c e a n flo o rs
and th e re a fte r w e re fo ld e d a n d d e fo rm e d b y
tecto n ic m o v e m e n ts (p la te m o v e m e n ts ) fr o m tim e
to tim e. T hus th e stu d y o f m a rin e s e d im e n ts a n d
dep o sits in clu d es th e c o n s id e ra tio n o f n a tu re a n d
sig n ifican ce o f m a rin e se d im e n ts , th e ir ty p e s a n d
sources, p ro cesses o f th e ir fo rm a tio n , m e th o d s o f
th eir tra n sp o rta tio n , ty p e s o f o c e a n d e p o s its a n d
their horizontal distribution, lith o lo g ica l su c c e ssio n s
or v e rtic al v a ria tio n s in th e ir d is trib u tio n a n d
co m p o sitio n .
T h e sed im en ts d e riv e d fro m w e a th e rin g
and ero sio n o f c o n tin e n ta l ro c k s are tra n s p o rte d to
the o cean s b y riv e rs, w in d s, g la c ie rs (in h ig h
la titu d e s) etc. T h e se d im e n ts d e riv e d fro m w e a th ­
erin g an d e ro sio n o f c o a s ta l ro c k s b y s e a w av es,
tsu n am is, tid a l an d s to rm s u rg e s a re re w o rk e d and
tra n sp o rte d b y sea w a v e s. It m a y b e m e n tio n e d
th at the tra n s p o rta tio n o f m a rin e s e d im e n ts by sea
w av es is b i-d ire c tio n a l i.e. fro m th e co asts
to w ard s th e sea an d fro m th e s e a to w a rd s the
co asts.
T h e a n a ly sis o f m a rin e s e d im e n ts cores
d e riv e d th ro u g h d e e p d rillin g fro m th e o cean I
flo o rs p ro v id e s v a lu a b le c lu e s to th e o c e a n o g ra ­
p h ers to re c o n stru c t th e p a st g e o lo g ic a l and 1
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MARINE s e d im e n t s a n d d e p o s it s
tectonic history o f the earth. Thus, the study o f
marine deposits is geologically, biologically,
culturally and clim atologically very significant as
follows :
>► The analysis o f nature o f m arine sedim ents
in term s o f lithological succession, nature
and disposition o f sedim entary beds p ro ­
vides vital proxy data for deciphering the
tectonic history o f the earth, m ainly plate
m ovem ents.
»• The analysis o f sedim ents cores provides
vital clues (proxy data) to find out the
chronology o f palaeoclim ate. The nature
o f sedim ents and fossils o f m arine organ­
isms (both phytoplanktons and zooplanktons)
em beded in different layers o f sedim entary
deposits provide significant proxy data
w hich enable the geologists and clim atolo­
gists to find out the past clim ate changes
and sea level fluctuations.
>- The nature and patterns o f deposits o f
m arine sedim ents on the ocean floors give
clue to trace the variations in the flow
patterns o f ocean circulation m ainly o f
ocean currents.
>- T he analysis o f fossils o f m arine organism s
em beded in sedim entary layers enables the
b io lo g ists to trace the history o f evolution
o f m arine life and mass extinction o f
m arin e organism s.
B esides, the analysis o f m arine sedim ents
and deposits provides vital clues to the follow ing
• to assess the im pacts o f m eteorites on the
com position o f m arine sedim ents.
• to investigate the nature and frequency o f
subm arine volcanic eruptions and the
m aterials com ing therefrom .
• to u nderstand the nature and pattern o f
m ovem ents o f ocean floors (sea floor
spreading) that m ight have taken place in
the past geological history o f the earth.
• to ascertain the nature o f nutrients supply
to m arine organism s.
It m ay be subm itted th at the m arine
sedim ents and the ocean floors are significant
archives o f hum an culture and civilization,
science and technology because a large num ber o f
sunken ships and boats, subm arines and w arships,
w eapons o f various kinds, m issiles etc. in the past
centuries lying on the ocean floors have preserved
cultural w ealth o f hum ans. Sim ilarly, the ‘ancient
m arine sedim ents........are the inform ation high­
w ays into e arth ’s ancient past* (T hurm an and
Trujillo, 1999).
Thus, ‘the epic stories can be read from the
record that is preserved in the vast sedim entary
accum ulation on the sea bottom* (P.R . Pinet,
2000 ).
The proxy data and clues from the an cien t
m arine sedim ents about the aforesaid aspects m ay
be sum m arized as follow s :
>■ clues about tectonic history o f the earth and
plate m ovem ents,
>■ reconstruction o f palaeoclim ate,
»■ understanding flow pattern o f ocean w ater,
m ainly ocean currents,
»- evolutionary history o f m arine organism s,
»- im pacts o f m eteorites on the com position
o f m arine sedim ents,
>- nature o f undersea volcanic eruptions,
>■ nature and pattern o f m ovem ent o f ocean
floors i.e. sea floor spreading,
>- reconstruction o f palaeom agnetism ,
nutrients supply to m arine organism s,
»■ occurrence o f m ass ex tin ctio n o f m arine
organism s,
>- reconstruction o f sea lev el and clim ate
changes,
>• cultural heritage from th e sunken ships,
and bo ats etc.
6.2 PRODUCTION, TRANSPORTATION AND
DEPOSITION OF MARINE SEDIMENTS
T here are 3 m ain m echanism s o f the
production o f m arine sedim ents as follow s :
1. w eathering,
2. erosion, and
3. decay o f shells.
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, The continental rocks are weathered through
the processes o f disintegration and decomposition
S f s m a l l pieces. The weathered and w « t a » d
rocks are eroded by different a g e n c i e s o f d e n u d a
tion mainly by fluvial prcocesse^ Tte ero“ d
materials (sediments) brought to the oceans By
a r e
rivers. The average annual surface runoff of
40 000 km5 from the continents to the oceans
through the rivers transports about 15,000 million
to 20,000 million tonnes of sediments per year to
the oceans besides 4,000 million tonnes of soluble
m ate ria l in su sp e n sio n (A ke S u n d b o rg , 1963).
T he Y ello w (C h in a , 1640 m illio n to n n e s/y ea r),
the G an g a (In d ia an d B an g la d e sh , 1450 m illio n
to n n e s/y e a r), th e A m azo n (B ra z il, 850 m illio n
to n n e s/y e a r), th e B ra h m a p u tra (In d ia and B a n g la ­
d esh , 703 m illio n to n n e s/y ea r), the Y an g tze
(C h in a , 4 8 0 m illio n to n n e s/y ea r), the Indus
(P ak ista n , 435 m illio n to n n e s/y ea r), the M issis­
sippi (U SA , 300 m illion tonnes/year), the Irraw addy
(M y n m ar, 300 m illio n to n n e s/y ea r), the R ed
(S o c ia list R e p u b lic o f V iet N am , 130 m illio n
to n n e s/y ea r) etc. are th e sig n ifican t contribu to rs
o f sed im en ts to th e oceans.
T he g la ciers in th e hig h latitu d es also brin g
glacially e ro d e d sed im en ts in th e oceans. W ind
b lo w n sands and d u sts from the coastal lands and
h in te rla n d s are d ep o sited in the oceans.
T he d ecay an d d eco m p o sitio n o f skeleto n s
o f d ead m arin e o rganism s p ro v id e b io g en o u s
sedim ents to o cean re p o sito ry .
T he ero sio n o f c o astal ro ck s b y m arin e
w aves, tid a l and storm surges also pro d u ces
su b stan tial q u an tity o f sed im en ts w h ic h are
tran sp o rted b y th e sea w aves to the o cean flo o rs.
T he e ro d ed m a terials are tra n sp o rte d b y sea
w aves in d iffe re n t m an n er b u t th e tra n sp o rta tio n a l
w ork o f sea w aves varies sig n ific a n tly fro m o th er
agents o f ero sio n and tra n sp o rtatio n . F o r e x am ­
p le, th e b a c k w a s h , or u n d e r t o w c u r r e n t s (m o v in g
from the co ast and beach to w ard s th e sea) p ick up
the eroded m aterials and tra n sp o rt th e m seaw ard
b u t th e u p ru sh in g b r e a k e r w a v e s o r s u r f c u r r e n t s
p ick up th ese m a terials and b rin g th em b a c k to th e
co ast and beach es. T hus, the tra n sp o rta tio n o f
m aterials tak es p la ce fro m c o astlan d to w a rd s sea
an d fro m sea to w a rd s th e coast. W h en o b liq u e
w av es strik e th e c o ast, lo n g sh o re c u rre n ts are
g e n e ra te d . T h e s e lo n g s h o re currents transport the
m a te ria ls p a ra lle l to th e sh o re lin e . T h e material*
in v o lv e d in th e tra n s p o rta tio n b y sea w a v es
in c lu d e sa n d s, silts , g ra v e ls, p e b b le s , c o b b les and
so m e tim e b o u ld e rs . W h e n th e re is e q u ilib riu m
b e tw e e n in c o m in g su p p lie s o f se d im e n ts by
u p ru sh in g b re a k e r w a v es an d re m o v a l o f sed im en ts A
b y b a c k w a sh o r u n d e rto w c u rre n ts o n th e w a v e-
c u t p la tfo rm , a p r o f i l e o f e q u i l i b r i u m is a c h ie v e d . I f I
t h e w a v e -c u t ro c k p la tfo rm is c h a ra c te riz e d by
]
steep slo p e to w a rd s th e o c e a n ic s lo p e th e
d e stru c tiv e w a v es b e c o m e v e ry a c tiv e a n d th u s
re su lta n t p o w e rfu l b a c k w a sh re m o v e s th e m a te ri­
als fro m th e la n d w ard sid e so th a t th e s lo p e o f e
p la tfo rm is lessen ed . O n th e o th e r h a n d , i f th e
slope o f th e w a v e -c u t p la tfo rm is le ss ste e p ,
c o n stru ctiv e w av es b e co m e m o re e ffe c tiv e as th e y
fav o u r sed im en ta tio n an d b e a c h d e p o s itio n o n th e
lan d w ard side so th a t th e slo p e o f t h e p la tf o r m
b eco m es steep er. ‘T h e su rfa c e is th e re fo re c o n ­
tin u ally m o d ified , in su ch a w a y th a t a t e a c h p o m
it ten d s to acq u ire ju s t th e rig h t slo p e to e n s u re th a t
in co m in g su p p lies o f se d im e n ts c a n b e e a r n e d
aw ay ju s t as fa st as th e y are re c e iv e d . A p r o f ile so
ad ju sted th a t th is flu c tu a tin g sta te o f b a la n c e is
a p p ro x im a te ly a c h ie v e d is c a lle d a p r o f i l e o f
e q u i l i b r i u m (A . H o lm e s an d D .L . H o lm e s , 19 7 8 ).
M a n ’s Im p a c t on M a r in e S e d im e n ta tio n
H u m a n e c o n o m ic a c tiv itie s a ffe c t th e n a ­
tu re o f c o a sta l e ro sio n , s e d im e n t p ro d u c tio n an d
th e ir d e p o sitio n a tle a s t in th e c o n tin e n ta l m a rg in s
and c o n tin e n ta l sh e lv e s in a v a rie ty o f w a y s as
fo llo w s :
D re d g in g o f p o rts a n d h a rb o u rs to im p ro v e
n a v ig a tio n c h a n n e ls m o d ifie s th e p a tte rn and
v e lo c ity o f w a v es a n d c u rre n ts . T h e m a te ria ls
d e riv e d fro m d re d g in g a re g e n e ra lly d u p m p e d at
m an y a lte rn a tiv e lo c a tio n s e.g . o ffs h o re lo c a tio n s,
sh allo w a re as a d ja c e n t to th e h a rb o u r, o n sh o re
sh allo w a re as (to re c la im la n d ), b e a c h e s (to enrich
th em ) etc. T h e se d u m p e d m a te ria ls a re r e w o r k e d
and d is p e rse d b y w a v e s in a v a rie ty o f w a y s. T h e .Jj
d u m p in g o f d re d g e d m a te ria ls o ffs h o re c re a te s >
n ew m o u n d s w h ic h m o d ify th e d ire c tio n , stren g th ,
v e lo c ity an d o v e ra ll p a tte rn o f s e a w a v e s. Som e
tim e s sea flo o r is d re d g e d to o b ta in m a te ria ls to
re c la im m a rsh y c o a s ta l la n d s o r to re p le n ish
e ro d in g b e a c h e s. T h is a c tiv ity d e e p e n s th e se*
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p-rv-«:•
M A R IN E S E D IM E N T S A N D D E P O S IT S
floor w hich in tu rn gen erates long w aves w hich
ero d e the co astal lan d at re la tiv e ly fa ster rate than
the norm al w aves.
G ovt, o f In d ia lau n ch ed a m assive pro ject o f
in July, 2005 fo r dredg in g the
‘S e th u sa m u d r a m ’
shallow p o rtio n s o f sea to th e so u th o f T am il N adu
coast in o rd er to c o n n ec t the B ay o f B engal and the
G u lf o f M an a r th ro u g h P a lk S trait in o rd er to
facilitate easy an d sm o o th m o v em en t o f co m m er­
cial ships b e tw ee n east and w e st coasts o f the
country. T hus c irc u m -n a v ig atio n o f Sri L anka
w ould be avoided . T he p ro je c t w as launch ed after
p ro p er an aly sis o f e n v iro n m en tal co n ditio n s o f
the area su ch as m arin e, lan d and socio-econom ic
en v iro n m en t and p ro p e r env iro n m en tal im pact
assem ent. T he project also ensures to protect
m arine ecological resources m ainly coral reefs in
the G u lf o f M anar and P alk B ay. T he w ork on the
pro ject has been stopped due to religious objection.
M a n ’s activ ities also affect sed im en to lo g ical
c h a r a c te r i s t ic s o f coastal environm ent o f seas and
o cean s as follow s :
»- T h e re is additional supply o f w aste m ateri­
als com ing out o f quarrying in the coastal
zo n es. T hese m aterials are rew orked and
d isp e rse d by sea w aves and thus these
m a te ria ls are deposited in certain localities
a n d n ew b each es are form ed (exam ple-
p ro g ra d a tio n o f beach ridge plain on the
e ast c o a st o f Ju tlan d , D enm ark, due to
d u m p in g o f w aste m aterials com ing out
fro m c h alk quarry).
>• A rtific ia l re p le n ish m en t o f eroded beaches
due to a lte ra tio n o f sed im en t supply caused
b y c o n stru ctio n o f b re a k w aters.
>- Q u arry in g o f b each es to o b tain b u ild in g
m a te ria ls leads to ero sio n o f co astal land
becau se o f d ep letio n o f b each and d irect
exposure o f co ast to severe w ave attack and
thus a d d itio n a l sed im en ts are p ro d u ced
w hich are th e n d e p o site d in th e oceans.
>■ D e v eg e ta tio n and e x ten siv e c u ltiv atio n , in
the im m ediate h in te rla n d s o f the c a tc h ­
m ents o f th o se riv ers w hich drain the coast,
re su lt in p ro g rad a tio n o f coastal lands,
p h en o m en al g row th in b each es and deltas
b ecau se o f in creased supply o f fluvial
129
m aterials b ro u g h t by the rivers. T his
p rocess has resu lted into rapid rate o f
siltatio n o f bays and inlets at the m ouths o f
rivers along the M editerranean coast due to
ex ten siv e rem o v al o f v eg etatio n (for in­
creasin g the cro p lan d ) and resu ltan t accel­
erated rate o f soil erosion and supply o f
enorm ous q u an tity o f sedim ents.
>■ C o n stru ctio n o f dam s and re serv o irs on
m ajor riv ers (w hich d rain into the seas)
rev erses the p ro cess o f g ro w th o f beaches
and deltas b ecau se the dam s trap the
sedim ents and force them to settle dow n in
the reserv o irs and th erefo re su p p ly o f
fluvial sedim ents th ro u g h the riv e r m ouths
is m arkedly reduced. T his resu lts in rapid
rate o f erosion o f beaches and d eltas w hich
causes retro g rad atio n . It has b een rep o rted
that the N ile d elta is su fferin g fro m severe
w ave erosion w h ich is p ro d u cin g m ore
sedim ents. T he shoreline is re c ed in g a t the
rate o f 40m per y ear since th e co m p letio n
o f A "w an H igh D am in 1970.
M an ’s attem pts to reduce or stop co astal
erosion and th erefo re to check re tro g ra d a tio n on
the one hand and to p rom ote d e p o sitio n to
encourage p ro g rad atio n on the o th er h an d have
not been successful because o f co m p lex n a tu re o f
m echanism s o f coastal p ro cesses, b o th e ro sio n al
and depositional. T hese direct attem p ts o f m an to
m anipulate and m odify coastal p ro cesses for
specific purposes (to h a lt ero sio n at h arb o u rs, to
b uild b each es, to rep len ish alread y d ep leted
beaches, to open in lets to en co u rag e sea tran sp o rt
etc.) b rin g in changes in n earsh o re topography,
m ech an ism o f w ave and c u rren t actio n s and
co astal erosion, n atu re and p attern o f sedim ent
m o v em en t and d ep o sitio n on the adjacent part o f
the co ast w h ere stru ctu ral w orks have been
in itiated , as follow s :
^ C o n stru ctio n o f d ifferen t types o f sea walls
along the sea coasts to check c liff erosion
leads to d ep letio n o f sea beaches because
(1) the supply o f sands and shingles from
c liff ero sio n is stopped due to protection
p ro v id ed by sea w alls p arallel to the coast^
and (2) sea w aves after stn k in g p o w crfu l y
ag ain st th e sea w als sco u r the beaches and
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130
rem ove the materials to be deposited on
ocean floors.
'The construction o f breakwaters to shelter
the harbours and the estuanes o f river
m ouths results in accumulation o f sands
and sin gles and formation o f beaches on
the updrift side o f breakwaters whereas
beaches are eroded on the downdrift side o f
b reakw aters b e c a u se of m arked
reduction in the transport o f sedim ents
downdrift.
• q u an tity (d en sity ) o f m arin e sed im en ts
Factors o f M arine
• size and shape o f p articles
Sedim entation
• energy co n d itio n o f cu rren ts at the site o f d e p o sitio n
A s sta te d earlier, the rivers are the m ajo r
tra n sp o rtin g ag en ts o f m arine sedim ents. The
c o n tin e n ta l ro ck s are eroded by surface ru n o ff and
riv ers and th e ero d ed m aterials are b rought to the
o cean s by th ese rivers. T hese sed im en ts are
) p ick ed up by sea w aves and cu rren ts and are
d ep o sited on sea flo o r u n d er v ary in g co n d itio n s. It
slow rate o f
ero sio n
I f the continental rocks are resistant to
erosion , they are eroded very slo w ly and hence
there is very lo w supply o f sed im ents by the rivers
to the ocean s and hence sea w aves and currents
have enough tim e to rework and disperse them .
W ith the result the terrigenous sed im ents are
OCBANOGRAF
It appears from the above discussion
h um an econ om ic activities not only affect b _
m od ify the patterns o f coastal erosion by s e i
w aves, transport o f sedim ents and their deposition
o f ocean beds.
Factors of Marine Sedimentation
The processes o f sedim entation i.e. deposi*
tion o f marine sedim ents on ocean beds are
affected and controlled by the fo llo w in g 3 major
factors
m ay be m entioned that terrig en o u s eroded sedim ents
(o f c o n tin e n tal o rig in ) are rew o rk ed and d is­
p ersed by sea w a v es an d cu rren ts before they are
fin a lly d e p o site d on sea floor. T he rate o f
se d im e n ta tio n d e p e n d s on the rate o f ero sio n o f
co n tin e n tal ro ck s su c h as slow or ra p id rate o f
ero sio n .
slow rate o f w e ll sorted sed im ents
sed im en ta tio n e.g . coarse sands, fin e
sands, silt, m ud etc.
ra p id rate o f p oorly sorted sed im ents
se d im e n ta tio n e .g . m ix e d sed im en ts
such as g ra v els m ix ed
w ith sands or m ud m ixed
w ith sands.
sorted b y the currents a ccord in g to their size>
shape and quantity b efo re th ey settle dow n on the
sea flo o rs. For ex a m p le, sands are graded into
coarse and fin e ca teg o ries. T he terrigenous
sed im ents grade from bou lders to co b b les, peb­
b le s, gravels, silt, sands, m ud etc. On the other
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MARINE s e d i m e n t s a n d d e po sit s
h a the w eaker and less re sista n t continen tal
ks are rapidly ero d ed w ith the resu lt th ere is
h ^ h rate o f sed im en t supply and th e currents do
not have required tim e to so rt out the sedim ents
from large size to sm aller size. T hus, rap id rate o f
supply o f sedim ents resu lts in the dep o sitio n o f
mixed sedim ents. T he q u a n t i t y or d e n s ity o f
sedim ents also c o n tro ls so rtin g o r n o n -so rtin g o f
sedim ents b e fo re th e y are d ep o sited . T he large
quantity o f sed im en ts w ith larg e size increases the
density and h en ce h ig h d en sity sed im en ts are
depositedm ore quickly than low density sedim ents.
It m ay b e n o te d th a t the rate o f sedim en tatio n
h ig h energy
strong
currents
w eak
currents
T he stro n g b ottom currents are ch aracter­
ized by sw iftly m oving turbulent w ater. Such
sw ift an d tu rb u le n t w ater carries fine sedim ents in
su sp en sio n an d h e n ce does n o t allow them to
settle dow n. T h u s, stro n g b o tto m currents o f high
energy le v el a llo w on ly c o arse r sedim ents to settle
down. O n th e o th e r hand, w eak b o tto m currents
denote low e n e rg y lev el an d thus cannot carry
coarser sed im en ts, ra th e r th e y tra n sp o rt only fine
sedim ents. T h u s, w e ak c u rre n ts o f low energy
level d e p o sit o n ly fine sed im en ts. It, th u s,
becomes e v id e n t th a t th e an aly sis o f grain size o f
sediments, d e p o site d on sea flo o r, m ay rev eal the
energy c o n d itio n s at th e tim e w h en the sed im en ts
were dep o sited on th e b o tto m , ‘fin e g rain ed
sedim ents d en o te lo w -e n e rg y c o n d itio n ; co arse
sedim ents, h ig h e n erg y c o n d itio n s ’ (P. R. P in et,
2000).
Sources of Marine Sediments
T he m arin e sed im en ts are d e riv e d and
supplied fro m 4 m a jo r so u rces as fo llo w s :
^ te rrig en o u s o r lith o g e n o u s so u rce,
^ b io g en o u s so u rce o r o rg a n ic so u rce,
v<'' •- ,••;-/"j7
131
d eterm in es the deg ree o f so rtin g o f p a rtic le s.
T hus, h ig h d en sity sed im en ts are p o o rly s o rte d
w hile low d en sity sed im en ts are w e ll s o tte d
b e fo re th ey are d ep o sited in lay ers o n th e sea
floors.
T h e th ird im p o rtan t fa c to r o f m a rin e s e d i­
m en tatio n is the energy condition (e n e rg y le v e l) o f
b o tto m cu rren ts at th e site o f d e p o sitio n (se a
floor). T he g rain size o f sed im en ts is p ro p o rtio n a l
(p o sitiv ely co rre la ted ) to th e e n e rg y le v e l o f
b o tto m cu rren ts at the tim e o f s e d im e n ta tio n o n
sea floor.
d ep o sitio n o f c o a rse r
lev el sed im en ts
low energy d e p o sitio n o f fin e
level sed im en ts
>■ h y d ro g en o u s so u rce, and
>■ co sm o g en o u s source.
T he above m e n tio n e d so u rc es o f m a rin e
sedim ents m ay be a lte rn ativ ely g ro u p e d in to th e
follow ing 3 categ o ries :
>- ex tern al so u rce (te rrig en o u s s o u rc e )
»- in tern al source (b io g en o u s a n d h y d ro g ­
enous so u rces)
>■ co sm o g en o u s so u rce
T he te rrig e n o u s or lith o g en o u s s o u rc e o f
m arin e sed im en ts in c lu d e s w e a th e rin g an d e ro ­
sio n o f c o n tin e n tal ro c k s an d tra n s p o rt o f e ro d e d
m a te ria ls by th e riv e rs; c o a sta l e ro sio n by s e a
w av es; and g la cial e ro sio n o f c o n tin e n ta l ro c k s
and th e ir tra n sp o rt b y g la ciers to th e sea s in h ig h
la titu d e s. T h e w in d s also tra n sp o rt d u sts a n d
san d s fro m the h in te rla n d s o f th e c o a sts to th e
o cean s. T h e te rrig e n o u s so u rce c o n trib u te s ro c k
frag m e n ts o f v a ry in g size s su ch as b o u ld e rs ,
p e b b les, c o b b les, g ra v e ls e tc., q u a rtz sa n d s ,
q u a rtz silt, clay , d u sts etc.
T h e b io g e n o u s s o u r c e o f m a rin e s e d im e n ts
c o m p rises th e p ro c e sse s o f d e ca y a n d d e c o m p o s i­
tio n o f sh ells an d sk e le to n s o f m a rin e o rg a n is m s
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in situ. Su ch sed im en ts are grouped in tw o broad
ca teg o ries o f (1 ) calcium carbonate (calcareous
o o z e s ) and sh e lls o f m arine organism s and
fragm ents o f corals, and (2 ) silic a (silic e o u s
o o z e s). T he b iogen ou s sed im ents o f calcium
carbonate are produced in warm sea surface w ater
w h ile th ose o f silic a are generated in cold sea
surface water.
T h e hydrogenous source o f m a rin e se d im e n ts
in c lu d e s th e se d im e n ts d e riv e d fro m p re c ip ita tio n
o f d is so lv e d s u b sta n c e s d u e to c h e m ic a l re a c tio n s
su ch as p h o s p h o rite s (p h o s p h o ro u s ), o o lite s (c a l­
ciu m c a rb o n a te ), m e ta l su lfid e s (c o p p e r, silv e r,
z in c, iro n , n ic k e l e tc .), e v a p o rite s (su c h as
g y p su m a n d so m e salts).
T h e cosmogeneous source o f m arin e sedim ents
in c lu d e s th e s e d im e n ts p ro d u c e d fro m the c o lli­
sio n o f m e te o rite s in th e sp a c e an d thus the space
d u s ts so p ro d u c e d d ire c tly fa ll in to the oceans.
B e s id e s , th e v o lc a n ic d u sts and ashes,
w h ic h are e je c te d th ro u g h c o n tin e n ta l v o lcan ic
e ru p tio n s , a re c a rrie d aw ay by th e atm o sp h eric
c irc u la tio n a n d fin a lly th ey fall dow n th ro u g h
p re c ip ita tio n in to th e oceans.
Mode of Marine Sedim entation
T h e p ro c e ss e s o f m a rin e sed im en ta tio n m ay
b e g ro u p e d in to the fo llo w in g tw o c ate g o rie s .
>- b u lk d e p o sitio n (b u lk em p lacem en t)
>- re ta il d e p o sitio n
T h e process of bulk deposition o f m arine
s ed im en ts, g e o lo g ic a lly b e tte r k n o w n as bulk
emplacement, in v o lv e s th e slu m p in g o f sed im en ts
en m ass in c lu d in g all ty p e s o f te rrig e n o u s and
b io g e n ic se d im e n ts d ow n th e u n d e rsea slope
u n d er th e fo rce o f g rav ity . T he riv ers u n lo ad h uge
am o u n t o f te rrig e n o u s sed im en ts o f v ary in g sizes
(v ery c o arse to v e ry fine g ra in e d p a rtic le s) in the
w aters o f c o n tin e n tal m a rg in s and in n er c o n tin e n ­
ta l sh elves. T h e c o n tin u o u s b u ild up o f terrig en o u s
m a te ria ls cau ses slo p e in sta b ility due to ste e p e n ­
ing o f slo p e o f heaps o f deb ris. T h is cau ses
in crease in g ra v ity fo rce w h ic h in tu rn cau ses
m ass m o v e m e n t o f m a te ria ls to w a rd s th e ou ter
co n tin e n tal sh elv e s and c o n tin e n tal slo p e in the
form s o f d e b ris slu m p , d e b ris flow , m ud flo w etc.
OCEANOGl
It is im p o rta n t to n o te th a t b e d d in g s o f sed im en ­
ta ry la y e rs o f te rrig e n o u s s e d im e n ts a re seldom :
d is tu rb e d , ra th e r th e y a re m a in ta in e d w h ile they?
are s lu m p e d en m a ss d o w n th e slo p e u n d e r the
fo rc e o f g ra v ity . M a ssiv e u n d e rs e a slid e s also
o c c u r in d e e p se a a re a s b u t su c h slid e s a re not
c o m p a ra b le to b u lk slid e s o f te rrig e n o u s sed im en ts
b e c a u s e th e fo rm e r (u n d e rs e a s lid e s) is c a u se d by
te c to n ic a c tiv itie s o n th e s e a flo o r, w h ile th e la tte r
is c a u se d b y g ra v ity a lo n e.
T h e slu m p e d se d im e n ts in th e fo rm o f
m u d flo w s, k n o w n as slurries a re p ic k e d u p by
p o w e rfu l b o tto m c u rre n ts, c a lle d as turbidity
currents, a n d th u s th e se tu rb id ity c u rre n ts a re
lad en w ith s lu rrie s a n d m o v e d o w n th e c o n tin e n ta l
slo p e u n d e r th e fo rce o f g ra v ity . A s th e se s lu rry ­
laden b o tto m tu rb id ity c u rre n ts d e sc e n d to d e e p
sea p lain , th e ir v e lo c ity is slo w e d d o w n a n d h e n c e
th ey u n lo a d c o a se r se d im e n ts o n th e s e a flo o r
first. F u rth e r m o v e m e n t o f th e se c u rre n ts c a rrie s
fine sed im en ts in su sp e n sio n w h ic h a re fin a lly
d e p o sited on fla t sea flo o rs (fig . 6 .1 ). It m a y b e
m en tio n e d th a t th e d e p o sitio n o f se d im e n ts b y
turbidity currents show s graded beddings o f sedim ents
w h erein the size o f se d im e n ts b e c o m e s fin e r fro m
th e b o tto m u p w ard . In o th e r w o rd s, v e ry c o a rse
sed im en ts are d e p o site d at th e se a flo o r w h e re a s
fine sed im en ts are d e p o site d in th e u p p e rm o s t
lay er o f sed im en ts. T he c o n e -sh a p e d d e p o sits o f
g rad ed m a terials at th e m o u th s o f su b m a rin e
can y o n s are c a lle d deep sea fans. T h e g la c ie rs
re so rt to b u lk d e p o sitio n o f te rrig e n o u s m a te ria ls
in the o cean s in h ig h la titu d e s b y th e p ro c e s s o f ice
rafting. T he ice ra ftin g in v o lv e s th e tra n s p o rt o f
terrig e n o u s se d im e n ts e m b e d e d in th e ic eb e rg s.
T he ice sh eets a sso c ia te d w ith c o n tin e n ta l g la­
ciers in p o la r re g io n s c arry c o n tin e n ta l sed im en ts.
W h en the ice sh ee ts are b ro k e n a n d d islo d g e d
fro m th e g la c ie rs, th e y flo a t as ic e b e rg s o n sea
su rfa ce and are c a rrie d aw ay b y o c e a n currents
into d eep sea a re a w h ere th e y b e g in to m elt. Thus
th e e m b ed e d se d im e n ts are re le a s e d a n d settle
d o w n on sea flo o rs.
T h e retail sedimentation in v o lv e s deposition
o f se d im e n ts p a rtic le b y p a rtic le in th e sam e way
as flak es o f sn o w fall d o w n o n th e la n d o n e by one.
T h is is the re a so n th a t fa ll d o w n o f p a rtic le s one by
o ne on sea flo o r is c a lle d marine snowfall
•
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 MARINE SEDIMENTS AND DEPOSITS

Wind-blown volcanic ash

wind-blown d usts and sa n d s

S e a Level

B iogen ous Retail

S ed im ents Sedim enta­
tion

Retail
Sedim entation

Settling
d u sts and
Settling of sa n d s
S ed im ents
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r = = = = = = = ^ ^ rz z y zz zz zz zz zz zz zz zz zz zy y /zz y y yyyy y y y " "
•.v z y z - v /z z y z /y z z z z /z z /z z z z /z z z z /z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z
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'y y z z z z z z z z /z z z z z z z .
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' f t
V ,,,. , . . V ,,
,/
-- //y y y y y y y y z z z z z z z /z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z /
yyy/ y y y y y y z z z z z y z /z zz zz zz zy z zz zz zz zz zz zz zz zz zz zz z zz zz zz z>
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vzzzzzzzzz/zzzzzzz.
C l£ £ iV s * * v » v v v v z z z A V z z z z z /z y v /z z z z z /z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z y y y y z .' ' - '
tw v v w z z z z z z z z z y y y z y y z y y z y z z z z z z z z z z z y y z y y z z y /z y z z z z z z z z z /y z.> zzzzzy // / >/

Fig. 6.1: Mode o f marine sedimentation : bulk emplacement, and retail sedimentation.

6.3 C L A S S IF IC A T IO N O F MARINE S ED IM EN TS enous sedim ents, and (4) cosm ogenous sedim ents.
The sedim ents derived from the above m en tio n ed
4 m ajor sources are alternatively n a m ed as
The m arine sedim ents register large varia­
inorganic sedim ents (terrigenous sed im en ts), o r­
tions in term s o f th eir origin and form ation, size ganic sedim ents (biogenous sedim ents), calcare- .
and shape, com position, locational aspect etc.
ous and siliceous sediments (hydrogenous sedim ents)
because they are derived from various sources
etc.
such as (1) lithogenous (terrigenous) sources
wherein sedim ents are produced due to w eather­ Thus, on the basis o f sources and m ode o f
ing and erosion o f continental rocks, and m arine form ation m arine sedim ents are classified into the
volcanic islands, (2) biogenous sources, w hich follow ing categories :
provide sedim ents through decay and disinteg ra­ 1. T e r r i g e n o u s (lithog enic) m a r i n e sed im en ts
tion o f m arine plants and anim als, (3) h y d ro g ­ (1) con tin en tal lithogenous sedim ents
enous sources w hich include the precipitates o f
(2) s u b m a rin e v o lc a n ic lith o g e n o u s
dissolved su b sta n c e s in o cean w a ter, (4)
sedim ents ’ ,
cosmogeneous source w herein sedim ents are
produced due to collision o f m eteorites in space exam ples :
and thereafter these sedim ents fall in the oceans. (i) gravels
Thus, m arine sedim ents involve four m ajor sands
(ii) . . •

categories o f (1) terrigenous or lithogenous

(iii) silt
f sediments, (2) biogeneous sedim ents, (3) hydrog-
S ll. ■ ■ . ■. • "

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 OCEANOGRAPHY*

to clay p articles) w h ich are p ro d u ced by w eather­

(iv ) clay
ing and erosion o f o nly co n tin en tal rocks.
(v ) m ud
T he co n tin en tal ro ck s are d isin teg rated and
(a) blu e m ud
decom posed due to v ario u s ty p es o f w eathering
(b) green m ud and thus fine to coarse sed im en ts are produced.
(c) red m ud T hese sedim ents o f c o n tin en tal o rig in are called
terrig en o u s m aterials w h ich are b ro u g h t to the
2. B io g e n o u s m a r i n e s e d im e n ts
rivers. B esides, rocks are also ero d ed b y surface
(1) n e re tic sedim ents
ru n o ff and stream s th ro u g h the p ro cesses o f
(2) p e lag ic sedim ents surface w ash, splash erosion, sheet w ash, rainw ash,
e x am p les : rill and gully erosion, lateral and v ertical erosion
(i) calcareous oozes o f valleys by rivers. T he w eath ered and eroded
m aterials are carried by the riv ers and are
(ii) pteropod oozes
ultim ately unloaded into the o ceans and seas.
(iii) globigerina oozes ‘Som e 15,000 to 20,000 m illion tonnes o f so lid
(iv) siliceous oozes m aterials are discharged through the riv ers to the
(v) radiolarian oozes oceans annually. To this can be in clu d ed a to tal o f
about 4,000 m illion tonnes o f soluble m aterials.
(vi) diatom oozes
This m eans that for every cubic m e te r o f w a ter
3. H ydrogen ous m arine sedim ents reaching the sea an average o f ab o u t h a lf a
(authigenic sedim ents) kilogram o f sedim ents is carried aw ay fro m the
(1) m anganese nodules continents’ (Ake Sundborg, 1983).
(2) phosphates The terrigenous sedim ents can be d ep o sited
in various locations o f oceans, nam ely bays and
(3) oolites (C aC o3, lim estone particles)
lagoons near the coasts, at the m ouths o f riv ers in
(4) m etal sulfides the form s o f deltas, in the riv er estuaries, p arallel
(5) gypsum , halite, other salts to the coasts form beaches. The terrig en o u s
4. C o sm o g e n ic m a rin e sedim ents sedim ents brought by the rivers to the oceans are
also carried away and rew orked by sea w aves and
(1) space dusts
currents. The turbidity currents carry sed im en ts to
(2) m eteors particles deep ocean basins.
(i) iron-nickel m eteorites
In the high latitudes g laciers dum p glacially
(ii) silicate chondrites eroded m aterials into the fiords.
5. V o lc a n o g e n ic m a r i n e sed im ents M ost o f terrigenous m aterials are deposited
v o lcan ic dusts in the areas o f continental m argins and inner
v o lcan ic ashes continental shelves but high b u ild up o f terrigenous
sedim ents on continental shelves form s heaps
(m ounds) o f sedim ents w ith steep slope. Thus the
1. Terrigenous (Lithogenic) Sediments
sedim ents slide dow n enm ass u n d er the im pact o f
gravity along the continental slope. T he turbidity
T he lith o g e n ic sedim ents are derived from currents disperse these sed im en ts on deep sea
the w eath erin g and erosion o f rocks ^lith o s - floor. The slum ping o f sedim ents is called bulk
rocks, stones, genic/genous = genera - to p ro ­ e m p la c e m e n t. The m ode o f bulk and retail s e d i ­
duce) w h eth er on land (lithosphere) or in the m entation has been explained in the p r e c e d i n g
oceans (w eath erin g and erosion o f sea volcanic section.
islan d s), w hereas terrigenous (terri = lands,
The distribution o f terrigenous sediments
g en ere = to p ro d u ce) sedim ents include only those
on sea floor is ubiquitous i.e. w idespread (omni-
sed im ents o f v ario u s sizes (ranging from boulders

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MARINE SEDIMENTS AND DEPOSITS
present). In o ther w ords, terrig en o u s sedim ents
have been found alm ost in all p arts o f the oceans
but m ost c o n cen tratio n is found in the continental
m argins and c o n tin en tal shelves. O nly traces o f
terrigenous sed im en ts have been found on deep
sea plains. T he fine p articles are picked up by
prevailing w in d s from tro p ical and subtropical
deserts an d are carried far aw ay from the
c o n tin ents to the deep ocean w here these particles
fall d o w n and settle dow n on deep sea plains
p a rtic le b y particle, this process o f sedim entation
135
in called retail deposition. T h e settlin g o f fin e
m aterials p a rtic le a fte r p a rtic le in the deep sea is
called marine snowfall. It is, th u s, ev id en t th at th e
great d eserts o f A sia (A rab ian and T h ar d eserts),
A frica (S ah a ra and K a lah a ri), S o u th A m erica
(A catam a), and A u stra lia are p o o ls o f fine
p articles to be d e p o sited in th e o cean s.
T he te rrig e n o u s sed im en ts are co m p o se d
m ostly o f quartz m ineral. T he tex tu re o f te rrig en o u s
sedim ents is d eterm in ed on th e b a sis o f g ra in size
for w hich th e fo llo w in g Wentworth scale is u sed .

Table 6 .1 : W entworth scale o f grain size for sedim ents

S edim ents type Size range G rain size E n erg y c o n d itio n s

(d iam eter in
m illim eters)

Gravels 1. boulder > 256 C o arse-g rain ed H ig h en erg y

2. cobble 65 - 256
3. pebble 4 - 64
4. granule 2 -4
Sand 1. very coarse 1-2
2. coarse 0.5 - 1.0
3. m edium 0.25 - 0.5
4. fine 0.125 - 0.25
5. very fine, 0.0625 - 0.125
mud 1. silt 0.0039 - 0.0625
2. clay 0.0002 - 0.0039 F in e -g rain e d L o w e n e rg y
colloide < 0.0002

S in ce there is m uch v a riatio n in the size and Gravels : T h e d ia m e te r o f g ra v e ls ra n g e s

shape o f te rrig e n o u s m a te ria ls, th ere is m ark ed
gradation o f th ese m a te ria ls w hen they are
deposited in the ocean , i.e. c o a rse r and la rg e r
sedim ents (b o u ld e rs, c o b b les an d p e b b les) are
deposited n e a r the c o a st and the siz e o f sed im en ts
becom es sm a lle r and fin e r a w ay fro m the coast.
V ery fine sed im en ts a re k ep t in su sp e n sio n in the
offshore reg io n s. O n the b a sis o f size, c o m p o si­
tion, and c h em ica l c h a ra c te ris tic s te rrig e n o u s
sedim ents are d iv id e d into g ra v e ls, san d s and silt,
clay and m uds, (ta b le 6.1).
fro m 2 m m to 25 6 m m . T h e re is m a rk e d g ra d a tio n
in th e size o f g rav els. T h e fo llo w in g are su b -ty p e s
o f g ra v e ls o n th e b a sis o f d ia m e te r o f p a rtic le s
(fig u re s in th e b ra c k e ts in d ic a te d ia m e te r) ? |
boulders ( > 2 56 m m ), cobbles (65 - 256 mm),-
pebbles (4 to 64 m m ), granules (2 to 4 ) m m ) e ttv
S in ce th e se se d im e n ts a re v e ry la rg e in size, th e se
are d e p o site d n e a r th e c o a st on th e continent
sh elv e s by h ig h en erg y cu rre n ts. T h ese sedim enl
are fu rth e r re d u c ed in size d u e to fu rth f
d is in te g ra tio n cau se d b y sea w av es. G rav els
b ro u g h t to th e o c ea n s b y th e riv ers.

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136
S a n d s : T he sedim ents v ary in g in diam eter
from 2 mm to 1/16 m m are term ed sands. On the
b a sis of size of g rains sands are classified into five
ty p e s viz. (fig u res in the brack ets denote d ia m ­
eter). (i) very coarse sands (1 to 2 m m ), (ii) c o a rs e
sands (0.5 to 1 m m ), (iii) medium sands (0.25 to 0.5
m m ), (iv) fine sands (0.725 to 0.25 m m ), and (v)
very fine sands (0.0625 to 0.125 ram). The
d isin te g ra tio n and com m unition o f continental
ro c k fragm ents into fine sedim ents produces
sands w hich are deposited in the oceans by rivers,
su rface w ash and w inds. T here is m arked grada­
tio n o f sand deposits in the oceans i.e. coarser
sands are deposited close to the coast w hile fine
sands are deposited aw ay from the coast.
Silt, C lay a n d M u d : The finer sedim ents
ranging in diam eter from 1/32 mm to 1/8192 mm
are grouped under the category silt, clay and mud
(silt = 1/32 m m to 1/256 m m , clay = 1/256 mm to
l/8 1 9 2m m ). M ud is still finer than clay. Some
tim es, silt and clay are included in the category o f
mud. C lay is significant cem enting elem ent.
These m aterials are brought from the continents
by the rivers. C lay and m ud are deposited in calm
seaw ater by low energy currents. G enerally, these
deposits are found at the depth o f 100 to 1000
fathom s (600 to 6000 feet). M urray has divided
m ud into three types on the basis o f colour.
(i) B lue m u d includes the m aterials derived
through the d isintegration o f rocks rich in iron
sulphide and organic elem ents. These are gener­
ally found at greater depth o f the continental
shelves. T he original colour o f blue m ud is bluish
black and it contains 35 per cent o f calcium
carbonate. B lue m ud predom inates in the A tlantic
O cean, M editerranean Sea, A rctic Sea and en ­
closed seas.
(ii) R ed m u d : The sedim ents derived
through the com m unition o f rocks rich in iron
oxides (FeO ) form red mud. The reddish colour is
m ainly due to the dom inance o f iron content. It
contains 32 per cent o f calcium carbonate. The
deposit o f red m ud is confined m ostly to the
Y ellow Sea, B razilian coast, and the floors o f the
A tlantic O cean.
(iii) G r e e n m u d is form ed due to chem ical
w eathering w herein the colour o f blue m ud is
changed to green m ud due to reaction o f seaw ater.
o c e an o g ra p h y !
It co n tain s green silic a te s o f p o ta ssiu m a n d !
glau co n ite (form o f iro n ) w h ic h c o n stitu te s 7 - 8 1
p er cent o f to tal m in e ra l c o m p o sitio n w hereas
calciu m carb o n ate ra n g e s fro m 0 to 56 p e r cent.
T he d ep o sits o f green m u d are fo u n d alo n g the
A tlan tic and P acific c o asts o f N . A m e ric a, o f f the
coasts o f Japan, A u stra lia an d A frica . T h ese are
g en erally found at the depth o f 100 to 900 fathom s
(600 to 5,400 feet). J
2. Volcanogenic Sediments
V olcanic m a te ria ls d e p o sited in th e m arin e
environm ent are d eriv ed from tw o so u rc e s, (i) ,
V olcanic eruptions on the la n d -th e v o lc a n ic
m aterials through v io len t cen tral e ru p tio n s b e ­
come very fine due to c o llisio n am o n g th e m se lv e s
and due to further d isin teg ratio n . F in e v o lc a n ic
m aterials nearer to the co astal lands are b lo w n by
w ind and are carried to the o cean s w h ile v o lc an ic
m aterials o f distant p laces are b ro u g h t by the
rivers via overland flow , rain w ash , rills and sm all
rivulets, (ii) V olcanic eru p tio n in the o c ea n s and
the seas-in such cases v o lcan ic m a te ria ls are
directly deposited. V olcanic m a te ria ls resem b le
blue m ud and are grey to black in co lo u r.
3. B io g e n ic S e d i m e n t s
B iogenous (bio = life, g en ere = to p ro d u ce),
also know n as organic m arin e sed im en ts, are the
decay and disintegration o f hard p arts (sk e leto n s)
o f m arine organism s. T hus, the source o f b io g en ic
sedim ents is sea itself. T he p ro cess o f fo rm atio n
o f biogenous m arine sed im en ts in clu d es the
disintegration o f hard parts o f m arin e an im als and
plants such as th eir bones, sh ells, te ath etc. after
their death. Such m aterials fall dow n one after
another and are d ep o sited on sea flo o rs o f varying
locations. Prim arily b io g en o u s m arin e sediments
are divided into the fo llo w in g tw o categ o ries :
>- m acroscopic b io g en ic sed im en ts, and
>• m icroscopic b io g en ic sed im ents.
Macroscopic biogenic sediments include shells,
bones, and teeth o f large m arin e anim als which
are not w id esp read sea living organism s.
sedim ents are found on co n tin en tal shelves an
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MARINE SEDIMENTS AND DEPOSITS
very rare on d eep sea p la in s b e ca u se deep sea
floors are d o m in ated b y v e ry sm a ll o rg an ism s. O n
the o th e r hand, microscopic biogenous sediments are
very sm all p a rtic le s o f v e ry sm all sea o rg an ism s.
They are so sm a ll an d m in u te th a t th e y c a n n o t be
seen w ithout th e a id o f p o w e rfu l m ic ro sco p e .
There are c o u n tle ss tin y m ic ro sc o p ic m arin e
o r g a n is m s . T h e t i n y s h e lls o f th e se o rg a n ism s are
called tests w h ic h c o n tin u o u s ly fa ll d ow n on the
sea bed a fte r d e ath . In fa c t, th e re is co n tin u o u s
r a in o f c o u n tle ss te sts o f m ic ro sc o p ic o rg an ism s.
The accu m u la tio n o f th e se te sts on deep sea flo o rs
gives b irth to the fo rm a tio n o f d iffe re n t ty p es o f
oozes. T he o o zes c o n sist o f 30 p e rc e n t o f
m icro sco p ic b io g e n o u s se d im e n ts and rem ain in g
70 p e rc en t o f te rrig e n o u s clay. It m ay be
m en tio n ed th a t m ic ro sc o p ic b io g e n ic m a te ria ls
and te rrig e n o u s clay fa ll dow n to g e th e r to settle
dow n on deep sea flo o rs.
T h e b io g e n ic sed im en ts are c o m p o sed o f
tw o m a in ch em ica l c o n stitu en ts, nam ely calciu m
c a rb o n a te and silica. D iato m s and rad io la ria n s
c o n trib u te m o st o f silic a to the m icro sco p ic
b io g e n ic s e d im e n ts, w h ile fo ram in ifers c o n trib ­
u te m o s t o f c a lc iu m c arb o n ate . T he m icro sco p ic
a lg ae , w h ic h is c a lle d as c o co lith o p h o re s also
c o n trib u te c a lc iu m c arb o n ate . T he b io g en o u s
m a rin e s e d im e n ts , a fte r m ix e d w ith terrig en o u s
clay s a n d th e ir a c c u m u la tio n , form d ifferen t types
o f o o zes w h ic h a re n a m e d a fte r the nam e o f
m ic ro sc o p ic m a rin e o rg a n ism s su ch as diato m s,
p te ro p o d s, ra d io la ria etc.
T h e b io g e n ic s e d im e n ts are also d iv id ed
into th e fo llo w in g tw o b ro a d c a te g o rie s :
>• n e re tic b io g e n ic s e d im e n ts , an d
> p e la g ic b io g e n ic s e d im e n ts .
T h e neretic m atter in c lu d e s sk e le to n s o f
m arine o rg a n ism s a n d p la n t re m a in s w h ile p e la g ic
m atter c o n sis ts o f re m a in s o f d iffe re n t ty p e s o f
algae. T h e s k e le to n s o f a n im a ls a n d d e ad p la n ts
are su b jec te d to d e c o m p o s itio n an d c h e m ic a l
changes. T h u s, th e y a re c h a n g e d to m u d an d sa n d s
and are u ltim a te ly d e p o s ite d on th e se a flo o r.
N e retic m a tte r is d e p o s ite d m o stly on the
continental sh e lv e s an d a re g e n e ra lly c o v e re d b y
terrigenous m a te ria ls. T h e s e in c lu d e s h e lls o f
niolluscs and th e ir frag m en ts, sk eleto n s o f ra d io la ria
■ ' ■'
137
an d sp ic u le s o f sp o n g es, c a lc a re o u s an d siliceo u s
p la n t re m a in s.
Pelagic sediments c o n sist o f m a tte r d eriv ed
fro m alg ae an d are m o stly in th e fo rm o f liq u id
m u d , g e n e ra lly k n o w n as o o ze. P e la g ic m aterials
are o o zes w h ic h a re d iv id e d in to tw o g ro u p s on the
b a sis o f lim e an d s ilic a c o n te n ts as fo llo w s.
(i) C alcareous oozes c o n ta in lim e c o n te n t in
ab u n d an c e an d are s e ld o m fo u n d a t g re a te r d ep th
b e c a u se o f th e ir h ig h d e g re e o f so lu b ility . T h ey
are g e n e ra lly fo u n d at th e se a flo o r b e tw e e n th e
d ep th s ra n g in g fro m 1000 fa th o m s (6 0 0 0 fe e t) to
2 0 0 0 fa th o m s (1 2 0 0 0 feet). O n th e b a s is o f
p rin c ip a l o rg a n ism s c a lc a re o u s o o z e s a re fu rth e r
d iv id e d into tw o su b -ty p e s v iz , (a ) p te ro p o d o o z e ,
an d (b) g lo b ig e rin a o o ze.
(a) P teropod Ooze : M o st o f th e p te ro p o d
o o zes are fo rm ed o f flo a tin g p te ro p o d m o llu s c s
h a v in g th in sh ells o f g e n e ra lly c o n ic a l sh a p e w ith
a v erag e d ia m e te r o f h a lf in ch . It c o n ta in s 80 p e r
c en t c a lc iu m c arb o n a te an d is m o s tly fo u n d in th e
tro p ic a l o c ea n s an d se a s a t th e d e p th o f 3 0 0 -1 0 0 0
fath o m s. It d e c re a se s w ith g re a te r d e p th s a n d
p ra c tic a lly d isa p p e a rs b e y o n d 2 0 0 0 fa th o m d e p th .
It is fo u n d m o stly in th e re g io n s o f c o ra ls . T h e
m a in lo c a tio n o f p te ro p o d o o z e in c lu d e s th e
w e ste rn and e aste rn p a rts o f th e P a c ific O c e a n ,
s u rro u n d in g s o f A z o re s, C a n a ry Is la n d , A n tile s ,
m id -M e d ite rra n e a n su b m a rin e rid g e a n d In d ia n
O cean .
(b) G lobigerina Ooze : T h o u g h th is o o z e is
fo rm ed fro m th e sh e lls o f a v a rie ty o f fo ra m in ife ra
b u t m o st o f su ch o o z e s a re fo rm e d o f g e rm s c a lle d
g lo b ig e rin a . W h e n th is d e p o s it is d rie d u p it
b e c o m e s d irty w h ite p o w d e r. B e s id e s m ilk y w h ite
c o lo u r, it is also b lu e , g re y , y e llo w a n d g re e n in
c o lo u r. T h e c h e m ic a l c o m p o s itio n re v e a ls 6 4 .4 6
p e rc e n t o f c a lc iu m , 1.64 p e rc e n t o f s ilic a an d 3.33
p e rc e n t o f m in e ra ls . G lo b ig e rin a is fo u n d m o stly
in th e tro p ic a l an d te m p e ra te z o n e s o f th e A tla n tic
O c e a n , o n th e e a s te rn a n d w e s te rn c o n tin e n ta l
s h e lv e s o f th e In d ia n O c e a n a n d in th e e a ste rn
P a c ific O c e a n . It is g e n e ra lly fo u n d b e tw e e n th e
d e p th s o f 2 0 0 0 to 4 0 0 0 fa th o m s a n d b e co m e s
a b s e n t at g re a te r d e p th s.
(ii) Siliceous Ooze : w h e n s ilic a c o n te n t
d o m in a te s , th e o o z e b e c o m e s s ilic e o u s in n atu re.
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ft
S ilica is d e riv e d from a group o f protozo a or
ra d io la ria n s and b enthic anim als m ainly sponges.
T h is ooze does not dissolve as com pared to
calcareo u s ooze because o f less calcium carb o n ­
ate and dom inance o f silica. Thus, such oozes are
found in b oth w arm and cold w ater at g reater
depths. T his group is further divided into tw o
subtypes on the basis o f dom inance o f a p articu lar
organism .
(a) R a d i o l a r i a n ooze is form ed by the shells
o f rad io laria and foram inifera. It changes to dirty
grey p ow der w hen dried. Silica predom inates but
calcium carbonate is also present (ranging b e ­
tw een 5 to 20 p ercen t, average being 4 percent).
Lim e con ten t d ecreases w ith increasing depth and
it ab solutely disap p ears at greater depth. This
ooze is found upto the depth o f 2000 to 5000
fathom s in the tro p ica l oceans and seas. It covers
the larg est areas in the P acific O cean.
(b) D i a t o m ooze is form ed o f the shells o f
very m icro sco p ic plants containing silica in
abundance. It also contains som e clay. C alcium
content v aries from 3 to 30 percent. It is blue near
the land and the co lo u r changes yellow or cream
aw ay from the land. It becom es fine coherent
w hite p o w d e r w hen dried. D iatom ooze is very
freq u ently fo u n d a t greater depth in high latitudes.
S ig n ifican t a re a o f this d ep o sit includes the zone
around A n ta rc tic a and a b e lt from A laska to Japan
in the N. P a cific at th e dep th o f 600-2000 fathom s.
4. Hydrogenic Marine Sediments
H y d ro g en o u s sed im en ts are also inorganic
m atter and in v o lv e p rec ip ita tes o f dissolved
substances from w ater both on land and in oceans.
M ajority o f in o rg an ic elem ents are b a si­
cally p recip itates w hich fall dow n from above.
These elem ents fall on the land as w ell as in the
oceans. Som e o f the inorganic elem en ts are
transported from the land to the oceans by various
agencies. The inorganic p recip itates include
dolom ite, am orphous silica, iron, m anganese
oxide, phosphate, b arite etc. B esides, glauconite,
phosphorite, feldspar, ph illip site and clay m in er­
als are also found. The organic and inorganic
m aterials are so m ixed to g eth er due to chem ical
OCEANOGRAPHY
p ro cesses th at it b eco m es v ery d iffic u lt to isolate |
them from each other.
T he sig n ifican t h y d ro g en o u s m arin e depo
sitio n in clu d es m an g an ese n o d u les, phosphates,
carb o n ates, m etal su lfid es, ev ap o rites etc. These
hydro g en o u s m arine sed im en ts h av e g reat eco­
nom ic significance.
M a n g a n e s e n o d u le s have ro u n d sh ap e and
consist o f m anganese, iron and som e m etals.
These are form ed aro u n d n u clei o f co ral, volcanic
rock, bones o f fishes or fish teeth s. M an g an ese
nodules are p rim arily co m p o sed o f m an g an ese
dioxide and iron oxide w hich c o n stitu te to g eth er
50 percent by w eight. The o th er c o n stitu e n ts o f
m anganese nodules include co p p er, n ick el, c o b alt
etc. P h o s p h a te s are infact com pounds o f p h o s p h o ­
rous w hich are p recipitated as co atin g s a ro u n d
rocks. They are also found in the form o f n o d u les.
Phosphates are used for m ak in g fe rtilizers.
C a r b o n a te s include tw o sig n ifican t m in erals i.e.
aragonite and calcite w hich are co m p o sed o f
calcium carbonate (lim estone). M e t a l su lfid es are
generally found along m id -o cean ic rid g es and
include iron, coper, silver, n ick el, zinc etc.
E v a p o r ite s , as the w ord im plies, re su lt from
excessive evaporation o f seaw ater. T hey are
basically salts (halite). The o th er ev ap o rite
m inerals are gypsum and calcite.
R e d clay, previously co n sid ered to be o f
organic origin, is the m ost sig n ifican t in o rg an ic
m atter and very im portant m em ber o f p elagic
deposits. It covers the largest area o f deep sea
deposits. Silicates o f alum ina (85.35 percen t) and
oxides o f iron are the c h ie f co n situ en ts o f re d clay.
B esides, calcium (6.7 percent), siliceo u s organ­
ism s (2.39 percent) and a few m inerals are also
present. It also contains d eco m p o sed volcanic
m aterial. It m ay be p o in ted out th at red clay
contains m ore rad io activ e su b stan ces than any
other m arine deposit. It is soft, p lastic and greasy
in character. It becom es red d ish brow n powder
w hen dried. R ed clay is w idely distrib u ted at the-
g reatest depth in all the oceans. Its
locations include the zone betw een 40°N and 40
in the A tlan tic O cean, eastern part o f the Indi
O cean and the N orth P acific O cean covering m
m illion km 2 o f area.
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HjARlNE SEDIMENTS AND DEPOSITS 139

5. coamo genic Sediments processes and are transported to the oceans by

various agencies. Their colour may be blue,
C osm ogenous sed im en ts are e x tra terre s­ yellow , grey or red. Pelagic deposits consist o f the
materials formed o f skeletons and shells o f marine
trial m aterials w h ic h are p ro d u c e d due to collision
organisms and a few inorganic substances. They
o f m eteors in sp ace. T his is w hy cosm ogenic
are generally blue, grey or red in colour.
sediments are c a lle d space dusts w hich regularly
fall dow n on th e e a rth ’s su rface (b o th on the lands C lassificatio n o f J e n k i n s : Jenkins has divided
and in th e o c ea n s). C o sm ogeneous sedim ents marine deposits into three groups v iz (a) deep sea
com prise (1) m ic ro sco p ic sp h eru les, and (2) deposits, (b) shallow water deposits, and (c)
m acroscopic d e b ris o f m eteors. littoral deposits. The follow ing is the detailed
classification o f Jenkins :
6.4 CLASSIFICATION OF OCEAN DEPOSITS (A) Pelagic deposits
(1) red clay
O cean d e p o sits are c lassified on different (2) radiolarian ooze
bases as fo llo w s :
(3) diatom ooze
1. O n th e b a sis o f location (4) globigerina ooze
2. O n th e b a sis o f depth o f ocean w ater (5) pteropod ooze
3. O n th e b a sis o f origin o f sedim ents (B) Terrigenous deposits
(1) blue mud
1. On the Basis of Location
(2) red mud
T h is c lassificatio n is based on typical ( 3) green mud
lo c a tio n s o f p a rtic u la r m arine sedim ent. Though (4) coral mud
sev e ra l sc ie n tists have attem pted to classify ocean (5) volcanic mud
d e p o sits on the basis o f their locations, the (6) gravel
c la ssific a tio n s o f Sir John M urray and J.T.
(7) sand
Jen k in s are w id ely acclaim ed.
G e n era lly , ocean deposits are locationally
2. On the Basis of Depth
c la ssifie d into the follow ing tw o categories :
>- s h e lf deposits (A) Deep sea d epo sits
>■ p e lag ic deposits (below 100 fathoms)
S h e lf d ep o sits include the deposition o f
(a) Pelagic deposits
m arin e se d im e n ts o f variable origin on the floors
(1) red clay
o f c o n tin e n ta l sh elv es, w hile pelagic deposits
(2) radiolarian ooze
co n sist o f sed im en tatio n o f fine particles on the
(3) diatom ooze
floors o f d eep sea plains.
(4) globigerina ooze
Classification of M urray : Sir John M urray
has c lassifie d th e ocean deposits into tw o broad (5) pteropod ooze
categories viz. (a) terrigenous deposits, and (b) (b) Terrigenous deposits
pelagic deposits. T errigenous deposits are found (1) blue mud
m ainly on the continental shelves and slopes (2) red mud
w h ereas p elag ic deposits predom inate on the deep (3) green mud
sea floor. T errigenous deposits are com posed o f
(4) coral mud
c o arse r m aterials and are derived from the
(5) volcanic mud
c o n tin e n ts th ro u g h w eath erin g and erosional

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140 3. General Classification
(B) Shallow sea deposits
(between low tide water add 100 (1) Terrigenous deposits
fathoms) (i) littoral deposits
(1) gravels (ii) shallow water deposits
(2) sands (iii) terrigenous mud
(3) mud
(C) Littoral deposits (2) Neritic deposits
(between high and low tide water) (i) shallow water neritic deposits
(1) gravels (ii) deep seawater neritic deposits
(2) sands (iii) pelagic deposits.
(3) mud

feet 0
pteropod ooze 90% CaC03
6000
globlgerina ooze 20% CaC03
12000

18000
red clay 1% CaC03
24000

Fig. 6.2 : General vertical distribution of ocean deposits.

4. Classification on the Basis of Origin of (ii) radiolarian ooze

Sediments (iii) globigerina ooze
(1) Littoral deposits (iv) pteropod ooze
(derived from land)
(i) shore deposits
(ii) shelf deposits
(2) Hemipelagic deposits X) Shinglei Sand ! Blue Mud j1
c
TO Sands Mud j Green 1
(partly from land and partly from _J
Coral | Mud
marine origin) Sea-level
^ ^ r^ jC o n lin e n ta l
(i) green mud ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ S lo p e !
(ii) volcanic mud ^GontinentEil Shelf 1200 Fathom
(iii) coral mud .O ce a n Deep ___ ,
■UyJjL

(3) Gupelagic deposits

(of marine and cosmic origin)
(i) red clay F ig . 6.3 : G e n e ra l d is trib u tio n o f m a rin e sediments.

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m ariN E s ed im e n ts a n d d e p o s it s 141
5 5 DISTRIBUTION OF OCEAN DEPOSITS th ro u g h w e a th e rin g an d e ro sio n o f c o n tin e n ta l
ro c k s by v a rio u s d e n u d a tio n a l p ro c e sses. T h e re is
Distribution o f o c e a n d e p o sits m ay be m a rk e d g ra d a tio n o f th e se sed im en ts w h en th e y
a t t e m p t in various w a y s as fo llo w s : are d e p o sited in th e o c ea n s. T h e seq u en ce o f th e se
^ v e rtic a l d is trib u tio n o f o c e a n d e p o sits (fig. m a terials fro m th e c o a st to w a rd s th e sea is g rav el,
6 .2) sand, silt, c lay an d m ud. T h e o c e a n c u rre n ts an d
»• re g io n a l d is trib u tio n (o c e a n -w ise d is trib u ­ w av es v ery o fte n d istu rb th e g ra d a tio n and
tio n ) seq u en ce o f sed im en ts. T e rrig e n o u s d e p o sits are
>- m a rin e p ro v in c e -w is e d is trib u tio n , such as c lassifie d into 3 c a te g o rie s on th e b a sis o f lo c atio n
o c e a n d e p o s its o n c o n tin e n ta l sh elv e s, and and d ep th as fo llo w s :
on d eep s e a p la in s. >- litto ral d ep o sits
»• sedim ent-w ise distribution, such as terrigenous
sh allo w w a ter d ep o sits
d e p o s its , a n d p e la g ic d e p o sits.
deep w a ter d ep o sits
Distribution of Terrigenous Deposits
(1) L i t t o r a l d e p o s its are g e n e ra lly fo u n d on
T e rrig e n o u s d ep o sits in clu d e gravels, sands, the co n tin en tal sh elv es m a in ly n e a r th e c o a sta l
m u d s, v o lc a n ic m a te ria ls etc. w h ich are derived m argins upto th e d ep th o f 100 fa th o m s (6 0 0 fe e t)
bu t they have b e en also tra c e d u p to th e d e p th o f
1000 m -2000 m. L itto ra l d e p o sits c o n s is t o f
g ravels, sands, silt, clay s an d m uds.
(2) S hallo w w a t e r d e p o s its in c lu d e te rrig e n o u s
sedim ents d ep o sited b e tw ee n lo w tid e w a te r a n d
100-fathom depth. T h ese d e p o sits c o n s is t o f
g ravels, sands, silt and clay s o f v a ry in g p ro p o r­
tions. Sea w aves an d tid a l w a v es h e lp in th e
g rad atio n and so rtin g o f sed im en ts b u t u n d e rs e a
lan d slid es, slu m p in g , stro n g sto rm w a v e s, an d
storm s som e tim es d istu rb th e v e rtic a l s tra tific a ­
tion o f sed im en ts.
(3) Deep w ater deposits in c lu d e th e se d im e n ts
d ep o sited b elo w th e d ep th o f 100 fa th o m s. T h e re
is m arked g rad atio n o f sed im en ts in v e rtic a l
succession w h ere the seq u en ce o f s e d im e n ts w ith
in creasin g d ep th s is b lu e m u d , re d m u d , g re e n
m ud, co ral m ud and v o lc an ic m ud.

_ _
t w , - _- «!'?k\s'> .v \v » v sv » V T '« 1 ■ '
1■"111 —i — >•

'' Distribution of Pelagic Deposits

\V \W N \W ' *' s
IS S W W V A V W W V V 'N S '
i\S\VKS.SVVV»'

V w \V «\SSW -V v\ > x S W •. .V* •. -N

W M
WW>W V i\W
M V > ’■
»sv . . v' \ \ \ \ \ W v ' sX V " ' V ....... kki U V V K W \ \ W W
P elag ic d ep o sits c o n sistin g o f re m a in s o f
. v , w . » w n v \ \ \ v\ V - n\V<
^ Sv A S ' ,V \S '\V m arin e p lan ts an d an im als in th e fo rm o f d iffe re n t
ty p es o f o o zes c o v er ab o u t 75.5 p e r c en t o f th e
1 terrigen ou s
o cean areas. P tero p o d , d iato m an d ra d io la ria n
o o zes co v er 0 .4 , 6.4 and 3.4 p e r cen t a re as o f a ll
glob igerin a
the o cean ic d ep o sits resp ectiv ely . R e d clay
c o n stitu tes 31.1 p e rc en t o f th e to ta l o c ea n
Fig, 6 .4 : Horizontal distribution o f marine deposits in dep o sits.
the Indian Ocean.

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 142

terrigenous radiolarian ooze

globigerina A V \\\\\V \W \\

\ \ \ \ xVWSWW
diatom

Red clay

Fig. 6.5 : H orizontal distribution o f marine deposits in

the Pacific Ocean.

Table 6 .2 : A re a s co vered by pelagic sed im en ts (million km 2)

S e d im e n ts A tla n tic O cean P acific O cean

C a lc a re o u s O o zes
(i) G lo b ig e rin a 40.1

(ii) P te ro p o d 1.5

T o tal 4 1.6
S ilice o u s O o zes
(i) D ia to m 4.1
(ii) R a d io la ria n

T o tal 4.1
R ed C lay 15.9

T o tal 61.6 143.2

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 ;•
M A R IN E S E D IM E N T S a n d d e p o s its
Fig. 6 .7 : S p a tia l distribution o f deep sea deposition o f pelagic sediments. Source. T.A. D avies and D.S. Gorsline, in
C hem ical Oceanography, edited by J.P. Riley and R. Chester, 1976; in P. R. Pinet, 2000.
P te ro p o d o o z e s are fo u n d o v er an area o f
12,90,000 k m 2.- G lo b ig e rin a oo zes c o v er larg er
areas in th e P a c ific (6 4 .5 m illio n k m 2), the
A tla n tic (3 7 .9 m illio n k m 2) an d th e In d ia n (31.4
m illio n k m 2) o c e a n s (fig s. 6.4 , 6.5 and 6.6).
R a d io la ria n o o z e s are fo u n d o v e r an a re a o f 5.16
m illio n k m 2 in th e P a c ific an d In d ia n o cean s.
D iato m o o z e s a re sp re a d o v e r an a re a o f 1,03,000
km 2 in th e N o rth P a c ific O c ea n an d 2 7 .6 m illio n
km 2 in th e s o u th e rn o c e a n s. R ed c lay is d istrib u te d
over an a re a o f 129 m illio n k m 2 o f all th e o cean s.
P h ilip p i h a s d e sc rib e d a v e rtic a l s tra tific a ­
tion o f d iffe re n t p e la g ic se d im e n ts w h e re in the
seq u en ce fro m to p to th e b o tto m in c lu d e s pte ro p o d
ooze, g lo b ig e rin a o o z e, ra d io la ria n o o ze, d iato m
ooze, an d re d c lay . F ig s. 6 .4 ,6 .5 , 6.6 & 6.7 d e p ict,
g eneral p a tte rn o f h o riz o n ta l d is trib u tio n o f o cean
dep o sits. It is a p p a re n t from th e fig u re s th at
terrig e n o u s d e p o sits are fo u n d a lo n g th e co asts
. m
r - ■; i
143
^L'-'K vv
m ain ly on c o n tin e n tal sh elv es b u t th e y c o v e r
g re a ter ex ten t n e a r th e E ast In d ie s, in th e N o rth
P a c ific and along the L a b ra d o r co ast. G lo b ig e rin a
ooze, red clay and d iato m o oze d o m in a te in the
w estern , e aste rn and so u th ern p arts o f th e In d ian
O cean w h e rea s it c o n tain s m a x im u m a real ex ten t
in th e P a c ific O cean.
Ocean Deposits on Continental Shelves
It m ay be re c a lle d th a t co n tin e n tal rocks are
the m o st sig n ific a n t so u rce o f m a rin e sedim ents,
as c o n tin e n ta l ro ck s are w eath ered by d ifferen t
w e a th e rin g p ro c e sses (p h y sical, ch em ical and
p h y sic o -b io -c h e m ic a l w e ath erin g ) and are eroded
by su rfa c e ru n o ff. T h e eroded m aterials are
c arrie d by the riv ers and are u ltim ately unloaded
in the o cean s. T h u s, terrig en o u s so u rce is the
m a jo r c o n trib u tin g so u rce o f sed im en ts to be
■
:. . • •• . .•
. . ■
*:• ri^>.iassS
SvS
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deposited on the co n tin en tal shelves. The follow ­
ing facto rs d eterm in e the process o f sedim ental on
co n tin ental shelves :
>• am ount o f terrigenous m aterials brought
by the rivers from the lands,
>• velocity o f riv er flow at th eir m ouths,
>■ distance from the coast,
>■ depth o f w ater,
>■ energy co nditions o f w aves, and currents,
etc.
It m ay be re e sta te d that continental shelves
are broad, alm o st flat and shallow platform s o f
land su b m erg ed u n d e r seaw ater, w hich range in
length (from coasts to the p o int o f s h e lf break, fig.
Fig. 6 .8 : Sequence o f deposition o f marine sediments on continental shelves.
It appears from the above discussion and
fig. 6.8 that grain size o f sedim ents on continental
shelves is proportional to energy level o f w aves
and currents. As the energy level decreases aw ay
from the shoreline, the grain size o f sh elf
sediments also decreases i.e. becom es finer
towards outer m argin o f sh elf (sh elf break). Thus
shallow water is characterized by high energy
condition and coarser sedim ents whereas deeper
water denotes low energy condition and fine
sediments.
OCEANOGRAPHY
6.8) from 70 to 100 kilom eters o r even more
having depths from o m (at the shoreline) to 120­
150 m eters. T idal w aves, w ind-generated sea
w aves and currents are p rim ary energy sources.
Since the energy o f bottom currents decreases
from the shoreline w ith increasing distance of
co ntinental shelves and increasing depth of
seaw ater, and hence there is m arked gradation
(sorting) o f terrigenous sedim ents on the floors of
continental shelves in the fo llo w in g sequence
(fig. 6 .8 ):
S ho relin e : gravels (b o u ld ers, cobbles, peb­
bles granules) coarse to m ed iu m grain ed sands
—►fine grained sands sand and m ud —* sandy
m ud -+ m ud in offshore reg io n = s h e l f b r e a k (outer
m argin o f continental shelves).
It m ay be m entioned th at the aforesaid ideal
sequence o f m arine sedim ents on continental
shelves is seldom found in reality because
fluctuation in sea level causes tran sg ressio n and
regression o f seaw ater on co astal lands and the
environm ent o f energy levels o f w aves and
current also changes. A t the tim e o f fall in sea
level (negative sea level change caused either by
tectonic activities or glacial age) the inner parts of
continental shelves (coastw ard p art) emerges
above sea level w hile during rise in sea level
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(positive sea level changes caused either by
tectonic activities or deglaciation o f ice sheets
during interglacial period) seaw ater transgresses
on to land. T hese events disturb the norm al
sequence o f m arine deposits on continental
shelves. T he geological records reveal fall o f sea
level due to late Pleistocene glaciation by about
130 m eters 15,000 years before preset from the
present sea level. T hereafter deglaciation during
H olocene period enabled the sea level to regain its
present level by rising 130m from the late
Pleistocene sea level. This is w hy m ajor portion o f
sedim ents on continental shelves is relict sedi­
ment. A round 60-65 percent o f outer continental
shelves is characterized by relict sedim ents o f
coarse texture (gravels and sands). It may be
m entioned that the outer continental shelves
(seaw ard portion) have relatively deeper water
w here low energy condition predom inates. Thus
coarse grained sedim ents cannot be deposited on
quiet sea condition o f present time. On the other
Table 6.3 : Distribution of deep-sea ocean deposits (pelagic deposits) (in percentage)
Type o f sedim ents Com position Atlantic
Ocean
G lobigerina ooze carbonate 65
Pteropod ooze carbonate 2 0.1
Ditom ooze silica 7 10
R adiolarian ooze silica - 5
R ed clay alum inium 26
silicate
Source : W .H . B erger, 1982
Deep-Sea Ocean Deposits
As already stated pelagic deposits predom i­
nate in the deep sea m arine deposits. The areal
distribution o f deep sea ocean deposits consisting
o f calcareous oozes (globigerina and pteropod
oozes), silicines oozes (diatom and radiolanian
and red clay) has been show n in table 6.2 w hile
percentages o f these deposits in different oceans
(A tlantic, P acific and Indian O ceans) have been
shown in table 6.3rT t is apparent from table 6.3
145
hand, the inner parts o f continental shelves are
characterized by coarse to fine grained sedim ents
w hich are in accordance w ith high energy level o f
bottom currents at p resent tim e. In other w ords,
the coarse and fine grained sedim ents on the
floors o f the inner continental shelves are m odem
sedim ents.
The w orldw ide d istribution o f m arine de­
posits on continental shelves denotes latitudinal
variation. K.O. Em ery (1969) has id en tified zonal
pattern o f distribution o f m arine sedim ents on
continental shelves at w orld level as follow s :
(1) Tropical shelves are dom inated by b io ­
genic sedim ents.
(2) Tem perate (m idlatitudes) shelves are ch ar­
acterized by the dom inance o f terrigenous
sedim ents brought by the rivers.
(3) Continental shelves in the p o la r areas are
dom inated by glacial m arine sedim ents
(tills and ice-rafted debris).
Pacific Indian W hole G lobe
Ocean Ocean
36 54 47
- 0.5
20 12
0.5 3
49 25 38
that globigerina ooze is the m ost w idespread
deposits on the floors o f deep oceans, as it
occupies 47 percent o f total global deep sea
deposits. Except the Pacific O cean, the A tlantic
and Indian O ceans are dom inated by globigerina
ooze as they account for 65 and 54 percent o f th eir
total deep sea deposits respectively. It is the red
clay w hich is m ost w idespread in the Pacific
Ocean (49 percent). The A tlantic and Indian
Oceans account for 26 and 25 percent o f th eir
respective total deep sea deposits. D iatom ooze is
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 vm
146
the th ird sig n ific a n t d e ep -se a d e p o sit (12 p e rc e n t
o f to ta l glo b al d eep sea d e p o sits). T he In d ia ,
P acific and A tla n tic O ceans c o n tain 20, 10 an
p ercen t o f th e ir total deep sea d ep o sits re s p e c ­
tively. R ad io larian ooze is a lm o st in sig n ific a n t as
it sh ares on ly 3 p e rc en t o f to ta l g lo b a l d eep sea
deposits.
6.6. IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
A u th ig e n ic d e p o s its : T h e m a te ria ls d e riv e d
through b io ch em ical p re c ip ita tio n and d e p o site d
on sea floors in situ are c a lle d a u th ig e n ic d ep o sits.
B a c k w a s h : T he b re a k e rs or sw ash or su rfs
after re ach in g th e slo p in g b e a c h re tu rn tow ard s
the sea as b a c k w a sh or u n d e r t o w c u r r e n t s and r ip
currents.
B io g en ic s e d i m e n t s : T he sed im en ts form ed
through th e d ep o sitio n o f skeletal rem ains o f
m arine organism s on sea floors are called biogenous
sed im en ts and deposits w hich have at least 30
p ercen t by volum e o f rem ains o f m arine organism s.
B r e a k e r w a v e s : T he tu rb u len t and unstab le
fo rw ard m o v in g sh o re b o u n d w aves, w hich b reak
at the sh o re lin e, are c alled b re a k er w aves or
sim ply b r e a k e r s o r s u r f , o r u p r u s h o r s w ash .
B r e a k w a t e r s : are protective structures errected
o ffsh o re to sav e th e co asts from the w ave erosion.
T hey m ay be p a ra lle l, p e rp e n d ic u la r or slan tin g to
the coasts.
B u lk e m p l a c e m e n t : in volves
the enm ass
tran sp o rt (slu m p in g ) o f m arine sedim ents dow n
the u n d ersea slope by g rav ity cu rren ts or tu rb id ity
currents u n d e r the force o f gravity.
C o n t in e n ta l s h e lf : T he bro ad , flat, shallow
and g en tly slop in g sea flo o r ex ten d in g from the
coasts to th e p o in t o f s h e lf b reak or u pper p art o f
continental slope is c alled co n tin en tal shelf.
Continental slope : S teeply sloping s u b ­
m erged sea bottom ex ten d in g from the outer
m arging o f continental s h e lf o r from the p o in t o f
sh e lf break and ending into deep sea trenches is
called continental slope.
Cosmogenous sediments : T he sedim ents o f
ex traterrestrial origin, say from the m eteo rites in
the space, are called cosm ogenous sedim ents.
Deep sea fans : C o n e -s h a p e d d ep o sits of
g ra d e d m a te ria ls a t th e m o u th s o f subm arine
c a n y o n s a re c a lle d d e e p s e a fan s.
Density current : T h e u n d e rs e a gravity*
d riv e n c u rre n t is c a lle d d e n s ity c u rre n t su ch as
tu rb id ity c u rre n t.
Diatoms : are s in g le c e lle d m icro sco p ic
p h y to p la n k to n s (m a rin e p la n ts ) w h ic h a re respon­
sib le fo r b u lk p rim a ry p ro d u c tio n in m arine
e n v iro n m e n t.
E v a p o r ites : are d eposits o fd is s o lv e d sub
d ue to e v a p o ra tio n o f w a te r s u c h as s a lts and
g y p su m .
F o r a m i n i f e r a : are m a rin e p ro to z o a n s h aving
te st c o m p o se d o f c a lc iu m c a rb o n a te , a n d lin e a r or
sp ira l o r c o n c e n tric sh e lls p e rfo ra te d b y sm all
h o les or p o res.
G lacial m arin e s e d im e n ts : are those terrigenous
sed im en ts w h ic h are tra n s p o rte d a n d d ep o sited by
g laciers in th e o c e a n s. T h e s e a lso in clu d e the
sed im en ts p ro d u c e d th ro u g h ic e r a ftin g .
G rad ed b e d d in g : d e n o te s v e rtic a l g rad in g o f
g rain size in th e la y e re d s tru c tu re o f sed im en tary
d ep o sits w h ere g ra in s iz e b e c o m e s fin e r in
a sc e n d in g order.
G ravels : are c o a r s e -g ra in e d terrig en o u s
m a te ria ls c o n sis tin g o f b o u ld e rs , c o b b le s , pebbles
and g ran u les.
G ra v ity w aves : a r e m a r in e u n d e r s e a w a v e s ,
s u c h a s tu r b id ity w a v e s o r c u r r e n t s .
G roin s : are p ro te c tiv e s tru c tu re s o f either
c o n crete o r w o o d s w h ic h a re e rre c te d p e rp e n d icu ­
lar to th e c o asts at re g u la r in te rv a ls to protect
h a rb o u rs an d b e ac h e s.
Hydrogenous sedim ents : T h e sedim ents
d eriv ed fro m p re c ip ita tio n o f d is s o lv e d sub­
stances due to chem ical reactions such as phosphorites,
o o lites (c a lc iu m c a rb o n a te ), m e ta l su lfid e s, gyp­
sum , salts etc. are c a lle d h y d ro g e n o u s sediments.
Lithogenous sediments : T h e sed im en ts derived
froth the w eath erin g and ero sio n o f rocks either on
land or in oceans are called lith o g en o u s sedim ents.
L ittoral zone : T h e z o n e o f b e n th ic province
b etw een h ig h and low tid e w a te rs is c a lle d littoral
zone.
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m arine sed im en ts a n d d epo sits
Mucro'blogcnlc sediments : are those sediments
which are derived from the shells, bones and
teeths o f marine animals.
M lcro -b lo g c n lc s e d i m e n t s : are sm all particles
o f m icroscopic m arin e o rg an ism s, such as
tests w hich co n tinuously fall dow n on sea
bottoms.
M a r in e s n o w f a l l : T he continuous fall o f tiny
marine sedim ents on the ocean floors is called
marine snow fall. It resem bles the fall o f snow
flakes on the land.
: T he m arine sedim ents
N e ritic s e d im e n ts
deposited on the floors o f continental shelves are
called n eritic sedim ents.
O c e a n d e p o s its : T he consolidated m arine
sedim ents in the form o f sedim entary layers on sea
floors are called ocean deposits.
P e la g ic m a t t e r : T he sedim ents deposited on
deep sea floors through slow sedim entation are
called pelagic m atter.
: T he hydrogenic deposits
P h o s p h o r i te s
h av in g th e nodules o f phosphorous (P2O 5) are
called p h o sp h o rites.
R e t a i l s e d i m e n t a t i o n : involves deposition o f
m arine sed im en ts particle by particle, known as
co n tin u ous ra in o f tiny particles.
147
R a d l o l a r l a : are u n icellu lar m arine anim als
having siliceous tests and belong to planktom c
and benthos com m unity.
R elict s e d i m e n t s : denote those sedim ents on
the continental shelves w hich are not o f m odern
age as they are not in equilibrium to present
environm ental condition.
Seawall : is a p ro tectiv e stru ctu re o f w ood,
boulders or concrete w hich are co nstructed along
the coasts to p rotect them from w ave erosion.
S h elf b r e a k : is the o uter edge o f the
continental shelves from w here starts th e co n ti­
nental slope.
T e r rig e n o u s sedim en ts : are those m arine
sedim ents w hich are derived through the w eath er­
ing and erosion o f continental rocks and b ro u g h t
to the oceans by rivers.
T ests : The tiny shells o f m icroscopic
m arine organism s are called tests w hich co n tin u ­
ously fall on sea floors.
T u r b id ity c u r r e n t s : are driven by the high
density o f sedim ents. They are laden w ith slurry
o f sedim ents and m ove dow nslope w ith high
speed in the oceans.
U n d e rto w c u r r e n ts : T he b reak er w aves
(surfs) after reaching the sloping beach returns to
the sea as a backw ash or undertow current.
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CHAPTER 7 ATMOSPHERE-SEA INTERACTIONS 148-204
s o la r ra d ia tio n a n d h e a tin g o f e a rth 's su rfa c e ,
m e rid io n a l tra n s fe r o f h e a t fro m o c e a n su rfa ce ,
h e a tin g a n d c o o lin g o f g ro u n d an d o c e a n su rfa ce s,
d iffe re n tia l h e a tin g and c o o lin g o f lan d an d o c ea n su rfa c e s,
a tm o s p h e ric p re s su re ,
p re s s u re g ra d ie n t,
h o riz o n ta l d is trib u tio n o f air p re ssu re and p re ssu re b e lts,
a tm o s p h e ric m o tio n ,
g lo b a l w in d b e lts ,
a tm o s p h e ric c e llu la r c irc u la tio n ,
E l N in o -L a N in a p h e n o m e n o n ,
W a lk a r c irc u la tio n a n d so u th ern o scie lla tio n ,
m onsoon,
o rig in o f In d ia n m o n so o n ,
la n d a n d sea b re e z e s,
tro p ic a l c y c lo n e s ,
____ _____ —^ rn * C T U c rrw rD V

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 ATMOSPHERE - SEA INTERACTIONS
7.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
T h e a tm o s p h e re -o c e a n s y ste m is a m u tu a lly
in te ra c tin g s y ste m w h ic h a ffe c ts life fo rm s, b o th
on th e c o n tin e n ts an d in th e o c e a n s. T h u s, th e
stu d y o f a tm o s p h e re -o c e a n in te ra c tio n s is o f
p a ra m o u n t s ig n ific a n c e b e c a u s e o f th e fo llo w in g
c h a ra c te ris tic fe a tu re s o f in te ra c tio n s b e tw e e n th e
a tm o sp h e re an d th e o c e a n s a t lo c al, re g io n a l an d
g lo b a l le v e ls :
>■ T h e a tm o sp h e re -o c e a n s y n d ro m e is c h a r­
a c te riz e d by m u tu a lly in te ra c tiv e c o m p o ­
n e n ts o f b o th , the a tm o sp h e re , an d th e
o c ea n s.
>■ T he atm osphere and the oceans are interlinked
th ro u g h v a rio u s p h y sic a l and c h e m ic a l
p ro c e ss e s su ch as flo w o f h e a t e n erg y ,
a tm o sp h e ric an d o c ea n ic c irc u la tio n s, p re ­
c ip ita tio n p ro c e ss etc.
T he atm osphere and the oceans are interlinked
and o p e ra te th ro u g h fe e d b a c k m ech an ism .
F o r e x a m p le , the a tm o sp h e ric c irc u la tio n
p a tte rn s (w in d b e lts) g e n erate su rfa ce
c u rre n ts in the o cean s. O n the o th e r h an d ,
a tm o sp h e ric sto rm s, m a in ly tro p ic a l c y ­
c lo n es, b re e d in the o ceans.
T h e so la r r a d ia tio n e n e r g y is th e prime
so u rce o f m o tio n s in th e atm osphere
(tem p eratu re —►air p r e ssu r e —►air circula­
tio n ) and the o c e a n s ( —►h ea t, temperature,
air -♦ su r fa c e cu rren ts).
T he a tm o sp h ere p la y s a k ey role in the
op eration and m a in te n a n c e o f global h y ­
d r o lo g ic a l c y c le fro m th e o c ea n s —►to the
atm o sp h ere, —►fro m th e atm osp h ere to the
co n tin en ts —* and fro m th e co n tin en ts back
to the o c e a n s. T h e so la r h eat causes
ev a p o ra tio n o f sea w a te r , th e atm ospheric
circu la tio n (air c ir c u la tio n ) transports the
m o istu re from o v e r s the o c e a n s to the
c o n tin en ts and b a ck to th e o c e a n in the
form o f p r e cip ita tio n .
T here is c o n sta n t e x c h a n g e o f energy
b e tw e en th e a tm o sp h er e and th e oceans
through p h y sic a l p r o c e s s e s , su c h as input
o f solar rad iation fr o m th e su n through the
atm osph ere in to th e o c e a n s , and input o f
m oisture through evap oration from seawater
to t e a tm o sp h ere, h e a tin g o f su rface water
o the o c ea n s and th us form ation o f
pressure and w in d b e lts etc.
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ATMOSPHERE - SEA INTERACTIONS
>> T h e in te ra c tio n s b e tw ee n the c o m p o n en ts
o f a tm o sp h e re -o c e a n sy ste m d eterm in e
w e a th e r p a tte rn s.
T h e p e rio d ic c h an g e s in the a tm o sp h eric
an d w e a th e r c o n d itio n s g iv in g b irth to
e x tre m e w e a th e r ev en ts su ch as sev ere
tro p ic a l c y c lo n ic sto rm s, flo o d s, dro u g h ts
etc. are d ire c tly re la te d to p e rio d ic ch an g es
in th e p h y s ic a l c o n d itio n s o f su rface w a ter
o f th e o c ea n s. T h e El. N in o ev en ts are the
d ire c t re s u lt o f p e rio d ic ch an g es in the
p h y s ic a l c o n d itio n s o f the o cea n -a tm o s-
p h e re sy ste m .
>■ T h e W a lk e r c irc u la tio n an d the S o u th ern
O s c illa tio n a lso v a lid a te th e in te rd e p e n d ­
en c e o f th e a tm o sp h e re an d the oceans.
>- T h e s e a s o n a l v a ria tio n s in w e a th e r c o n d i­
tio n s in a s p e c ific re g io n are also in d icativ e
o f m u tu a l in te ra c tio n s an d in te rd e p e n d ­
e n c e o f th e a tm o sp h e re an d th e ocean s.
>- T h e o c e a n s are g re a t sin k s o f atm o sp h eric
c a rb o n d io x id e . A su b sta n tia l p o rtio n o f
in c re a s e d c a rb o n d io x id e by a n th ro p o ­
g e n ic so u rc es, w h ich cau ses, and is c au s­
in g , g lo b a l w a rm in g , is a b so rb ed by the
o c e a n s d u rin g th e p h o to sy n th e sis by the
p h y to p la n k to n s .
T h u s , th e re are am p le ev id en ces and
e x a m p le s to d e m o n stra te th e c lo se in te rd e ­
p e n d e n c e o f th e a tm o sp h e re and the oceans
in a n u m b e r o f w ay s. It is, th erefo re,
d e s ira b le th a t th e fo llo w in g asp e c ts o f
a tm o s p h e re -o c e a n sy ste m sh o u ld be b rie fly
d e s c rib e d :
1. In s o la tio n a n d h e a tin g an d c o o lin g o f
th e e a r th ’s s u rfa c e in c lu d in g b o th land
a n d o c e a n s u rfa c e s.
2. G lo b a l a ir p re s s u re a n d w in d b elts.
3. G e n e ra l a tm o s p h e ric c irc u la tio n and
its im p a c ts on th e o c e a n c irc u la tio n .
4. P e rio d ic c h a n g e s in th e w e a th e r o f the
a tm o s p h e re -o c e a n s y ste m v is -a v is E l
N in o P h e n o m e n o n , W a lk e r C irc u la ­
tio n , a n d S o u th e rn O sc illa tio n .
5. Seasonal variation in the regional w eather
c o n d itio n s v is-a - v is m o n so o n s.
6. T ro p ic a l c y c lo n e s.
149
7.2 SOLAR RADIATION AND HEATING O F T H 8
EARTH'S SURFACE
. jSi.V.'/
T h e h e atin g an d co o lin g o f th e e a rth ’s
su rfa ce in c lu d in g b o th lan d and o c ea n su rfa c e s
d eterm in e s the w e ath e r p a tte rn s o v e r th e g lo b e.
T he e a r th ’s su rfa ce re c eiv e s en erg y fro m th re e
so u rces, n a m ely ( 1 ) solar radiation, (2 ) gravity, and
(3) cndogcnetic forces c o m in g from w ith in th e earth
b u t the so lar ra d ia tio n is the m o s t s ig n ific a n t
so u rce o f te rre stria l h e at en erg y . S o la r e n e rg y
received through solar radiation from the photosphere
o f the sun h eats the e a r th ’s s u rfa c e a n d th e
atm o sp h ere and th u s is re sp o n sib le fo r th e
m o v em en t o f a ir and c u rre n ts, d riv in g th e s u rfa c e
cu rren ts in the o cean s th ro u g h c h a n g e s in te m ­
p eratu re, and p re ssu re g ra d ie n ts, an d d riv in g th e
h y d ro lo g ica l cy cle th ro u g h e v ap o ra tio n a n d p r e ­
cip itatio n .
It m ay be p o in te d o u t th a t the s o la r e n e rg y is
resp o n sib le fo r the fu n c tio n in g and m a in te n a n c e
o f the ‘e arth -a tm o sp h e re s y s te m ’ a n d th e s o la r
e n erg y is re c eiv e d th ro u g h so lar ra d ia tio n . D iff e r­
ent types o f w e a th e r p h e n o m en a w h ic h o c c u r o n
the e a rth ’s su rface d ep en d on the m o d e o f tra n s fe r
and ex ch an g e o f so lar e n erg y b e tw e e n th e e a r th ’s
su rface and the a tm o sp h ere . T he e n e rg y tra n s fe r
from p lace to p la ce ta k e s p la c e th ro u g h th e
p ro c e sses o f c o n d u ctio n , c o n v e c tio n an d ra d ia ­
tion.
O n an a v erag e , th e a m o u n t o f in s o la tio n
re c e iv e d at th e e a rth ’s s u rfa c e d e c re a se s fro m
e q u a to r to w a rd s th e p o le s b u t th e re is te m p o ra l
v a ria tio n o f in s o la tio n re c e iv e d at d iffe re n t
la titu d e s a t d iffe re n t tim e s o f th e y e a r. T a b le 7.1
d e p ic ts th e a m o u n t o f in s o la tio n re c e iv e d a t th e
o u te r b o u n d a ry o f th e a tm o sp h e re a n d a t th e
e a r th ’s su rfa c e a t th e tim e o f w in te r s o ls tic e
(2 2 D e c e m b e r), v e rn a l e q u in o x (2 1
M a rc h ), su m m e r so lstic e (21 J u n e ) a n d autum nal
e q u in o x (23 S e p te m b e r) as g iv e n b y B a u r and
P h illip s. f >,,:W
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 I,, :

OCEANOGF
150
Table 7 .1 : Average amount of direct solar radiation received at the outer boundary of the atmosphere and at
earth’s surface (in cal/crr^/min)

D a te L a titu d e s (n o rth e rn h e m is p h e re )
0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-90
A -R e c e iv e d at th e u p p e r lim it o f th e a tm o s p h e re
D e c e m b e r, 22 0.549 0.465 0.373 0.274 0.173 0.079 0.006
M arch, 21 0.619 0.601 0.563 0.509 0.441 0.358 0.211
June, 21 0.579 0.629 0.664 0.684 0.689 0.683 0.703
S e p te m b e r, 23 0.610 0.592 0.556 0.503 0.435 0.353 0.208
B -R eceived at the earth ’s surface if cloudiness and turbidity are considered
D ecem ber, 22 0.164 0.161 0.134 0.082 0.036 0.013 0 .0 0 1 ­

M arch, 21 0.191 0.221 0.206 0.161 0.116 0.096 0.055

June, 21 0.144 0.170 0.216 0.233 0.183 0.159 0.133

Septem ber, 23 0.170 0.162 0.201 0.183 0.131 0.079 0.028

S o u r c e : B aur and Phillips

It is a p p aren t from table 7.1 th at the am ount
o f so lar ra d ia tio n re a ch in g the o u ter lim it o f our
a tm o sp here is sig n ific a n tly m ore at d ifferen t
latitu d es (A in tab le 7.1) th an the am ount o f
in so latio n re c e iv e d at the g round surface. This
trend re v e a ls the fact th a t a sizeab le p ortio n o f
in co m in g so la r ra d ia tio n is lo st w hile passing
th ro u g h the a tm o sp h ere due to clo u d in ess, atm o s­
p h eric tu rb id ity (sc atte rin g ) , re flectio n , and
ab so rp tio n (th ro u g h ozo n e). T he d a ta o f in s o la ­
tio n as p o rtray ed in tab le 7.1. A fu rth e r re v e a l th a t
m axim um in so la tio n re a ch e s th e o u te r lim it o f the
atm o sp h ere at n o rth p o le a t th e tim e o f sum m er
so lstice w h ile m a x im u m in s o la tio n is re c e iv e d at
the g round su rface b e tw e e n la titu d e s 30°-40°N on
21st June b e ca u se o f m in im u m a m o u n t o f
c lo u d in ess due to th e p re sen c e o f s u b tro p ic a l h ig h
p ressu re b e lt and a n tic y c lo n ic c o n d itio n s.

Table 7 .2 : Am ount o f insolation received at the earth’s surface from equator towards the poles (in percentage).

Latitudes 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Insolation in
per cent 100 99 95 88 79 68 57 47 43 42

T ab le 7 .2 re v e a ls the fa c t th a t to ta l am o u n t in so la tio n d u rin g w in te r an d su m m e r seasons

o f in so la tio n re c eiv e d at the e a r th ’s su rface
d e crea se s fro m e q u a to r to w a rd s the po les. T h e
in so la tio n b e c o m e s so low at the p o le s th a t th ey
re c eiv e a b o u t 40 p e r c e n t o f th e am o u n t re c eiv e d
at th e eq u ato r. T h e tro p ic a l zo n e e x te n d in g
b e tw ee n th e tro p ic s o f C an c e r (23.5°N ) and
C a p ric o rn (2 3 .5 °S ) re c e iv e s m a x im u m in so la tio n .
N o t o n ly th is, th e re is v ery little v a ria tio n o f
b e c a u se e v e ry p la c e e x p e rie n c e s ' o v e rh e ad s u n >
tw ic e ev ery y e ar. T h e g lo b e is d iv id e d in to 3 zones j
on th e b a sis o f th e a m o u n t o f in s o la tio n re c e iv e # j
d u rin g th e c o u rse o f a y ear.
(1) Low latitude o r tropical zone exten
b e tw e e n th e tro p ic s o f C a n c e r a n d C ap rico rn .7
p la c e s e x p e rie n c e o v e rh e a d su n (s u n ’s rays
v e rtic a l) tw ic e d u rin g th e c o u rs e p f a yea* due

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 ATMOSPHERE - SEA INTERACTIONS
n o rth w a rd a n d s o u th w a rd m a rc h o f th e sun.
C o n se q u e n tly , e v e ry p la c e re c e iv e s m a x im u m
an d m in im u m in s o la tio n tw ic e a y e ar. T he re g io n
re c e iv e s h ig h e s t a m o u n t o f in s o la tio n o f all o th e r
z o n e s a n d th e re is little se a s o n a l v a ria tio n .
(2 ) M i d d l e l a t i t u d e z o n e e x ten d s b e tw ee n
2 3 .5 ° a n d 66° la titu d e s in b o th th e h e m isp h ere s.
W ith in th is z o n e e v e ry p la c e re c e iv e s m a x im u m
(a t th e tim e o f s u m m e r so lstice -2 1 Ju n e in the
n o rth e rn h e m is p h e re a n d at th e tim e o f w in te r
s o ls tic e -2 2 D e c e m b e r in th e so u th e rn h e m i­
sp h ere) a n d m in im u m (a t th e tim e o f v e rn a l
e q u in o x -2 1 M a rc h in th e n o rth e rn h e m isp h e re and
at th e tim e o f a u tu m n a l e q u in o x -2 3 S e p te m b e r in
th e s o u th e rn h e m is p h e re ) in s o la tio n o n ce d u rin g
the c o u rs e o f a y e a r. In s o la tio n is n e v e r a b se n t at
any tim e o f th e y e a r b u t s e a s o n a l v a ria tio n
in c re a s e s w ith in c re a s in g la titu d e s.
(3 ) P o l a r z o n e e x te n d s b e tw e e n 66° and 90°
(p o le s ) la titu d e s in b o th th e h e m isp h e re s. E v ery
p la c e re c e iv e s m a x im u m an d m in im u m in so la tio n
o n c e d u rin g th e c o u rs e o f a y e a r b u t som e tim es
Table 7 .3 : Albedo (reflection of solar radiation) of flat surface of the oceans in relation to the angle ofthe sun s rays
90° 60° 50° 30°
A ngle o f the
su n ’s ray s (e q u a to r)
R eflected so la r
2 3 3.5 6 20
radiation (p e rc e n t)
A bsorbed so la r
97 96.5 94
radiation (p e rc e n t) 98
S in c e th e o c e a n ’s s u rfa c e c o v e rs m o re th a n
70 p e rc e n t o f to ta l e a r th ’s s u rfa c e and h e n c e
reflectio n a n d a b s o r p tio n o f s o la r ra d ia tio n is o f
great re le v a n c e f o r th e d if f e r e n tia l h e a tin g a n d
cooling o f th e la n d a n d s e a s u rfa c e s , g lo b a l
patterns o f a ir p re s s u re a n d w in d s y s te m s w h ic h in
him d e te rm in e th e m o tio n s in th e o c e a n s se a
waves, s u rfa c e c u rre n ts o f th e o c e a n s , u p w e llin g
aQd d o w n w e llin g o f o c e a n w a te r a n d h e n c e
M ovem ent o f o c e a n w a te r m a s s e s . It is e v id e n t
from ta b le 7.3 th a t th e a lb e d o (r e fle c tio n ) o f s o la r
rad iation fro m th e o c e a n s u rfa c e ra p id ly in c re a s e s
in so la tio n b e co m e s zero d u e to ab sen ce o f d irect
s o la r ray s. -
T h e a tm o sp h ere affects th e am o u n t o f so lar
e n erg y re a c h in g th e su rfaces o f th e co n tin e n ts and
th e o cean s th ro u g h the p ro c e sses o f re fle c tio n ,
d iffu s e re fle c tio n , a b s o r p t i o n , an d s c a t t e r i n g . T he
p o la r areas re c eiv e th e le a st am o u n t o f so lar
ra d ia tio n b e ca u se o f th e fo llo w in g fa c to rs :
>■ T h e so lar ra d ia tio n w a v es h av e to p ass
th ro u g h th e th ic k e st p o rtio n o f th e a tm o s­
p h ere an d h en ce m u ch o f so la r e n e rg y is
lo st in th e tra n sit.
>- T h e so la r ra d ia tio n w a v es re a c h th e e a rth ’s
su rface at v ery low a n g les in th e h ig h
latitu d e s an d h e n ce v e ry little a m o u n t o f
so lar ra d ia tio n is tra n sp o rte d to th e p o la r
reg io n s.
>- T h e su rfa ce s o f th e ocean s are co v e re d w ith
ice in th e p o la r areas an d h e n ce m o st o f th e
so lar ra d ia tio n is re fle c te d b a c k to sp ac e
(tab le 7.3).
15° 10° 5° 0° (near the horizons)
(poles) —__
35 40 99+
80 65 60 -1
p o le w a rd as it is o n ly 2 p e rc e n t a t th e e q u a to r an d
b e c o m e s m o re th a n 90 p e rc e n t a t th e p o le s. O n th e
o th e r h a n d , a b so rp tio n o f s o la r ra d ia tio n b y the
o c e a n s ra p id ly d e c re a se s p o le w a rd (ta b le 7.3).
T h is situ a tio n o f v e ry lo w in s o la tio n in th e h ig h
la titu d e s a n d v e ry h ig h in s o la tio n in th e low
la titu d e s c a u se s s in k in g (d o w n w e llin g ), an d
s p re a d in g a n d u p w e llin g o f o c e a n w a te rs in th e
p o la r a re a s a n d lo w tro p ic a l re g io n s re sp e c tiv e ly .
T h e sin k in g o f c o ld w a te r in th e h ig h la titu d e s
c a u s e s e q u a to rw a rd m o v e m e n t o f u n d e rs e a w a te r
m a ss e s w h ile u p w e llin g a n d sp re a d in g o f w a rm
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o c e a n w a te r causes polew ard m ovem ent o f
s u rfa c e w a te r o f the ocean# but this polew ard
m o v e m e n t o f surface ocean w ater is deflected
w e stw a rd in the tropical regions due to prevailing
w in d s. T h is aspect w ill be discussed later in this
c h ap te r.
**• T he rotation o f the earth along its
in c lin e d axis (23.5°) causes daily (daylight and
n ig h t) v a ria tio n s in the am ount o f solar radiation
at a p lace.
>• T he reso lu tio n o f the earth with its
in c lin e d axis around the sun causes seasonal and
an n u al variatio n s in solar radiation to be received
at the ocean surfaces.
It m ay be m entioned that there is latitudinal
im b alance in the net solar radiation (which is
equal to total radiation received minus total
rad iatio n lost) over the ocean surface (and also
o v er the land surface) betw een the tropical and
polar regions in term s o f energy surplus (where
incom ing solar radiation exceeds outgoing radia­
tion from the ocean surface and energy deficit
(w here outgoing radiation from the ocean surface
exceeds incom ing solar radiation).
The energy surplus and energy deficit areas
m ay be identified and interpreted in two ways as
follow s, latitudinal base being common in both
the cases :
>- at the surface o f the oceans
>- in the atm osphere
( ! ) The distribution o f net solar radiation at
the ocean surface from equator tow ards the poles
show s the follow ing trends :
(a) T here is large en e rg y s u rp lu s a r e a betw een
30°N and 40°S (due to larger proportion o f
ocean area) w here energy gain from the
incom ing solar radiation is m ore than the
loss o f energy through outgoing long wave
terrestrial radiation from the ocean surface
(table 7.3).
(b) N et radiation rapidly decreases from the
energy surplus areas o f low latitudes to
m id-latitudes area.
(c) N et radiation becom es zero at 70° latitude
in both the hem ispheres.
(d) The polar areas are the zones o f perennial
energy deficit.
(2) ‘The latitudinal distribution o f net
radiation in the atm osphere is itse lf a net loser of
radiation at all latitu d es’ (J. E. Hobbs, 1980).
Thus, the atm osphere is the zone o f perennial
energy deficit because the d eficit o f energy
alw ays exceeds 60 kilo langleys per year. If the
data o f net radiation o f both, the earth ’s surface
(land and ocean surfaces) and the atm osphere are
com bined together, the net radiation value, for the
com bined e a rth ’s s u r f a c e - a t m o s p h e r e system’
may be calculated. B ased on the com bined data
the follow ing energy zones are identified (A.N.
Strahler, 1978) :
>*■ Large region o f surplus radiation extend­
ing betw een 30°N and 40°S latitudes,
Northern high latitudes o f deficit radiation,
and
Southern high latitudes o f deficit radiation.
7.3 MERIDIONAL TRANSFER OF HEAT FROM
OCEAN SURFACE
One should not infer from the above
discussion that the areas o f energy surplus and
deficit are always m aintained. The nature tries to
m aintain balance in the heat budget o f the land-
ocean-atm osphere system . It m eans that ‘there must
exist a two-way heat transfer; from the earth ’s
surface to the atm osphere, and from the equator to
the p o les’ (J.E. H obbs, 1980). This can be
achieved if heat is transported from the earth ’s
surface (land and ocean surfaces), and from
tropical and subtropical areas o f surplus radiation
to polar areas o f deficit radiation. The transport o f
heat from equatorial areas tow ards the poles is
called meridional transport of heat.
The m eridional transport o f heat energy
in the form o f sensible heat is accom plished by
the a tm o sp h e ric c irc u la tio n an d ocean
currents w hich transport heat energy from ‘I®*
latitu d es su rp lu s energy a re a s ’ to ‘high latitudes
deficit energy a re a s ’. The vertical transport oi
heat in the atm osphere is accom plished 36-
ascending air in the form o f sensible heat ^
latent heat.
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ATMOSfHBRB ~SEA INTfERACTTONS
74 HEATING AND COOLING OF GROUND AND
* OCEAN SURFACES AND THE ATMOS­
PHERE
The solar energy received by the earth's
surface including both ground (.land) surface and
w ater surtace (ot the seas and the oceans) is
converted into heat energy in the form o f sensible
heat (heat that can be measured by therm om eter)
and is tem porarily stored. This stored energy is
radiated from the ground (land) and ocean
surfaces in the form o f longw aves into the
atm osphere. The process ot radiation of heat
energy from the earth 's surtace is called ground
radiation (including radiation from both, land
surface and ocean w ater surtaceV The part ot this
radiation after being absorbed bv the atm osphere
is again radiated back to the earth 's surtace. This
process o f radiation o f terrestrial heat energy from
the atm osphere back to the earth's surtace is
called c o u n te r -ra d ia tio n o r sky radiation . The coun­
ter-radiation is effected mainly by w ater vapour
and atm ospheric carbon dioxide. The heating and
cooling o f the atm osphere, ground and oceans is
accom plished through the processes o f direct
absorption o f solar radiation, conduction, terres­
trial radiation, convection condensation, adi­
abatic m echanism etc.
1. Heating of the Atmosphere by Direct Solar
Insolation
T he heat energy is radiated from the outer
surface o f the sun (photosphere) in the form o f
shortw aves. The atm osphere absorbs 14 per cent
o f incom ing shortw ave solar radiation through
ozone, oxygen, w ater vapour etc. present therein.
Seven p er cent o f this energy is spread in the lower
atm osphere up to the height o f 2 km. It is apparent
that this am ount is too low to heat the atm osphere
significantly.
2. C onduction
The tran sfer o f heat through the m olecules
o f m atter in any body is called conduction. The
transfer o f h eat under the process o f conduction
may be accom plished in tw o w ays viz. (i) from
153
one part o f a body to the other part o f the sam e
body, and (ii) from one body to the other touching
body C onduction m ay be effective only w hen
there is difference in tem peratures in different
parts o f a single body or in two bodies and the
process continues till the tem peratures o f all parts
o f a body or o f two touching bodies becom e sam e.
It is obvious that heat m oves from w arm er body to
the cooler body through m olecular m ovem ent.
The rate o f transfer o f heat through m olecular
movement depends on the heat cond u ctiv ity o f the
substance. The substance or a body w hich allow s
transfer o f heat through conduction at a very fast
rate is called good c o n d u c to r of h e a t w hile the
substance or a body w hich retards co n duction o f
heat is called bad or po or c o n d u c to r o f h e a t. M etal is
a good conductor o f heat w hile air is v ery p oor
conductor o f heat. The e arth ’s land and ocean
surface is heated during day-tim e after receiv in g
solar radiation. The air com ing in contact w ith the
warm er land and ocean surface is also h eated
because o f transfer o f heat (conduction o f h eat)
from the ground and ocean surface th ro u g h the
m olecules to the air. Since air is very p o o r
conductor o f heat and hence the tran sfer o f h eat
from the land and ocean surface through c o n d u c ­
tion is effective only upto a few m etres in the
lower atm osphere and thus the low er atm o sp h ere
is heated. The land and ocean surface b eco m es
colder than the air above during w in ter n ig h ts and
thus heat is transferred from the low er p o rtio n o f
the atm osphere to the land surface and th u s the
atm osphere is cooled.
3. Terrestrial Radiation
The process o f tran sfer o f h e a t fro m one
body to the other bo d y w ith o u t the aid o f a
m aterial m edium (e.g. solid, liq u id o r g as) is
called radiation. T here are tw o b asic law s w h ich
govern the n ature o f flow o f h eat en erg y th ro u g h
radiation.
(a) Wien’s displacement law ‘states th a t the
w avelength o f the ra d iatio n is in v ersely p ro p o r­
tio n al to the ab so lu te tem p eratu re o f th e e m ittin g
b o d y ’.
(b) Stefan-Boltzmann law ‘states th a t flo w , o r
flux o f rad iatio n is p ro p o rtio n al to th e fo u rth
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power o f the absolute temperature o f the radiating
bo d y’.
The e arth ’s ground and occan surface after
receiving insolation from the sun through shortwave
electrom agnetic radiation gets heated and radiates
heat to the atm osphere in the form o f longwave or
infrared radiation throughout 24 hours. It may be
rem em bered that the atm osphere is more or less
transparent for incom ing shortw ave solar rad ia­
tion but it absorbs more than 90 per cent o f
outgoing longw ave terrestrial radiation through
w ater vapour, carbon dioxide, ozone etc. Thus,
the terrestrial radiation is the most im portant
source o f heating o f the atm osphere. The process
o f radiation o f heat from the earth’s ground and
ocean surface is called groun d rad iation . The part
o f this ground radiation after oeing absorbed by
the atm osphere is radiated back to the earth s
surface. This process o f radiation o f terrestrial
heat energy from the atm osphere back to the
e arth ’s surface is called cou n ter-ra d ia tio n or iky
ra d ia tio n which is effected m ainly by w ater vapour
and atm ospheric carbon dioxide. This mechanism
know n as green h o u se effect keeps the lower
atm osphere and the ground and ocean surface
relatively w arm er. Thus, the atm osphere acts as
w indow glasspane which allow s the shortw ave
solar radiation to come in and prevent the
longw ave terrestrial radiation to escape into
space.
It is obvious that the increase in the
co n centration o f carbon dioxide in the atm osphere
w ill in crease the greenhouse effect and thus the
tem p eratu re o fth e e a rth ’s surface would increase.
It m ay be p o in te d out that carbon dioxide also
ab so rbs lo n g w av e terrestrial radiation and helps
in k e e p in g the lo w er atm osphere and the ground
and o cean su rfa ce w arm er. W ater vapour absorbs
both the in c o m in g sh o rtw av e so lar radiation and
o u tg o in g lo n g w a v e te rre stria l radiation. Since
m o st o f w a te r v a p o u r is c o n ce n tra te d in the low er
atm o sp h ere (9 0 p e r cen t o f the total atm ospheric
w ater v ap o u r is found upto the h e ig h t o f 5 km in
th e lo w e r a tm o sp h e re ) and hen ce both the
in co m in g s o la r ra d ia tio n and o u tg o in g terrestrial
ra d ia tio n in c re a se w ith in c re a sin g height. T h is is
th e re a so n th a t hig h m o u n ta in s are called radiation
windows.
4. Convection
The t r a n s f e r o f heat energy through t* |
m ovem ent o f a mas* o f . s t a n c e f r o m a n e p W
to another place is called convection. T he pro
o f convection becom es effectiv e only in f l m d , ,
«ases because t h e i r internal m ass m otion activate,
convection o f heat energy. T he earth * surface
g e t, heated after receiving h eat energy (msola-
Ton) from the sun. Consequently th e a ir co rn u ,
in contact w ith th e w arm er e arth s surface a l*
g e t s heated and ex p an d s in volume. T h u s w a n * ,
» r becom es lig h ter and rise s u p w ard and a
vertical circu latio n o f air is se t in. C onversely, the
relatively co ld er air a lo ft b eco m es h eav ter be­
cause o f contraction in v olum e an d th u s descend,
to reach the e arth ’s surface. T h e d e sc e n d in g air is
w anned because o f dry ad iab a tic rate an d warm
ground and ocean su rface. T h is w arm a ir again
ascends because o f in crease in volume and
decrease in density. T h e w h o le m e ch a n ism of
ascent o f w arm er air and d esc e n t o f colder air
generates convection cu rren ts in the low er atmos­
phere. This connective m ech an ism transports heat
from the ground and o cean surface to the
atm osphere and thus help s in the heating o f the
low er atm osphere. S im ilarly , horizontal convec­
tion currents are also generated on the ground
surface.
5. Adiabatic heating and Cooling
The ad iab atic heating and c o o lin g o f the
atm osphere takes p lace through the ascen t and
descent o f a p arcel o f air resp ectiv ely . It is a
general tren d th at temperature decreases w ith
increasing height at the rate o f 6.5°C per 1000 m
or 3.6°F p er 1000 feet. T his rate o f decrease of
temperature w ith increasing height is called
normal lapse rate. A defin ite ascend ing air with
given volum e and temperature expands due to
decrease in pressure and thus c o o ls. For exam ple,
an air with the volum e o f one cu b ic foot and air
pressure o f 1016 mb at sea le v e l i f rises to the
height o f 17,500 feet, its v o lu m e is doubled
because o f expansion. On the other hand, a
descending air contracts and thus its volume
decreases but its temperature increases. It **
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ATMOSPHERE - SEA INTERACTIONS
apparent that there is change in tem perature o f air
due to ascent or descent but w ithout addition or
substraction o f heat. Such type o f change o f
temperature o f air due to contraction or expansion
o f air is called adiabatic change of temperature.
A diabatic change o f tem perature is o f two
types viz. (i) d r y a d i a b a t ic c h a n g e, and (ii) m oist
a d ia b a tic c h a n g e . T he tem perature o f unsaturated
ascen ding a ir decreases w ith increasing height at
t h e rate o f 5 . 5 ° F per 1000 feet or 10°C per 1000 m.
T his ty p e o f change o f tem perature o f unsaturated
ascen d in g o r descending air is called dry adiabatic
rate. It m ay be p o inted out that if an air descends
its tem p eratu re increases at the above m entioned
rate. T he rate o f decrease o f tem perature o f an
ascen d in g air beyond condensation level is
lo w ered due to ad d itio n o f latent heat o f conden­
satio n to the air.
T his is called m o ist a d ia b a tic ra te w herein
te m p e ratu re o f a p arcel o f ascending air beyond
co n d en satio n level decreases (and hence air
co o ls) at the rate o f 3°F per 1000 feet or 6°C per
1000 m e te rs. T his is also called r e ta r d e d a d ia b a tic
r a t e an d cooling. C onversely, the descending
p a rc e l o f a ir contracts in volum e due to increase o f
p re ssu re an d hence is w arm ed at the rate o f 10°C
p e r 1000 m eters.
7.5 DIFFERENTIAL HEATING AND COOLING
O F LAND AND OCEAN SURFACES
T h e c o n tra stin g n atu re o f land and sea w ater
su rfa ce s in re la tio n to the incom ing shortw ave
s o la r ra d ia tio n la rg e ly a ffects the spatial and
te m p o ra l d is trib u tio n o f tem perature. It m ay be
p o in ted o u t th a t lan d becom es w arm and cold
m ore q u ic k ly th a n th e sea w a ter body. T his is w hy
even a fte r re c e iv in g eq u al a m o u n t o f in so latio n
the te m p e ra tu re o f land b eco m es m ore th an the
" tem p eratu re o f th e o c ea n w a ter body. T he
follow ing re a so n s e x p la in th e d ifferen tia l rate o f
heating an d c o o lin g o f la n d an d sea w ater.
T h e s u n ’s ray s p e n e tra te to a d ep th o f
only one m e te r in lan d b e c a u se it is o p aq u e b u t
they p en etrate to g re a te r d ep th o f sev eral m etres in
sea w a ter (u p to 200 m e te rs) b e c a u se it is
tra n sp aren t to so la r ra d ia tio n . T h e th in la y e r o f
soils and ro c k s o f lan d , th u s, g ets h e ate d q u ick ly
155
because o f greater concentration o f insolation in
m uch sm aller m ass o f m aterial o f ground surface.
Sim ilarly, the thin ground layer em its heat quickly
and becom es colder. O n the other hand, the sam e
am ount o f insolation falling on w ater surface has
to heat larger volum e o f w ater b ecause o f the
penetration o f solar rays to g reater depth and thus
the tem perature o f ground surface b eco m es h ig h er
than that o f the ocean w ater surface th o u g h the
am ount o f insolation receiv ed by bo th th e su rfaces
may be equal.
>- The heat is concentrated at th e place
w here insoalation is receiv ed on the gro u n d
surface and there is very slow p ro cess o f
redistribution o f heat by co n duction b e ca u se lan d
surface is static. It m ay be noted th a t d o w n w ard
distribution o f solar rad iatio n and re su lta n t h e at
energy in the land surface w ithin a day (24 h o u rs)
is effective upto the depth o f only 10 c en tim etres.
Thus, the land surface becom es w arm d u rin g day
and cold during night very rapidly. O n the o th e r
hand, ocean w ater is m obile. The u p p e r su rfa ce o f
sea w ater becom es lig h ter w hen h e a te d b y
insolation and thus m oves aw ay h o riz o n ta lly to
other places and the solar rays h av e to h e a t fresh
layer o f upw elling cold w ater. S eco n d ly , h e a t is
redistributed in w ater b o d ies by sea w av es, o c ea n
currents and tid al w aves. A ll th ese e x ten d the
period o f w arm ing o f sea w a te r su rface.
>■ There is m ore ev ap o ratio n fro m th e seas
and the oceans and hence m ore h e a t is sp en t in th is
process w ith the resu lt oceans get less in so la tio n
than the land surface. O n the o th e r h a n d , th e re is
less evaporation from the lan d su rface b e c a u se o f
very lim ited am ount o f w ater.
The sp ecific h e at (the am o u n t o f h e at
needed to raise the te m p e ratu re o f one g ram o f a
su b stan ce by 1°C) o f w a ter is m u ch g re a te r (fiv e
tim es) th an the la n d (sp ecific h e a t o f w a te r and
land surface is 1.0 cal/g/°C an d 0.19 cal/g/°C
resp ectiv ely ) b ecau se the re la tiv e d e n sity o f w a te r
is m uch lo w er th a n th at o f la n d su rface. It m ean s
m ore h eat is re q u ire d to ra ise th e te m p e ratu re o f
one gram o f sea w a ter b y 1°C th a n o ne g ram o f
land. M o re sp ec ific a lly , the h e a t re q u ire d to raise
the te m p e ratu re o f o ne cu b ic fo o t o f sea w a te r by
1°C is tw o tim es g re a ter th a n th e h e a t re q u ire d fo r
the eq u al v o lu m e o f la n d (o n e c u b ic fo o t). It is
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156

apparent that sam e amount o f insolation received
by sam e m ass o f water and land w ould increase
the tem perature o f land more than the temperature
o f equal m ass o f water.
>■ The reflection (albedo) o f incom ing solar
radiation from the oceanic water surface (table
7 .3 ) is far m ore than from the land surface (table
7 .4 ) and thus water receives less insolation than
land. It m ay be m entioned that this is the
generalized statem ent because the nature o f
ground surface varies from low latitudes to higher
latitudes because the percentage o f snow -covered
surface increases beyond 60° latitude and there­
fore the albedo also increases in d ie i
proportation. * gV
>- O ceanic areas are generally clouded and
hence they receive less insolation than land
surface. But clouds absorb outgoing terrestrial
radiation and counter-radiate heat back to the
earth’s surface. This process retards the lo ss o f
heat from the oceanic surfaces and hence slow s
down the m echanism o f the air ly in g over the
oceans. On the other hand, land surfaces receive
more insolation at faster rate because o f less
cloudiness and sim ultaneously lo se m ore heat
through outgoing terrestrial radiation very quickly.

Table 7.4 : Albedo of different types of earth surfaces to solar radiation (in percentage)

T ypes o f surfaces Per cent Types o f surfaces P er cent

P lanet Earth 30 W a t e r S u rfa c e

Snow C over (angle o f sun’s inclination)

(a) fresh snow 75-95 (a) near the horizon (0°) 99 +
(b) old snow 30-40 (b) 10° 35
C lo u d co v e r (c) 30° 06
(a) Cumulonimbus 70-80 (d) 50° 2.5
(b) stratocum ulus 25-50 (e) 90° 2
F o r e s t c o v e r (average) 5-10 Green field crops 3-15
(a) deciduous (average) 10-20 Dry ploughed field 5-25
(b) coniferous forest 5-15 D c'ei'. u.eas (sands) 25-30
Dry earth (surface) 1-25 Wet earth (surface) 10

or 1034 g ram s (a b o u t o n e k ilo g ra m ) per square

7.6 ATMOSPHERIC PHESSURE
cen tim eter.

The standard atm ospheric air pressure jj

Air being a physical substance is an
admixture o f several gases present in the atm os­
phere and thus it has its ow n w eight. Thus, the air
exerts pressure through its w eight. Air pressure is,
thus, defined as the force per unit area or total
w eight o f m ass o f colum n o f air above per unit
area at sea lev el (unit area being one square inch,
one square foot, one square centim eter, one
square m eter etc.). The atm ospheric pressure is
m axim um at sea level. It exerts the w eigh t o f 14.7
pounds on the area o f one square inch at sea lev el
varies both h orizon tally and v ertica lly (table 7.5),
seasonally, and d iu m a lly . It is apparent from table
7.5 that atm ospheric pressure d ecreases with
increasing hegiht. A s regards sea so n a l changes o f
air pressure, there is pronou nced variation from
sum m er to w inter sea so n . T he sea so n a l changes o f f
air pressure are in proportion to the siz e o f ;
continents and o cea n s, and air tem perature, to
fact, there is in verse relation sh ip betw een
tem perature and air pressure. ,

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;«r-

ATMOSPHERE - SEA INTERACTIONS

T he d istrib u tio n o f atm ospheric pressu re is a ir circu latio n , e a rth ’s ro ta tio n , w a ter v ap o u r,
controlled by altitu d e , atm ospheric tem perature, atm ospheric sto rm s etc.

Table 7 .5 : Standard Atmospheric Pressure and Temperature

-------------------

A ltitude (km) Tem perature Air Pressure D ensity * ' ' —s |

(°C) (m illibars, mb) (kg/m 3) - m i

30 -46.5 11.97 0.02

20 -56.5 55.92 0.09 - r‘

15 0.20 . , ri
'
-56.5 121.11
10 -4 9 .9 264.99 0.41 1
5 - 17.5 540.48 0.74 • '3
4 -1 1 .0 616.60 0.82 • ^
‘ ‘V,:
3 -4 .5 701.21 0.91
■ *• - V1
2 2.0 795.01 1.01
M
1 8.5 898.76 1.11
0 15.0 1013.25 1.23

Source : J.M . M o rg an and M .D. M organ, 1991, referred by O liver and H idore, 20 0 3 .

7.7 PRESSURE GRADIENT
G e n e ra lly , p ressu re gradient is defined as
d e c re a se o f p re ssu re betw een isobars o f different
values i.e. from high pressu re to low p re ssu re . It
m ay be m entioned th at high and low p re ssu re s are
alw ays used in relativ e term s an d n o t in a b so lu te
term s. M ore p recisely air p re ssu re g ra d ie n t re fe rs
to the rate o f change o f p re ssu re p e r u n it

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 158
h o rizontal distance betw een tw o points. Pressure
grad ient denotes change o f direction o f air
p ressure w hich is alw ays from high to low
pressure and perpendicular to the isobars. Pres­
sure gradient is also called as b a ro m e tric slope
C losely spaced isobars denote steep pressure
gradient w hile w idely spaced isobars are indica­
tive o f gentle or low pressure gradient. It may be
m entioned that w ind velocity depends on pressure
gradient.
7.8 PRESSURE TYPES
A ir pressure is generally divided into two
types, nam ely (1 ) high pressure, and (2) low
p r e s s u r e w hich are indicated by the shapes of
isobars. These are simply known as High and lows.
Since there are much variations in the size and
duration o f high and low pressures displayed by
alm ost closed isobars and hence these are termed
Fig. 7.2: (A) ridge (wedge) of high pressure system, and (Bj trough o f low pressure system.
7.9 HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF AIR PRES­
SURE AND PRESSURE BELTS
The horizontal distribution o f air pressure
on the globe having land and ocean surfaces is
Hefei#:C>:,
OCEANOGRAPHY
as pressuresystemswhich are again divided into (1)
high pressure systems, and (2) low pressure systems.
They are further divided into (1) sem i-perm anent
high and low pressure system s, (2) tem porary and
short-lived high and low pressure system s, and (3)
m igratory high and low pressure system s. It may
be m entioned that sem i-perm anent pressure sys­
tems are large-scale w eather phenom ena and
cover larger area and are indicative o f monthly,
seasonal and annual w eather conditions as re­
vealed by their location on the m onthly, seasonal
(summer and w inter seasons) and annual weather
maps whereas temporary' or shortlived high and
low pressure systems are very sm all in size and of
short duration, generally o f less than 24 hour
duration. They indicate daily w eath er conditions.
Since their size and location change very fre­
quently, and hence they becom e very im portant
indicator o f daily w eather conditions and thus are
displayed in daily w eather maps.
studied on the basis o f isobars. A ir pressure is
generally divided into two types viz. (1) high
pressure, also called as ‘h i g h ’ or anticyclone, and
(2) low pressure, also called as ‘low ’ o r cyclone or
depression. I f we look at the globe then it appears
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ATMOSPHERE - SEA INTERACTIONS
that there is certain definite system o f high and
low pressure. If, for generalization, the globe is
c o n s i d e r e d to be hom ogeneous (either o f land or
water), then there should be regular and system ­
atic zonal d istrib ution o f high and low pressure
but the regularity o f pressure belts is disturbed
due to unequal d istribution o f land and w ater on
the globe. The pressure belts are discontinued in
the northern hem isphere and several centres o f
pressure belts are developed but the pressure belts
are found m ore or less in regular pattern in the
southern hem isphere.
Fig. 7.3: Generalized distribution o f air pressure over
the globe.
Latitudinal Distribution of Pressure
There is no definite trend o f distribution o f
pressure from equator towards the poles. I f the air
pressure w ould have been the function o f air
temperature alone there should have been regular
159
increase o f pressure polew ard because tem p era­
ture regularly decreases from the equator tow ards
the poles but this is not the case. T here is low
pressure near the equator due to high m ean annual
tem perature but the existence o f high pressure
belts near the tropics o f C ancer and C apricorn
cannot be explained on the basis o f tem perature
because the tropics record very high tem perature
and hence there should have been low pressure if
the tem perature w ould have been the only control
o f air pressure. The air pressure should increase
polew ard from the tropics o f C ancer and C ap ri­
corn because there is rapid rate o f d ecrease o f
tem perature polew ard but w e find low pressu re
belt near 60° latitude. A gain we find h igh pressu re
belts near the poles due to ex ceed in g ly low
tem perature throughout the year. It is o b v io u s th a t
pressure belts are not only induced by th erm al
factor but they are also induced by dynam ic
factors.
In all, there are seven p ressure b e lts on the
globe. On the basis o f m ode o f g enesis p re ssu re
belts are divided into two broad categ o ries e.g. (1)
therm ally induced pressure belts (e.g. e q u ato rial
low pressure belt and polar high p re ssu re b e lt),
and (2) dynam ically induced p ressu re b e lts (e.g.
subtropical high pressure b elt and su b p o lar low
pressure belt (fig 7.3).
It is apparent from fig. 7.3 th a t the
contrasting nature o f land and ocean su rfa ce s h as
profound im pact on the h o rizo n tal d istrib u tio n o f
air pressure on the globe. T h e iso b ars are
discontinuous in the n o rth ern h e m isp h ere d u e to
dom inance o f land su rfaces (c o n tin e n ts), w h ile
they are continuous in the so u th ern h e m isp h ere
due to hom ogeneity o f e a rth ’s su rfa ce , i.e. o v er
dom inance o f oceans.
1. Equatorial Low Pressure Belt
The equatorial low pressure belt is located
on either side o f the geographical equator in a
zone extending betw een 5°N and 5°S latitudes but
this zone is not stationary because there is
seasonal shift o f this belt w ith the northward
(summer solstice) and southward (w inter so lstice)
migration o f the sun. During northern summer this
belt extends upto 20°N in A frica and to the north
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160
OCEANOGRAPHY
o f tro p ic o f C a n c e r in A sia w h ile d u rin g sou th ern but is broken into a number o f high pressure
su m m e r th is lo w p re ssu re b e lt sh ifts to 10° to 20°S centres or cells (fig. 7.3).
la titu d e . T h e e q u a to ria l low p ressu re b e lt is
th e rm a lly in d u c e d b ecau se th e g ro u n d and ocean 3. Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt
s u rfa c e is in te n se ly h e ate d d u rin g the day due to
a lm o s t v e rtic a l s u n ’s rays and thus the low erm ost
T his belt o f su b -p o lar low pressure is
la y e rs o f a ir c o m in g in c o n tac t w ith the heated
located betw een 60°-65° la titu d es in both the
g ro u n d su rfa c e also gets w arm ed. T hus, w arm ed
h em ispheres. T he low p re ssu re b elt does not
a ir e x p a n d s, b e co m e s lig h t, and consequently
appear to be th erm ally in d u ced b ecause there is
rise s u p w a rd c au sin g low p ressure. The equatorial
low tem perature th ro u g h o u t the y e ar and as such
lo w p re s su re b e lt rep resen ts the zone o f co n v er­
there should have been high p re ssu re b elt instead
g en ce o f n o rth -e a st and so u th -east trade w inds.
o f low pressure belt. It is, thus, o b v io u s that this
T h e re are lig h t, feeble and v ariable w inds w ithin
low pressure belt is dy n am ically produced. In
th is c o n v e rg e n c e b elt. B ecause o f frequent calm
fact, the surface air spreads o u tw ard from this
c o n d itio n s th is b e lt is called a belt o f claim or
zone due to rotation o f the earth and low pressure
d o l d r u m . T his b elt is ch aracterized by pronounced
is caused. It m ay be pointed out that this factor
d iu rn a l p re ssu re v ariation.
should be more effective at the poles but the
effects o f the rotation is negated or say o v ersh ad ­
2. Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt owed due to exceptionally low tem perature
prevailing throughout the year at the poles. The
sub-polar low pressure belt is m ore developed and
S u b -tro p ic al H igh pressure belt extends
regular in the southern hem isphere w hile it is
b e tw ee n the latitu d es o f 25°-35° in both the
broken in the northern hem isphere (fig. 7.3)
h e m isp h ere s. It is im portant to note that this high
because o f over dom inance o f w ater (o cean s) in
p re ssu re belt is not therm ally induced because this
the former. Instead o f regular and co n tin u o u s belt
zone, besid es tw o to three w inter m onths, receives
there are well defined low pressure centres or cells
fa irly high insolation throughout the year. Thus,
over the oceans in the northern hem isphere e.g. in
this b elt ow es its origin to the rotation o f the earth
the neighbourhood o f A leutian Islands in the
and sinking and settling dow n o f winds. It is, thus,
Pacific Ocean and betw een G reenland and Iceland
apparent that the sub-tropical high pressure belt is
in the Atlantic Ocean. It may be noted th at due to
dynam ically induced. The convergence o f winds
great contrasts o f tem peratures o f the con tin en ts
at higher altitude above this zone results in the
and oceans during northern sum m er the low
subsidence o f air from higher altitudes. Thus,
pressure belt becom es discontinuous and is found
descent o f w inds results in the contraction o f their
in a few low pressure cells w hile the tem perature
volum e, increase in density, and ultim ately causes
contrast betw een the continents and oceans is
high pressure. This is why this zone is character­
m uch reduced during w inter and hence low
ized by anticyclonic conditions w hich cause
pressure belt becom es m ore o r less regular and
atm ospheric stability and aridity. This is one o f
continuous in the northern hem isphere. T he m id­
the reasons for the presence o f hot deserts o f the
latitude low pressure belt (su b p o lar low pressure
w orld in the w estern parts o f the continents in a
zone extending betw een 25°-35° in both the belt) is regular and unbroken b ecau se o f vast
hemispheres. This zone o f high pressure is called extent o f oceans and hence the co n trast o f heating
‘horse latitude' because o f prevalence o f frequent and cooling o f the continents and oceans is
calms. In ancient times, the merchants carrying m inim ized in the southern hem isphere.
horses in their ships, had to throw out some o f the
horses while passing through this zone o f calm in 4. Polar High Pressure Belt
order to lighten their ships. This is why thic zone
is called horse latitude. It is interesting to note that High pressure persists at the poles through­
this zone o f high pressure is not continuous belt out the year because o f prevalence o f very low

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atm onphbkh - kha tN T M tA criO N N
te m p e ra tu re (below 1Ycc?,Iii« point) nil the year
round. In fact, both (lie factors, tharmnl and
d y n a m ic , operate at the poles, There is thinning
out of layers o f a ir due to diurnal rotation o f the
e arth an the air sprends outw ard due to this factor
thin is overshadow ed by therm al factor and hence
high pressure is produced due to very low
tem perature,
Polm | Huh Promtun!
Fix. 7.4 : Air pressure wui wind bells.
Is o b a ric h o riz o n ta l d istrib u tio n of air pressure
: Isobars arc im aginary lines on a map joining
places o f equal pressure at sea level. The seasonal
(annual) horizontal distribution o f air pressure is
represented and studied through isobars for the
m onths o f July (to represent pressure conditions
during sum m er season) and January (to represent
air pressure during w inter season) in the northern
hem isphere. It m ay be m entioned that July isobars
represent pressure conditions o f w inter season
and January isobars display sum m er pressure
conditions in the southern hem isphere. Figs^ 7.6
and 7.7 display the w orld distribution o f air
pressure through isobars in July an ai*ua*y
respectively. T he class interval o f isobars is 3 mb.
(1) Northern s u m m e r pressure and the s o u th ­
ern winter pressure conditions are represented y
161
July lioltiiri. It is apparent from fig. 7.5 that there
are a few pressure cells displayed by closed
Isobars In the northern hem isphere while the
isobars are more or less regular and straight in the
southern hemisphere. Equatorial low pressure is
found in a narrow atonal stretch while subtropical
hi|(h pressure assumes discontinuous stretches
marked by a few cells o f high pressure as
displayed by closed isobars. The subtropical high
pressure cells have been pushed northw ard due. to
northward migration o fth e overhead sun (sum m er
solstice) and are located betw een 20°-40° N
latitudes. A well marked low pressure cells has
developed in the south-west Asia due to excessive
insolational heating o f ground surtace and hence
dynamic factor has been negated by therm al
factor. It is interesting to note that all the
subtropical high pressure cells in the n orthern and
the southern hemispheres have developed over
the oceans. The subpolar low pressure alm ost
disappears due to northw ard m igration ot the sun.
As is evident from fig. 7.6 the Icelandic low
pressure is m aintained but ihe A leutian low
pressure has disappearred. Subpolar low pressure
in the southern hem isphere also shitts northw ard
due to northward m igration o f the sun (sum m er
solstice) and is located to the north o f 60° S
latitude but unlike northern hem isphere it is
continuous zonal in character because o f the
absence o f landmasses and overdom inance o f
oceanic surfaces.
(2) The n o rth e r n winter and s o u th e rn s u m m e r
pressure conditions are shown by J a n u a r y is o b ars
(fig. 7.6). The conditions o f July have alm ost
reversed in January. The continuity o f subpolar
low pressure belt is broken in the northern
hem isphere because o f vast stretches o f co n ti­
nents and hence it is broken into w ell developed
A leution low pressure cell (50° N latitude) and
Icelandic low pressure cell (60°-65°N latitude).
The subtropical high pressure zone is also
fragm ented into w eak high pressure cells over the
oceans (e.g. high pressure cell o f over 1020 mb o ff
the C alifornian coast in the Pacific Ocean and
1023 mb cell o ff the north-w estern coast o f Africa
in the A tlantic O cean) and strongly developed
extensive stretches over the continents mainly
over Asia (fig. 7.6). The equatorial low pressure
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Fig. 7.5 : P a ttern s o f iso b a rs and distrib u tio n o f a i r p re ssu re on con tin en ts a n d o c e a n s in Ju ly, f ig u r e s d e n o te m illibars
(m b).

Fg 76 m !)™ °flSObarS 0/1(1 distribution o f a ir p ressu re on continents and oceans in January, figu res in

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 ATMOSPHERE - SEA INTERACTIONS
belt shifts to the south o f the equator. The
subtropical high pressure zone in the southern
hemisphere also shifts to the south o f 30°S
v • latitude. Fig. 7.6 show s w ell developed high
pressure cells (betw een 30°-40°S latitudes) over
the Pacific, the A tlantic, and the Indian Oceans.
The subpolar low pressure b elt in the southern
hem isphere develops in continuous zone betw een
60°-70°S latitudes.
7.10 ATMOSPHERIC MOTION
The atm osphere is a turbulent fluid because
gases and liquids (w ater vapour in the case o f the
atm osphere) are fluids and these are principal
constituents o f the atm ospheric com position. It,
thus, becom es obvious that the laws o f gases and
fluids in term s o f m otions w ill also be applicable
in the case o f atm ospheric m otion (air circula­
tion). F luids are characterized by basically two
types o f m otion (flow ), nam ely la m in a r flow and
t u r b u l e n t flow w herein a lam inar flow particles
m ove in only one direction i.e. in forward
direction w hile particles move almost in all
d irectio n s in turbulent flow which may assume
the form o f either convection currents or eddies.
T urbulent flow is generated because o f inequality
o f forces. In the case o f the atm osphere inequality
o f forces is caused due to variation in tem perature
and pressure. A c c o r d i n g to N e w to n ’s Law of
M otions the change in velocity o f a body, which is
in m otion, is effected w hen the acting force
changes and becom es unbalanced. The velocity
and direction o f m otion o f a body (here the
atm osphere) rem ain constant so long as the forces
o f acceleration rem ain constant and in balance. In
the case o f the e arth ’s atm osphere air seldom
moves continuously in sam e direction w ith same
velocity in straight line rather its velocity and
** direction frequently change because o f frequent
changes in tem perature and pressure conditions.
In fact, the acceleration o f air m otion is the
function o f the sum o f all forces acting on it. T ese
forces include (1) pressure gradient force, (2)
Coriolis force or the e arth ’s deflective force, (3)
frictional force, and (4) rotational force. N ew ton s
second low of m otion states that the acceleration o f
any body-in this case, the parcel o f air-is direct y
163
proportional to the m agnitude o f tile net forces
acting on it and inversely proportional to its m ass
(O liver and H idore, 2003).
1. Pressure Gradient and Air Circulation
The difference o f pressure betw een two
places is called pressure gradient. Since pressure is
inversely related to tem perature, differences in
pressure are, thus, the result o f differences in the
heating and cooling o f land and ocean surfaces.
Low tem perature generates high pressure and
high tem perature gives birth to low pressure.
Steep pressure gradient is represented by closely
spaced isobars while w idely spaced isobars reveal
low pressure gradient. Since pressure is the
function o f tem perature, steep pressure gradient is
generated by large tem perature variation betw een
two places and gentle (low) pressure gradient is
the result o f sm all tem perature variation. The
direction o f pressure gradient is considered from
high pressure to decreasing pressure and the
pressure gradient is always perpendicular to
isobars. Pressure gradient is also called barometric
slope. There is very close relationship betw een
pressure gradient and atm ospheric m otion (air
circulation) in term s o f speed and direction o f air
movement. As per rule air m oves dow n the
pressure gradient from high pressure to low
pressure. In other w ords, air m ovem ent follow s
barom etric slope. The rate o f air m ovem ent (i.e.
wind speed) depends on the steepness o f gradient.
As per rule there is direct positive relationship
betw een steepness o f pressure gradient and w ind
speed. The steeper the pressure gradient, the
higher the rate o f air m ovem ent (w ind speed) and
low er the pressure gradient, the slow er the w ind
speed. The w ind direction is also dependent on the
direction o f pressure gradient (w hich is alw ays
from high pressure to low pressure areas). As per
rule the direction o f air m ovem ent should be
perpendicular to the isobars (fig. 7.7) because the
direction o f pressure gradient is perpendicular to
the isobars but the direction is deviated from the
expected theoretical direction due to C oriolis
force caused by the rotational m ovem ent o f the
earth and hence the w inds cross the isobars at
acute angle instead o f right angle. C enters o f high
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 164
p re ssu re an d low p ressu re cause horizontal
d iv e rg e n ce an d convergence o f air circulation on
th e g ro u n d and ocean surfaces but convergence
an d d iv e rg e n ce a lo ft respectively.
Fig. 7 .7 : P ressu re gradien t an d w ind direction.
Fig. 7 .8 : High and low pressure system s and wind direction. Pressure gradient is d irected from the center
pressure (H) tow ards the center o f low pressure (L) and so is the wind direction i.e. from H to L
OCEANOGRAPHY
It m ay be p o in ted out th a t th e force
generated b y p ressu re g rad ien t is called presc«rc
g r a d i e n t force w hich is acceleratin g force for air
m ovem ent. Since p ressu re v aries b o th horizon­
tally and v ertically , and h en ce p ressu re gradient
force is d iv id ed into tw o ty p es, nam ely (j)
horizontal p ressu re g rad ien t fo rce (P H), and (2)
v ertical p ressu re g rad ien t fo rce (P v). T h e horizon­
tal p ressu re g rad ien t fo rce g en erates horizontal
m ovem ent o f air at the g ro u n d su rfa ce from the
cen ter o f high p ressu re to the low p re ssu re center,
w hile the v ertical p ressu re g ra d ie n t force gener­
ates upw ard and d o w n w ard m o v em en t o f air as
co nvection currents an d tu rb u le n t a ir circulation.
T he p ressu re decreases u p w ard ra p id ly and hence
p ressu re g rad ien t is also stee p e n ed vertically.
Since the w ind speed d ep en d s on th e stee p e n esso f
p ressu re g rad ien t and re su ltan t p re ssu re gradient
force, it is ex p ected th at the sp eed o f upward
m ovem ent o f air sh o u ld be h ig h b u t th e force o f
g rav ity (G ) acts d o w n w ard an d h e n ce it obstructs
the u pw ard m o v em en t o f a ir an d thus the speed is
slow ed dow n. W hen th e u p w a rd p re ssu re gradient
force is b alan ced b y d o w n w ard actin g gravity
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VnJOSPHERE - SEA INTERACTIONS
force* the vertical acceleration becom es zero.
This situation o f balance is called hydrostatic
^■Hibrium. So long as this equilibrium exists,
j tcre is atm ospheric stability and dry condition
prevails, but w h en ev er deviation from this ideal
equilibrium co n d itio n is occasioned, vertical
acceleration o f air is activated, upw ard m ovem ent
o f air o ccurs, e q u ilib riu m condition is disturbed,
atm ospheric in stab ility prevails resulting into
cloud form ation, p recipitation and m oist w eather
condition. It m ay also be m entioned that the
horizontal pressu re gradient force (P H) is not
balanced by any other force as is the case o f
vertical p ressu re g radient force and gravity force,
the acceleratio n continues, but the speed o f
horizontal m oving w ind is slow ed dow n due to
frictio n al force generated by the friction o f
gro u n d and w ater surfaces over w hich blow s the
w ind.
2. Coriolis Force (Effect)
T he d irectio n o f surface winds is usually
co n tro lled by the p ressu re gradient and rotation o f
the earth. B ecau se o f rotation o f the earth along its
axis the w in d s are deflected. The force which
deflects the d ire c tio n o f w inds is called deflection
force. T his force is also c a lle d coriolis force on the
basis o f the nam e o f fam ous scientist G.G.
C oriolis (1 7 9 2 -1 8 4 3 ) w ho observed and ex­
plained the p ro cess o f d eflectio n in w ind direction
for the first tim e. B ecau se o f coriolis force all the
w inds are d e fle c te d to the right in the northern
hem isphere w hile th ey are d e fle cte d to the left in
the so u thern h e m isp h ere w ith respect to the
rotating earth. T h is is w hy w inds blow counter
clockw ise around the c e n te r o f low pressure (to
make a c y clo n ic circ u latio n ) in the northern
hem isphere w h ile th e y b low in clockw ise d irec­
tion in the so u th ern h em isp h ere. It m ay be
m entioned th at co rio lis force is no t in its e lf a force
in real sense ra th e r it is an e ffe ct o f the rotatio n al
movement o f the earth and hence it is also called
as Coriolis Effect. The ch arac te ristic features o f
C oriolis E ffect may be su m m arized as follow s :
165
>- C oriolis force is not in its e lf a force rather
is an effect o f rotational m ovem ent o f the
earth.
Coriolis force becom es effective on any
object w hich is in m otion (i.e. w ind, flying
birds, aircrafts, b allistic m issiles, long-
range artillery fire etc.)
>■ C oriolis force affects w ind d irectio n and
not the w ind speed as it deflects the w ind
(and other m oving objects) d irectio n from
expected path.
>■ The m agnitude o f C oriolis force is d e ter­
m ined by w ind speed. T he h ig h er th e w in d
speed, the greater is the d eflectio n o f w in d
direction due to resu ltan t g reater d eflectiv e
(C oriolis) force.
>- It becom es m axim um at the po les due to
m inim um rotational speed o f the earth
w hile it becom es zero at the equator.
>- It alw ays acts at rig h t angles to the
horizontally m oving air and o th er m o v in g
objects. The net effect is th at th e h o riz o n ta l
w inds are deflected to the rig h t in th e
northern hem isphere and to the le ft in the
southern hem isphere.
The m agnitude o f d eflectio n (C o rio lis
effects) is directly p ro p o rtio n al to (i) the
sine o f the latitude (sin 0° =0, 90° = I),
(ii) the m ass o f the m oving b o d y , an d
(iii) horizontal velocity o f the w ind.
It may be remembered that the direction o f
pressure gradient is always from high pressure to
low pressure. The earth rotates from w est to east.
Every latitude is a com plete circle. Equatorial
latitudinal circle is the largest one and the
latitudinal circles decrease poleward wherein
polar circle is the sm allest one. The w hole earth
com pletes one rotation along its axis roughly in 24
hours. Thus, the rotational speed o f the earth is
highest at the equator and decreases poleward.
When the wind m oves either northward or
southward follow in g straight path in equatorial
region it does not reach its destination because b y
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166
that tim e the destination place m oves ahead and
th e w in d la g s behind because o f high rotational
sp e ed o f th e earth (fig. 7.9). Contrary to this, the
w in d m o v in g either northward or southward in
h ig h latitudes reaches ahead o f its destination
b eca u se o f decreasing rotational speed o f the
earth.
OCEANOGRAPHY
.1
C oriolis force becom es operative and effective
only w hen the object (here, w ind) is in motion.
The follow ing are the ch aracteristics o f frictional
*ss
force.
>• The m agnitude o f frictio n al force de­
pends upon the degree o f roughness o f the surface
over w hich w inds blow follow ing the pressure

Sub Polar Low 60

Pressure N

Sub T ropical High Pressure 30 -

Equatorial Low Pressure

Sub Tropical High Pressure 30 -

1' S
Sub Polar Low Pressure 60

Fig. 7 .9 : Deflective force and wind direction.

3. Frictional Force

The force generated by the resistance o f the

surface o f an object against a m oving object is
called fric tio n a l force. In the case o f atm ospheric
m otion the frictional force is generated by the 1004 mb 1000 mb 9 9 6 mb 9 9 2 mb
resistance o f ground or w ater surfaces (oceans)
over w hich blow s the wind. Thus, frictional force Fig. 7.10: (A) Pressure gradient force (Pp), frictiond
w orks in opposition to the pressure gradient force force , and Coriolis force (effect), (B)
and reduces the w ind speed and C oriolis force. It horizontal wind direction over ocean and I
m ay be m entioned that frictional force like surfaces. Isobars are in millibars.

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 mw
ATMOSPHERE - SEA INTERACTIONS
gradient (high p ressu re to low pressure). The
surfaces are o f tw o ty p es, nam ely ground surface
and w ater surface o f the o ceans. T he ground
~ surface is c h arac te riz ed by high degree o f
roughness becau se o f h ill ran g es, stony surface,
vegetation c o v e r (ran g in g from grasses to fo r­
ests), b u ild in g s w h ile the sea w ater su rface is
smooth. T h u s, g round su rface offers m axim um
degree o f re sista n c e and hence frictio n due to
higher degree o f ro u g h n ess w hile sea w ater
surface offers m in im u m resistan ce. It m ay be
sum m arized th a t the g reater the roughness o f the
surface, the h ig h e r the degree o f resistan ce and
resultant frictio n and v ice versa.
>- T he frictio n al force w orks in opposition
■> to the p ressu re g rad ien t force and hence against
the h o riz o n ta l m o v em en t o f air. T hus, the
frictio nal fo rce h in d ers the free m ovem ent o f air
dow n th e p re ssu re gradient and reduces the w ind
sp eed (v e lo c ity ) and C oriolis effects.
>- T he zone o f low er atm osphere w here
fric tio n a l fo rce becom es effective is called friction
layer. T he frictio n al force is m axim um at the
surface an d d ecreases upw ard in the low er
atm o sphere. It m ay be m entioned that the fric­
tional e ffe c t is tra n sp o rte d upw ard due to tu rb u ­
lence upto the h e ig h t o f about 1000 m eters. It m ay
also be p o in te d out that the effect o f frictional
FiS- 7.11: (A) Direction o f Pressure gradient fo rce (PGF) and Coriolis force (CF) and relation between wind direction
and Coriolis force, (B) with increase in wind speed Coriolis fo rce increase .*and deflection o f wind direction
also increases; (C) pressure gradient fo rce is balanced by Coriolis fo rce and resultant wind (geostrophic)
blows parallel to the isobars (in m illibars)
167
force dim in ish es rap id ly u p w ard in the lo w er
atm o sp h ere and thus th e w inds ch aracteristics
becom e equal to geo stro p h ic w in d s alo ft. T he
altitu d in al v ariatio n s o f w inds are show n b y
sp irals w h erein each sp iral o f w inds rep resen ts
equal angle. Such eq u i-an g le sp irals are called
E k m a n S p ira ls .
»■ A s stated above th e g ro u n d an d sea w a ter
surfaces h aving co n trastin g b e h av io u rs d u e to
v ary in g degree o f ro u g h n ess red u ce th e C o rio lis
effect differently. O ver th e w a ter su rfaces o f d ie
seas and oceans the horizontal w inds cross the
isobars at the angle o f 10°-20° due to least frictio n al
force w hile they cross the isobars at th e g ro u n d
surface at the angle o f 45 degree. The n et re su lt o f
the frictional force w orking in opposition to the
horizontal w inds is that the velocity o f w in d is
reduced by 35 per cent and hence w inds b lo w w ith
only 65 per cent o f the velocity g en erated by
pressure gradient force (i.e. gradient v elo city ) o v er
oceanic surfaces. O n the other hand, w ind v elo city
is reduced by 60 per cent over ground su rface and
hence w inds below w ith only 40 p er cent o f the
gradient velocity (velocity produced by the h o ri­
zontal pressure gradient force) (fig. 7.10).
The relative directions o f p re ssu re g ra d ie n t
force, frictio n al force and C o rio lis fo rce h av e
been show n in figs. 7.11 and 7.12.
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 m ? --

■m

+ __ ^ Gradient wind
PGF = Pressure gradient force
CEF = Centrifugal force
CF = Coriolis force
CEP = Centripetal force •-
H = High pressure
L = Low pressure

Fig. 7.12 : Illustration o f gradient winds: (A) gradient winds blowing parallel to circular
centre in clockwise d"*cti°n « the northern hemisphere, and (B) gradient winds b lo w iZ la r a lU l to circular

Bfe>:
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 ATMOSPHERE - SEA INTERACTIONS
■711 g l o b a l w in d b e l t s
Global zonal circulation o f the atmosphere
* involves the consideration o f the distribution and
flow patterns o f permanent wind system s in
latitudinal zones from the equator towards the
poles wherein characteristic features o f air circu­
lation on the earth’s surface as w ell as at different
heights in the troposphere are considered. Such
zonal circulation is related to global pressure and
wind belts w hich also register seasonal variations.
On an average, the location o f high and low
pressure belts is considered to be stationary on the
169
globe (though they are seld om stationary and
continuous). C onsequently, w inds b lo w from
high pressure belts to lo w pressure belts. The
direction o f such w inds remains more or less the
same throughout the year though their areas
change seasonally. Thus, such w inds are called
perm anent w in d s. S in c e th ese w in d s are
distributed all over the glob e and th ese are related
to th erm ally and d y n a m ic a lly in d u c ed
pressure belts and rotation o f the earth and hence
they are called planetary winds. T hese w inds
include trade w inds, w esterlies and polar w inds
(fig. 7.14).

Polar Mid-latitude

Rossby
waves

T ropop ause
-* ROW"0?
_ M a jo r overturning cells and ------Q
____ A uPPer w aves > P Fj . P o |ar j e t st re a m s
S u rfa ce w inds S T J -Subtropical
tfT'fl S u rfa ce pressure syste m s and w inds jet streams
/ - - 1' (A = a n ticyclo ne s. C = cyclones)

Fig. 7.13: Z on al circu lation o f the atm osphere in the northern hem isphere. After J. Hartwell, 1980, in Oliver and Hidore,
2003.

In m ay be m entioned that both surface and
upper air circulations are interrelated and control
the weather conditions o f the earth’s surface (both
land and oceans) at different spatial scales. The
primary or planetary circulation o f the globe is not
as simple as referred to above. For exam ple, the
tropical zone is dom inated by Hadley cell o f
surface easterly trade (north-east and south-east)
winds and upper air antitrades or w esterlies, the
Olid-latitudinal Ferrel’s c ell is characterized by
surface w esterlies associated with cyclon es and
anticyclones and upper air Rossby waves (nam ed
after Carl-Gustav R ossby) having w est to east
circulation and jet streams and the polar c e ll has
the prevalence o f surface polar w inds (north-east
and south-east in the northern and the southern
hem ispheres respectively) and upper air w esterly
polar jet streams. F igs. 7.13 and 7 .1 4 depict zonal
circulation o f surface and upper air w ind system s
in the northern hem isphere and over the entire
globe respectively.

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170
T he zonal circulation o f surface wind* is
stu d ied in the th ree-zone aystem s, nam ely I .
tropical circulation, 2 . md-latitudinal circulation,
and 3. polar circulation. It m ay be m entioned that
the b elts o f permanent or planetary surface winds
as show n in fig. 7.14 are approxim ations as these
w in d belts are not continuous and regular in
reality because o f uneven diatribution o f land and
sea, and their contrasting nature o f heating and
co o lin g.
Polar \:A\itcrUc%
_ _ N,H, Trader
* * D oM ru m
pLow Pre^*un
fffp lfe h S ,£ T rad e*
uijjfi W c s ic rlic *
xa V
w lies) aloft. It is im p o rtan t to n o te th a t th is piim ary
><” Pnlar f-rnnl ^
F /# . 7. : The generalized global pattern o f planetary
winds (zonal circulatum o f the atrrwspherej.
1. Tropical Circulation (Winds in the Tropics)
The tropical circulation zone o f planetary
surface w inds extends between 25°-30° latitudes
in both the hem ispheres and very closely corre­
sponds to the H adley cell o f air circulation. The
middle portion o f this zone is dom inated by
thermally induced lo w pressure surrounding the
equator and is popularly known as equatorial low
pressure belt w hile the outer margin o f this zone is
characterized by dynam ically induced (due to
subsidence or sinking o f air from above) high
pressure surrounding the tropics o f Cancer and
Capricorn, known as subtropical high pressure
belt. The air near the equator is heated due to so
radiation, rises upward and after reaching
upper troposphere, turns to the north (in th*
northern hem isphere) and south (in the southern
hem isphere), gets c o o le d , b e c o m e s h ea v y and
descends (sin k s) near the tropics o f Cancer and
Capricorn to form h igh pressure. T hus, t h |
pressure gradient is oriepted tow ards the equator.
This results in the circu la tio n o f w ind s from
subtropical h igh pressure areas to equatorial low
pressure and thus the equatorial z o n e b eco m es the
zone o f c o n v e rg e n c e o f s u rfa c e w in d s and the
tro p ics b e co m e th e z o n e o f d iv erg en ce. The
c o n v erg en ce zo n e is characterized by iiigher
am ount o f s o la r ra d ia tio n , m ore evaporation and
relativ e h u m id ity , c lo u d y sk y , and h ea v y precipi- -t
tation w hile th e d iv e rg e n c e z o n e is dom inated by
h ig h est am o u n t o f s o la r ra d ia tio n , m ore sunshine,
low o r say least e v a p o ra tio n , c le a r sk y , very low
relativ e h u m id ity , le ast p re c ip ita tio n or say
alm ost dry c o n d itio n s .T h is circu la fion zon e is
ch aracterized by n o rth an d so u th b lo w in g trade
w inds but th e ir actu al d ire c tio n b eco m es north­
east (in the n o rth e rn h e m is p h e re ) an d south-east
Cin the so uthern h e m isp h e re d u e to C o rio lis force
and an g u lar m o m en tu m ) and a n ti-tr a a e s (w ester­
■
tropical c ircu latio n o f the a tm o s p h e re m o v e s heat
energy and m o istu re fro m lo w latitudes to high
latitudes.
The tro p ical zo n e is c h a r a c te riz e d by
doldrum , eq u atorial w e ste r lie s, an d tra d * w in d s.
E q u atorial W e s t e r lie s : On an average, there
is w esterly air circulation (from w est to ea st) in
the doldrum s (fig. 7 .1 5 ) o r say in the intertropical j
convergence (fig . 7 .1 6 ). T h ese w e ste r ly w inds ?
have been called by Flohn as e q u a to r ia l westerlies ,
(fig. 7.17 w h ich cover 200° lo n g itu d es. A ccording
to Flohn the equatorial w esterlies co v er the areas
extending from the w estern parts o f A frica across
the Indian O cean to the w estern P a c ific Ocean.
The equatorial w esterlies are associated with
strong atmospheric disturbances (cy clo n ic storms).
Flohn has further m aintained that south-w estern
m onsoons o f South A sia are, infact, equatorial
w esterlies because these w ind s are extended l
3 0-35°N latitudes over Indian subcontinent duel
northward shifting o f N ITC at the tim e o f summer
so lstice (fig. 7 .1 8 ).
V. -A
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I A T M O SPH E R E - SEA INTERACTIONS
I"'';?'
|
i'

Fig- 7.15 : Position o f doldrum s: (1) Indo-Pacific doldrum, (2) equatorial western region ofAfrica, and (3) western coastal
region o f Central America.

Fig. 7.16 : Inter tropical convergence (NITC and SITC).

0°

Fig. 7 .1 7 : Equatorial westerlies and NITC and SITC.

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172
Fig. 7 .1 8 : Seasonal (July and January) shifting o f equatorial westerlies. After H. Flohn, 1960, in Barry and Chorley, 2002.
T r a d e W inds : T here is m ore or less regular
inflow o f w inds from subtropical high pressure
belts to equatorial low pressure belt. These
tro p ical w inds have north-easterly direction in the
northern hem isphere w hile they are south-east­
erly in the southern hem isphere. These winds are
called trade w inds because o f the fact that they
helped the sea m erchants in sailing their ships as
their (o f trade w'inds) direction rem ains more or
less constant and regular. A ccording to F errel’s
law (based on C oriolis force generated by the
rotation o f the earth) trade w inds are deflected to
the right in the northern hem isphere and to the left
in the southern hem isphere. There are much
variations in the w eather conditions in the
different parts o f trade winds.
T he polew ard parts o f the trade winds or
eastern sides o f th e subtropical anticyclones are
dry because o f strong subsidence o f air currents
from above. Because o f the dominance o f
anticyclonic conditions there is strong atm os­
pheric stability, strong inversion o f tem perature
and clear sky. On the other hand, the equatorward
parts o f the trade winds are hum id because they
are characterized by atm ospheric instability and
m uch precipitation as the trade winds while
blow ing over the oceans pick up moisture. It may
OCEANOGRAPHY
'gcrr^ H July
be stated that the trade w inds are m ore regular and
constant over the oceans than over the lands. At
some places on the lands (e.g. S.E. Asia and
southern USA) the trade w inds disappear during
sum m er season due to form ation o f low pressure
cells because o f high tem perature but the trade
winds are m ore constant and regular over the
continents during w inter season. It may be
pointed out that the zone o f trade winds is called
Hadeley Cell on the basis o f the convective model
prepared by George H adley for the entire earth.
It is evident that the oceans play significant
role not only in the circulation o f equatorial
w esterlies and trade winds but also determine
their m oisture status.
2. Mid-latitude circulation
M id-latitude zonal circulation extends be­
tween 30°-60° latitudes in the northern and the
southern hem ispheres and is re p re se n te d by
subpolar or Ferrel therm ally indirect cell of ‘air
circulation wherein winds blow from subtropica
sem iperm anent high pressure belt (30°-35° I**1
tude) to subpolar therm ally indirect semiperma
nent low pressure belt in both the hem ispheres.
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f. .
1
I
I ■
ATMOSPHERE - SEA INTERACTIONS
The Ferrel cell o f atm ospheric circulation is not as
much effective in this zone as is the H adley cell in
the tropical zone. T he general surface air circula-
- tion is w esterly w hich becom es south-w esterly
and north-w esterly in the northern and the
southern hem ispheres respectively due to C oriolis
force. The follow ing are the characteristic fea­
tures o f this zonal atm ospheric circulation.
>■ T he actual w ind system s in the m id­
latitude zone is quite different from the three- cell
m odel o f atm ospheric circulation because the
local conditions at the surface and aloft com pli­
cate the general circulation pattern. As per th ree­
cell m odel o f m eridional circulation there should
be active m eridional flow betw een subtropical
high pressure and subpolar low pressure belts but
the real m eridional circulation is weak and is
in terrupted by frequent high (anticyclones) and
low (cyclones) pressure system s.
. >- The general surface zonal circulation is
. from w est to east but there are a lot o f variations
in both directions and velocities. It is interesting
to note that unlike H adley cell, the upper air winds
also have w esterly com ponent. The surface
w esterlies are stronger in the southern hem isphere
than in the northern hem isphere because o f
co m paratively less friction due to over dom inance
o f oceans in the southern hem isphere than in the
northern hem isphere w here land surface is pre­
dom inant.
>■ The m axim um transfer o f energy and
angular m om entum takes place betw een the
latitudes 38°-40° in both the hem ispheres, and
hence the w esterlies becom e strongest. It may be
m entioned th at such an active energy transfer is
accom plished no t only by w eak m eridional
circulation but also by anticyclonic and cyclonic
waves.
' T he polew ard p art o f this zone is infact a
m ixing zone o f w arm tropical and subtropical
winds (w esterlies) and cold polar w inds along
polar fronts.
>■ T he upper air circulation is also ch arac­
terized by w esterly R ossby w aves in the upper
troposphere and low er stratosphere. The Kossby
waves are m eandering loops o f flow patterns o f
upper air w esterlies and are em bedded w ith je t
rsssS
;-M18
173
stream s. The R ossby w aves have w esterly co m p o ­
nent o f air flow w hich is d irected from w est to east
but due to seasonal shifting the m eandering loops
o f R ossby w aves are intensified and are d irected
north-south and hence there begins m eridional
circulation aloft instead o f h o rizontal flow (w est
to east). This m eridional circu latio n also m odifies
surface zonal flow and hence there begins tran sfer
o f energy and angular m om entum p o lew ard m ore
vigorously.
>■ The surface circulation is also c h arac te r­
ized by the developm ent o f ro tatio n al eddies (o r
vortices) representing anticyclones and cyclones
with a diam eter ranging betw een 1000-2000 km
and a life span o f several days. T h ese are the
cyclonic and anticyclonic w aves o f su rface eddies
which effectively transfer energy polew ard. T hese
eddies are rotational in the sense th a t they
transport polar cold air to the tro p ical areas and
tropical w arm air to the high latitu d es. It is also
im portant to note that the su b p o lar zone o f
convergence is quite different from the tro p ical
(equatorial) convergence zone b ecau se th e fo rm er
represents convergence o f tw o d issim ilar and
contrasting air m asses (polar cold a ir m ass and
tropical w arm air m asses) w hile the la tter is
formed due to convergence o f tw o sim ila r air
masses (tropical air m asses). The su b p o lar co n ­
vergence generates polar front w hich b eco m es the
source o f the origin o f tem perate cyclones.
The subtropical high pressu re zone, also
called as horse latitudes, is a sso ciated w ith
subsidence o f air from above and d iv erg en t
surface air circulation, and westerlies (b o th surface
w esterlies and upper air w esterlies) are sig n ifi­
cant com ponents o f m id-latitude zo n al atm o s­
pheric circulation and hence needs separate
discussion.
Westerlies : The perm anent w inds blow ing
from the subtropical high pressure belts (30°-35°)
to the subpolar low pressure belts (60°-65°) in
both the hem ispheres are called w esterlies (fig.
7.14). The general direction o f the w esterlies is
S.W. to N.E. in the northern hem isphere an d N .W .
to S.E. in the southern hem isphere. T here is m uch
variation in the w eather co nditions in their
polew ard parts w here there is convergence o f cold
and denser polar w inds and w arm and lighter
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174
w e s te rlie s . In fa c t, a c y clo n ic front, called as polar
ro n t, is fo rm e d due to tw o contrasting air m asses
M referred to ab o v e and thus tem perate cyclones
a re o rig in a te d . T h ese cyclones m ove alongw ith
th e w e ste rlie s in easterly direction. Thus, the
g e n e ra l c h a ra c te ristic features o f the w esterlies
a re la rg e ly m o d ified due to cyclones and anticy­
c lo n e s a sso c ia te d w ith them . B ecause o f the
d o m in a n c e o f land in the northern hem isphere the
w e ste rlie s b eco m e m ore com plex and com pli­
c a te d and b eco m e less effective during summ er
s e a so n s and m ore vigorous during w inter season.
T h e se w e ste rlie s bring m uch precipitation in the
w e ste rn p arts o f the continents (e.g. north-w est
E u ro p ea n coasts) because they pick up much
m o istu re w hile passing over the vast stretches of
th e oceans. The w esterlies becom e more vigorous
in th e southern hem isphere because o f lack o f land
and dom inance o f oceans and hence less friction
from ocean surfaces. Their velocity increases
southw ard and they becom e stormy. They are also
associated with biosterous gales. The velocity o f
the w esterlies becom es so great that they are
called roaring roriin betw een the latitudes o f 40°-
50nS, furious nftlei at 50°S latitude and jhriccklnu
ilxtlei at 60°S latitude.
3. Polar Air Circulation
P olar air circulation is represented by polar
cell o f the atm ospheric circulation which, on an
average, is confined betw een 60°-90° latitudes in
both the hem ispheres and is characterized by
su rface p o lar easterly w inds, upper air polar whirl
and w esterly w inds, w estw ard flow ing jet stream s,
u p p er air divergence and tem perature inversion,
su rface divergent circulation over polar areas
m ainly o v er n orth A m erican and Eurasian cold
p o les etc. It m ay be m entioned that cold pole
rep resen tin g low est tem perature does not co in ­
cide w ith the geographical pole, this is w hy there
are tw o cold poles in the northern hem isphere as
m en tio ned above. Since tem perature rem ains
below freezing p o in t during m ost part o f year, the
h ig h p ressure system s and resu ltan t divergen t air
flow from the p o lar areas are m ore p ersisten t and
become annual feature. T he influence zone o f
cold poles expands during w in ter season and
OCBANOtiRAWY
shrinks during sum m er season. T he pressure
gradient betw een polar high pressure and subpolar
low pressure generates easterly air circulation
know n as polar circulation d o m in ated by weak
polar easterly w inds w hich arc elab o rated below.
A low pressure b elt, p ro d u ced due to
dynam ic factor, lies w ithin the la U tu d in a lb .ltof
60°-65° in both the hem ispheres. T h is b elt o f low
pressure is m ore p ersisten t in su m m er season but
generally disappears in w in ter season. The
Icelandic and A leutian low p ressu re cells persist
throughout the year. T here is very high pressure
over the poles because o f ex ceed in g ly low
pressure. T hus, w inds blow from the po lar high
pressure to subpolar low p ressu re cells. I hese are
called polar w inds w hich arc n o rth e a ste rly in the
northern hem isphere and so u th -e a ste rly in the
southern hem isphere. I lie zone of p o lar winds
shrinks due to northw ard sh iftin g ol p ressu re belts
at the time o f northern sum m er (su m m e r solstice)
in the northern h em isphere but it is e x ten d ed upto
60°N latitude d u rin g n o rth ern w in te r (w inter
solstice). As m entioned e a rlie r p o la r easterly
w inds arc w eak but b eco m e stro n g e r and more
effective during no rth ern su m m e r i.e. sum m er
season in the northern h e m isp h ere . T u n d ra region
is characterized by w eak p re ssu re g ra d ie n t result­
ing into w eak easterly c irc u la tio n w h ich makes
tundra region the least sto rm y reg io n o f th e planet
earth. The po lar easterly w ind sy stem is com pli­
cated in the so u th ern h e m isp h e re , by th e presence
o f ice-capped c o n tin e n t o f A n ta rc tic a where
anticyclonic c irc u latio n is p re d o m in a n t feature
m ainly in the eastern p a rt o f the c o n tin e n t.
7.12 ATMOSPHERIC CELLULAR CIRCULATION
The m odern sch o o l o f a tm o sp h e ric science
en v isag es a three-cell model o f m e rid io n a l circula­
tio n o f th e a tm o sp h e re , p o p u la rly know a*
tricellular m eridional circulation o f th e atmosphere*
w h erein it is b e lie v e d th a t th e re is cellular
c ircu latio n o f a ir at each m e rid ia n (longitude)*
S u rface w in d s b lo w fro m h ig h p re s su re areas to
low p re ssu re a reas b u t in th e u p p e r a tm o sp h ere the
g en eral d ire c tio n o f a ir c irc u la tio n is opposite W
th e d ire c tio n o f su rfa c e w in d s. Thus, each
m e rid ia n h as th re e c e lls o f air c irc u la tio n to the
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I
1
ATMOSPHERE - SEA INTERACTIONS
northern hem isphere e.g. (1) tropical cell or Hadley
cell, (2) polar front cell or midlatitude cell or Ferrel
cell, and (3) polar or subpolar cell (figs. 7.13 and
7.19).
Fig. 7.19 : Tricellular meridional circulation o f the at­
m osphere (1) tropical H adley cell, (2)
Midlatitude (Ferrel) cell, and (3) Polar cell.
1. Hadley Cell (Tropical Cell)
T rop ical ceil is also called as Hadley cell
b ecau se G. H adley first identified this therm ally
in d u ced cell in both the hem ispheres in the year
1735. T he w inds after being heated due to very
h igh te m p e ra tu re at the equator ascend upward.
T hese a sc e n d in g w arm and m oist w inds release
latent h e a t a fte r condensation w hich causes
fu rth er a sc e n t o f the w inds w hich after reaching
the h e ig h t o f 8 to 12 kilo m eters in the troposphere
over the e q u a to r d iv erg e northw ard and south­
w ard o r say p o le w ard . T he surface w inds in the
nam e o f tra d e w in d s blow from subtropical high
p ressu re b e lts to e q u ato rial low pressure belt in
o rder to re p la c e th e a scen d in g a ir at the equator.
The u p p e r a ir m o v in g in o p p o site directio n to
surface w in d s (tra d e w inds) is called antitrade.
T hese u p p e r a ir a n titra d e s d escen d n e ar 30°-35°
latitudes to cau se su b tro p ic a l hig h p ressu re belt.
T hese a n titra d e s a fte r d e sc e n d in g n e a r 30°-35°
latitu des, a g ain b lo w to w a rd s th e eq u ato r w here
they are a g a in h e a te d and ascend. T hus, one
com plete m e rid io n a l cell o f a ir circ u latio n is
form ed. T h is is c a lle d tropical meridional cell
w hich is lo c a te d b e tw e e n th e e q u a to r an d 30°
175
latitudes. It m ay be pointed out that the regularity
and continuity o f the antitrade w ind system s in the
upper air has been refuted by a host o f m eteorolo­
gists on the basis o f m ore upper air data
being available during and after Second W orld
W ar. "
2. Ferrel Cell
The m id-latitude cell is called as F errel cell
or polar front cell. A ccording to old concept
surface w inds, know n as w esterly w inds or sim ply
w esterlies, blow from the subtropical sem i­
perm anent high pressure cells to subpolar sem i­
perm anent low pressure cells (60°-65°). The
winds ascend near 60°-65° latitudes because o f
the rotation o f the earth and after reaching the
upper troposphere diverge in opposite d irections
(polew ard and equatorw ard). These w inds (w hich
diverge equatorw ard) again descend n ear horse
latitudes (30°-35° latitudes) to reinforce su b tro p i­
cal high pressure belt. A fter descending these
w inds again blow polew ard as surface w esterlies
and thus a com plete cell is formed.
A ccording to new concept o f air circu latio n
the pattern betw een 30°-60° latitudes co n sists o f
surface w esterlies. In fact, w inds blow from su b ­
tropical high pressure belt to su b p o lar low
pressure belt but the w inds b ecom e alm o st
w esterly due to C oriolis force. It m ay be
m entioned that the regularity and co n tin u ity o f
w esterlies are frequently disturbed by tem p erate
cyclones, m igratory extratropical cy clo n es and
anticyclones. C ontrary to the ex istin g v iew o f
upper air tropospheric easterly w inds in th e zones
extending betw een 3 0 °-6 0 0 latitu d es R ossby
observed the existence o f u pper air w esterlies in
the m iddle latitudes due to p o lew ard d ecrease o f
air tem perature. A ccording to G .T. T rew arth a the
m iddle and u p p er tro p o sp h eric w esterlies are
associated w ith long w aves and je t stream s. W arm
air ascends along the p o la r fro n t w h ich is m ore
re g u la r and continuous in the m iddle tro p o sp h ere.
It m ay be p o in ted ou t th a t this new co n cep t does
n o t explain the c ellu lar m eridional circ u latio n in
the m id d le latitu d es.
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 176
3. Polar Cell
Polar cell involves the atmospheric circula­
tion prevailing between 60° and poles. Cold ^
w inds, known as polar easterlies, blow from polar
high pressure areas to sub-polar or mid- latitude
low pressure belt. The general direction o f surface
polar w inds becom es easterly (east to w est) due to year 1541. Since then more than a dozen events
C oriolis force. These polar cold winds converge
w ith warm w esterlies near 60°-65° latitudes and
form polar front or mid-latitude front which
b ecom es the centre for the origin o f temperate
cyclon es. The winds ascend upward due to the
rotation o f the earth at the subpolar low pressure
belt and after reaching middle troposphere they
turn poleward and equatorward. The poleward
upper air descends at the poles and reinforce the
polar high pressure. Thus, a complete polar cell is
formed.
Numerous objections have been raised
against the concept o f tricellular meridional
circulation o f the atmosphere. The temperature
gradient should not be taken as the only basis for
the origin and maintenance o f cellular meridional
circulation because not all the high and low
pressure belts are thermally induced. For exam ­
ple, the subtropical high pressure and subpolar
lo w pressure belts are dynam ically induced due to
subsidence and spreading o f air caused by the
rotation o f the earth respectively. Upper air anti­
trades are not uniform ly found over all the
m eridians. I f the trade winds are exclu sively o f
thermal origin, then the thermal gradient must be
present boldly throughout the tropics but this is
not true. A t the height o f 500 to 1000 m in the
atm osphere the winds becom e alm ost parallel to
the iscjbars w hich are generally parallel to the
latitude. I f this is so, the meridional cell o f air
circulation m ay not be possible. The pressure and
w inds in m ost parts o f low er atmosphere are found
in cellular form rather than in zonal pattern. These
pressure and wind cells are elliptical, circular or
sem icircular in shape. These evid en ces (cellular
form o f air circulation) no doubt contradict the old
concept o f general pattern o f atm ospheric circu la­
tion but the cellular m eridional circulation has not
been fu lly validated.
OCEANOGRAPHY 1
7.13 EL NINO-LA NINA PHENOMENON : RE­
SULT OF ATMOSPHERE-OCEAN INTER.
ACTION
El N ino is considered as a significant
weather phenomenon or event which occurs o ff
the w est coast o f S. A m erica, m ainly o f f the Peru
Coast. The El N ino event was first noticed in the
have occurred (e.g. 1.1951 - 52, 53; 2. 1957-58; 3.
1963-64; 4. 1965-66; 5. 1969-70; 6. 1972-73; 7.
1976-77; 8. 1977-78; 9. 1979-80; 1 0 .1 9 8 2 -8 3 ; 11.
1986-88; 12. 1991-92, 93; 13. 1994-95; 14. 1997­
98; etc.). La Nina event w as identified and named
as La N ina phenom enon in the year 1986 but its
occurrence was recorded in 1950-51, 1954-56,
1964-65, 1970-72, 1973-74, 1974-76, 1984-85,
198-89, 1995-96 etc. The occurrence o f La Nina
event strengthens Southern O scillation and Walker
Circulation, the eastern P acific O cean o f f the Peru
Coast is characterized by relatively colder water
and dry condition w hile the w estern equatorial
Pacific Ocean has warm water and m ore hum id
weather, trade w inds becom e m ore vigorous, the
south and south-east A sia receives m ore p recip i­
tation etc.
A subsurface warm current, kn ow n as El
Nino Current, flow s from north to south b etw een
3°S and 36°S latitudes at a distance o f about 180
km from the Peruvian coast. The southward
shifting o f the counter equatorial warm current
during southern w inter g iv e s birth to El N ino
current. The temperature at Peruvian coast does
not fall considerably because o f this current
Though the amount o f rainfall in creases along the
coasts due to this current but fish es die due to
disappearance o f planktons and occurrence o f
guano disease and pests cau sed by E l N in o . It may
be pointed out that El N in o a lso a ffects monsoons
in the Indian O cean. W hen El N in o is extended to
the southern end o f S. A m erica warm water is
pushed eastw ard to jo in the South Atlantic
w esterlies d n ft w h ich brings warm water in the
southern Indian O cean during southern winters*
C onseq uently, the high pressure in the Indian
O cean during southern w inter is not intensifi®®
due to w h ich the so u th -w est sum m er monsoon is
w eakened.
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 m
ATMOSPHERE - SEA INTERACTIONS 177

^V .v.‘.~.vc-.v.-.v.v.v>.\u\ v ------1------ 1--- 1----

rE /jl 180° 150“WXwiwSl 20°w

(a) NORMAL CONDITIONS

(b) ELNINOCONDITIONS

Fig- 7.20: (A) La Nina (normal Pacific Ocean condition), and (B fE l Nino condition (Source: based on P.R. Pinet, 2000).

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178
P resently, El N ino is considered as a
w eath er event or phenom enon. El N ino is
co n sidered as C hirst child w hile La N ina as
you n g er sister o f E l Nino. El N ino has been
related to the increase o f tem perature o f east
Pacific O cean o ff Peruvian coast while La N ina is
related to the w anning o f the w estern Pacific
O cean. The strong El N ino brings heavy rainfall
exceeding norm al rainfall resulting into lush
green otherw ise dry coastal land o f Peru. The cold
w ater m ass near Peruvian coast becom es warm
due to strong El N ino event resulting into heavy
rainfall in the first h alf o f the year (January to
M arch). E arlier the people o f Peru in the event o f
dry conditions while looking towards the sky
prayed ‘Ye God, give us rain and keep drought
aw ay, but when they came to know that copious
heavy rainfall causing mass destruction o f marine
life (m ainly death o f fishes due to disappearance
o f planktons) was associated w ith strong El Nino
event, they began to pray, ‘Ye God, give us rain
and keep El Nino aw ay.’ The heavy rainfall
associated with strong El Nino event makes
coastal Peruvian deserts green and there is rich
harvest o f cotton, coconuts and bananas but there
is oceanic biological disaster. It may be m ain­
tained that in the event o f strong El Nino the
tropical eastern Pacific receives four to six times
m ore rainfall than normal amount but dry
condition prevails in the tropical western Pacific
resulting into severe drought in Indonesia, Bang­
ladesh, India etc. The w idespread fire in the forest
o f Indonesia in 1997-98 was related to drought
resulting from strong El Nino event. La Nina is a
counter ocean current w hich becom es effective in
the tropical w estern Pacific when El Nino
becom es ineffective in the tropical eastern Pa­
cific. The dry condition in the w estern Pacific is
term inated and w et condition is introduced in the
tropical w estern Pacific by La N ina.
Effects of El Nino Events
The occurrence o f El N ino events brings
far reaching im pacts on w eather conditions in the
OCEANOGRAPHY
n o rth e rn h e m isp h ere in g e n e ra l an d tro p ic a l and ]
su b tro p ic a l re g io n s in p a rtic u la r, m a rin e life,
v e g eta tio n , a g ric u ltu re an d h u m a n h e a lth and
w ealth . T w o El N in o e v e n ts o f 1982-83 and
j 9 9 7 .9 8 h av e p ro v e d m o re d is a s te ro u s . The
1982-83 El N in o e v e n t c a u s e d ris e in norm al
t e m p e r a t u r e in th e n o rth -w e s te rn p a rts o f
C anada an d A la sk a ; ris e in w in te r norm al
te m p e ratu re in th e e a s te rn p a rts o f th e U nited
States o f A m e ric a; se v e re d ro u g h t co n d itio n s
and fa ilu re o f m o n so o n in S .E . a n d S o u th Asia
m ain ly in In d o n e s ia a n d In d ia ; ex cessiv e
ra in fa ll and s u b s ta n tia l fa ll in fis h c a tc h near
t h e P eru n v ian c o a sts; c o ra l b le a c h in g in the
P acific O cean ; sp re a d o f e n c e p h a litis d ise a se in
t h e e astern U n ite d S ta te s o f A m e ric a ; droughts
in M ex ico , S.E . A fric a , A u s tra lia an d New
Z ealan d etc. T he 199 7 -9 8 El N in o e v e n t caused
rise in n o rm al sea s u rfa c e te m p e ra tu re b y 5°C in
the P a cific O cean an d In d ia n O c e a n which
resu lted in co ral b le a c h in g an d m a ss destruc­
tion o f C o rals. A b o u t 95 p e r c e n t o f shallow
w ater co rals in B a h a ra in , M a ld iv e s , Sri Lanka,
S in g ap o re and T a n ja n ia w e re k ille d due to
c ata stro p h ic b le a c h in g w h ile 5 0 -7 0 p e r cent
co rals died due to se v e re b le a c h in g in K enya,
S ech eelles, Jap a n , T h a ila n d , V ie tn a m , A ndm an
and N ic o b ar Isla n d s etc. T h e y e a rs o f stro n g El
N ino b ring sev ere d ro u g h t c o n d itio n s in India,
In d o n esia, A u stra lia , m e x ic o , S o u th A frica,
P h ilip p in es etc. w h ic h re s u lts in irrep a ra b le
loss o f a g ric u ltu ra l p ro d u c tio n , d e v asta tin g
fo rest fire in In d o n e sia . T h o u g h s tro n g El N ino
b rin g s co p io u s ra in fa ll in c o a s ta l d e se rts o f
P eru and C h ile m a k in g th e d e s e rts lu sh green
b u t it cau ses m ass k illin g o f fis h e s m ainly
an ch o v y sp e c ie s d u e to s ta rv a tio n b e c a u se the
p re sen c e o f w arm w a te r s to p s th e u p w e llin g o f
co ld w a te r and n u trie n ts fro m b lo w an d hence
th e su p p ly o f p la n k to n s is s u b s ta n tia lly
red u ced . T he im p a c t o f E l N in o on w eath er
c o n d itio n s is fu rth e r e la b o ra te d in th e fo llo w in g
sectio n .
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 179

EL NINO high altitude How

descending air

high pressure

1 _ _

surface flow

Pacific Ocean

°
120° E 180°
_L

Fig. 7 .2 1 : Southern Oscillation, Walker circulation and El Nino.

7.14 WALKAR CIRCULATION AND EL-NINO-
SOUTHERN OSCILLATION (ENSO)
C ertain variatio n s are fou n d from the
atm ospheric general circu latio n p a tte rn s e.g.
surface trad es, w esterlies and po lar w in d s c irc u la ­
tio n and trice llu la r m erid io n al c ircu latio n . C irc u ­
lation o f local and seaso n al (m o n so o n ) w in d s m ay
be cited exam ple o f such d ev iatio n s. E ast- w est
zonal circu latio n o f tro p ical w inds is an im p o rtan t

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180
v a ria n t fro m g e n eral atm o sp h eric circu latio n .
T h is ty p ic a l e a st-w e st c irc u latio n o f tro p ical w ind
is c a lle d W alkar circulation nam ed a fte r fam ous
s c ie n tis t G .T . W a lk a r in 1922-23. In fact, W alk ar
c irc u la tio n is a zo n al co n v ectiv e cell o f air
c irc u la tio n , w h ic h is fo rm ed due to the d ev elo p ­
m e n t o f p re ssu re g ra d ie n t from east to w est in the
e q u a to ria l P a c ific ocean. A fte r tw o-three years
th is g e n e ra l c o n d itio n o f east-w est pressure
g ra d ie n t is re v e rse d i.e. pressure gradien t b e ­
co m es fro m w e st to e ast (fig. 7.21 B). Thus, there
are o s c illa tio n s in p ressu re gradient and air
c irc u la tio n a fte r the in terv als o f 2-3 years. W alkar
c a lle d su ch o sc illa tio n as southern osicillation.
W a lk a r c ircu latio n and southern oscilla­
tio n s are d riv en by the sea surface pressure
g ra d ie n t fro m the equatorial estem Pacific ocean
(n e a r the w estern coastal areas o f South A m erica)
to th e eq u ato rial w estern Pacific ocean (near S-E
A sian co asts). In norm al conditions high pressure
d e v elo p s on the sea surface o f the equatorial east
P a c ific ocean and the w estern coastal lands o f
so u th A m erica (fig. 7.21 A) due to subsidence o f
a ir fro m above and upw elling o f cold oceanic
w ater. On the other hand, low pressure is form ed
in the equatorial w estern Pacific ocean due to rise
o f air from the w arm sea surface. This pressure
gradient from east to w est generates east-w est
circulation o f trade w inds on the surface w hile
there is reverse upper air circulation i. e. from w est
to east (fig. 7 .2 1 A) w hich com pletes a convective
cell. T his east-w est air circulation drives the
ocean w ater m ass from the w estern coast o f South
A m erica tow ards the w est. This phenom enon
facilitates upw elling o f cold sea w ater near the
coasts o f P eru and E quator resulting in further
c o o lin g o f air. high air pressure, atm ospheric
stab ility and dry w eather condition. Contrary' to
this, east-w est air circulation becom es w arm
n o rth -east trades in the equatorial w est Pacific
o cean w here it, a fte r being heated, rises upw ard,
b eco m es unstable and causes p recipitation. A fter
risin g to certain h eig h t it turns eastw ard and
d escen d s in the equatorial eastern P acific ocean to
co m p lete th e c o n v ec tiv e c ell (fig. 7.21 A ). T h is is
n o w ev id en t th a t tropical eastern an d w estern
P a c ific is c h arac te riz ed by d ry and w et w eath er
c o n d itio n s resp ectiv ely .
OCEANOGRAPHY
B y O c to b er-N o v em b e r th e low a ir pressure
o f the tro p ica l w e ste rn P a c ific is sh ifted to the
tro p ica l e astern P acific c au sin g w eak en in g 0f
trade w inds. T his re v e rsa l in p re ssu re condition
facilitates the retu rn o f w arm s e a w a te r w hich was
d riven from the c o asts o f S o u th A m erica w est­
w ard, to w ard s the tro p ic a l e ast P acific. C onse­
quently, low air p re ssu re is fo rm e d in th e south­
east P acific m ain ly o ff th e c o asts o f South
A m erica (E q u ad o r an d P eru ), u p w e llin g o f cold
sea w ater is sto p p ed , w arm a ir rise s u p w ard and
becom es unstable and u ltim a te ly y ield s rainfall
after con d en satio n . It is e v id e n t th a t th e general
norm al co n d itio n (fig- 7.21 A ) has g o t reversed
(7.21 B). T his event is c alled El Nino penomenon.
The rising air in the east P a c ific co o ls above and
turns w estw ard in the tro p o sp h e re and ultim ately
descends in the tro p ical w est P a c ific g iv in g birth
to high pressure w hich d riv es w arm air towards
the coasts o f South A m erica. T h u s, again a
com plete co n v ectiv e cell is fo rm ed . Such condi­
tion is called El Nino-Southern Oscillation Event
(EN SO Event). In fact, ch an g es in the p o sitio n s o f
air pressure in the tro p ical e aste rn and w estern
Pacific are called southern oscillations. D u rin g El
N ino event W alkar c irc u latio n is w e ak e n ed due to
the d ev elo p m en t o f eq u ato rial w e ste rlie s on sea
surface (fig. 7.21 B) but H ad ley circu latio n is
activated. This p h en o m en o n a g ain activ ate s trade
w inds w hich again drive s e a -w a te r o f th e tropical
eastern Pacific w estw ard re su ltin g in the upw elling
o f cold w ater from below , w e ak e n in g o f El Nino
event and re -e stab lish m e n t o f n o rm a l condition
(fig 7.21 A).
It m ay be m en tio n e d th a t th e p h ases and
stren g th s o f the S o u th ern O sc illa tio n (spatio-
tem poral sh iftin g o f p re ssu re sy ste m s (high and
low') b etw een tro p ica l e aste rn an d w estern Pacific
O cean) are d e term in e d on th e b a sis o f differences
o f air p re ssu re b etw ee n th ese tw o areas, to be more
sp ecific, b etw een T a h iti (e a ste rn P acific, 18°S
latitu d e and 150°W lo n g itu d e ) a n d D arw in (Aus­
tralia, w e ste rn P a c ific , 12°S la titu d e and 130°W
lo n g itu d e). T h e p h a se s o f th e SO are term ed as
Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) w h e rein tw o phases
are m o st s ig n ific a n t n am ely , high phase and l°w
phase. High phase o f SO in d ic a tes n o rm a l condition
o r n o n -E N S O p h a se w h e rein tro p ic a l eastern and
.a
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ATMOSPHERE-SEA INTERACTIONS
th e a ste rn Pacific is characterized b y strong
S p r e s s u r e system w hereas low pressure
cvstem develops in the tropical w estern Pacific
(fie 7 21 A), strong easterly w inds dom inate over
the s u r f a c e , tropospheric subtropical w esterly je t
streams are w eakened and shift polew ard in both
the hem ispheres, La N ina effects set in, m onsoon
becom es strong and brings copious precipitation
in the south and south-eastern A sian regions,
tropical south A m erica (i.e. A m azonia) and
A frica (i.e. cen tral A frica), and alm ost dry
conditions in the tropical eastern P acific (i.e.
w estern co astal areas o f S. A m erica, m ainly Peru
and C hile)
T he low phase o f SO (fig- 7 .2 1 B ) is
indicative o f reversal o f non-E N SO phase as
d escribed above and onset o f El N ino phase
ch aracterized by the developm ent o f high p res­
sure sy stem over tropical w estern Pacific and low
pressu re system over tropical w estern Pacific and
low pressure system over tropical eastern pacific,
dom inance o f El N ino event o ff the Peruvian and
C h ilean coasts and accentuated rainfall but
d isap p earan ce o f L a N ina phenom enon from the
tro p ic a l w estern P acific O cean and decreased
p re c ip ita tio n in In dia and Indonesia resulting into
d ro u g h t co n dition.
7 15 MONSOONS :RESULTOF ATMOSPHERE-
OCEAN INTERACTIONS
T he m onsoons are seasonal w ind system s
w hich change th e ir d irectio n s at least by 120°
tw ice a y e a r and are caused due to d ifferen tial
heating o f lan d (co n tin en t) and ocean surfaces and
resu ltan t h igh and low p ressu re system s, seaso n al
shifting o f w in d s in th e tro p ics due to e a rth ’s
rev o lution a lo n g its o rb it around the sun, and
upper a ir a tm o sp h eric c ircu latio n like je t stream s.
Thus, m o n so o n s are the d ire c t re su lt o f a tm o s­
phere— o c ea n in te ra ctio n s.
1. Monsoons : Meaning and Concept
T he w o rd ‘m o n so o n ’ is u sed to in d ic a te the
w inds in the a reas w here they ch an g e th e ir
direction tw ice each year. In fact, th e w ord
‘monsoon’ w hich has b een d eriv ed fro m A rab ic
181
w ord ‘mausim’ or M alay an w o rd ‘monsin’ m e an in g
thereby ‘sea so n ’ refers to such an a tm o sp h eric
c ir c u la tio n w hich rev erses its d ire c tio n c o m ­
pletely every 6 m onths or say du rin g su m m er and
w in ter seasons. T he w ord ‘m a u sim ’ w as first u sed
by A rab n avigators fo r the w in d s b lo w in g o v er th e
A rabian Sea betw een A rab and In d ia w h e rein they
blow from n o rth -east to so u th -w est fo r 6 m o n th s
during w in ter seaso n and fro m so u th -w e st to
north-east during sum m er seaso n . O n th is b asis
the w ord m onsoon w as ap p lied to a ll th o se w in d
o f the globe w hich had d ire c tio n a l ch an g e fro m
sum m er season to w in ter sea so n and v ic e -v e rsa .
In m ay be p ointed out th a t th e re are m a n y su ch
places on the globe w h ere th e re is c o m p le te
seasonal rev ersal in th e w in d d ire c tio n e.g. e
region lying betw een 60°-70° la titu d e s in th e
northern hem isphere is c h a ra c te riz e d b y n o rth ­
east polar w inds during w in te r sea so n a n d by
south-w est w esterlies du rin g su m m er se a so n , an d
th e M e d i t e r r a n e a n reg io n s (30°-40° la titu d e s) are
c h a r a c te r iz e d b y w esterlies d u rin g w in te r se a so n
a n d north-east trade w inds d u rin g su m m e r se a so n
b u t t h e s e w inds are n o t called m o n so o n s. It is
a p p a r e n t th a t d irectio n al ch an g e o f th e w in d s is
n o t th e only criterio n o f m o n so o n s. In fa c t, th e
m onsoons a r e surface co n v ectiv e sy ste m s w h ic h
are originated due to d ifferen tia l h e a tin g an d
cooling o f the land and w a ter (o cean s) an d th e rm a l
variations. T he reg io n s d o m in ated b y m o n so o n
w inds are called ‘m o n so o n c lim a tic re g io n s ’
w hich are m ore d ev elo p ed in In d ia n s u b -c o n ti­
n e n t , so u th -east A sia, p arts o f C h in a an d Jap a n .
B esides, southern U S A , n o rth e rn A u stra lia , w e s t­
e rn A fric a e tc . a lso r e p r e s e n t p s e u d o ­
m onsoons.
A cco rd in g to C h an g -C h ia C h ’ en g m o n so o n
is a flo w p a tte rn o f the g e n e ra l a tm o sp h e ric
circu la tio n o ver a w id e g e o g ra p h ic a l area, in
w hich there is clea rly d o m in a n t w in d in o n e
d irectio n in every p a r t o f the reg io n co n cern ed ,
bu t in w hich this p r e v a ilin g d irec tio n o f w in d is
rev e rsed (or a lm o st reversed ) fr o m w in te r to
su m m er a n d fr o m su m m e r to w in ter.
A cco rd in g to N ie u w o lt, th e w o rd m o n so o n
is u sed o n ly f o r w in d syste m w h ere th e se a s o n a l
re v e rsa l is p r o n o u n c e d a n d e xc e ed s a m in im u m
n u m b er o f d e g re e s (1 2 0 deg rees).
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182
2 . T y p e s an d D istribution of M onsoons
ft- • .
R eg io n a lly , m on soon s are divided into 3
broad categories, nam ely (i) A sian m onsoons, (ii)
A frican m on soon s, and (iii) A m erican m onsoons.
A sian m on soon s are divided into south A sian
m on soon s and south-east A sian m onsoons. M on­
soon s are also divided into (1) traditional mon­
soons, e.g south and south-east A sian m onsoons,
and (2) pseudo monsoons e.g. African and
A m erican m on soon s. It m ay be m entioned that
true m on soon s are b est develop ed over Indian
subcontinent or say south A sia whereas in other
areas m on soon s are found in m odified form.
The m on soon areas are further subdivided as
fo llo w s :
Fig. 7.22 : Distribution o f monsoon areas.
Asian M onsoons
Asian m onsoons are divided into (1) South
Asian m onsoons, (2) S.E. Asian m onsoons, and
(3) East Asian m onsoons. The A sian m onsoons
are, on an average, the outcom e o f large-scale
seasonal shifting o f pressure and associated wind
belts and humidity. Much o f the northern and
central Asia is dominated by winter high pressure
and subsiding airmasses resulting in outspread o f
air circu "-M'n towards coastal areas. During
.
° c e a n o g r APHy
(1) True or traditional monsoon areas inclurf
India, Pakistan, B angladesh, Myanmar (Burm \
Thailand, Laos, Com bodia, North and S o u tP
Vietnam, Southern China, Philippines, andNorthem
coastal areas o f Australia.
(2) Areas of Monsoonal tendencies or pseudo
monsoons are found along south-w est coast of
A frica including the coasts o f Guinea, Sierra
Leone, Liberia and Ivory Coast; eastern Africa
and W estern M adagascar.
(3) Areas of Monsoonal effects include north­
east coast o f Latin A m erica (e.g. east Venezuela,
Guyana, Surinam, French Guyana, and North-east
Brazil), Puertiorico, and D om inican R epublic in
the Caribbean Island.
(4) Areas of Modified monsoons are found in
parts o f Central Am erica and south-east U SA .
winter season, thus, the winds are offshore in
south, south-east and east A sia and hence almost
dry condition prevails. But the offshore islands
receive precipitation because the offshore winds
w hile passing over the oceans pick up moisture
through evaporation. The winter conditions are
reversed during summer season as the monsoon
lands are dominated by thermally induced low
pressure system s and strong c o n v e r g e n c e result­
ing into strong onshore m onsoon winds. T h e se
onshore south-w est m onsoon winds pickupmuc
moisture w hile passing over the Indian Ocean an
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w
ATMOSPHERE - SEA INTERACTIONS
the Arabian Sea and y ie ld p recip itatio n over south
. m ainly In d ian su b co n tin en t. T he details o f
Indian m onsoon w ill be d iscu ssed in the foregoing
ection. T here are som e sig n ific a n t v ariatio n s in
south A sian and E a st A sian m onsoons as
follows :
>■ T h ere are v a ria tio n s in sum m er and
w inter m o n so o n s o v e r so uth and E ast A sia
because o f v a ry in g g e o g ra p h ica l locations o f land
and oceans. M o st o f E a st A sian m onsoon lands
(e.g. S o uth K o rea, E a st C hina, Japan etc.) are
located in te m p e ra te zone w hile South A sian
m onsoon lan d s are lo c ated in tro p ical and
su b tro p ical zo n es. T h is is the reaso n that sum m er
m onso o ns are n o t as m u ch strong in East A sia as
in S outh A sia b e ca u se low p ressu re system in E ast
A sia is n o t in te n sifie d w h ile it is very m uch
in te n sifie d in n o rth -w e st In d ian subcontinen t due
to in te n se su m m er h e atin g (A pril-June).
>- T h e H im alay as and th eir branches
b e co m e e ffe ctiv e b arriers in p rotecting the Indian
su b c o n tin e n t fro m the on slau g h t o f cold pow dery
p o la r a irm a sse s o rig in ate d from Siberian and
C e n tra l A sia n h ig h p ressu re system s during
w in te r sea so n . O n the other hand, outw ard
s p re a d in g o ffsh o re cold w inds from Siberian high
p re ssu re sy ste m s lo w e r the w in ter tem perature in
E ast A sian m o n so o n lands. It is evident that East
A sian m o n so o n lands are m ore influenced by
c o n tin e n ta l p o la r a irm a sse s as elab o rated below :
T h e se a irm a sse s o rig in ate over extensive
areas c o m p ris in g S ib e ria and o uter M ongolia
hav in g v e ry c o ld g ro u n d su rface. In itia y, t e
a irm asses are v e ry c o ld and dry in th e ir source
regions. T h e lo w e r p o rtio n u p to the h e ig h t o f one
k ilo m eter is c h a ra c te riz e d by in v e rsio n o f te m ­
p erature. T h e a ir m a sse s m o v e e astw a rd an d after
covering lo n g d is ta n c e s are m e c h a n ic a lly m o d i­
fied as m e c h a n ic a l tu rb u le n c e is p ro d u c e d w h en
these a ir m a sse s c ro s s o v e r th e m o u n ta in b a rrie rs.
This p ro c e ss le a d s to th e d is a p p e a ra n c e o f
inversion la y e r re s u ltin g in to in c re a se o f te m p e ra ­
ture and h u m id ity in th e lo w e r la y er. T h e se air
m asses e n te r C h in a th ro u g h tw o ro u te s v iz . (i)
through la n d su rfa c e , a n d (ii) th ro u g h sea w a te r
surface. W h en h ig h p re s su re lie s o v e r M o n g o lia
and N o rth C h in a , th e n th e se a ir m a sse s e n te r
C hina b y la n d ro u te . T h e y a re m u c h w a rm e r in
183
C hina than in th e ir so u rce areas. T h ese a ir m asses
are asso ciated w ith c le a r sk y an d dry w eath er an d
cold air. W hen th ese air m asses com e w ith high
velo city , they b rin g w ith them im m ense q u an tity
o f dust and sands and d e p o sit th em as lo ess. T h e
co n tin en tal p o lar a ir m asses in th e ir m o d ified
form s affect the w e ath e r co n d itio n s o f m o st p arts
o f A sia du rin g w in ter season. T h ese a ir m asses do
not en ter the In d ian su b co n tin en t b e c a u se o f
effectiv e b a rrie r o f the H im alay as.
W hen high p ressu re lies o v e r M an c h u ria
and Japan Sea, the c o n tin en tal p o la r a ir m a sse s
enter C hina by sea route a fte r m o v in g o v e r Jap an
Sea, and Y ellow Sea and th u s p ic k u p a b u n d a n t
m oisture T hese air m asses are re la tiv e ly w a rm e r
and m ore hu m id than the c o n tin e n tal p o la r a ir
m asses com ing by land route. U n til th e y are
asso ciated w ith fro n ts, th ey are c h a ra c te riz e d b y
clear sky and p leasan t w eath er. T h e lo w e r p o rtio n
is unstable and thus they give p re c ip ita tio n w h e n
they ascend along the m o u n tain b a rrie rs. T h e
co n tin en tal air m asses co m in g th ro u g h s e a an d
land routes co n v erg e along the eastern c o a s ts o f
A sia and form cy clo n es th ro u g h fro n to g e n e s is
and cause p recip itatio n .
It is ev id en t th at w in ter m o n so o n s are
stronger in E ast A sia than in S o u th A sia.
>- The sum m er m on so o n s are m u ch s tro n g e r
in South A sia and are w eak in E a st A sia b e c a u se
the m aritim e tro p ica l a irm a sse s, in fa c t su m m e r
m onsoon w inds, are w arm er, m o re h u m id an d
un stab le. T hey y ie ld to rre n tia l ra in fa ll w h e n th e y
are fo rced to ascen d b y m o u n ta in b a rrie r (th e
H im alay as and th e ir ch ain s). A fte r b e in g o rig i­
n a ted in so u th ern In d ian O cean th e y m o v e n o rth
and n o rth -ea stw ard , an d a fte r e n te rin g th e m a in ­
la n d (In d ian su b co n tin en t) th e y are h e a te d fro m
b elo w b e c a u se o f w arm g ro u n d su rfa c e an d h e n ce
th ey b e co m e u n sta b le an d c o n v e c tio n a l c u rre n ts
are p ro d u c e d . T h e so u th -w e st su m m e r m o n so o n s
o f In d ia n S u b c o n tin e n t are ty p ic a l re p re se n ta ­
tiv e s o f tru e m o n so o n s. T h e se a irm a s s e s p ro d u c e
c y c lo n ic c o n d itio n s w h e n th e y c o n v e rg e w ito
c o n tin e n ta l p o la r a irm a sse s d u rin g s p rin g s m
c e n tra l C h in a an d d u rin g m id d le s u m m e r in
M a n c h u ria .
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184
North American Modified Monsoons
N orth A m erican m onsoons are in fact
m o d ified m o n so o n s in relation to South A sian
m on soon s and are found over S.E. and S.W .
U n ited States. The location o f the R ockies
C o rd ille ra causes seasonal contrasts in the w eather
c o n d itio n s o f S.E. and S.W . USA. D uring
n o rth e rn su m m er subtropical high pressure shifts
n o rth w a rd and lies over w estern Pacific coast and
h en ce atm ospheric stability causes dry condition
but the situ atio n to the east o f the R ockies is quite
d ifferen t as the S. E. States o f the U SA are
do m in ated by low pressure system w hich attracts
m o isture laden m arine w inds com ing from over
the A tlantic O cean and the M exican G u lf and
pushed by the A tlantic high pressure near
B arm uda. The m aritim e tropical A tlantic air
m asses originate near B arm uda w here high
pressure is formed. They m ove northw estw ard
and control the w eather conditions o f vast areas o f
the USA east o f the Rocky M ountains during
sum m er m onths. The therm ally induced low
pressure over southern and central USA draws
m aritim e tropical air m asses (m P) far inland but
the existence o f polar front in the vicinity o f the
G reat Lakes restricts their entry into Canada.
Since tem perature and m oisture content in the air
increases considerably due to arrival o f these air
m asses in the central and eastern USA, the
w eather becom es oppressive and unpleasant. As
these air m asses m ove out o f their source areas
and enter the USA after crossing over the G u lf o f
M exico, surface tem perature increases, and they
are m odified into m aritim e tropical unstable air
masses (m TKu) because the heating o f overlying
relatively cold air mass causes atm ospheric
instability. Thus, thunderstorm s and cyclones are
produced w hich yield heavy show ers. As the air
mass m oves northw ard it loses its m oisture
content and becom es dry in the upper M ississippi
valley. W hen these air m asses m ove w estw ard and
rise along the Rocky m ountains they yield heavy
downpour with cloud burst. Sim ilarly, when they
cross over the A pplachians they give heavy
showers through thunderstorm s.
t, D unn6 w inter season the above situation o f
w e a th e rre v e rs e d . The subtropical high pressure
and subpolar lowpressuresystems raoveequatorw^
T he S W U S A , west o f the Rockies comes
the in flu en ce o f su b p o la r convergence zone (pol*
front) w hich is a sso c ia te d w ith strong cyclonic
activ ities w h ich y ie ld m u c h precipitation in the
so u th -w estern c o asta l areas. The region east of the
R ockies is d o m in a te d b y winter high pressure
system m ain ly o v e r the G re a t Plains and the winds
becom e o ffsh o re re su ltin g in to le ss precipitation.
It b ecom es very d iffic u lt to th e tro p ic a l maritime
A tlantic air m asses to e n te r th e so u th ern and
central U SA b e ca u se o f the d o m in a n c e o f the
continental p o la r airm a ss o v e r th is area. Accord­
ing to P ierre the sea so n al c o n tra sts (sum m er and
w inter v ariatio n s) are n o t as m u ch m ark ed as in
South and South E ast A sian m o n so o n s because
the sam e c y clo n ic c o n d itio n s an d inconsistency is
ch aracteristic (fea tu re ) o f b o th w in te r and sum­
m er (seasons).
Pseudo Monsoons
A reas o f m o n so o n al te n d e n c ie s or pseudo
m onsoons are fo u n d alo n g so u th -w e st coast of
A frica in clu d in g the co asts o f G uinea, Sierra
Leone, L iberia and Iv o ry C o ast; Eastern Africa
and w estern M ad ag ascar.
West Africa : T he c o astal areas o f the west
A frica located b etw een 5°N -20°N latitudes in­
cluding Sierra L eon, L ib eria, Iv o ry C oast, Guinea,
Senegal. M au ritan ia etc. are ch aracterized by
m onsoonal te n d en c ie s w h e rein sum m er mon­
soons (Ju n e-A u g u st) are w ell m ark ed but winter
m onsoons (D e c e m b e r-F e b ru a ry ) are not well
developed. D u rin g the n o rth e rn sum m er the
su b tro p ical high p re ssu re sh ifts to the north of
tropic o f C an cer in the n o rth e rn hemisphere
w hereas the so u th ern su b tro p ic a l h ig h pressure is
located to the n o rth o f T ro p ic o f C ap rico rn . The
northw ard shift o f the so u th e rn su b tro p ical high
pressure p u sh es the S.E. trad e w in d s n o rth w a rd
w hich after c ro ssin g o v e r th e e q u ato r become
so u th -w esterly due to C o rio lis e ffe ct and Ferrel s
law. T hese su rface so u th -w e ste rlie s ure o u e rrid e n
by u p p er air tro p ica l e aste rlie s. S in ce the su rfa c e
so u th -w esterlies com e from o v e r the Atlantic
O cean and G u lf o f G u in ea, th ey p ick -u p moisture
and yield rain fall in the c o astal w est A frica. These
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ATMOSPHERE - SEA INTERACTIONS
moist winds lose m oisture and energy as these
move further inland. During winter season, the
western coast o f A frica is dom inated by surface
Isj E Trades and hence w inters are dry because the
tropical easterlies b low over land areas. It may
also be m entioned that unlike South Asian
monsoon areas, the G uinea coasts are dominated
by moist weather throughout the year. The annual
weather conditions in the w estern coast o f Africa
are characterized and determ ined by (1) formation
o f clouds and resultant light rainfall due to
frictional convergence w ithin the surface south­
westerly m on soon flo w and upper air easterlies;
(2) lo w -le v e l convergence o f easterly w aves
having cy clo n ic circulation; (3) m oist air w aves
a sso c ia te d w ith su m m er so u th -w e ste r lie s;
(4) north-south Sudan-Sahel belt o f cumulonimbus
cells; (5 ) location and m ovem ent o f m onsoon
trough; (6) u p w ellin g o f cool water (20°C) along
the coasts o f Senegal and Mauretania during
January-April and along the Central southern
coast located to the w est o f Lagos during July-
O ctober etc.
The average annual rainfall decreases from
about 5°N latitude (2000 m m -3000 mm) to 20°N
latitude (1 0 0 0 m m ). The rainfall intensity in the
im m ediate v icin ity o f the coasts is the highest
(300 mm per day during summer rainy months)
and decreases tow ards the east. A ccording toR.J.
Chorley and R.G. Barry (2 0 0 2 ) m onsoon rains in
Nigeria contribute only 28 per cent o f the mean
a n n n a l rainfall (2 0 0 0 m m ) w hile remaining
amount (72 per cent) is received through thunder­
storms (51 p e r ce n t) and disturbance lines (21 per
cent). I f on e g o e s further north, the m onsoon
contribution to total annual rainfall further
decreases e.g . at about 10° N . latitude only 9 per
cent o f annual total is received through m onsoon.
E a st-A frica : The east coastal regions o f
South Africa lyin g betw een the latitudes o f 5° S
and 25°S falling in Tanzania and M ozam bique
countries and also M adagascar are characterized
by monsoon tendencies wherein w et (sum m er
season, southern summer i.e. January) and dry
(southern winter, i.e. July) are w ell marked. With
southward migration o f the sun after autumn
equinox (i.e. after 23 Septem ber) during southern
summer the intertropical convergence (ITC)
185
shifts to the south o f the equator, southern
subtropical high pressure shifts southward, south­
east tropical trades are pushed southward, conse­
quently tropical easterlies (N .E . Trades) occupy
the coastal regions o f Tanzania and M ozam bique
and entire Madagascar. These tropical easterly
winds pickup moisture from the Indian ocean and
becom e m oist summer north-east m onsoons, and
bring rains in the eastern coastal regions o f South
Africa. It may be m entioned that during southern
summer the South Africa is characterized by low
pressure and depressions w hich draw the m oist
tropical easterlies w hich are associated w ith
easterly w aves at 850-700 mb le v el or at the
altitude o f 200m -3000m above the surface. T hese
easterly w aves becom e more active during south­
ern summer (D ecem ber to February) and bring
much rains (the rainfall intensity reaches 4 0 mm
per day) (Chorley and Barry, 2 0 0 2 ). It m ay be
mentioned that the easterly w aves are associated
with tropical cyclones w hich are developed in the
Southern Indian Ocean in January and February
and m ove w est and north-westward towards east
African coast under the influence o f southern
tropical easterlies.
During southern winter the above co n d i­
tions are reversed due to migration o f the sun to
the north o f the equator after s p r i n g equin ox (21
March). The intertropical convergence (ITC) is
pushed to the north o f the equator together w ith
northward shifting o f the northern subtropical
high pressure. The southern sub-tropical high
pressure is also pushed to the north o f the tropic o f
Capricorn. C onsequently, the eastern coastal
plains o f South Africa com e under the influence o f
extratropical (m id-latitude) w esterlies. Since these
south-w esterly winter m onsoon w inds are o ff­
shore and hence are alm ost dry resulting into
alm ost winter dry season. The high phase o f the
Walker circulation (Southern O scillation) during
southern summer over south A frica, intensified
intertropical convergence and subtropical high
pressure cells, strong easterly w aves and tropical
cy clo n es originating in the southern Indian O cean
etc. are responsible for high rainfall during
summer m onsoon (D ecem ber to February) o f
eastern Africa.
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 186
Australian Monsoon
T h e A u stra lia n m o n so o n is p laced u nd er the
c a te g o ry o f tru e o r tra d itio n a l m onsoon but it is
c o n fin e d o n ly to th e n arro w coastal strip s o f
n o rth e rn A u stra lia w h e rein active m onsoon p e ­
rio d is e x p e rie n c e d d u rin g austral (southern)
su m m e r (D e c e m b e r to M arch). The northern
A u s tra lia is c h a ra c te riz e d by therm ally induced
lo w p re s su re in late D ecem b er and early January
w h ic h a ttra c ts low level w esterlies overlain by
u p p e r tro p o sp h e ric easterlies. The m onsoon sets
in la te D e c e m b e r and retreats in m id-M arch. On
an a v erag e , the average active m onsoon period is
o f 75 day s b u t this is highly variable because
a n n u a l activ e m onsoon period ranges betw een 10
d a y s and 125 days. The tropical easterlies
asso c iate d w ith tropical cyclones and squall lines
also brin g rains during sum m er m onsoon. The
m onsoon effect does not have deeper penetration
in the northern A ustralia because the seasonal
shifting o f intertropical convergence (ITC) is not
very effective. D uring southern w inter the coastal
northern A ustralia is characterized by dry co n ti­
nental airm ass and hence w inters have very little
rainfall.
7.16 CONCEPTS OF THE ORIGIN OF MON­
SOONS
The concept o f the origin o f m onsoon is
related to therm al and dynam ic factors and thus
there are tw o concepts o f the origin o f m onsoon
e.g. (1) therm al concept, and (2) dynam ic
concept.
1. Thermal Concept
T he therm al concept o f the origin o f
m onsoon was first pro p o u n d ed by H ailey in 1686.
A ccording to this concept the m onsoons are the
result o f heterogeneous ch arac te r o f the globe
(unequal distribution o f land and w ater) and
fferentia seasonal heating and cooling o f the
wm tm ental and oceanic areas. D uring north ern
vertical o v e ^ ' f 06- WhfCn the Sun M o n ie s
southern h e m i s n h e ^ T u Capncorn in
phere h ,8h P ressure areas are
OCEANOG
d e v elo p e d o v e r A sia d u e to v e ry lo w tem perature
T w o b o ld h ig h p re ssu re a re a s a re d ev elo p ed neai
B ay k al L ake a n d P e sh a w a r. O n th e o th er hand,
low p re ssu re c en tre is d e v e lo p e d in the southeinjg
Indian O cean d u e to s u m m e r s e a so n and relq tejT
high te m p e ratu re in th e s o u th e rn hem isphere,.
C o n seq u en tly , w in d s sta rt b lo w in g fro m the high"
p ressu re land a re as to th e lo w p re s su re oceanic,,
areas. T hese are c a lle d n o rth -e a s t m o n so o n s or
w in ter m o n so o n s (fig. 7 .2 3 ). T h e s e are d ry w inds,
because th ey co m e fro m o v e r th e land.
Fig. 7.23 : (A) Winter monsoon, (B) Sum m er m onsoon.
T he a fo re sa id c o n d itio n s a re r e v e rs e d at the
tim e o f su m m e r so lstic e w h e n th e su n b eco m es
v ertical o v er th e tro p ic o f C a n c e r in th e n o rth e rn
le m isp h ere. B e c a u se o f h ig h te m p e ra tu re low
p re ssu re c en tres are d e v e lo p e d a t tw o p la c e s due
o the p re se n te o f th e H im a la y a s e.g. n e a r B aykal
L ake and M u h a n C o n v e r s d y j h .g h p re ssu n j
- ar f d e v e lo p e d in th e s o u th e rn Indian
T a n ’K 01 ie n ° rth o f A u s tra lia a n d to th e so u th o f
h e m k n ieCaUS w *n te r s e a s o n in th e southern
In d ian nseclu e n tb'» w in d s b lo w from
In d ia n O cean to A sia n c o n tin e n t. T h e se w inds
e rlv , c ro ®s *ng th e e q u a to r b e c o m e so u th -w e st-
much mn t F e m ‘:s la w - T h ese * * * » pi<*
and v ie lf /h UrC w p a ssin g through the ocean
Uvelv Th y rai"fa" when obstructed effec-
summer n,eSe are ca**e(* south-west monsoons or
su m m e r m o n so o n s.
i
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ATMOSPHERE - SEA INTERACTIONS
3»j-:
2 . Dynamic Concept
~ r*
A host o f scientists have refuted the therm al
* origin o f m onsoon and have raised the follow ing
objections against the old concept o f therm al
concept.
>• I f the ‘lows’ developed over the land
areas are ‘heat lows’ (low pressure centres devel­
oped due to high tem perature), then they should
remain stationary at their places for some time but
they are never stationary. There is sudden and
w idespread shifting in their positions. It, thus,
appears that the low pressure centres are not
related to therm al conditions, rather they repre­
sent cyclonic low s associated with the south-w est
monsoon.
>- T he rain producing capacity o f monsoon
w inds is also doubtful. In fact, the monsoon
rainfall is associated w ith tropical disturbances.
>- I f the m onsoons are therm ally induced
then there should be anti-m onsoon circulation in
the upper air. It may be pointed out that a few
m eteo ro lo g ists have also noticed seasonal varia­
tions o f w inds aloft in the tropsphere and
strato sphere. Such upper air w inds, which change
their d irectio n s, seasonally, are called ‘upper air
m on soon ’ o r ‘aerological m onsoon’.
B ased on above objections Flohn rejected
the therm al concept o f the origin o f monsoon
winds and p ro pounded his new concept in 1951
which is based on the dynam ic origin o f m on­
soons. A ccording to him m onsoons are originated
due to sh ifting o f pressure and w ind belts.
Tropical convergence is form ed due to conver­
gence o f n o rth -east and south-east trade w inds
near the equator. This is called intertopical
convergence (IT C ). T he northern and southem
boundaries o f ITC are called N ITC and SITC
* respectively (figs. 7.16 and 7.17). T here is a belt
o f doldrum w ith in the intertropical convergence
characterized by equatorial westerlies. A t the time
of sum m er solstice (June 21) w hen the sun
becomes vertical over the tropic o f C ancer, N ITC
is extended upto 30°N latitude covering south and
south-east A sia and thus eq u ato rial w esterlies are
established over these areas. T hese equatorial
w esterlies becom e south-w est or sum m er m on­
soons. The NITC is associated with numerous
atm ospheric storms (cyclones) which yield heavy
rainfall during wet monsoon months (July to
September). Sim ilarly, the north-east or winter
m onsoon does not originate due to low pressure in
the southern hem isphere during w inter solstice
(southern summer, when the sun becomes vertical
over the tropic o f Capricorn). In fact, the north­
east monsoons are north-east trade winds which
are reestablished over south and south-east Asia
during northern w inter (w inter solstice) due to
southward shifting o f pressure and w ind belts and
NITC. It is obvious that due to southw ard
movement o f the sun at the time o f the w inter
solstice the NITC is withdrawn from over south
and south-east Asia and north-east trade w inds
occupy their normal position. These north-east
trades, thus, become w inter m onsoons. Since they
come from over the land, and hence they are dry.
7.17 ORIGIN OF INDIAN MONSOON
The findings o f researches conducted in
connection with the Indian monsoon after 1950
have revealed that its origin and m echanism are
related to the following facts :
The role o f the position o f the H im alayas
and Tibetan plateau as m echanical b arrier or as
high level heat source.
>- The existence o f upper air circum -polar
whirls over north and south poles in the tro p o ­
sphere.
>- The circulation o f upper air jet streams in
the troposphere.
D ifferential heating and cooling o f huge
landm ass o f A sia and Indian Ocean.
>■ The El Nino-Southern O scillation (ENSO)
event.
Before 1950 the origin and m echanism o f
Indian m onsoon was related to surface air
circulation and therm ally induced low and high
pressures and thus m onsoon was considered to be
a sim ple air circulation system but the studies o f
air circulation in the m iddle and upper tropo­
sphere have shown that the m onsoon is a com plex
air circulation system . H igh pressure is developed
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188
d u e to e x tre m e ly lo w te m p e ra tu re an d d e sc e n t o f
a ir f r o m a b o v e in th e a rc tic c irc le o v e r the p o les
w h e r e a s u p p e r a ir lo w p re s su re is d e v e lo p e d in the
tr o p o s p h e r e ju s t a b o v e the su rfa ce o f high
p r e s s u r e a re a . T liu s, u p p e r a ir c irc u m p o la r w hirl is
d e v e lo p e d a b o v e th e p o le s w h erein w inds blow
fo llo w in g c u rv e d p a th s in a c y c lo n ic system . In
o th e r w o rd s , w in d s b lo w aro u n d u pper a ir low
p re s s u re c c n tre in a c y c lo n ic p a tte rn and thus form
a w h irl. T h is w h irl is c a lle d c irc u m p o la r w hirl.
T h e g e n e ra l d ire c tio n o f a ir m o v em en t o v er A sia
is fro m w e st to east. T h e e q u a to rw a rd w in d s o f
th is u p p e r a ir w h irl are c a lle d jet streams.
T h e je t stre am s b lo w in a m ean d erin g
c o u rse . T h e a rc tic u p p e r a ir w hirl becom es m ore
p ro m in e n t and activ e d u rin g w in te r season in the
n o rth e rn h e m isp h ere (a t the tim e o f w in te r
s o lstie c ) and th u s the u p p e r a ir w esterly je t
stre am s are e sta b lish e d in th e latitu d in a l zo n e o f
20°-35°N . B ec a u se o f e q u to rw a rd sh iftin g o f
u p p e r a ir c irc u m p o la r w h irl the n o rth in te rtro p ica l
c o n v erg en c e (N IT C ) is p u sh ed fu rth e r so u th w ard
fro m its n a tu ra l p o sitio n . N o rth -e a st trade w in d s
fo rm th e s u rfa c e a ir c irc u la tio n o v e r In d ian
s u b c o n tin e n t d u rin g n o rth e rn w in te r (fig. 7.24 A ).
T h e u p p e r a ir w e ste rly je t stream s are
p o s itio n e d in A sia at the h e ig h t o f a b o u t 12
k ilo m e tre s in th e tro p o sp h e re . T h e se je t stream s
are b ifu rc a te d d u e to th e m e c h a n ic a l o b stru c tio n
o f th e Himalayas an d Tibetan plateau d u rin g
n o rth e rn w in te r. T h e n o rth e rn b ra n c h b lo w s fro m
w est to east in a rc u a te sh ap e to th e n o rth o f th e
H im alay as and T ib e ta n p la te a u (fig. 7.24 A ) w h ile
th e so u th ern b ra n c h m o v e s fro m w e st to e a st to the
south o f the H im a la y as. It m ay be p o in te d ou t th a t
the m ain b ra n c h o f u p p e r-a ir je t stre am s fo llo w s
anti-cy clonic p ath w h e re in a n tic y c lo n ic a ir c irc u ­
lation is d ev elo p ed to th e rig h t o f the g en eral flo w
d irectio n o f the je t stre am s a cro ss A fg h a n ista n
and P ak istan w ith the re s u lt u p p e r air h ig h
p ressu re is form ed o v e r th e m (fig. 7 .2 4 A ,
indicated by H igh) at th e h e ig h t o f 10-12 k m and
hence w inds d escen d an d se ttle d o w n w ard .
C onversely, th e m ain b ra n c h o f je t stream s to th e
south o f the H im alay as fo llo w s c y clo n ic arc
having an ti-clockw ise air c irc u la tio n due to
m ountain b arrier. W ith the re su lt u p p er a ir low
pressure and cyclonic air c irc u latio n are d e v e l­
?v>BM
OCEANOGRA*^
o p e d o v e r Tibetan plateau (fig . 7 .2 4 A
low ).
Let us d iscu ss the general co n d itio n s during
w inter and sum m er sea so n s. T he upper air
w esterly je t stream s are exten d ed upto 20°-35°H
latitude due to equatorw ard sh ift o f upper air north
polar w hirl during northern w inter (O ctober to
February). T he upper air w e ste r ly je t streams are
bifurcated into tw o branches due to m echanical
obstructions o f the H im alayas and T ibetan Platean.
One branch is located to the south o f the
H im alayas w h ile the seco n d branch is positioned
to the north o f T ibetan plateau (fig . 7 .2 4 A ). Upper
air high pressure and a n ticy c lo n ic (w ith clock­
w ise air circulation) co n d itio n s are developed in
the troposphere over A fg h a n ista n and Pakistan.
C onsequently, the w in d s tend to d escen d over
north-w estern part o f India resu ltin g into the
developm ent o f atm osph eric sta b ility and dry
conditions. B esid e s, the upper air w esterly jet
streams also cause period ic ch a n g es in general
w eather con d ition s b eca u se th ey lie over the
tem perate lo w pressure (c y c lo n ic w aves) or
cy clo n es w hich m o v e from w e st to east under the
in flu en ce o f upper air w e ste r ly je t streams across
the M editerranean Sea and reach Pakistan and
north-w est India. T h ese storm s are not frontal
cy clo n es but are w a v e s w h ic h m o v e at the height
o f 2 0 0 m etres from m ean sea le v e l, w hile at the
surface there are n orth -east trade winds. The
arrival o f th ese tem perate storm s cau ses precipita­
tion and abrupt d ecrease in air temperature. The
w eather b eco m es clear after th ey pass away. On
an average 4 to 8 c y c lo n ic w a v e s per m onth reach
north-w estern India b etw een O ctober and April
each year. T hey a ffec t the w eather conditions
during w inter sea so n s upto Patna.
N o w q u e stio n a ris e s as to w h y th e re is no
re g u la rity a n d c o n tin u ity in th e w in te r cyclonic
w a v e s? A s s ta te d e a r lie r th e u p p e r a ir high
p re s s u re an d a n tic y lo n ic s y s te m s a re positioned
a b o v e th e g ro u n d s u rfa c e fre q u e n te d b y cyclonic
w a v es. T h is is w h y th e w in d s d e sc e n d and the
c y c lo n ic w a v e s lo c a te d a t th e h e ig h t o f 200 ta
fro m th e su rfa c e a re u n a b le to a sc e n d b ecau se the
w in d s d e sc e n d in g fro m th e u p p e r a ir high
p re s su re o b s tru c t th em . S im u lta n e o u s ly , the sur­
face tra d e w in d s p o s itio n e d b e lo w the cyclonic
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ATM OSI'H ERE _ SEA INTERACTIONS

^ jv e s also c o o l them from below . Consequently, cooling and increase in relative humidity). On an
nJOSt o f the precipitation from these cyclonic average, most parts of India remain dry during •
waves is orographic in character (the winds rise winter season except Tamil Nadu coast which
altpig the Him alayas and yield precipitation due to receives much rainfall during October-November.

TROPOSPHERIC TROPOSPHERIC
ANTI CYCLONE DEPRESSION CYCLONE N

200 mb WINTER WESTERLY

JET STREAM
TDHDncDUPPir c \ c \ ONF TROPOSPHERIC

200 mb WESTERLY JET STREAM

: W conJuum during w i^ r season. out (B) condign Jmng sunmer season.

Fig. 7.24: Origin of Indian monsoon

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190
A fte r v e rn a l equinox (21 M arch) sun m oves
n o rth w a rd and b e co m e s v e rtical o v er the trop ic o t
C an cer (a t th e tim e o f sum m er so lstice, 21 June)
w ith th e re s u lt th e p o la r su rface high p ressu re is
w eak en ed an d u p p e r air c ircu m -p o lar w hirl w hich
ex ten d ed u p to 20°-35°N latitu d es d u ring w in ter
seaso n sh ifts n o rth w ard due to w hich u pper air
w e ste rly je t stream s are also w ithdraw n and sh itl
n o rth w ard. T h u s, the dynam ic force o f the p olar
w h irl is w eakened. C onsequently, the u pp er air
c irc u m -p o la r w h irl becom es unable to m aintain
the so u th ern b ran ch o f the w esterly je t stream s (to
the so u th o f th e H im alayas, fig. 7.24 A) and thus
th ey (jet stream s) shift to the north o f the
H im alay as and T ibetan plateau (fig. 7.24 B). Final
w ith d raw al o f upper air stream s from over India is
co m p leted by m iddle o f June.
Low pressure areas are developed at the
ground surface in north-w est Pakistan and n o rth ­
w est India due to intense heating o f ground
surface during A pril-M ay. B ut so long as the
position o f upper air je t stream s is m aintained
above the surface low pressure (to the south o f the
H im alayas), the dynam ic cyclonic conditions
persist over A fghanistan, north-w est Pakistan and
north-w est India. The w inds descending from the
upper air high pressure obstruct the ascent o f
winds from the surface low pressure areas, w ith
the result the w eather rem ains w arm and dry. This
is w'hy the m onths o f April and M ay are dry inspite
o f high tem perature and evaporation. It m ay be
pointed out that m onsoon arrives in M ay in
M yanm ar but north-w est India rem ains dry.
U pper air low pressure is form ed to the east o f the
eastern lim it o f the H im alayas due to upper air je t
stream s, w ith the result the w inds com ing from
south in M yanm ar are forced to ascend and yield
copious rainfall. The M yanm ar m onsoon also
affects B angladesh and adjoining Indian territory
w hich receives prem onsoon rainfall.
T he upper air w esterly je t stream (southern
branch o f w inter je t stream (is w ithdraw n from
over India by the m iddle o f June (fig. 7.24 B),
reason has already been explained above. N ow
the je t stream is positioned to the north o f Tibet
and the trajectory o f its flow becom es opposite
(fig. 7.24 B ) to the flow curvature during w inter
season (fig. 7.24 A). The flow path o f upper air
w e ste rly je t s tre a m b e c o m e s c y c lo n ic
(a n tic lo c k w ise m o v e m e n t o f free a,r) over
an d A fg h a n ista n d u e to w h .c h d y n a m i c ^
in d u ced lo w p re s su re is fo rm e d m th e upper
J e tro p o sp h e re , c a lle d a s tr o p o s p h e n c low «
c y clo n e , fig. 7.24 B) a n d thus c y c lo n ic c o n d m o ®
d o m in ate th e u p p e r a tm o s p h e re . It m ay be
rem em b ered th a t there is h ig h p re s s u re and
a n tic y c lo n ic c o n d itio n s d u rin g w in te r seaso n in
th e areas o f s u m m e r u p p e r a ir tro p o s p h e n c low
p ressu re an d c y c lo n ic c o n d itio n . T h is u p p er an
low p re ssu re is also e x te n d e d o v e r P a k is ta n and
n o rth -w est In d ia. T h e re is a lre a d y therm ally
induced low p re s s u re a t th e g ro u n d surface
located b elo w the u p p e r a ir lo w p re s s u re . C onse­
qu en tly , the su rfa ce w a rm w in d s ris e u p w a rd . The
ascen t o f su rfa ce w a rm a ir is f u r th e r accelerated
because the u p p e r a ir lo w p re s s u re su c k s th e air
from the g ro u n d su rfa c e . T h is m e c h a n is m causes
sudden b u rs t o f s o u th -w e s t m o n so o n .
It m ay be re m e m b e re d th a t d u rin g northern
sum m er th ere is w in te r se a so n in th e southern
h em isp h ere, w ith th e re s u lt s o u th e rn p o la r w hirl is
m ore d ev elo p ed and is e x te n d e d u p to th e equator.
C onseq u en tly , the in te rtro p ic a l c o n v erg en c e (ITC)
is p u sh ed to th e n o rth o f e q u a to r. B ec a u se o f the
push facto r o f th e so u th e rn p o la r w h irl the south­
east trad e w in d s are fo rc e d e q u a to rw a rd and w hile
cro ssin g o v e r th e e q u a to r th e y b ecom e south­
w esterly due to c o rio lis fo rc e (d e fe ctiv e force
caused due to th e ro ta tio n o f th e e a rth ) and rush
tow ards In d ia. It m a y b e p o in te d o u t th a t rapid
advance o f in te r-tro p ic a l c o n v e rg e n c e northw ard
is b ecau se o f th e p u s h fa c to r o f th e southern
circu m p o lar w h irl a n d n o t b e c a u s e o f su ck in g by
the th erm ally in d u c e d s u rfa c e lo w p re ssu re over
n o rth -w est In d ia. N o d o u b t, th is su rfa ce low
p ressure a c c e le ra te s th e a d v a n c e of intertropical
co n v erg en ce n o rth w a rd . In te rtro p ic a l conver­
gence is c h a ra c te riz e d b y d y n a m ic a lly induced
w aves and n o t b y fro n ta l c y clo n e s. T h e se dynami­
cally in d u ced w a v es a fte r c o m in g over India
b ecom e cy clo n e v o rtice s. T h e s u m m er monsoon
rains of In d ia re su lt fro m these cyclonic vortices.
In o th er w o rd s, th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f cyclonic
vortices is fo llo w ed b y w e t weather while their
occlusion cau ses d ry w e ath e r w h ic h continues till
new cyclonic v o rtex is form ed.
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 ATMOSPHERE - SEA INTERACTIONS
There is much spatial and tem poral varia­
tion o f m onsoon rainfall in India. T opographic
factor plays a m ajor role in such variation. For
example, the A rabian Sea B ranch o f south-w est
monsoon rises ab ruptly a lte r being obstructed by
the W estern G hats and yield heavy rainfall w hile
the regions locatcd to the cast o f the W estern
Ghats receive m eagre am ount o f rainfall because
the w inds d escend along the eastern slopes and
thus are w arm ed due to w hich relative hum idity
decreases and arid ity increases. Such regions o f
low rainfall are called ‘rain oliudow region*’. The
H im alayas affect the Bay o f B engal Branch o f
so u th -w est m onsoon in tw o w ays e.g. (i) the air
ascends due to o b stru ctio n o f the m ountain and
yields heavy ra in fa ll, and (ii) the obstruction by
the H im alay as causes ch annelling effects due to
w hich w inds blow w estw ard along the m ountains.
C o n seq u en tly , the m onsoon reaches northw estern
In d ia th ro u g h the G anga valley. Inspite o f strong
surface low pressure over R ajasthan and adjoin­
ing P ak istan i territo ry the rainfall is m inim um .
G e n era lly , the low est am ount o f rainfall over
n o rth -w e st India is related to the parallel position
o f th e A ra v a llis to the A rbian Sea Branch to south­
w e st m o n so o n but the real cause is related to the
d ep th o f m o n s o o n d rift w hich depends on the
p o sitio n o f u p p e r a ir dynam ic anticyclonic condi­
tion a b o v e su rfa c e low pressure.
T h e u p p e r a ir high p ressu re obstructs the
u pw ard m o v e m e n t o f su rface w inds. W henever
this u p p e r a ir h igh p re ssu re sh ifts w estw ard,
m onsoon w in d s rise ra p id ly and yield heavy
rain fall ev en in R a j a s t h a n .
El N ! n o — Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and Indian
Monsoon
A s d iscu ssed in section 7.13 o f this chapter,
the phases and strengths o f the Southern O scill -
tion (SO ) in term s o f sp atio -te m p o ra l shifting o
high and low pressure system s betw een tropica
eastern and w estern P acific O cean are determined
on the basis o f d ifferen ces o f air pressures
between these tw o areas and resultant air circu a
tion. The phases o f the SO (i.e. strong an w'ca )
are termed as Southern O scillation Index (b )
wherein tw o ph ases are m ost sign ifican t name y,
hitlh phiua (strong SO) and low phai« (weak SO).
The high phase o f SO causes strong monsoon over
South and South-East Asia. In fact, high phase o f
SO indicates normal condition or Non-ENSO
phase wherein tropical eastern and south-eastern
Pacific Ocean is characterized by strong high
surface pressure system whereas low pressure
system develops over tropical western Pacific
Ocean (fig. 7.21 A), strong easterly winds
dom inate over the ground surface (including both
land and sea surfaces), tropospheric (upper
atm osphere) subtropical w esterly je t stream s are
w eakened and shift polew ard in both the
hem ispheres, La Nina becom es strong which
induces strong monsoon resulting into copious
rainfall in the south and south-eastern A sian
regions but there is drought conditions in the
w estern coastal areas o f South A m erica (mainly
Peru and Chile). It is obvious that weak El N ino
but strong La N ina are responsible for strong
Indian m onsoon, as well as for south and S outh­
Eastern A sian regions.
On the other hand, low phase (w eak) o f SO
(fig. 7.21 B) is indicative o f reversal o f above
m entioned N on-ENSO phase and onset o f El N ino
phase characterized by the developm ent o f high
pressure system over tropical eastern P acific
O cean and low pressure system over tro p ical
eastern Pacific O cean, dom inance o f strong El
N ino event o ff the Peruvian and C hilean co asts
and a c c e n t u a t e d ra in f a ll therein but d isap p e a r­
ance o f La N ina phenom enon from the T ro p ica l
w estern Pacific O cean. T his situ atio n w eakens
Indian m onsoons resulting into low rain fall o v er
south and south-eastern A sia.
7 .1 8 LAND AND SE A B R E E Z E S
Land and sea breezes, representing a
com plete cycle o f diurnal w inds, are, in fact,
m onsoon winds at local scale because they change
their direction tw ice in every 24-hour period.
These local diurnal m onsoon w inds very com ­
m only known as land and see breezes are found in
the coastal areas wherein sea b r e e z e blow s from
sea to land, during day time and land breeze
m oves from land to sea during ni 8 ht d^ t0
differential heating and cooling o f land and water.
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192
d a ily lo c a l w in d s in lake shore areas are
c a lle d land and lake breezes. T he land and sea
b re e z e s o r la n d a n d lak e b reezes are the function
o f d iu rn a l re v e rsa l in te m p e ratu res and resu ltan t
p re s s u re s o v e r la n d and w a ter su rfaces due to th eir
c o n tra s tin g n a tu re o f h e atin g and cooling.
Sea Breeze
L a n d is h e a te d m ore qu ick ly than the
a d ja c e n t sea d u rin g d a y lig h t tim e, w ith the result
th e w a rm a ir o v e r th e ad jacen t land is h eated and
e x p a n d s a n d th u s low p re ssu re is dev elo p ed w hile
h ig h p re s su re is d e v elo p e d o v er adjacent sea. The
p re s s u re g ra d ie n t fro m sea su rface to land surface
c a u s e s c irc u la tio n o f rela tiv e ly cool air from sea
to a d ja c e n t lan d (fig. 7.25). Sea b reezes begin to
flo w u su a lly b e tw ee n 10-11 a.m . and becom e
m o s t a c tiv e in e arly a fte rn o o n u su ally b etw een 10
to 2 0 p.m . w ith m ax im u m v elo city ranging
b e tw e e n 10 to 20 k ilo m e tre s p er hour and are
te rm in a te d by 8 p.m . at night. T he average depth
o f sea b re e z e sy ste m ran g es b etw een 1000-2000
m e tre s in th e c o a sta l re g io n s o f the tro p ica l areas
) p ressure over sea su rface in re la tio n to high
Fig. 7.25: A = Sea breeze, B - Land breeze.
: il^ai
w h ile its depth is b etw een 200 and 500 m neat th«
lakes. T he c o o lin g e ffe ct o f sea bree*es reaches 50
to 65 km inland in the tro p ical reg io n s w hile 15 to
50 km in the m iddle latitu d es. T h e velocity of
these w in d s v aries sp atially <\jj. the velocity
v aries from 25 to 50 km p er h o u r in the tem perate
areas w h ile som e tim es sea b reezes become
storm y in the tro p ica l areas. Sea b reezes have
co o lin g effects on the c o astal land as the
tem p eratu re drops by 5°C to 10°C, w ith the result *
w eath er b eco m es p leasan t. Sea b re e ze s are most
active d uring su m m er season.
Land Breeze
A fter su n set the sea b re e ze s are w eakened
because the d ay lig h t tim e low p re ssu re o v er land
is w eakened due to rap id loss o f heat through
outg o in g lo n g w av e rad iatio n from the land,
C o n seq u en tly , the p o sitio n o f d ay lig h t tim e high
and low pressu re is rev ersed . N ow high p ressu re is
developed on land ag ain st low p re ssu re on the
adjacent sea w ith the resu lt air starts m o v in g from
land to sea d uring n ig h t (fig .7.2513). L and b reezes
are co m p arativ ely w eak er than sea b reezes. T hese
are dry w inds.
It m ay be m en tio n ed th at n ig h t tim e low
pressu re over land su rface is not due to n o c tu rn a l
heatin g o f sea surface. T h e h ig h p re ssu re o v er
land su rface is caused due to ra d ia tio n lo ss o f h eat
w hile sea su rface re m a in s w arm b e c a u se o f
d elay ed c o o lin g o f sea su rface d u rin g n ig h t. It is
also im p o rtan t to n o te th a t te m p e ra tu re and
c o n se q u e n t p re ssu re v a ria tio n s o v e r sea and
a d jac e n t la n d su rfa ce are n o t so p ro n o u n ced ,
d u rin g n ig h t tim e as d u rin g d a y lig h t tim e, and
h e n ce lan d b re e z e s are n o t as stro n g as sea
b re e z e s. L a n d and sea b re e z e s are m o re regular
an d fu lly d e v e lo p e d a ro u n d isla n d s in the tropical
a n d s u b tro p ic a l re g io n s b u t th e y are a b sen t in high
la titu d e a re as b e c a u s e o f little v ariatio n s in
te m p e ra tu re s an d p re ssu re s o v e r lan d and sea
a re a s. D u rin g d a y lig h t tim e a c o n v ec tiv e cell ^
d e v e lo p e d i.e. th e o n sh o re su rfa c e sea b reezes are
c o m p e n s a te d b y o ffsh o re b re e z e s alo ft. T h e night
tim e c o n v e c tiv e c e ll is le ss d ev elo p ed . The
o n sh o re s e a b re a z e s fo rm so m e so rt o f fro n ts at the
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 ATMOSPHERE - SEA INTERACTIONS
coastal areas and are associated w ith cum ulus
clouds- The C oriolis force becom es m ore effec­
tive in the m iddle latitudes aqd m akes the onshore
sea breezes to blow m ore or less parallel to the
coasts in the northern hem isphere.
The land and sea breezes have significant
influences on local w eather conditions. These
winds produce fogs, though o f lesser intensity,
round the y e ar ov er the seas and such fogs are
transported to the adjacent coastal land by
onshore seab reezes in the afternoon but they
disappear during n ight tim e. Sea breezes bring
cooling effect in the coastal lands and thus
provide resp ite from the oppressive heat in the
tro p ical and su b tro p ical regions. Land and sea
breezes also help local navigators for handling
their sm all size boats. Such diurnal rhythem ic
land and sea b reezes m oderate daylight and
n o ctu rnal tem peratures in the coastal lands and
low er dow n the daily range o f tem perature.
7.19 TROPICAL CYCLONES
T ro p ical cyclones are the direct outcom e o f
atm o sp h ere and O cean interactions. The oceans
are b re e d in g p laces o f tropical cyclones. The
in so la tio n al h eatin g and resultant extrem ely low
p re ssu re on sea surface, accelerated evaporation
and a sc e n t o f w arm air etc. give birth to tropical
cy clo n es w h ich are m ost severe in the oceans but
as th ey in v ad e land a r e a s , they lose energy and are
u ltim ately d issip a te d on land.
T ro p ical cy clo n e, rep resenting a closed low
p ressu re sy stem g e n erally having a diam eter o f
about 650 k ilo m e te rs, counterclockw ise and
clockw ise a ir c irc u latio n in the northern and
southern h e m isp h ere s resp ectiv ely , energy pow er
equivalent to m ore than 10,000 atom ic bom bs
which w ere h u rle d at N agasaki in Japan during
W orld W ar II, is one o f the m ost pow erful,
destructive, d an g ero u s and deadly atm ospheric
storm s on the p la n et earth. T ro p ical cyclones are
differentally called in d ifferen t parts o f the globe
such as hurricanes in the N orth A tlantic O cean
m ainly in th e C arib b ean S ea and so utheastern
USA; typhoons in N orth P acific O cean, m ainly in
C hina Sea, eastern and so u th ern coasts o f C hina,
Japan, P h ilip p in es and S.E. A sia; cyclones in
193
Bangladesh and eastern coastal areas o f India; and
willy willy in Australia.
Tropical cyclones become more disastrous
natural hazards because o f their high wind speed
o f 180 to 400 kilom etres per hour, high tidal
surges, high rainfall intensity (highest recorded
rainfall value exceeded 2 0 0 0 mm per day in
Philippines), very low atm ospheric pressures
causing unusual rise in sea level, and their
persistence for several days or say about one
week. The total cum ulative effects o f high
velocities o f wind, torrential rainfall and trans­
gression o f sea w ater on to the coastal land
becom e so enorm ous that the cyclones cause
havoc in the affected areas and thus trem endous
loss o f hum an lives and property is the ultim ate
result o f such atm ospheric deluge. T he ‘storm
surge’ or ‘tidal surge’ refers to unusual rise in sea­
level caused by very low atm ospheric pressure
and the stress o f the strong gusty w inds on the sea
surface. These storm surges or tidal surges,
when coincide with high tide, are further
in te n s ifie d and a fte r in tru d in g in to th e
coastal land cause w idespread inundation o f
coastal areas and great dam age o f hum an lives
and property.
1. Characteristics of Tropical Cyclones
Cyclones developed in the regions lying
betw een the tropics o f C apricorn and C an cer are
called tropical cyclones w hich are not regular and
uniform like extratropical or tem p erate cyclones.
There are num erous form s o f these cyclones
w hich vary considerably in shape, size, velocity,
and w eather conditions. The w eath er conditions
o f low la titu d e s m a in ly rainfall regim es
are largely controlled by tropical cyclones. They
are ch aracterized by the follow ing salient fea­
tures:
>- Size o f tropical cyclones varies consider­
ably. On an average, their diameters range
between 80 km and 300 km but som e tim es they
becom e so sm all that their diameter is restricted to
50 km or even less.
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194
>- T hey advance w ith varying velocities.
W eak cyclones m ove at the speed o f about 32km
p er hour w hile hurricanes attain the velocity o f
180km p er hour or more.
>■ T ropical cyclones becom e m ore v igor­
ous and m ove w ith very high velocity over the
oceans but becom e w eak and feeble w hile m oving
over land areas and ultim ately die out after
reaching the interior portion o f the continents.
T his is w hy these cyclones affect only the coastal
areas o f the continents (e.g. south and south-east
coasts o f the U SA , Tam il N adu, O rissa and W est
B engal coasts o f India, southern coastal regions o f
B angladesh etc.).
>■ The centre o f the cyclone is characterized
by extrem ely low pressure. Isobars are m ore or
less circular but are few er in num ber. This is why
w inds hurriedly rush up tow ards the centre and
attain gale velocity. The air pressure at the center
som etim es becom es as low as 650 m illim eters.
>• L ike tem perate cyclones, tropical cy­
clones are not characterized by tem perature
variations in th eir different parts because they do
no t have different fronts (w arm and cold fronts).
>■ T here are no different rainfall cells in the
tropical cyclones as is the case o f tem perate
cyclones and hence each part o f the cyclones
yields rainfall.
»■ T ropical cyclones are not alw ays m obile.
Som e tim es, they becom e stationary over a
p a rtic u la r place for several days and yield heavy
rain fall causing flood deluge and environm ental
disaster.
>• T he tracks o f tropical cyclones v ary
c o n sid erab ly in different parts. N orm ally , they
m ove from east to w est u nder the influen ce o f
trad e w inds. T he general directio n is w esterly
u p to 15° latitu d e from the equator, po lew ard
b etw een 15°-30° latitu d es, and th e re after easterly.
T hese cy clo n es w eaken w hen th ey e n ter su b tro p i­
cal regions.
>• T ro p ica l cy clo n es are c o n fin ed to a
p a rtic u la r p e rio d o f the y e ar, m ain ly d u rin g
su m m e r season. T he freq u en cy and affected areas
o f tro p ic a l c y c lo n e s are fa r less th an th o se o f the
te m p e ra te c y clo n e s.
OCEANOORAfKt | H
>- T ropical cyclones become disastrous ll
natural hazards because o f their high wind speed M
o f 180 to 400km p er hour, high tidal surges, high ||
rainfall intensity (h ig h est recorded rain fall value J
e x c e e d e d 2000m m p er day in P h ilip p in es), very |
low atm ospheric p ressu re causing unusually rise J|
in sea-level, and th eir p ersisten ce fo r several days I
or say about one w eek o ver a p articu lar place.
2. Types of Tropical Cyclones
It m ay be pointed ou t th at tro p ica l cyclones
are so varied in size, w eath er co n d itio n s and their
general characteristics th at no tw o c y clo n es are
identical and th erefore it b ecom es v e ry d iffic u lt to
classify them into certain categ o ries. G en erally ,
they are divided into 4 m ajor types.
(1) T ropical disturbances or easte rly w aves
(2) T ropical d epressions
(3) T ropical storm s
(4) H urricanes or typhoons
On the basis o f in ten sity th ey are d iv id e d
into tw o p rincipal types and 4 su b ty p es.
(1) W eak cyclones
(i) T ro p ical d istu rb an ces
(ii) T ro p ical d e p ressio n s
(2) Strong and fu rio u s cy clo n e s
(i) h u rrica n e s o r ty p h o o n s
(ii) to rn ad o es
(1) Tropical disturbances are m ig ra to ry wa
like cy clo n es and are a sso c ia te d w ith easterly
trad e w inds. T h ey are also c a lle d easterly waves.
W inds m ove to w a rd s c en tre w ith lo w speed.
T h o u g h th ey m o v e in w e ste rly d ire c tio n u n d er the
in flu en ce o f tra d e w in d s w ith lo w v e lo c ity but
they are m o st e x te n siv e an d w id e sp re a d and
in flu en c e th e w e a th e r c o n d itio n s o f b o th tropical
and s u b tro p ic a l a reas. M o st o f th e e a ste rly waves
d e v elo p b e tw e e n 5° an d 2 0 ° n o rth la titu d e s in the
w e ste rn p a rts o f th e o c ea n s. S o m e tim e s, th ey arc
so slu g g ish th a t th ey re m a in s ta tio n a ry over an
area fo r se v e ra l d ay s. T h e y a re a ss o c ia te d with
h eav y c u m u lu s o r c u m u lo n im b u s c lo u d s which
y ie ld m o d e ra te to h e a v y ra in fa ll with tbundefvj
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 ATMOSPHERE• SEA INTERACTIONS
storms. Some tim es, the easterly waves are so
greatly intensified that they develop into hurri­
canes. Generally, they develop in the Caribbean
Sea and N orth Pacific Ocean during summer
months.
(2) Tropical depressions are centres o f low
pressure surrounded by more than one closed
isobars and are very sm all in size. Wind velocity
around low pressure centre ranges betw een 40-50
km per hour. T heir direction and velocity are
highly variable. Som e tim es, they rem ain station­
ary at a place for several days. They usually
develop in the vicinity o f inter-tropical conver­
gence (ITC ) but seldom develop in the trade wind
belt. T ropical depressions generally influence the
w eather conditions o f India and north Australia
during sum m ers. A fter being originated in the Bay
o f B engal these cyclones move in north-w esterly
and w esterly directions and reach inner parts o f
India. Som e tim es, they becom e so strong that
they yield heavy dow npour resulting into severe
floods.
(3) T ropical storm s are low pressure centres
and are surrounded by closed isobars wherein
w inds m ove tow ards the centre with the velocity
ran g in g betw een 40 to 120 km per hour. They
freq u en tly develop in the B ay o f Bengal and
A rab ian Sea during sum m er season. They also
develop in the C aribbean Sea and in the vicinity
o f P h ilip p in es. M any o f these cyclones becom e
v io lent and d isastro u s atm ospheric hazards as
they cause h eavy rainfall and thus inundate
lo w ly ing areas o f B angladesh, delta region o f
W est B engal and coastal aras o f O rissa, A ndhra
P radesh and T am il N adu. The northern parts o f
B ay o f B en g al m o stly the G anga D elta plains o f
W est B en g al, In d ia and B angladesh very often
suffer fro m freq u en t severe cyclonic storm s and
resultant sto rm su rg es (tidal w aves) because o f a
com bination o f sev eral n atu ral condition s and
phenom ena su ch as a stro n o m ic al tides, funneling
coast c o n fig u ra tio n , low and flat terrian s o f
coastal areas and freq u en t o ccu rren ce o f sevre
cyclonic storm s. T he m o st d isastro u s cyclone,
which hit the co astal lo w lan d o f B an g lad esh on
N ovem ber 1 2 , 1970, claim ed 3 , 0 0 , 0 0 0 hum an
lives. S im ilarly , the d e ad ly c y clo n e o f 1737
claim ed th e liv es o f 3 , 0 0 , 0 0 0 p eo p le in the east
195
coast o f India. The disastrous cyclone o f 1977
moving with a speed o f 175km per hour killed
55,000 people, destroyed the homes o f 2,000,000
people and ruined 1,200,000 hectares o f agricul­
tural crops and made most o f the coastal land
barren and wasteland because o f deposition of
thick layer o f salt on the soils by storm surges in
Andhra Pradesh. Super cyclone o f Orissa o f 1999
(Oct. 29-31) with wind velocity o f more than 300
km per hour killed about 100,000 people (official
figure, 10,000), washed out 200 villages, dam­
aged standing crops o f 1.75 m illion hectares and
claimed loss o f property worth 1,000 billion
rupees in the coastal districts.
(4) Hurricances or Typhoons: The extensive
tropical cyclones surrounded by several closed
isobars are called hurricanes in the USA and
typhoons in China. They are also called w illy willy
in Australia, cyclones in Indian Ocean, ‘b aguio’ in
Philippines, ‘taifu’ in Japan etc. H urricanes are, in
fact, most violent, m ost awesome, and m ost
disastrous hazards o f all the atm ospheric distur­
bances. They m ove with average speed o f m ore
than 120 km per hour. Though hurricanes are m ost
extensive and violent but their clim atic im por­
tance is lim ited because o f their few er num bers
and their occurrence in lim ited areas. T hough
hurricanes and tem perate cyclones look sim ilar in
appearance but they m ay be differentiated on the
following grounds :
»■ H urricanes are represented by m ore
sym m etrical and circular isobars. P ressure in­
creases sharply from the centre tow ards the outer
m argin resulting into steep pressure gradient.
This is why hurricanes m ove w ith great force and
high speed.
»- The rainfall occurring from h u rrican es is
in the form o f heavy dow npour and is w idespread
and uniform ly d istributed w hereas p recipitation
from tem perate cyclones is confined to only w arm
and cold fronts. W arm and cold sectors are devoid
o f precipitation.
> There is no temperature variation in
hurricanes. They are also not characterized by
different types o f fronts (warm and cold fronts)
and contrasting air m asses as is the case with
temperate cyclon es.
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19 6
>- There is no change in wind direction in
hurricanes. Winds blow from the outer margin
towards the centre and then rise upward.
>■ Hurricanes are not associated with anti
cyclones.
>» Unlike temperate cyclones they move
from east to west.
B esid es, hurrican es are characterized by
th e fo llo w in g properties. The diam eters range
b etw een 160 and 640 km . The size o f hurricanes is
u su ally sm all at th eir origin points near the
e q u ato r b u t the size gradually increases aw ay
from the equator. T he pressure at the centre ranges
b etw een 900 and 950 mb w hich is perhaps the
lo w est p ressu re o f all the tropical cyclones. The
p ressu re gradient betw een the centre and outer
m argin ranges from 10 mb to 55 mb. The areas o f
6 to 48 sq km around the centre o f hurricane is
g enerally dry and rainless and w inds are feeble.
T his is called ‘eye o f the cy clo n e’ . T he w aves caused
in the oceans due to ferocity o f hurricanes are
called h urricane w aves w hich are generally from 3
to 6 m in height. These storm surges inundate the
coastal areas w ith im m ense volum e o f oceanic
w ater and thus cause im m ense loss to hum an
health and w ealth. H urricanes extend upto
12,000 m above the ocean surface. T hey last for
m any days and som e tim es for m ore than a week.
3. Origin of Tropical Cyclones
T here is no com m only acceptable v iew ­
p o in t for the origin o f tropical cyclones because
the exact m echanism o f the form ation and
d ev elo pm ent o f these cyclones could not be
pro p erly understood as yet. A ccording to the
advocates o f frontal theory all types o f cyclones
o rig in ate because o f frontogenesis. Inspite o f the
absence o f tw o contrasting air m asses in the
eq u ato rial region fronts are form ed due to m eeting
o f land and sea w inds. Initially, different fronts
are form ed but later they disappear. This frontal
concept o f the origin o f tropical cyclone is no
lo n g er acceptable because tropical cyclones in no
case are related to fronts. In fact, tropical cyclone
is like a heat engine w hich is energised by the
laten t h eat o f condensation. O n an average,
tropical cyclones are formed due •» devel
of low pressure o f thermal ongm. They ,
when the following requirements are fulfilled.
(1) There should be continuous supply of
a b u n d an t w arm a n d moist a ir. Without d o * ,
tro p ica l c y c lo n e s o rig in a te o v w warm o c e a .
h aving su rfa c e te m p e ra tu re o f 27«C during sum­
m er seaso n . (2 ) H ig h e r v a lu e o f conobs force »
req u ired fo r the o rig in o f these cyclone,. U tt
ap p aren t th a t tro p ic a l c y c lo n e s a re pract.caU ,
ab sen t in a b elt o f 5°-8» w id e o n both sid es of d*
e q u ato r w h ere c o rio lis fo rc e is m .n .m u m , Itmeaa.
that cy clo n ic c irc u la tio n o f a ir is c a u se d doe to
d eflectio n in w in d d ire c tio n re su ltin g boro
co rio lis force. M a jo rity o f th e tro p ic a l cyclone,
o rig in ate w ith in a b e lt o f 5°-20° la titu d e s in the
w estern p arts o f th e o c ea n s. (3 ) T hey arc
asso ciated w ith inter-tropical convergence ( H Q
w hich ex ten d s from 5° to 30°N latitudes during
sum m er season. (4) P re -e x is tin g w e a k tropical
d istu rb an ces in te n sify and u ltim a te ly develop
into high in te n sity v io le n t tro p ic a l cyclones. (5)
There should be a n tic y c lo n ic c irc u latio n at the
height o f 9000 to 15000 m a b o v e the surface
disturbance. T he u p p e r a ir a n tic y c lo n ic circula­
tion sucks the air fro m th e o c ea n surface above
and thus the u p w ard m o v e m e n t o f air is acceler­
ated and low p re ssu re c e n tre at the surface is
fu rth er in ten sified . (6 ) T ro p ic a l cyclones develop
around sm all a tm o sp h e ric v o rtic e s in the inter­
tro p ical c o n v erg en c e zo n e (IT C ).
T he n e ce ssa ry c o n d itio n s req u ired for the
form ation o f tro p ic a l c y c lo n e s (a ll ty p es) may be
su m m arized as fo llo w s :
>- co n tin u o u s su p p ly o f warm and mois air,
>- su itab le so u rce o f se n sib le and laten heat
(o f co n d en sa tio n ),
>■ vertical air motion and convergence of aff>
>• powerful trigger mechanism in the fonn of
intruding low pressure system at hig®
altitude,
>• warm water surface o f the oceans (having
atleast 27°C temperature) upto the depth o
60-70 meters,
>■ presence of preexisting disturbances ^
lower attitude to be intensified and trans­
formed into fully developed storms,
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 ATMOSPHERE - SEA INTERACTIONS
>► h ig h e r v a lu e s o f c o rio lis force,
d iv e rg e n t a ir c irc u la tio n in th e u p p er
tro p o sp h e re ,
e x isten c e o f sm a ll a tm o sp h e ric v o rtice s in
the in te rtro p ic a l c o n v e rg e n c e zone,
>- w eak v e rtic a l w in d sh e a r etc.
4 . Weather Conditions Associated With Tropical
Cyclones
The a rriv a l o f tro p ic a l c y c lo n e s a t a
p articular p la ce is h e ra ld e d b y su d d e n in c re a se in
air tem p eratu re a n d w in d v e lo c ity , m a rk e d d e ­
crease in a ir p re s su re , a p p e a ra n c e o f c irru s or
cirrostratus clo u d s in th e sk y , a n d e m erg en c e o f
high w aves in th e o c e a n s. T h e c lo u d s are
thickened and b e co m e c u m u lo n im b u s w h ic h y ie ld
heavy rains. T he clo u d s are a lso a ss o c ia te d w ith
th u n d er and lig h tn in g . O n an a v e ra g e , a sin g le
storm yield s 100 to 250 m m o f ra in fa ll b u t if
obstructed by re lie f b a rrie r it m a y g iv e as h eav y
rains as 750 to 1000 m m . T he v is ib ility b e co m e s
zero b ecau se the sky is o v e rc a st w ith th ic k and
dark th u n d e r clouds. S uch d e s tru c tiv e c o n d itio n s
p e rsist fo r a few h o u rs o n ly . T h e a rriv a l o f the
centre o r the eye o f th e c y c lo n e is c h a ra c te riz e d by
calm b re e ze s, c le a r sk y , ra in le s s fin e a n d settled
w eather, a n d lo w p re s s u re at th e c e n tre . S uch
w eather c o n d itio n s do n o t p e rs is t fo r m o re th an
h a lf an h o u r. T h e w e a th e r s u d d e n ly c h a n g e s w ith
the arriv al o f th e re a r p o rtio n o f th e c y c lo n e as the
sky a g ain b e c o m e s o v e rc a s t, w in d d ire c tio n
changes, a n d p re s s u re s h a r p ly g o e s u p . T h e re is
heavy d o w n p o u r w ith c lo u d th u n d e r a n d lig h tn in g
and sto rm b e c o m e s v e ry s e v e re a n d fu rio u s. T h is
situation p e rs is ts fo r s e v e ra l h o u rs . S lo w ly an d
slow ly th e fe ro c ity o f c y c lo n e s ta rts d e c lin in g an d
the w e a th e r b e c o m e s c a lm a f te r th e c y c lo n e h as
passed off. T h e s e a s u rfa c e a ls o b e c o m e s c a lm and
clear w e a th e r s e ts in.
5- Distribution of Tropical Cyclones
T ro p ic a l c y c lo n e s m o s tly d e v e lo p o v e r th e
®cean su rfa c e b e tw e e n 5 ° -l 5 la titu d e s in b o th th e
e*nispheres a n d in flu e n c e w e a th e r o f c o a s ta l
freas o f th e c o n tin e n ts . T h e re a re 6 m a jo r re g io n s
°* tropical c y c lo n e s .
197
N orth A tlan tic O cean : It m ay be p o in ted out
th at th e o ccurrences o f tro p ical cyclones are
rh y th m ic in n atu re b ecau se they are restricted to a
certain season o f a y ear w hich varies from one
reg io n to the o th er region. O n an average, about 7
cyclones develop ev ery y ear in the so u th ern and
so u th -w estern parts o f the A tlan tic O cean, m o st o f
w hich becom e h u rrican es. T h ey develop (i) in
A u g u st and S eptem ber around C ape V erd e I s la n d ,,
(ii) betw een June and O cto b er to the N o rth and
east o f W est Indies and to the so u th o f th e A tlan tic
co ast o f the U S A , (iii) from M ay to N o v e m b er in
the N o rth C arib b ean Sea, (iv) fro m Ju n e to
O cto b er in the so u th C arib b ean sea, an d (v) fro m
June to O cto b er in the G u lf o f M exico.
North P acific O cean : T h e c y clo n e s a fte r
o rig in atin g o ff the w estern co ast o f M ex ic o m o v e
n o rth -w estw ard and affect the w e ath e r o f C a lifo r­
nia. Som e tim es, they also reach H aw aii Islan d .
A b o u t 5 to 6 tro p ica l cy clo n es develop each y e ar
b etw een June and N o v em b er and tw o o f th e m g ain
h u rrica n e in ten sity .
S ou th -W est N orth P acific O cean : N o rm a lly
tro p ica l c y clo n es dev elo p in C h in a S ea, o f f th e
co asts o f P h ilip p in es Islan d s and S o u th Jap a n
b e tw ee n M ay and D ecem ber. T h ey h av e d is a s ­
tro u s effects on th e eastern co asts o f C h in a w h ere
th ey gain the fero city o f ty p h o o n s. A b o u t 12
ty p h o o n s d ev elo p every year.
South P acific O cean : T ro p ic a l c y c lo n e s
d ev elo p to th e east o f S o ciety Isla n d (e a st o f 180°
lo n g itu d e ) d u rin g D e c e m b e r-A p ril a n d in flu en c e
th e w e a th e r o f n o rth -e a st c o ast o f A u stra lia .
N orth In d ian O cean : A fte r o rig in a tin g in th e
A ra b ia n S ea an d B ay o f B e n g a l tro p ic a l c y c lo n e s
(also c a lle d as d e p re ssio n s) in flu e n c e th e w e a th e r
c o n d itio n s o f In d ia an d B a n g la d e sh o n a la rg e -
s ca le b e tw e e n A p ril an d D e ce m b e r.
S ou th In d ia n O c e a n : C y c lo n e s o rig in a te o f f
th e c o a sts o f R e U n io n , M a d a g a sc a r, an d M aritiu s
isla n d s b e tw e e n N o v e m b e r a n d A p ril.
6. Tracks of Tropical Cyclones
T h e tro p ic a l c y c lo n e s a fte r th e ir fo rm a tio n
o v e r w a rm w a te r s u rfa c e s o f th e tro p ic a l o c e a n s
m o v e w e stw a rd in g e n e ra l b e tw e e n a z o n e o f
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198 OCEANOGRAPHY

5°-20° la titu d e s in b o th the h e m isp h eres und er the
in flu e n c e o f e a s te rly tra d e w inds b u t after
re a c h in g th e w e ste rn m a rg in s o f the oceans and
s trik in g th e c o n tin e n ta l c o astal lands curve n o rth ­
w e s tw a rd a n d p o le w ard . T he eq u ato rial w arm
o c e a n c u rre n ts also h elp in th e w estw ard m o v e­
m e n t o f tro p ic a l c y clo n es. A fter reach in g 20°-30°
la titu d e s th e tro p ic a l c y clo n e s, if not exhausted
a n d fin ish e d , m o v e eastw a rd u n d er the influence
o f w e s te rly w in d s. It m ay be m en tioned that w hen
th e tro p ic a l sto rm s strik e the coastland, they start
lo s in g e n e rg y and d issip a tio n as the source o f
re q u ire d e n e rg y o f la te n t h eat o f condensation,
w hich is o v er the w arm w a te r su rface o f th e ^
tro p ical o cean s, is cut off. Som e tim e s th e tropical ,
cyclones b eco m e statio n ary at a p a rtic u la r place |
for m o st p art o f th e ir life cy cle.
It m ay be re m e m b ered th a t th e tracks
fo llo w ed by tro p ica l cy clo n e s v a ry considerably
in d ifferen t parts. N o rm a lly , th e y m o v e from east
to w est un d er the in flu en c e o f e a ste rly trad e winds
and eq u ato rial w arm o c ea n c u rre n ts. T h e general
d irectio n is w esterly u p to 15° la titu d e from the
equator, p o lew ard b etw ee n 15°-30° latitu d es, and
th ereafter e asterly (fig. 7 .2 6 )

Fig. 7.26 : Tracks o f tropical cyclones.

Table 7.6 : Some noteworthy Indian tropical cyclonic

7. Effects of Tropical Cyclones disasters

Y ear H u m an d eath year H u m a n death

T ro p ical cyclones are very severe d isas­
tro u s n atu ral hazards w hich in flict heavy loss to 1737 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 1789 20,000
h um an lives and p ro p erty in term s o f d estru ctio n 1833 5 0 ,0 0 0 1839 20,000
o f b u ild in g s, tra n sp o rt system s, w ater and pow er 55,000
1864 5 0 ,0 0 0 1977
su p p ly system , d isru p tio n o f com m unicatio n >1000
1990 598 1998
system , d estru ctio n o f standing ag ricu ltu ral crops,
1999 > 10,000
d o m estic and w ild anim als, natural v eg etatio n ,
p riv ate and p u b lic in stitu tio n s, etc. through Note : T h e in te n sity o f 1990 A n d h ra cyclone was
d am ag es c au sed by h ig h v elo city w inds, floods 25 tim es g re a te r th a n th e 1977 A r\dhra cyclone but i
and sto rm surges. T ables 7.6 to 7.8 d ep ict the h u m an c a su a lty c o u ld b e c o n ta in e d because 0 fJ
d eath toll o f hum an life by tropical cyclones in c o rre ct p re d ic tio n an d b e tte r w a rn in g system s bu J
d ifferen t p arts o f the w orld. the p ro p e rty d am ag e c o u ld n o t b e stopped. On tW- J
T h e follow ing tables (7.6, 7.7 and 7.8) o th e r h an d , in sp ite o f tim e ly w arn in g o f y
p o rtra y th e d eath to ll o f hum an lives caused by su p er c y clo n e o f O rissa d e ath to ll o f h um an beWS
tro p ica l storm s and local storm s in d ifferen t p arts co u ld not b e av o id ed b e c a u se o f inefficieQ ;|1
o f th e w o r l d : g o v e rn m e n t m ach in ery .

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ATMOSPHERE - SEA INTERACTIONS
199
Table 7.7: Notable tropical cyclonic disasters in Bang­ discuss the hurricane damage scale as devised by
ladesh
Saffir-Simpson popularly known as Saffir-Sioipua
Year Human deaths Y ear Hum an deaths Hurricane Damage Scale (table 7.9) wherein 5 point
scale has been developed on the basis o f size,
1822 40,000 1876 100,000 intensity in terms o f duration o f occurrence in
1879 175,000 1960 5,149 minutes, wind velocity in km/hour, height o f storm
1963 11,488 1970 300,000 surge and quantam o f damage. The scale starts
1976 100,000 1985 11,000 from a value o f 1 for the weakest hurricanes o f
shortest duration to the value o f 5 for the strongest
and m ost severe and hazardous hurricanes.
Table 7.8: Typhoon disasters in the far East Hurricanes very often strike the southern
and the south-eastern coasts o f the USA. G ulf
year C ountry H um an deaths coasts o f Louisiana, Texas, A labam a and Florida
1881 C hina 300,000 are w orst affected areas. The G alveston, Texas
Japan 2,50,000 (U .S.A .) disaster o f Septem ber 8, 1900 tells the
1923
story o f devastation caused by hurricanes in the
1950 Japan 5,000
G u lf coastal region o f the U .S.A. The terrible
hurricane generated a strong storm surge (tidal
Hurricanes in the United States of America wave) w hich raced inland and killed 6000 people
m ostly through drow ning caused by inundation
under 10 to 15 feet (3 to 4.5 m) deep w ater and
T h e h u rrica n e s are chronic disasters in G ulf
destroyed 3000 houses. Flying planks and tim bers
c o a sta l an d A tlan tic coastal areas o f the U nited under the force o f strong gale winds also caused
S tates o f A m e ric a. B efo re attem pting description several deaths and dam age to hum an structures.
o f h u rric a n e o n sla u g h t in the U SA it is desirable to

Table 7 .9 : Saffir - Sim pson hurricane damage scale

W ind speed Storm Description
Scale n u m b e r C o n tro l
p re s su re (m m ) (km /hour surge(m eters)

118-152 1.5 minimum damage, m ainly to

1 980
vegetation and m obile houses
153-176 2 .0 -2 .5 moderate damage, m ainly up­
9 6 5 -9 7 9
rooting and blow ing o f trees,
roofs o f b u ild in g are d am ­
aged.
2 . 5 - 4 .0 extensive damage to trees,
9 4 5 -9 6 4 177-208
mobile houses, roofs ofbuild-
ings, structural damage to
sm all buildings.
4 .0 - 5 .5 extrem e
4 9 2 0 -9 4 4 2 0 9 -2 4 8
>5 5 c cta stro p h ic, w indow s, glass
5 <920 > 248
panes, roofs o f houses and
industrial buildings etc. are
severely damaged.

Source.*sum m arized from I.E . O liv er and J.J. H idore 2 0 0 3 . It is

are divided into 5 typ es based on the quantum o f ^ ™ ageu r °"anes o f exten sive dam age, (4 ) extrem e
minimum dam age, ( 2 ) hurricanes o f m oderate dam age, ( ) ;
hurricanes, and (5 ) catastrophic hurricanes.

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 m
: IS

200
It m ay be pointed out that M ississippi Delta
P lains o f the state o f Louisiana (U .S .A .) have the
eq u ivalen ce o f Ganga D elta Plains o f India and
B anglad esh as regards the frequency and intensity
o f tropical cyclon es but the dam ages mainly in the
form o f human casualties are far less in the former
than in the latter because o f more advanced and
better w arning system s. The A u d rey H u rrican e ot
June, 1957 struck the Louisiana coast betw een
N ew Orleans and G alveston. Though the storm
w as very severe as it sm ashed houses and floated
OCRANtXlKA*HY
them away, uprooted sealed concrete tom bs and
floated them 32 kilom etres aw ay from theif I
resting places, but on ly 550 human death could be.
caused because o f better warning system s t a d ) |
spontaneous response o f p eop le to the warning
and predictions. In fact, the water lev el used toi l
rise at the rate o f 1.5 feet per hour. Thus most of
the people had am ple tim e to evacuate them to*!
safer places before the w ater lev el forced by
strong storm surge could reach its peak o f 8 to 12
feet (2 .4 to 3.6 m) above high tide water.

Table 7 .1 0 : Category-wise num ber o f hurricanes is the USA from 1990 to 1996.

Safflr-Sim pson dam age scale (vid e table 7 .9)

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Scale N um ber

USA 58 36 47 15 2 158
Florida 17 16 17 6 1 57
T exas 12 9 9 6 0 36
L ouisiana 8 5 8 3 1 25
North C arolina 10 4 10 1 0 25
S o u r ce : J.E. O liver and J.J. H idore, 2003.

Table 7 .1 1 : Deadliest US Hurricanes

L ocation (nam e) year C a te g o ry H um an deaths

(S a ffir, S im p so n sc a le
TX (G alveston 1900 8000
(m ay be 1 0 ,0 0 0 to 12,000)
FL"(Lake O keech obee) 1928 4 1 836
FL (K eys) S. TX 1919 4 600
NE 1938 3 600
FL (K eys) 1935 5 408
FL - Florida, T X = T exas, N E = N ew England
Source : J.E. O liver and J.J. H idore, 2003.

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 Al'MOOWBHB* INTERACTIONS
T & l* 1 1 * ’ Wlwf B *P *n *IV 9 U S Hurritmno* (propaily damago In US bllllona of dollan)
jJ S n f o F S # iutrriottne
occurrence
I Andrew 1992
3, H ugo 1989
3. Agnes 1972
4 . Betsy 1965
C am ille 1969
o, Floyd 1999
7, K atrina 2005
8 , W ilm a 2005
Source (upto serin! no. 6) : J.b . O liver unci J.J. H idore, 2003.
S e v e re h u rrican ces cause luivoc in the
U .S .A . as reg ard s the dam age o f property. ‘In a
te n -y e a r period from 1961 to 1971 propeity
d am ag e from U nited States H urricanes averaged
so m e $ 4 4 0 m illio n annually. Single hurricane in
th is p e rio d cau sed dam age valued at $ 1 .5 billion.
A c c o rd in g to R .F. A bey (1976) tornadoes cause
the p ro p e rty loss of about 100 m illion US dollars
and 150 h u m a n c a u sa litie s per annum . ‘Since
1950 e v e ry y e a r in the U .S.A . there has been an
av erag e o f 662 to rn a d o e s, resu ltin g in 114 deaths.
E ffo rts a re b e in g m ad e to forecast the origin and
travel p a th s o f h u rric a n e s and tornadoes in the
U .S.A . on th e b a sis o f the study o t synoptic
situ atio n c o m b in in g sev en elem en ts viz. (0
co n v e rg e n c e n e a r the su rfa ce , (n ) m ass d iv er­
gence a lo ft, (iii) a b u o y a n t airm ass, (iv) w ind
shear in th e v e rtic a l, (v) m o ist air mass; i
low er la y e rs, (v i) a trig g e r m e ch a n ism and1 (vii)
surface c y c lo g e n e sis . A tte m p ts are also being
m ade to d e v e lo p e ffe c tiv e d e v ice s o f cloud
seeding to d e c re a se th e in d e n sity o f h u rrican es
and to rn a d o e s. F u rth e r m o re , sc ie n tis ts are try in g
to d ev elo p s c ie n tific m e th o d s to d iv e rt the p ath s ot
hurricanes a n d to rn a d o e s to su ch a re as w u c i
not so im p o rtan t fro m th e s ta n d p o in t o tu
population an d e c o n o m ic loss.
Cyclones In India and Bangladesh
C yclon ic hazards very often v isit the
eastern coastal areas o f India and the southern
201
your of Damage
cost
30.5
8.5
7.5
7.4
6.1
6.0
devastated N ew O rleans
devasted Florida
coastal areas o f Bangladesh. The disaster o f the
deadliest storm in the recorded history occurred
on N ovem ber 12, 1970 in the coastal low land o f
B angladesh. This Bay o f Bengal disastrous
cyclone tells the m agnitude o f environm ental
hazards in respect o f its killer im pact on the
affected people as it caused as m any as 300,000
deaths (som e sources put the figure betw een
3 0 0 ,0 0 0 and 1,000,000 deaths in B angladesh and
W est Bengal o f India) w herein m ost o f the deaths
were caused by drow ning in the storm surge o f
oceanic w ater (20 feet) on the land. The official
record o f B angladesh presented the total loss as
death o f people-200,000, m issing p ersons-50,000
to 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 , cattle death-300,000, ho u ses de­
stroyed 4 0 ,0 0 0 , crops losses o f 63,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 US
dollars, fishing boats destroyed-9,000 (o ffsh o re)
and 9 0 ,0 0 0 (inland w ater).
The tro p ical cyclones com ing from o v er the
Bay o f B engal also becom e h azard o u s to th e east
co astal lands o f India (W est B en g al, O rissa,
A ndhra P radesh and T am il N ad u ). T he d ead liest
hazard o u s cyclone stru ck the east co ast in 1737
»„d claim ed the lives o f 300 000 peo p le O A er
d isastro u s c y clo n e s o c cu rred in 1977 55,00
d eath ) 1864 (5 0 ,0 0 0 d eath s), 1839 (20,000
d eath s), 1789 (2 0 ,0 0 0 d eath s) etc.. T he N o v e m ­
b e r 1977 c y clo n ic sto rm stru c k A n d h ra coast^and
generated three su ccessiv e 'storm W < * £ £
fhe b ig g est surge o f 6 m height w as recorded in the
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202 jtll a speed o f 175
last. This deadly storm,mov s u r g e raced «nto
k ilo m e tre s p ^ T h e M g - » «
1 200,000 hectares o ag and w a ste land
most o f U yer o f sa l. on the
because of d P saline land co u ld be
rK' The strongest and most „o.or ous cyc on
. . . thp A ndhra coast on M ay, 9, 1990. « w as "
times stronger and m ore disastrous than e s a lt w o rk e rs w o rk in g in th e s a lt p a n s in th e Runn
S i e s t cyclone o f N ovem ber, 1977 (w hich also
S c l c the A ndhra coast as referred to ab o v e) b u t
c“ ld elaim the lives o f only 598 people (o ffic ial
figure but the actual figure m ight have c ro ssed
1000 deaths). B esides killing 598 p eo p le, it
a d v e rse ly affected 3,000,000 people, ren d ered
3.00.000 people hom eless, perished 90,000 cattle
and caused loss o f 1000 crore rupees w o rth o f
property. Very low figure o f hum an c asu a ltie s
(598 deaths) in com parison to the k iller cy clo n e o f
1977 (55,000 deaths) inspite o f 25 tim es m ore
intensity o f M ay, 1990 cyclone was becau se o f the
advance m onitoring and prediction o f the cy clo n e
from the time o f its form ation in the B ay o f B en g a l
off the southern coast o f T am il N adu on M ay 5,
1990.
This cyclone is term ed m ost n o to rio u s in
the sense it shifted its course alm ost by 90 d eg ree.
But more than 100 direct w arning sy stem s and
even dying IN SA T-1B provided d irect a u d io ­
> broadcasts from meteorological stations in C hennai
fin-H n e? bad ,a" d 6 cycl°ne detection ra d a rs
5 . , f" 8 coastline Provided minute by
minute information about the m ovem ent o f
incoming cyclone. Initially, the cyclone w as
I K K f i S S T ! o f 2 0 0 k m p e r h o u r. T h is c y c lo n e c la im e d the lives
Viskhapatnam It m*. u G odaw ari and
cyclone was so stronD5" pointed out that the
80 °n g and enom ous that som e o f
OCEANOGRAPHY ^
th e m a jo r to w n s o f K ris h n a a n d G u n tu r districts
su ch as V ija y a w a d a , M a c h lip a tn a m , Pamarru,
G u n tu r, B a p a tia , R e p a lle a n d T e n a li, w h ic h could
n o t b e a ffe c te d by th e d e a d lie s t 1977 c y c lo n e and I
tid a l w a v e , w ere a lso h it th is tim e b y th e p o w erfu l
sto rm su rg e s (tid a l w a v e s ) c a u s e d b y g a le winds
w ith a s p e e d o f 2 2 0 to 2 5 0 k ilo m e tre s p e r hour.
G u ja r a t c o a s t w a s s tru c k by a very pow erful
c y c lo n ic s to rm w ith a v e lo c ity o f m o re than 200
k m p e r h o u r o n tu e s d a y , J u n e 9, 1998 and caused
a s u rg in g tid a l w a v e o f 8 m height which
t r a n s g r e s s e d in to th e c o a s ta l la n d and caused
im m e n se lo s s o f p e o p e r ty a n d human death
u n k n o w n in th e c y c lo n ic h is to ry o f G u ja ra t. The
an d th e L ittle R u n n a re a s o f K u tc h w e re w ashed
aw ay b y h ig h tid a l w a v e s . T h e sto rm w as so
p o w e rfu l a c c o m p a n i e d b y h e a v y rain fall that
h u m a n s e ttle m e n ts w e re d e s tr o y e d all the way
fro m S u ra t a n d A m e re li i n G u ja ra t to Jalo re and
J o d h p u r in R a ja s th a n . M u d -b u ilt h o u se s were
fla tte n e d , p o w e r s u p p ly w a s s n a p p e d , tre e s were
u p ro o te d a n d c a r rie d a w a y as m is sile s , and
c o m m u n ic a tio n a n d v e h ic u la r tra ffic w e re com ­
p le te ly d is ru p te d . T h e s to rm c a u s e d m o re than
1000 h u m a n d e a th s a n d e c o n o m ic lo ss w o rth m ore
t h a n 100 b illio n ru p e e s (u n o ffic ia l e stim a te s put
t h e n u m b e r o f d e a th b e tw e e n 5 ,0 0 0 a n d 10,000).
K a n d la p o rt w a s g r e a tly d a m a g e d .
Super C yclone of O rissa, 1999
T h e 2 9 th O c to b e r, 1999 p ro v e d a b la c k and
k ille r d a y fo r th e in h a b ita n ts o f th e c o a s ta l region
o f O ris s a (In d ia ) w h e n th e s tr o n g e s t c y c lo n e in the
c y c lo n e h is to ry o f In d ia s tru c k th e O ris sa coast
a n d c a u s e d h a v o c o f m a s s d e s tr u c tio n th ro u g h its
n o to rio u s a c ts fro m O c to b e r 2 9 to 31, 1999.
N e a rly o n e th ird o f O ris s a p lu n g e d in to g lo o m and
d is p a ir. P r io r to th e fin a l a s s a u lt b y th is killer
c y c lo n e , a s tro n g c y c lo n e a lre a d y k n o c k e d at the
d o o r o f O ris s a o n O c to b e r 1 8 ,1 9 9 9 w ith a velocity
o f 2 0 0 p e o p le , d a m a g e d 4 6 0 v illa g e s a n d a d '
v e rs e ly a ffe c te d 5 ,0 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le in Ganjaifl
d is tric t. T h e p e o p le o f O ris s a w e re y et to r e c o v r'
fro m th e tra u m a o f th is c y c lo n e , the k iller su f
c y c lo n e h it th e O rissa coast on O ctober 29-
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ATMOSPHERE - SEA INTERACTIONS
u c c e s s iv e phases o f the form ation and advance­
ment o f super cyclone may be outlined as
f o llo w s : ( 1 ) O ctober 2 5 : A d e p r e s s io n was formed
500 km east o f Portblair in Andm an Sea, which
sta r te d to m ove in N-W direction from the
midnight and soon turned into a d e e p d e p r e s ­
sion.^) O c to b e r 2 6 : T he deep depression changed
into a c y c lo n ic s to r m by the m orning o f O ctober 26
which was stationed about 350 km away from
Portblair. T he Indian M eteorological D epartm ent
s t a r t e d to issue w arning o f advancing cyclonic
storm.. (3) O c to b e r 2 7 : By the m orning o f October
27, this cyclonic storm changed to s e v e r e c y c lo n ic
sto rm and w as positioned 750 km away from
Paradeep port. It rem ained stationary tor 6 hours
at the distance o f 600 km from Paradeep. (4)
O c to b e r 2 8 : A dvancing tow ards north-w est this
severe cyclonic storm becam e a fully developed
s u p p e r c y c lo n ic s to r m and m oved tow ards Paradeep
w ith a velocity o f 260 km, (5) O c to b e r , 29 : Indian
M eteorological D epartm ent (IM D) issued an
alarm o f w arning about the arrival o f the super
cyclone betw een Paradeep and Puri. Though the
G ovt, o f O rissa was posted with this warning by
5.30 A M but this w arning could not be conveyed
to the g eneral public due to lack o f radio network.
U ltim ately, the super cyclone entered Orissa
on O cto b er 29, 1999 and began to play its game o f
destruction in 10 coastal districts. M oving with a
velocity o f 300 km per hour the cyclone becam e
stationary for 8 hours over this vast area. This
disastrous cyclone g enerated 9 m high tidal surges
w hich tr a n s g r e s s e d upto 15-20 km inside coastal
region. K en d rap ara, Jagatsinghpur, B alosore,
Paradeep, B h ad rak and K hurda w ere w orst
affected. A cco rd in g to o fficial sources m ore than
ten th ousands peo p le w ere killed and 200 villages
were com p letely w ashed out but the uno fficial
sources put hum an death toll at about hundre
thousand. M ore th an 6000 people w ere killed in
Jagatsinghpur alone. S everal hundred thousand
cattle p erished and c o u n tle ss people w ere ren
dered hom eless. T he stan d in g k h a rif crops over
1.75 m illion h ectares w ere destroyed. T he loss o f
property m ounted to ab o u t 10,000 crore rupees
(1000 b illio n ru p ees). T he severe super cy clo n ic
storm resulted into the d isru p tio n o f the su p p ly o f
water and electricity . T h e co m m u n icatio n system
was thrown out o f gear. D estruction and obstruc­
tion o f roads and rails brought a grinding halt
to rail and road transport which continued for
weeks.
7 . 1 9 IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
A b so r p tio n : refers to the retaining o f a
portion o f incident energy (radiation) by a
substance and its conversion into heat energy
(sensible heat).
A d ia b a tic c h a n g e : The rate o f change o f
tem perature o f ascending or descending parcel o f
air is called adiabatic change or ‘adiabatic lapse
ra te ’ which is 10°C per 1000 m eters before dew
point (condensation level, dry adiabatic change),
and 5°C per 1000 m eters after dew point (m oist
adiatic change).
A e r o lo g ic a l m o n so o n : The upper air (tro p o ­
spheric) winds which change their directions
seasonally are called ‘upper air m o n so o n ’ or
‘aerological m onsoon.’
A lb e d o : The portion o f incident rad iatio n
(energy) reflected back from a surface o f a b o d y is
called albedo or reflection coefficient or sim ply
reflectivity.
C o r io lis f o r c e : is the force w hich d eflects the
direction o f surface winds. C oriolis force o r effect
is not a force in itse lf in real sense rath er it is an
effect o f the rotational m ovem ent o f the earth
(nam ed after G.G. C oriolis).
D iffu s e r e fle c tio n : The scatterin g o f in cid en t
radiation w aves by dust particles and m o lecu les o f
w ater vapour, w hen the diam eter o f these particles
is larger than the w avelengths o f in cid en t ra d ia t­
ion w aves is called diffuse reflectio n w hich sends
som e portion o f incident rad iatio n b ack to space
while some portion remains in the low er admosphere.
: A belt o f low p ressu re, popularly
D o ld r u m
know n as equatorial tro u g h o f low pressure
extending disco n tin u o u sly w ith in a zone o f 5°N
and 5°S latitudes is called the b e lt o f c a lm or
doldrum .
Easterly waves : T he m igratory w av es like
tro p ical d istu rb an ces (cy clo n es) a sso ciated w ith
trad e w inds are called easterly w aves.
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204
spirals : The equi-angle spirals o f
winds showing altitudina1 variations o f winds are
called Ekman spirals.
EL Nino : is an e p iso d ic ocean current o f
warm w ater o f f the w e st coast o f South A m erica,
m ain ly o f f the co a sts o f Peru and Ecquador. This
is a lso con sid ered as a sig n ifica n t w eather
phenom enon.
Eqaatorial w esterlies: T he w esterly surface
air circu lation in th e doldrum or in the inter-
tropical co n v erg en ce zo n e is called equatorial
w esterly.
Ferrel cell : A n interm ediate m id-latitude
th erm ally in d irect c e ll o f air circulation b e tw ee n
trop ical H ad ley c e ll and polar c e ll is called F e rrel
c e ll or polar front c e ll.
Frictional force : T h e fo rc e g e n erate d by the
resista n ce o f th e s u rfa c e o f an o b je c t a g a in st a
m o v in g o b je c t is c a lle d fric tio n a l force.
Friction layer : The z o n e o f lo w er a tm o s­
phere w here frictional fo rc e b e co m e s e ffe ctiv e is
c a lle d friction layer.
Hadley cell : T h e tro p ic a l c o n v ec tiv e cell,
o n e e a c h in th e n o rth e rn an d the so u th ern
h e m is p h e re s , is c a lle d H a d le y c ell (n am ed after
G e o rg e H a d le y , in 1735).
H orse latitudes : T h e b e lt o f d y n am ically
in d u ced h ig h p re s s u re b e tw e e n 25°-35° latitu d es
in b o th th e h e m is p h e r e s is c a lle d h o rs e
latitude.
Hurricanes : T ro p ic a l c y clo n e s o rig in atin g
in th e C a rib b e a n S e a an d in v a d in g the S ou th and
S o u th -E a s t U S A a re c a lle d h u rric a n e s.
Hurricane waves : T h e w a v es cau sed in the
o cea n s due to fe ro s ity o f h u rric a n e s are called
hurricane w a v e s w h ic h a re g e n e ra lly 3 to 6 m in
height.
H ydrostatic equilibrium : W h en th e u p w ard
pressure gradient fo rc e is b a la n c e d by d o w n w ard
acting gravity fo rce , th e v e rtic a l a c c e le ra tio n
b ecom es zero. T his situation is c a lle d h y d ro sta tic
equilibrium .
Isobars : T he im aginery lin es jo in in g the
p laces o f equal pressure reduced to sea le v el on
the maps are called isobars.
Jet stream s: T he strong and rapidly m ovin g
circum polar upper air w esterly air circulation in a
OCEANOGRAPHY i
narrow belt of a few hundred kilometers width in
the upper limit o f the troposphere is called i-t
stream. •£
La Nina : is a counter-w arm ocean current
w hich b ecom es effe ctiv e in the tropical western
P acific O cean w hen El N in o b ecom es ineffective
in the tropical eastern P a cific O cean.
Normal lapse rate : T h e d e crea se of air
te m p e ra tu re w ith in c re a sin g h e ig h t a t the rate of
6.5°C p e r 1000 m e te rs is c a lle d v e rtic a l tempera-'
tu re g ra d ie n t o r n o rm a l la p se ra te .
P ressu re g r a d ie n t : is d e fin e d as decrease of
a ir p re ssu re b e tw e e n tw o iso b a rs o f different
v alu es i.e. from h ig h to lo w p re ssu re . T his is also
c a lle d b a ro m e tric slo p e.
P ressu re g r a d ie n t fo r ce : T h e fo rce generated
by p re ssu re g ra d ie n t is c a lle d p re ssu re gradient
fo rce w h ich is a c c e le ra tin g fo rc e fo r air move­
m ent.
R eflection: T h e p o rtio n o f in c id e n t radiation
(en erg y ) re fle c te d b a c k fro m a su rfa c e o f a body is
called re fle c tio n o r a lb ed o w h ic h is presented in
p ercen tag e.
R oarin g fo rties : T h e v e ry h ig h velocity
w e ste rly w in d s in th e la titu d in a l zone of
40°-50° in the so u th e rn h e m isp h e re is called
ro arin g fo rties.
R ossb y w aves : T h e w a v y je t stream s are
c alled R o ssb y w av es (n a m e d a fte r Carl-Gustav
R o ssb y ).
S catterin g : re fe rs to th e p ro c e ss o f diffusion
o f a p o rtio n o f in c o m in g s o la r radiation in
d iffe re n t d ire c tio n s by p a rtic u la te m atter (dust
p a rtic le s) and m o le c u le s o f g ases including
v a p o u r in the a tm o sp h ere .
Sky r a d ia tio n : T h e p ro c e ss o f re-radiation of
te rre stria l h eat by th e a tm o sp h e re back to the
e a rth ’s su rface is c a lle d c o u n te r rad iatio n or sky
ra d ia tio n .
S outhern o s c illa tio n : S p atio-tem poral changes
in the h ig h an d low p re ssu re system s in ®
tro p ic a l e aste rn an d w e ste rn P acific O cean a
c a lle d so u th ern o sc illa tio n (S O ).
W a lk er circ u la tio n : A ty p ical eaS*J? ?s
c o n v e c tiv e cell o f c irc u la tio n o f tro p ica wi ■
c a lle d W alk e r c irc u la tio n n am ed after
W a lk e r in th e y e a r 1922.
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CHAPTER 8 : SEA WAVES, SHORELINE PROCESSES AND COASTAL SCENERY 205-238
sea w aves : com ponents and ch aracteristics, 2 05
g en eratio n o f sea w aves, 207
types and m o v em en t o f sea w aves, 210
. v w ave refractio n . • , c £ h 4
w ave reflectio n , 216
sea co asts and sea shores, classificatio n o f co asts and sh o res, 217
w aves and d y nam ic shorelin es, 220
coastal featu res and h ab itats, 221
d ep o sitio n al co astal features, b each es, 225
delta, 229
d ev elo p m en t o f shorelines o f su b m erg en ce, 233
d ev elo p m en t o f shorelines o f e m erg en ce, 234

SEA WAVES, SHORELINE PROCESSES AND
8.1 SEA WAVES : COMPONENTS AND CHARAC­
TERISTICS
The ocean surfaces are never calm and
sm ooth ra th e r they are uneven, irregular, rough
and restless. In o th er w ords the ocean surfaces are
characterized by constant m otions o f seaw ater in
different w ays and d ifferent form s like sim ple sea
waves, ocean currents, tidal w aves (surges),
storm w aves (surges), tsunam i etc. H ere we are
prim arily concerned w ith only sea w aves, which
are m ost p ow erful and effective geom orphic
agents o f coastal regions.
Sea w aves are defined as undulation o f
seaw ater characterized by w ell developed crests
and troughs (fig. 8.1). B esides geom orphic
im portance, seaw aves are now also considered as
a source o f non -co n v en tio n al energy. Thus, sea
waves have great energy potential for future
generations. T his is w hy H. V. Thurm an and A.P.
Trujillo (1999) have defined sea w aves in term s o f
energy level as follow s :
‘W a v e s are m oving energy travelling
a lo n g the in terfa ce betw een ocean a n d
atm osphere, often tra n sferrin g energy fr o m
1
COASTAL SCENERY
a storm f a r out a t sea o ver d ista n ces o f
severa l th ousand k ilo m e te r s ” (T hurm an
and Trujillo, 1999).
The m echanism o f the origin o f sea w aves is
not precisely know n but it is com m only b eliev ed
that w aves are generated due to frictio n on o cean
w ater surface caused by blow ing w inds.
The undulations o f seaw ater at th e p lace o f
their origin are called sw ells w hich are low , bro ad ,
regular and rounded ridges and tro u g h s o f w ater.
In other w ords, the reg u lar p attern o f sm o o th ,
rounded w aves that characterize the su rface o f
the ocean during fair w eath er is called s w e ll’
(A. B loom , 1978).
The sea w aves are ch aracterized b y the
follow ing com ponents :
>■ Wave c r e s t : T he su ccessiv e h ig h er p arts o f
p rogressive sea w aves are called w ave
crests (fig. 8 . 1) w hich are the h ig h est p arts
o f the w aves.
Wave tro u g h s: are su ccessiv e lo w est parts
o f pro g ressiv e sea w aves w hich are a lte r­
nated by w ave crests such as w ave crest —>
w ave trough —> w ave crest— w ave trough
and so on. It is, thus, c lear th a t a w ave
206
tr o u g h is lo c a te d b e tw e e n tw o su ccessiv e
w a v e c re s ts , o r a w a v e c re st is lo cated
b e tw e e n tw o s u c c e ssiv e w a v e tro u g h s.
^ S till w a te r le v e l, a lso k n o w n as zero en ergy
le v e l re p re s e n ts th e w a te r zo n e h alfw ay
b e tw e e n th e w a v e c re sts and the w ave
tro u g h s .
W a v e h e ig h t is a v e rtic a l d ista n ce betw een
th e c re s t a n d h o riz o n ta l stra ig h t distance
b e tw e e n tw o su c c e ssiv e tro u g h s o f p ro ­
g re s s iv e se a w a v es (fig. 8 . 1), or betw een
th e tro u g h an d h o riz o n ta l straig h t distance
b e tw e e n tw o su cc e ssiv e w ave crests.
W a v e le n g th is th e stra ig h t h o rizontal d is­
ta n c e b e tw e e n tw o successive w ave crests
o r w a v e tro u g h s, w h ich is expressed in
te rm s o f le n g th u n it o f m eters in the case o f
se a w av es.
> - W a v e steep n ess is the ratio o f w ave height to
w a v e -le n g th as expressed below :
wave height (H)
w ave steepness = ---------------- ———
wave length (L)
The breaking o f w aves depend on the
ratio o f w ave steepness. I f the ratio is
m ore than 1:7, then the w aves break at
plunge line and thus spills forw ard.
W hy do the w aves break? W hen the
ratio o f w ave steepness becom es high
i.e. w hen the w ave h eight increases to
su ch extent that the w ave cannot
su p p o rt the huge w ave height, then the
w ave b reak s and spills forw ard.
>- W a v e p erio d : T he timfe tak en by a p ro g res­
siv e se a w ave to c o v er the d istance o f one
w av e le n g th o r one w ave cycle is called
w av e p e rio d , w h ich is u su ally ex p ressed in
th e tim e u n it o f seconds.
>■ W a v e fr e q u e n c y : T he n u m b e r o f sea w aves
(o n e w ave is eq u al to one w av elen g th )
p a ssin g th ro u g h a c e rta in p o in t p e r u n it
tim e (u su a lly one seco n d o r one m in u te ) is
c a lle d w a v e freq u e n cy , w h ich v aries a c ­
c o rd in g to th e w av ele n g th s o f w aves.
T h e re is in v e rse re la tio n sh ip b e tw ee n the
w a v ele n g th an d w ave freq u e n cy i.e. sh o rte r
OCEANOGRAPHY
the w a v ele n g th , h ig h e r th e w av e fre­
q u en cy , an d lo n g e r th e w a v e le n g th s, lo w er
the w av e freq u e n cy (fig . 8 . 1).
T h e w av e p e rio d , w a v ele n g th and
w av e v e lo c ity (sp e e d ) are in terrelated .
I f e ith e r w av e p e rio d o r w a v e le n g th is
k n o w n , th e o th e r v a ria b le (e ith e r w av e­
len g th o r w a v e p e rio d ) can b e found
o u t on th e b a sis o f th e fo llo w in g
fo rm u la :
w ave v e lo c ity or w ave sp e e d (s)
I f the w av ele n g th o f a g iv e n se a w a v e
is = 150 m eters an d th e w a v e p e rio d o f
the sam e w av e is = 10 s e c o n d s
then the w av e sp e e d (S ) = —■ =
150m ,r ,
---------------- = 15 m /sec
10 seconds
>■ W ave celerity is in fa c t w av e sp ee d . P h y s i­
cists use the term c e le rity to d e n o te th e
speed o f sea w av es b e c a u s e w a te r m a ss
does n o t m o v e fo rw a rd ra th e r th e w a v e
form m oves fo rw ard . T h e c e le rity o f se a
w ave is c a lc u la te d w ith th e h e lp o f th e
fo llo w in g fo rm u la :
C = L/T
w h ere C = c e le rity (s p e e d ) o f sea
w av es
L = w a v e le n g th o f se a w a v e s
T = w av e p e rio d (T = tim e ta k e n b y one
w a v e le n g th to p a ss th ro u g h a c ertain
p o in t o f o b se rv a tio n ).
T e c h n ic a lly s p e a k in g th e re is n o w ave
sp ee d at all b e c a u se th e re is n o actu al
d isp la c e m e n t o f w a te r fo rw a rd b e­
n e a th a p ro g re s siv e s e a w a v e b ecau se
w a te r p a rtic le s m o v e in c irc u la r orbits
an d th u s o n ly th e w a v e fo rm m oves
fo rw a rd an d n o t th e w a te r m ass. *So we
u se c e le rity to re fe r to th e ‘speed* o f a
w av e to re m in d o u rs e lv e s th a t it is the
e n erg y an d n o t th e m a ss o f th e w ave
th a t is in m o tio n . *
gBA WAVES, SHORELINE PROCESSES AND COASTAL SCENERY
Fig. 8 .1 : Patterns and components o f sea w aves :
»* Fetch represents the distance or length o f
sea surface over w hich the wind blow s in
o n e d irection for longer duration. It is the
fetch that determ ines the nature o f sea
w a v e s.
> - Sea area, sim p ly called as ‘s e a ’ represents
the area w here sea w aves are generated by
w in d s. T his is the area o f an ocean or a sea
w h ere the w ind-driven w aves radiate in
d ifferen t d irections, w hich is caused due to
c h a n g e in w in d direction.
>• Seiches are harbour w aves w herein water
m o v e s back and forth.
> - W ave train s represent those sw ells w hich
com p rise num erous sets o f w aves having
v aryin g w avelen gth s. T hese w ave trains
origin ate in different generating areas and
m o v e outw ard from w ave generation areas.
W hen th ese w a v e trains approach a shore,
FW F 1
th ey c o m b in e to g eth er and p ro d u ce
su ccessio n s o f high and lo w w a v es.
8.2 GENERATION OF SEA WAVES
A s stated earlier, the m ech an ism o f the
origin o f sea w a v es is not p recisely know n but it is
com m only agreed that the sea w a v es are gener­
ated by som e sort o f energy release. T he fo llo w in g
are the probable cau ses o f generation o f w a v es in
the oceans and sea s :
atm ospheric circulation and w ind,
>• m ovem ent o f flu ids o f tw o contrasting
den sities (air and seaw ater) along the
interfaces o f tw o m asses o f fluids o f
varying densities,
> m ovem ent o f water m asses o f varying
densities in the oceans such as turbidity
currents,
 m a ss m ovem ent into the oceans such as
la n d slid e s in the coastal areas,
^ te c to n ic activ ities on the sea floor such as
fa u ltin g , th ru stin g etc.
^ occurrence o f undersea earthquakes, know n
as tsu n am ig en ic quakes,
^ u n d ersea volcanic eruptions,
g rav ita tio n a l forces o f the sun and the
m o o n (tidal w aves),
>■ a tm o s p h e ric storm s such as tro p ical
cy clo n es (storm w aves or storm surges),
a n th ro p o g en ic activities, nam ely plying o f
larg e com m ercial ships, undersea nuclear
tests and explosions etc.
1. Winds as Wave-generating Force
It is com m only agreed that m ost o f sea
w av es are generated due to friction on w ater
surface o f the oceans by gusty w inds. Since wind
circulation, though w ith varying speeds, is regular
feature, the w aves generated by w inds are
m ore com m on and persistent w hile w aves gener­
ated by other factors, as m entioned above, are
periodic, say tim e specific. The w ind-generated
w aves vary in size, speed and directions.
T h ese aspects are controlled by the follow ing
facto rs :
>• w ind velocity (speed)
d u ra tio n o f tim e o f blow ing o f w ind in one
d ire c tio n ,
>■ e x te n t o f fetch w hich represents the extent
o f sea o v e r w hich w ind glow s in one
d ire c tio n , and
>■ o rig in al co n d itio n o f the sea.
T h e w in d -g e n e rated sea w aves p ass through
a life cy cle w h ich in clu d es the stages o f g en era­
tio n o f sm all an d y o u n g w aves, th e ir dev elo p m en t
in term s o f w a v ele n g th , w ave h e ig h t an d v elo city
an d m o v e m e n t, an d fin ally th e ir te rm in a tio n w hen
th e y b re a k e ith e r in open sea o r at p lu n g e lin e n e ar
th e sea sh o re an d re le a se th e ir energy.
The frictio n created by the sea surface
during the w ind blow s o v er it causes stress and
pressure w hich results in the form ation of
undulating sea surface. T his u n dulating sea
surface causes bulges o f o cean w ater w h ich in turn
causes surface m otion in seaw ater. T his m otion of
seaw ater becom es in itial sea w ave w hich radiates
in all directions. In itially , sea w av es are very
sm all w ith sh o rtest w av elen g th s, u su ally less than
2 centim eters, and are c alled ripples o r capillary
waves having rounded crests and V -sh ap ed troughs.
As the w inds co n tin u e to b lo w in the same
direction, the cap illary w av es d e v elo p into larger
w aves w ith m ore energy an d lo n g e r w avelengths,
usually m ore than 2 cm , an d u p to 10 m eters. These
w aves are called gravity w a v es. A s th e gravity
w aves grow and advance, th e ir h e ig h t increases
m ore rapidly than th e ir w a v ele n g th s d u e to energy
provided by w ind speed, w h ich ex ceed s wave
speed. W hen the w ind sp eed an d w a v e speed are
balanced, no fu rth er en erg y is p ro v id e d to the
w aves by the w ind, and h en ce th e re is no further
increase in w ave h eig h t and w a v ele n g th . It m ay be
m entioned that it is n o t o n ly th e w in d sp eed which
controls the w av elen g th and w av e h e ig h t but the
extent o f fetch o v er w h ich th e w in d b lo w s is also
a sig n ifican t facto r in th is re g a rd . T h u s, wind
speed and ex ten t o f fetch are p o s itiv e ly correlated
w ith w ave h eig h t and w a v ele n g th s. T he high
speed w inds b lo w in g o v e r la rg e r sp an (extent) of
fetch give b irth to h ig h e n e rg y se a w aves of
g reater h eig h t and lo n g er w a v e le n g th . T he stage
o f m axim um d e v e lo p m e n t o f s e a w av es (attain­
m ent o f m ax im u m w av e h e ig h t a n d w av elen g th ) is
called a ‘fully developed sea’ u n d e r c e rta in condi­
tion o f w in d sp eed . A fte r th is stag e , th e loss of
energy by b re a k in g o f w a v e s fa r e x ceed s the gain
o f energy by sea w av es b e c a u se th e w av es leave
fetch a re a an d b re a k a t p lu n g e lin e an d advance
co astw ard as su rf waves o r swash o r uprush. Table
8.1 d en o tes re la tio n sh ip s a n d significant wave
height, w h ich is th e a v erag e o f th e h ig h est one
th ird o f all th e w a v es p re s e n t in th e a re a o f sea
su rface. T h e sig n ific a n t w av e h e ig h t w ill alw ays
b e m o re th a n th e a v e ra g e w a v e height* (P-&
P in e t, 2 0 0 0 ).
 SEA WAVES, SHORELINE PROCESSES AND COASTAL SCENERY

T ab le 8 . 1 ' C o m p o n e n ts o f s e a w a v e s in fu lly d e v e lo p e d s e a

w in d s p e e d X w ave h e ig h t X w avelength X w ave p erio d sig n ific a n t w av e h e ig h t

(km/hour) (m ) (m ) (second) (m ) ________

20 0.33 10.6 3.2 0.5

30 0.88 22.2 4.6 1.2

40 1.80 39.7 6.2 2.5

50 3.20 61.8 7.7 4.5

60 5.10 89.2 9.9 7.1

70 7.40 121.4 10.8 10.3

80 10.30 158.6 12.4 14.3

90 13.39 201.6 13.9 19.3

S o u rce : H .V . T h u rm an , 1988, in P.R . P inet, 2000.

S in ce the w ave h eig h t and w ave energy are
d ire c tly re la te d to w ind speed, and the w ave
h e ig h t is p o sitiv e ly related to w ave energy, and
h en ce w av e energy in creases w ith increase in
w av e sp eed , and w ave heig h t increases in
a c c o rd a n c e w ith increase in w ave energy. The
su b sta n tia l in c re ase in w ave height and w ave
e n e rg y re s u lts in the increase o f steepness o f
w av es. W h e n the steep n ess o f sea w aves attains
th e th re s h o ld v a lu e o f 1 : 7, the w aves begin to
b re a k an d th u s b re a k ers are form ed, w hich are
c alled w h ite c a p s. T he gusty w esterly w inds gain
e v e r-in c re a sin g sp eed w ith in creasin g latitudes in
the s o u th e rn h e m isp h ere . T his is w hy they are
called ro a r in g fo r ties (b etw een 40° to 50°S.
latitu d es), fu rio u s fiftie s (50° to 60°S. latitudes),
and sh r ie k in g six tie s (60^ to 70®S. latitudes). Thus,
the in c re a s in g sp ee d o f w e ste rly w inds w ith
in creasin g la titu d e s in th e so u th ern hem isphere
causes h ig h e n e rg y w av es w ith g re a test height.
T he w a v e l e n g t h is also d irectly co rrelated
with w av e sp ee d , i.e. th e la rg e r the w av elen g th ,
the g re a te r th e w a v e sp ee d and vice v ersa in deep
water.
2. Minor Causes of Wave Generation
T he m in o r cau ses o f w ave g en eratio n
include th e fo llo w in g :
^ T h e m o v e m e n t o f tw o c o n tra stin g m asses
o f flu id s in te rm s o f v a ry in g d en sities
causes w aves in the o cean s at th e in te rfa c e
o f tw o m asses. T h e in te rfa c e o f th e
m ovem ent o f air an d w a te r m a ss o f
seaw ater (air and w a te r a re flu id s o f
d ifferen t d e n sities) c re ate s sm all b u t in s ig ­
n ifican t w aves in th e o c ea n s. It m a y b e
m entioned th a t th is fa c to r c a n n o t w o rk
in dependently, ra th e r it m ay b e e ffe c tiv e
w ith o th er facto rs o f w a v e o rig in .
>- The rap id rate o f la n d slid e s in th e c o a s ta l
areas and u n d e rse a m a ss m o v e m e n t o f
huge debris causes d isp lacem en t o f s e a w a te r
w hich g en erates h ig h e n e rg y s e a w a v e s
w hich m ay cau se d e stru c tio n o n th e in h a b ­
ited islan d s and c o a sta l areas.
The u n d ersea m o v e m e n t o f w a te r m a s s e s
o f d ifferen t d en sities, tu rb id ity c u rre n ts
etc. creates larg e u n d e rse a w a v e s , w h ic h
are c alled as in tern a l w a v e s. T h e w a v e ­
lengths and w av e h e ig h ts o f th e se in te rn a l
w aves are o f m u ch h ig h e r v a lu e s th a n th e
su rface o cean w av es. T h e in te rn a l w a v e s
are a sso c iate d w ith p y c n o c lin e z o n e , w h ic h
is c h arac te riz ed by ra p id ly c h a n g in g d e n s i­
ties o f w a te r m asses. S o m e tim e s, th e
h eig h t o f in te rn a l w av es e x c e e d s 100
m eters.
T he d isp la ce m e n t o f s e a w a te r d u e to
m o v em en ts o f p la te s, fa u ltin g a n d u p -
th ru stin g o f fa u lte d o c e a n flo o rs a lo n g
fau lts c re ate su rface sea w a v es o f h ig h
no
m agn itu d e. The occurrence o f h igh m a g n i­
tu d e un dersea earthquakes e x ce e d in g the
m a gn itu d e o f 7 .0 degree on R ichter scale
c a u se s tsunami waves, w h ich after invad ing
the in h ab ited coastal areas cause h eavy
lo s s o f property and hum an liv e s. The
o ccu rren ce o f p ow erfu l undersea earth­
q u ake o f the m agn itud e o f 9.3 on R ichter
s c a le o f f the co a st o f Sum atra in the Indian
O cea n o n D e ce m b e r 2 6 ,2 0 0 4 claim ed m ore
than 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 hum an liv e s in 1 2 countries,
bord erin g the Indian O cean in clu d in g
India, Sri L anka, T hailand, In d on esia etc.
T su n am i w a v e s w ill be d iscu ssed in m uch
d eta il in the su c ce e d in g 9th chapter.
T h e un dersea v o lc a n ic eruption cau ses
w a v e s o f various d im en sio n s in the
o c ea n s.
> - T he gravitation al p u ll o f the m oon and the
sun c a u ses ocean tid es w h ich create sur­
fa c e w a v e s. T h ese are ca lled tidal waves
w h ic h occu r tw ic e a m onth. T he p red iction
and tracking o f tidal w a v e s are, thus, easy
task.
>■ T he sev e r e trop ical c y c lo n e s w ith high
v e lo c ity w in d s create v ery h igh energy
w a v e s o f great h eigh t. T h ese are ca lled
storm waves or storm surges. Such storm
g en erated w a v e s are in fact w in d generated
se a w a v e s in o n e w a y or the other. W hen
th e se storm w a v e s in vad e the c o astal areas,
th ey in flic t great dam age to hum an health
and w ealth . S u ch w a v e s are very com m on
a lo n g the eastern co a sts o f India and
c o a sta l r eg io n s o f B a n g la d esh . T he hurri­
ca n e-g en era ted w a v e s in vad e the southern
and sou th -eastern c o a sts o f the U S A
a lm o st ev ery year. The w a v e s gen erated by
H urricane K atrina and H urricane W ilm a
in flic te d h ea v y lo ss o f hum an liv e s and
property in the year 2 0 0 5 in N e w O rleans
and Florida resp e c tiv e ly . T yp h oon -gen er-
ated storm w a v e s very often invad e the
co a stal areas o f C hina, Japan and P h ilip ­
p in es every year.
> - T he p ly in g o f h u ge tankers, contain er
sh ip s, w arships, subm arines etc.; undersea
n u clear te stin g and e x p lo s io n s etc. creatc
w a v e s in the o c ea n s.
It m ay be m e n tio n e d that the seawaves
generated b y a b o v e -m e n tio n e d m in or factors are
not regular featu res in the o c e a n s, rather they are
p erio d ic in nature. S o , the w in d -g en era ted sea
w a v es are o n ly regu lar se a p h en o m en a and are
g e o m o r p h o lo g ic a lly s ig n ific a n t b e c a u se these
w a v es shape the c o a sta l s c e n e r y .
8.3 TYPES AND MOVEMENT OF SEA WAVES
It m ay be m e n tio n e d at the v e r y o u tset that
as regards m o tio n o f w ater, se a w a v e s and current
d iffer sig n ific a n tly . T here is forw ard m ovem ent
o f w ater in o cea n currents but w a ter d oes not
m o v e forw ard h o r iz o n ta lly in w a v e s , rather it has
orbital m o v em en t. It is o n ly th e w a v e form that
m o v e s forw ard. B ut w h e n th e se a w a v e s attain
critical lim it o f w a v e h e ig h t th e y break at the
p lu n ge lin e, w h ere the w a v e s fe e l (to u c h ) bottom,
the resultant su r f currents m o v e coastw ard to­
gether w ith w h o le w ater m a ss. S e a w aves are
c la ss ifie d on d ifferen t b a se s in to v a r io u s types as
fo llo w s :
1. On the basis of w av e-g en eratin g force
( 1 ) w in d -g e n e ra ted se a w a v e s , m o st com ­
m on w a v e s
(2 ) undersea la n d slid e-g en era ted sea waves
(3) t e c h n ic a lly g e n e ra ted s e a w a v e s
(4 ) tsunami w aves generated b y tsunamigenic
u n d ersea earth q u ak es
(5 ) tid al w a v e s c a u se d b y gravitational
p u ll o f the m o o n and th e sun
( 6 ) storm -generatedseaw aves— storm surges
or storm w a v e s
(7 ) u n d ersea v o lc a n o g e n ic s e a w a v es
2. On the basis of d ep th o f seawater
( 1 ) d eep w a ter w a v e s vor o s c illa to r y w aves
( 2 ) s h a llo w w a ter w a v e s or translatory
w aves
(3 ) tra n sitio n a l w a v e s
3. On the basis o f geomorphic significance
( 1 ) c o n str u c tiv e w a v e s
( 2 ) d estru ctiv e w a v e s .
p
SEA WAVES, SHORELINE PROCESSES AND COASTAL SCENERY 211

4 On the basis of breaking of waves W ater M otions in th e W ind-generated W aves

breaker w aves o r sim p ly b re a k ers
(1) spillin g b reak ers
(2) p lu n g in g b reak ers
(3) surg in g b reak ers
(4) c o lla p sin g b reak ers
5. O n th e b asis o f m u ltip le cau ses
( 1) sw ell w aves, w in d -g e n e rated w aves
(2 ) ro g u e w aves, su p er w aves, due to
o v e rla p p in g o f m u ltip le w aves, also
k n o w n as m o n stro u s w aves
(3) s u r f w av es, g en erated by b reak in g o f
w in d -g e n e ra te d sea w aves
;:>v&■«
It m ay be p o in te d o u t th a t o n ly th e fo rm o f
w ave m oves fo rw ard in seas an d o cean s th ro u g h
the w ater and the w a ter does n o t m o v e fo rw ard .
W ater p a rtic le s w ith in a w av e in th e seas an d
o ceans do n o t m o v e fo rw ard w ith c o astw a rd o r
lan d w ard ad v an cin g w ave its e lf b u t m o v e in
c irc u lar o rb it (fig. 8 .2 A ). In an o p e n se a th e o rb ita l
m o tio n o f w ater p a rtic le a sso c ia te d w ith th e
p assag e o f a w ave d e crea se s ra p id ly fro m th e
w ater surface d o w n w ard s (to w ard s th e se a flo o r).
The o rb it o f p a rtic le s d e crea se s w ith in c re a sin g
depth from the w a ter su rface (fig. 8 .2 A ) w ith th e
resu lt orbits beco m e m o re an d m o re e llip tic a l
tow ards sea b o tto m and th e re is o n ly h o riz o n ta l
m ovem ent o f w a ter p a rtic le s (b a c k a n d fo rth
m ovem ent o f w ater p a rtic le s) (fig. 8 .2 B ).

A W a ve le n gth (L)
<---------------------- ------------------------>\
T rough C re s t

Orbits become more

elliptical toward bottom

Horizontal
movement only

Fig. 8.2 : A-Generation of wave forms by orbital motion of water particles. Each water particle continues orbitting about
the same position while the wave form advances forward.
B-The size of orbits of water particles decreases and orbits become more and more elliptical downwards or as
they approach a shallow bottom where the movement of water particles becomes horizontal i.e. water particles
move back andforth only.
. f e ' ' :v h
’ *
 212
It m a y b e m e n tio n e d th a t the m o v em en t o f
w a v e fo rm fo rw a rd m ean s fo rw a rd tran sm issio n
o f w a v e e n e rg y . It is v e ry in te re stin g to n o te th at
w a te r p a rtic le s w h ile m o v in g in a c irc le in w ind
g e n e ra te d s e a w a v es p ass the energy forw ard.
S u c h ty p e o f m o tio n o f w a te r in sea w aves is
k n o w n as c ir c u la r o rb ita l m otion (fig. 8 .2), w hich
d is a p p e a rs w h e n th e d ep th o f w a ter in creases one
h a lf o f th e w a v e le n g th . It is also im p o rtan t to b ear
in m in d th a t w a te r p a rtic le w h ile m o v in g in
c irc u la r o rb ita l m o tio n d oes n o t re tu rn e x actly to
its o rig in a l p la c e , ra th e r it is slig h tly m o ved
fo rw a rd b e c a u s e th e sp ee d o f m o v e m e n t o f w a ter
in th e h a lf o f o rb ita l c irc le in the tro u g h o f the
w a v e is s lo w e r th a n th e sp ee d o f w a ter m o v em en t
in th e re m a in in g h a lf o f the o rb ital circle in the
c re s t o f th e w av e. T his is w hy w a ter slig h tly
m o v e s fo rw a rd . S uch fo rw a rd m o v em en t o f w a ter
is c a lle d w a v e d rift.
S in ce th e d ep th o f o rb ital circle o f sea
w a v e s is e q u al to o ne h a lf o f the w a v ele n g th , the
d e p th o f o rb ita l c irc le is p o sitiv e ly c o rre la te d w ith
w a v e le n g th o f sea w av es. T h u s, lo n g er the
w a v e le n g th s, the g re a te r is the d ep th o f o rb ital
c irc le o f se a w a v es and v ic e v ersa. T he d ep th o f
o rb ita l c irc le o f se a w a v es is c a lle d w a v e b ase
w h ic h is o n e h a lf o f th e w a v e le n g th . A s th e w av es
a p p ro a c h s e a sh o re , th e w a v e le n g th d e crea se s and
h e n c e th e d e p th o f w av e b a se also d e crea se s b u t
th e w a v e h e ig h t in c re a se s. W h en the d ep th o f sea
w a te r b e c o m e s e q u a l to o n e h a lf the w a v ele n g th ,
th e d e p th o f w a v e b a se s to u c h e s th e sea b o tto m ,
i.e . th e s e a w a v e s feel b o tto m an d the w av e en erg y
b e c o m e s u n a b le to m a in ta in th e en o rm o u sly
g ro w n w a v e h e ig h t, th e w a v es b re a k at p lu n g e lin e
o r b r e a k e r lin e fro m w h e re the w a te r m o v es
fo r w a rd a n d d o e s n o t fo llo w o rb ita l c irc u la r p ath
a n d th u s b e c o m e s s u r f c u rre n t (re m e m b e r th a t in
w a te r c u r r e n t w a te r m o v e s fo rw a rd ).
It m a y b e c o n c lu d e d th a t th e re are tw o ty p es
o f m o tio n s in w in d -g e n e ra te d w av es as fo llo w s :
• fo rw a rd m o v e m e n t o f
w a v e fo rm (w a v e e n e rg y )
w a v e m o tio n s ^
• o rb ita l m o v e m e n t o f w a te r
p a r tic le s b e n e a th the w av e
o c e a n o g r a ph y
»■ T h e fo rw ard m o v e m e n t o f w av e form is
m e asu re d as wave speed o r celerity in meters
p e r seco n d . T h e w av e sp eed is directly
re la ted to w a v e le n g th i.e. lo n g er the
w a v ele n g th , g re a te r th e w a v e sp eed and
v ice v ersa. T h e w a v e freq u e n cy is jm_
v e rsely re la te d to w a v e le n g th i.e. longer
the w a v e le n g th , lo w e r th e w av e frequency
and v ic e v e rsa.
>- In an o rb ita l m o v e m e n t o f w av e w ater
p a rtic le s m o v e b a c k a n d fo rth an d up-and-
do w n an d re tu rn to a lm o st th e same
p o sitio n fro m w h e re th e y s ta rte d m oving.
T h e w av e siz e (w a v e le n g th ) an d th e size o f
o rb it o f m o v e m e n t o f w a te r p a rtic le s beneath a
w ave are d ire c tly c o rre la te d i.e ., th e b ig g er the
size o f w av e (w a v e le n g th ), th e la rg e r is the size o f
o rb it o f m o tio n o f w a te r p a rtic le s an d v ice versa.
‘T h e n e t re s u lt is th a t in th e o ry there is no
fo rw ard m o tio n o f m a ss ( o f w a te r), no m atter how
m an y w av es p a ss th ro u g h th e a rea. T hus, wave
en erg y , n o t w a te r p a rtic le , tra v e ls across the sea
s u rfa c e ’ (P .R . P in e t, 2 0 0 0 )’.
Deep-Water Waves
T h e d eep w a te r z o n e o f th e oceans is that
p a rt o f th e o c e a n w h e re th e d e p th o f ocean water
e x ce e d s th e d e p th o f w a v e b a se , w h ic h is one half
o f th e w a v e le n g th . So th e w a v e s g e n e ra te d in deep
o cean w a te r b y w in d s a re c a lle d d e ep ocean w ater
w a v es an d do n o t h a v e a n y in te ra c tio n w ith ocean
b o tto m s. T h e se w a v e s a re a lso c a lle d oscillatory
w a v e s. T h e m o tio n s in o s c illa to ry w av es are the
sam e as d e sc rib e d a b o v e i.e. th e w a te r particles
m o v e in o rb ita l c irc le a n d th e y re tu rn v ery nearly
to th e ir o rig in a l p o s itio n a fte r th e passag e o f
w av es w h ile w a v e fo rm o r w a v e en erg y m oves
fo rw ard .
Shallow -W ater W aves
T h e s e a w a v e s tra v e llin g in sh allo w w ater
z o n e , w h e re th e d e p th o f o c e a n w a te r o r w ave base
is le ss th a n 1/ 2 0 th o f th e w a v e le n g th , are called
s h a llo w w a te r w a v e s o r long waves. T h u s, shallow
w a te r w a v e s tra v e ll in th e sh a llo w n e a r shore
 SEA WAVES, SH O RELIN E PROCESSES AND COASTAL SCENERY
zo n es o f o cean s, a n d to u c h th e b o tto m o f th e
oceans, o r say w a v e s ‘fe el b o tto m ’ b e c a u s e th e re is
alw ays .c o n ta c t b e tw e e n th e w a v e s an d sea
bottom- T he w a te r p a rtic le s in su c h w a v e fo llo w
fla tte n e d o rb its a n d h e n c e th e re is fo rw a rd
m ovem ent o f w a t e n n a s s a lso . S u c h m o v e m e n t o f
waves is c a lle d tr a n s la to r y m o tio n a n d th e c o n ­
cern ed w a v e s a re c a lle d w a v e s o f tr a n s la tio n o r
translatory w a v e s w h e re in th e w a te r p a rtic le s m o v e
forw ard a p p ro x im a te ly a t th e sa m e v e lo c ity as th e
w ave fo rm .T h is c a te g o ry in c lu d e s th e fo llo w in g
w aves :
w in d -g e n e ra te d w a v e s in n e a r-s h o re zo n e,
>- ts u n a m i w a v e s , g e n e ra te d b y ts u n a m ig e n ic
q uakes,
tid a l w a v e s , g e n e ra te d b y g ra v ita tio n a l
fo rc e o f th e su n an d th e m o o n .
T ransitio nal W aves
T h e s e a w a v e s b e tw e e n the a b o v e m e n ­
tio n e d tw o c a te g o rie s o f w a v e s e.g. d e e p -w a te r
w a v e s, a n d s h a llo w w a te r w a v e s, are called
tr a n s itio n a l w a v e s o r in te r m e d ia te w a v e s, ill w h ich
the d e p th o f w a te r o r w a v e b a se is g re a te r than 1/
20th p a rt o f w a v e le n g th o f s h a llo w -w a te r w av es
but less th a n 1/2 o f th e w a v e le n g th o f d e e p -w a te r
w aves as g iv e n b e lo w :
( 1) d e p th o f d e e p - w a te r w a v e s
(d ) = > L / 2
(2 ) d e p th o f s h a llo w - w a te r w a v e s
(d ) = < L / 20
(3) d e p th o f tr a n s itio n a l w a v e s
(d ) = > L /2 0 b u t < L ! 2
w h e re d = d e p th o f w a te r
> = g r e a te r th a n
< = le ss th a n
L = w a v e le n g th
T h e w a v e s p e e d o f th e a b o v e m e n tio n e d 3
^ e s o f w a v e s a re v a ria b ly r e la te d to w a te r d e p th
and w a v e le n g th a s fo llo w s :
^ T h e s p e e d o f s h a llo w - w a te r w a v e s d e p e n d s
on w a te r d e p th , i.e . th e g r e a te r th e w a te r
d e p th , th e h ig h e r th e w a v e s p e e d , a n d v ic e
v e rsa.
213
>■ T h e w a v e le n g th d e te rm in e s th e s p e e d o f
d e e p -w a te r w a v e s i.e . th e lo n g e r th e
w a v e le n g th , th e g re a te r th e s p e e d a n d v ic e
v e rsa .
B o th , w a te r d e p th a n d w a v e le n g th c o n tro l
th e s p e e d o f in te rm e d ia te o r tra n s itio n a l
w a v es.
Rogue Waves
T h e o c c a s io n a l a n d u n u s u a l o r n o n - r e g u la r
sea w a v e s o f e n o rm o u s w a v e h e ig h t a re c a lle d
ro g u e w a v e s o r m o n str o u s w a v e s o n ly b e c a u s e o f
th e fa c t th a t su ch w a v e s o c c u r v e ry r a r e ly a n d
a ssu m e v e ry g re a t h e ig h t a n d th u s b e c o m e v e ry
se v e re an d d e s tru c tiv e . T h e y a re a ls o c a lle d s u p e r
w a v e s, in th e sam e w a y as th e s e v e r e s t a n d m o s t
d e stru c tiv e tro p ic a l c y c lo n e s a re n a m e d s u p e r
cy c lo n e s. T h e e x a c t m o d e o f o rig in o f ro g u e w a v e s
is a c tu a lly n o t y e t k n o w n b u t th e th e o r e tic a l
m o d e ls h a v e s h o w n th a t th e o v e r la p p in g o f
n u m e ro u s w a v e s c a n p ro d u c e o n e s in g le m o n ­
stro u s w a v e. T h e c o llis io n o f s tro n g s to r m - w a v e s
g e n e ra te d by p o w e rfu l a tm o s p h e r ic d i s tu r b a n c e
(c y c lo n e , m a in ly tro p ic a l c y c lo n e ) a n d s tr o n g
o c ea n c u rre n ts re s u lts in th e g e n e s is o f r o g u e
w a v es b e c a u s e th e c o llis io n fo r c e c a u s e s s t e e p e n ­
in g and s h o rte n in g o f s to rm w a v e s w h ic h u l t i ­
m a te ly are tra n s fo rm e d in to m o n s tr o u s w a v e s .
T h e p ro b a b ility o f o c c u r r e n c e o f r o u g u e w a v e s
h as b e e n w o rk e d o u t to b e o n e in e v e r y o n e b illio n
n o rm a l se a w a v e s . T h is m a k e s p r e d ic tio n o f th e
o c c u rre n c e o f m o n s tro u s w a v e s v e ry d if f ic u lt.
C onstructive and D estru ctive W aves
F ro m g e o m o rp h o lo g ic a l p o in t o f v ie w s e a
w a v e s are d iv id e d in to tw o m a jo r ty p e s :
>■ c o n s tr u c tiv e w a v e s
- d e s tr u c tiv e w a v e s
T h e lo w fr e q u e n c y w a v e s w ith lo n g e r
w a v e le n g th a p p r o a c h in g th e s h o re a n d b e a c h e s
a re c o n s tr u c tiv e in c h a r a c te r b e c a u s e th e y lo s e
v o lu m e a n d e n e rg y r a p id ly w h ile m o v in g u p th e
b e a c h e s b e c a u s e w a te r p e r c o la te s in th e s h in g le s
a n d o th e r b e a c h m a te ria ls a n d th u s th e b a c k w a s h
is w e a k e n e d w h ic h h in d e r s th e r em o v a l o f
214
m aterials seaw ard. It is, thus, obvious that low-
freq u en cy w aves help in the building o f beaches.
O n the other hand, high frequency w aves with
sh o rter w avelengths and high wave heights
(crests) approaching a m ore steeply sloping shore
are destructive in nature because instead o f
sp illing they plunge and generate pow erful
b reakers travelling tow ards the shore and strong
b ack w ash tow ards the sea which combs down the
b eaches i.e. rem oves the beach m aterials and
tran sp o rts them tow ards the sea. Such destructive
w aves also resort to cliff erosion w hich leads to
retro gradation o f coastland and sea.
Surf Zone and Breakers
The sea waves after being originated by
pow erful w inds in the ‘se a a r e a ’ (the breeding area
o f the oceans is technically called by the m ariners
as ‘sea a r e a ’) radiate outw ard in all directions from
the generating ‘sea areas’. The grow th o f sea
w aves in term s o f increase in the size (w ave­
length) and speed is controlled by the strength o f
storm w inds. As the w inds get stronger by
attaining high speed, the wind energy is trans­
ferred to the ocean surface. This w ind energy
increases the heights o f waves. It m eans wind
strength i.e. w ind speed is strongly positively
correlated with wave strength i.e. size o f w ave­
length and wave height. As the w ind speed
increases, the w avelength and wave height also
increases. It may be m entioned that the size o f sea
w aves, i.e. w avelength in controlled by the size o f
Surf zone
Broken wave Wave crest
Fig. 8.3: Progression of wind-generated sea waves, breaking of waves, plunge line and surf zone.
OCEANOGRAWfV 1
fetch (that part o f the sea over w hich w inds bl©*
in one direction for long duration to generate
pow erful sea w aves), the w ind speed and wind .
duration. The larger fetch, high w ind speed and |
long duration o f w ind m otion in one direction %
cause large size (long w avelength) w aves.
The sea w aves w ith longest wavelengths ]
m ove m ost rapidly. Steep w aves w ith shorter '
w avelengths but greater heights (higher crests)
decay m ore rapidly w hile m oving aw ay from
generating ‘sea area’ w hile w aves w ith longer -1
w avelengths and low er heights radiate and travel
for thousands o f kilom eters across the oceans with
little energy loss. As the w aves advance towards
the shores, the depth o f w ater d ecreases, the wave
height increases and the w avelength decreases.
As the w aves m ove in shallow w ater of
near-shore zone, they feel b o tto m (touch the sea
bottom ) and lose energy because they suffer from
friction and distortion caused by th eir interactions
with bottom surface. Thus, the w aves begin to feel
bottom when the depth o f w ater becom es eq u iv a-
lent to about the h a lf o f the w avelength. A s th e |
waves approach the shore, the w av elen g th co n tin ­
ues to decrease w hile the w ave h e ig h t in creases to
such an extent that the crest o f the w ave topples
over and the w ave is tran sfo rm ed into breaker
w hich then collapses. The tu rb u len t w ater, known
as sw a sh or u p r u s h rushes sh o rew ard w ith great
velocity and force. The distance from the shore
where the waves break is called plunge line where the
depth o f seaw ater and the w ave height are approxi­
mately equal. The tm bulent forw ard m oving swash
Wave trough
m-
 SEA WAVES, SHORELINE PROCESSES AND COASTAL SCENERY
or breaker is also called surf. The zone o f seaw ater
between the plunge line and the shore is called surf
zone.
B reakers are o f 3 types as follow s ;
>- spilling b reakers
>• plunging b reakers
>■ surging breakers
(1) Spilling breakers are m ost com m on type
o f b reak ers in w hich w ater does not fall but
grad u ally spills dow n the front o f sea w aves and
form s p ro m in en t foam ing coast. The spilling
breakers are form ed over gently sloping sea
b ottom w h ere there is slow rate o f loss o f w ave
energy.
(2) Plunging breakers are those in w hich
w ater falls v e rtic ally and rushes shorew ard in the
form o f tu rb u len t foam ing w ater m ass. W hen the
w ave crests becom e so steep and high then they
becom e curling crests. T hus, the w ave energy
becom es unable to su p p o rt such curling crests,
w ith the result they b reak and plunge vertically.
(3) Surging breakers are those in w hich w ater
m oves ra p id ly shorew ard. Such breakers occur
very close to the sea shore. Spilling b reakers are
a sso ciated w ith steep w aves and are caused w hen
the v e lo cities in the w ave crest and w ave body are
alm ost equal. P lu n g in g b reakers are caused w hen
the v elo city o f w a te r in the w ave crest exceed s the
velocity o f w ave body (o f in term ed iate w aves).
Surging b reak ers are a sso c iate d w ith gentle w aves
(in term s o f steep n ess o f w are crest).
T he b reak ers o f sw ash or surfs after
reaching the slo p in g b e ac h re tu rn tow ards th e sea
as backwash or undertow currents and rip currents. It
may be p o in te d o u t th a t s u rf cu rren ts or sw ash or
breakers and u n d e rto w c u rre n ts or b ack w ash are
significant g e o m o rp h ic ag en ts. T he sea w aves
become g e o m o rp h o ic ag en t o n ly w hen th ey feel
bottom at the p lu n g e line.
8-4 WAVE REFRACTION
W ave re fra c tio n sim p ly m ean s the b en d in g
o f the crests o f sea w av es ap p ro a ch in g sea shore.
The w ave re fra c tio n is cau sed due to d ra g g in g o f
shore- b o u n d w av es alo n g the sea bottom . W hy do
215
the w ave crests refract o r b en d ? It m ay b e
m entioned th at crestlines o f w ave crests o f f th e
shoreline are alm ost straig h t and p arallel in deep
w ater but w hen they approach the shallow w ater
o f su rf zone they bccom e irreg u lar and u ltim ately
they bend or are refracted due to differential w ave
speed (celerity). I f the co astlin e is highly irreg u lar
and indented ch aracterized by bays (em b ay m en ts)
and headlands, the approaching w ave c rests break
o ff the headland earlier (first) d ue to sh allo w
depth o f w ater than the crests o f sam e w ave w hich
enters the bays due to relativ ely d e ep e r w ater. In
other w ords, one part o f the w ave re a ch e s the
shallow w ater o ff the h ead lan d s so o n er th a n th e
other part o f the sam e w ave w h ich en ters th e b ay .
Thus, the Crestline o f a w ave a p p ro a ch in g th e
headlands breaks first and is slo w ed d o w n w h ile
the other Crestline o f the sam e w av e b re a k e s la te r
and thus the tw o p arts o f the sam e w av e b re a k at
d ifferent tim es. T his cau ses b e n d in g o f sea w av es,
w hich we called w ave re fra c tio n . It m ay also be
m entioned th at the w ave en erg y is c o n c e n tra te d at
the head lan d s b ecau se w ave crests b re a k h ere first
and thus h ead lan d s are ero d ed m o re v ig o ro u sly .
On the o ther hand, w ave en erg y is d istrib u te d in
the bays and hence th ere is m ore d ep o sitio n .
The refracted w av es te n d to b eco m e p a ra l­
lel to the sh o relin es. T he w ave re fra c tio n is also
caused by the irreg u la rity o f c o astlin e s as
ex p lain ed above. T he m o st sp e c tu la r im p act o f
w ave re fra c tio n is u n ev en d istrib u tio n o f w av e
en ergy w h erev er the co ast and sh o re lin es are
irre g u la r an d in d e n te d su c h as b a y s an d
h ead lan d s. T his a sp ect has also b e en e x p lain ed
above.
Wave orthogonals are th e im a g in a ry equi-
spaced arrows draw n perpendicular to the Crestline
o f sea w av es b efo re th e w av es a re re fra c ted . In
o th er w ords, ev en ly sp aced im ag in ary arro w s or
rays draw n perpendicular to th e cre sts o f th e d eep -
w ater w aves are called w av e o rth o g o n a ls w h ich
are u sed to d em o n strate d istrib u tio n o f w ave
energy. T hus, the en erg y b e tw ee n any tw o w ave
o rth o g o n als is su p p o sed to be eq u al alo n g th e
en tire crests (fig. 8.4). T h u s, w av e o rth o g o n a ls
h elp in the u n d e rstan d in g o f d istrib u tio n o f w ave
en ergy in the n ear-sh o re areas. W h erev er the
w ave o rth o g o n als c o n v erg e (at th e h e ad la n d s, A
216

in fig . 8 .4 ), th ey denote concentration o f w ave diverge or are dispersed (B in fig. 8.4),

en erg y w h ic h ca u ses erosion o f headlands. On the denote dispersal and hence lo ss o f w ave enerev
other h an d , w h erever the w ave orthogonals and deposition .

E rosional H eadland
H igh-energy 0,1 E m b aym en t B e a ch
zone

W ave S ea coast
c r e s ts

W ave
bea trou ghs

Lo w -e n e rg y W ave
zone orthogonal

Fig. 8.4 : Wave orthogonals, concentration o f wave energy at the convergence o f w ave orthogonals (headlands, A) and
w ave erosion; dispersal o f wave energy at the divergence o f w ave orthogonals and consequent deposition
(bays, beaches, B in fig. 8.4), Source : after P.R. Pinet, 2000.

W av e re fra c tio n re su lts in the fo rm atio n o f e ro sio n . W h e n the c o a st b o u n d w av es strike the

litto r a l or lo n g sh o re cu rren ts o r d rifts w hich m ove
p a ra lle l to th e sea shore. T h ese cu rren ts are
g e n e ra te d in tw o w ay s as fo llo w s :
>■ W h en th e sea w ater u n d e r th e in flu en ce o f
g u sty w in d s strik es the co ast, th ere is m ass
tra n s p o rt o f sea w ater p a ra lle l to the coast.
>- W h en p o w e rfu l w in d -g e n e rated w aves
u n d e r th e in flu en ce o f h ig h v elo city w in d s
strik e th e co ast, m o st o f w ater m ove
p a ra lle l to the coast.
8.5 WAVE REFLECTION
W av e re fle c tio n sim ply m eans b o u n cin g
b a c k o f w ave en erg y w hen the p ro g ressiv e w aves
strik e th e s tra ig h t c o astlin es o f re sista n t rocks, say
c lif f co astlin e s o r m an -m ad e stru ctu res such as
se a w a lls, w h ic h are c o n stru cte d parallel to the
c o a s t to p ro te c t th e lan d from ag g ressiv e c liff
seaw alls o r re s ista n t c o a sts a lm o st at rig h t angle,
the w av e en erg y is re fle c te d b a c k an d seabound
w av es are created . T h e se se a b o u n d outgoing
w aves are p a ra lle l to in c o m in g co ast bound
w av es. W h en th e se tw o o p p o sin g w aves meet,
u n u su al w av e fo rm s w ith g re a te r h eig h t, usually
m ore th a n 10 m e te rs, are g en erate d . It may be
m e n tio n e d th a t th e o rig in a l w av es, i.e. the
in c o m in g w av es b e fo re b e in g re fle c ted , and the
re fle c te d w av es h av e th e sam e w avelengths. The
o v e rla p p in g o f th e c re sts o f o u tg o in g reflected
w av es an d in c o m in g p ro g re ssiv e w aves causes
w ave w ed g e o f g re a t heigh^ b ecau se o f the
d o u b lin g o f th e cre sts o f th e se tw o opposing
w av es. S o m etim es, th e co m b in atio n o f two
o p p o sin g w av es (re fle c te d w av es and incoming
w av es) h a v in g th e sam e w a v ele n g th s results in
fo rm atio n o f standing o r stationary waves where#*
th ere is no actu al h o riz o n ta l m o vem ent o f water.
 SEA WAVES, SHORELINE PROCESSES AND COASTAL SCENERY
‘In effect, the w ater level oscillates up and down
about the fixed node, which is located near the
center’ (P- R- Pinet, 2000). The standing or
stationary wave, w hen occurs in a bay, harbour or
estuary, is called seiche.
8.6 SEA COAST AND SEA SHORE
G enerally, sea coast and sea shore are taken
as synonym ous but geom orphologically these two
terms have quite different m eanings. Sea shore
represents the zone o f land betw een high tide
w ater (H TW ) and low tide w ater (LTW ) (fig. 8.5)
w hile the shoreline represents the actual landward
lim it o f sea w ater at a given m om ent o f time. ‘The
shoreline is the line o f dem arcation betw een land
and w ater. It fluctuates from m om ent to moment
influenced by w aves and tid e s’ (A. Bloom, 1979).
The coast represents the land-zone immediately
behind the cliff. The coastline represents the cliff-
line or the m argin o f land rising above the sea
w ater. The shore zone or sim ply shore is divided
into 3 zones : (1) back shore represents the beach
zone startin g from the lim it o f frequent storm
w aves to the c liff base, (2) foreshore extends from
low tide w ater to high tide w ater, and (3) offshore
represents the zone o f shallow bottom o f the
continental slope.
Sea
Coast
Backshore
*-------- v Foreshore Offshore
- ■
k --------------------
High tide water
Low tide water
Land
Fig. 8.5 : Sea coast and sea shore.
8.7 CLASSIFICATION OF COASTS AND
SHORELINES
There is a w ide range o f variations in
opinions in relation to types and classification o f
217
coastlines and shorelines. Not only this, there is
also difference o f opinions regarding the meaning
and definitions o f coastlines and shorelines as
some scientists treat them separately while some
take them as synonym. The m eaning o f sea coast
and sea-shore has already been explained in the
preceding section 8.5. Here both the terms are
taken as synnonym. The schem es o f classification
o f sea coast and seashore differ significantly
because o f different bases adopted by different
geom orphologists. The difference o f opinions
arises from the fact that (i) coasts and shores have
been classified separately, (ii) the present day
coastlines are complex rather than sim ple, (iii) sea
level is not perm anent as there are phases o f rise
and fall in sea level resulting into subm ergence
and emergence o f coastlines. The schem es o f
classification o f sea coasts and sea shores o f D.W .
Johnson and F.P. Shepard, being m ore popular,
are being discussed here.
1 . Johnson’s Classification of Shorelines
D.W. Johnson (1919) presented a genetic
classification o f shorelines w herein he divided
shorelines into four main types, on the basis o f (i)
nature o f coastland before changes in sea level i.e.
w hether the coastland was upland or low land
before changes in sea level, and (ii) em ergence or
subm ergence o f shorelines due to sea level
change, as follows :
1. Shorelines o f em ergence,
2. Shorelines o f subm ergence,
3. N eutral shorelines, and
4. Com pound shorelines.
Shoreline of emergence is form ed due to
changes in sea level (fall in sea level or negative
change) either due to fall in sea level in relation to
coastland or upheaval o f coastland in relation to
sea level. Change in sea level (negative) may be
due to either clim atic factor (ice age and
w id e sp rea d g la c ia tio n ) or te cto n ic fa c to r
(i.e. su b sid e n c e in sea flo o r or rise in
coastland).
 218
OCEANOGRAPHY
eroded area, like estuaries o f the rivers. Ria shore
1 is funnel shaped, the narrow part o f which
the land area. It narrow s dow n further landward
'
T V ' ' /«. % term inating at the m outh o f the river while it
L. f —
K
w idens out tow ards the sea. (b) Fiord shorelines are
form ed due to subm ergence o f glacial trough^
G laciers form deep valleys near the coast during
glacial period. A fter clim atic change leading to
iimuiDJiiiiiiiniiiJimiiJiiirmmiinufflil
------ — --------------- i— ——-—------------- ------------- u dcglaciation sea level rises because o f return of
m elt-w ater and hence glacial v alleys are drowned
under sea w ater to form fiord coast and shore (fio
'kVii/J, t / : h\J 8 . 6 - 2 ).
Neutral shorelines are form ed neither by
em ergence nor by subm ergence because they do
not reveal any such evidence w hich can prove
jl mmmrnrn
ii em ergence or subm ergence. In fact, neutral
■~V K 'S
- - ' x!. - • 1, \-v' ' ' ' / shorelines are form ed due to deposition of
sed im en ts/Jo h n so n id en tified six types o f shore­
3 lines under this category d epending on the nature
o f deposited m aterials viz. (i) delta shoreline (fig.
8.6-4), (ii) alluvial plain shoreline (fig. 8.6-3),
(iii) outw ash plain shoreline, (iv) volcanic shore­
line (fig. 8 .6-6), (v) coral re e f shoreline, and(vi)
fault shoreline (fig. 8.7-7).
C o m p o u n d s h o r e lin e s are characterized by
the evidences o f both subm ergence and emer­
gence. N o rw ag ian coast is example o f this
category.
J o h n so n ’s schem e o f the classification of
shorelines w as w idely ap preciated and popular­
ized by his d iscip les and follow ers. For example,
J.B. L ucke (1938) d escrib ed the follow ing posi­
tive points in his schem e :
>■ It is sim ple and easily understandable,
Fig. 8 .6 : Types o f shorelines-( 1) ria coast (submerged), It is b ased on sound reasoning,
(2) fio r d coast (submerged), ( 3 ) coastal plain >- It is easily ap p licab le, and
co ast (submerged), and (4) deltaic coast (neu­
tra l shoreline). >* It is m ore sy stem atic and coherent.
B esides b o u q u ets, this schem e also re­
S h o r e lin e s o f su b m erg en ce is form ed b ecau se ceiv ed b rick b ats, as the schem e was severely
o f su b m e rg e n c e o f c o a sta l land due to rise in sea c ritic ised by sev eral geom orphologists. F.P>
le v el e ith e r d u e to clim a tic ch an g e (in terg lacial Shepard (1937 and 1938) criticised the division o t
p e rio d le a d in g to d e g la c ia tio n ) or te cto n ic m o v e­ sh o relin es into em erg ed and subm erged tyP®?
m e n t {i.e. su b sid e n c e o f sea flo o r or co astal area). b ecau se every co ast and shore has e x p e r i e n c e
J o h n so n d iv id e d sh o re lin es o f su b m erg en ce into p h ases o f su b m erg en ce and em ergence and heflce
tw o s u b ty p e s viz. (a) R ia sh o relin es (fig. 8.6-1) are all the sh o relin es sh o u ld be c o m p o u n d s^ ore^ ^ f j
fo rm e d b y p a rtia l su b m erg en c e o f su b aerially D elta co ast and shore can n o t b e neutral i n
SEA WAVES, SHORELINE PROCESSES AND COASTAL SCENERY 219

b ecau se it also re v e als e v id e n c e s o f su b m erg en ce 2. Shepard’s Classification of Coasts and

an d e m e r g e n c e (fo r e x am p le, M ississip p i d elta). Shorelines
A c c o r d in g to S h e p a rd Jo h n so n d id n o t c o n sid e r
eustatic c h an g e s in sea le v el d u e to g la c ia tio n and
F .P . S h ep ard p re se n te d th e c la ssific a tio n o f
d eg laciatio n w h ile c la s s ify in g sh o re lin e s.
co asts in 1937 w h ic h w as se v e re ly c ritic iz e d b y
J.B . L u ck e w h o in d ic a te d fo u r sh o rtc o m in g s in
th is sch em e viz. (i) S h e p a rd s ’ c la ssific a tio n
in clu d es o n ly c o asts b u t s h o re lin e s h a v e b e en
ig n o red ; (ii) m ain b a sis o f c la s s ific a tio n is co asta l
ch arts w h ich are n o t c o m p e te n t fo r th e c la s s ific a ­
tio n o f co ast an d sh o re lin e s; (iii) th is sc h e m e d o es
n o t re v e al e v o lu tio n a ry c h a n g e s in c o a sts an d
sh o res; and (iv) in all, S h e p a rd ’s c la s s ific a tio n is
in co m p lete. S h ep ard , c o n se q u e n tly , p re s e n te d h is
re v ised sch em e in 1948, w h e re in h e in c lu d e d b o th
co astlin es an d sh o re lin es. H is re v is e d c la s s ific a ­
tio n is b a se d on th e stag e o f d e v e lo p m e n t o f c o a sts
and sh o res an d th e fa c to rs an d p ro c e ss e s in v o lv e d
in th e ir d ev elo p m en t. F irstly , c o a sts a n d sh o re s
h av e b e en d iv id e d in to tw o b ro a d c a te g o rie s o n
the b a sis o f p ro c e sse s an d a g e n ts o f th e ir
fo rm atio n an d d e v e lo p m e n t viz. (A ) p r im a r y c o a sts
and sh o r e lin e s, fo rm e d b y n o n -m a rin e a g e n c ie s,
an d (B ) sec o n d a ry or m in o r co a sts a n d s h o r e lin e s ,
fo rm ed b y m a rin e p ro c e ss e s . T h e se h a v e b e e n
fu rth e r d iv id e d in to su b ty p e s o n th e b a s is o f
ero sio n , d e p o sitio n , e m e rg e n c e , s u b m e rg e n c e ,
u p w a rp in g , d o w n w a rp in g , v o lc a n ic a c tiv ity etc.

(A) Primary or youthful coasts and shorelines

1. S u b m e rg e d c o a sts a n d s h o re lin e s d u e to
rise in se a le v el e ith e r d u e to d o w n w a rp in g
or subaerial erosion and co n seq u en t drow ning
d u e to d e g la c ia tio n .
(i) d ro w n e d riv e r c o a sts (ria c o a s ts )
(ii) d ro w n e d g la c ia le d c o a s ts (fio rd s )
2. C o a sts d u e to d e p o sitio n o n la n d
(a) d u e to flu v ia l d e p o sitio n
(i) d e lta c o a st
(ii) d ro w n e d a llu v ia l p la in c o a s t
Fig. 8.7: Types o f shorelines-(5) alluvial plain shore­ (b ) d u e to g la c ia l d e p o sits
line, (6) volcanic shoreline, (7) fault shore­ (i) p artially subm erged m o rain ic co ast
line, (8) composite shoreline (shoreline of (ii) p a rtia lly su b m erg ed d ru m lin c o a st
submergencefollowed by emergence), (9) com­
posite shoreline (shoreline o f emergence fol­ (c ) a e o lia n d e p o sit-c o a s ts
lowed by submergence). (d ) v e g e ta tio n e x te n d e d c o a sts
 220
3. C o a s ts s h a p e d b y v o lc a n ic a c tiv ity
(i) c o a s ts on re c e n t la v a flo w s
(ii) c o a s ts d u e to c o lla p se o f v o lcan ic
c o n e s o r d u e to v o lc a n ic eru p tio n
4 . C o a s ts s h a p e d b y d ia stro p h ism
(i) f a u lt-s c a r p c o a sts
(ii) c o a s ts on fo ld e d ro ck s
(B) Secondary or mature coasts and shorelines
1 . S h o r e lin e s sh a p e d by m a rin e erosio n
(i) s h o re lin e s stra ig h te n e d b y m arin e e ro ­
s io n
(ii) irr e g u la r sh o re lin e s by m arin e erosion
2. S h o re lin e s sh a p e d by m arin e d ep o sitio n
(i) s tra ig h te n e d sh o re lin es
(ii) p ro g ra d e d sh o re lin e s
(iii) sh o re lin e s w ith o ffsh o re bars and
lo n g s h o re sp its
(iv ) c o ra l r e e f co asts
8.8 W A V E S AND DYNA M IC SHO RELINES
(COASTAL SCENERY)
S ea w a v es re s o rt to e ro sio n o f th e co astal
lan d a n d b a c k sh o re z o n e th ro u g h th e p ro c e sses
an d m e c h a n ism o f h y d ra u lic a ctio n , c o rra sio n or
a b ra sio n , a ttritio n , c o rro sio n o r so lu tio n and
w a te r p re ssu re . W h en th e sea w a v es b re a k at
p lu n g e lin e , th e p o te n tia l e n erg y o f th e w a v es is
c o n v e rte d in to k in e tic e n erg y an d th e re su lta n t
breakers o r swash o r surf currents strik e th e c o ast
land w ith enorm ous pow er and erode the geom aterials
in d iffe re n t m a n n e r as stated ab o v e. It m ay be
p o in te d o u t th a t th e c o a sta l ro c k s are im m e n sely
a ffe c te d b y w e a th e rin g p ro c e sse s re s u ltin g in to
d is in te g ra tio n a n d d e c o m p o sitio n an d th u s w e a k ­
e n in g o f ro c k s. S u c h w e a k e n e d ro c k s are easily
p lu c k e d an d e ro d e d aw ay by th e h y d ra u lic
p re s s u re an d tu rb u le n c e o f b re a k in g w av es
(sw a sh ).
The nature and magnitude o f coastal ero­
sion are affected and determined by the following
fa cto rs:
o c e a n o g r a ph y
>- W avelength, w ave v elo city , w ave fre­
quency and w ave period. Long enduring
w aves w ith longer w avelength and high
v elo city becom e effectiv e erosive agent.
>■ Structure and com position o f bedrocks o f
coast land. W ell join ted and fractured
rocks are more ea sily plucked, quarried
and abraded by sea w aves. R ock types
(lith ological characteristics) determine the
nature o f erosion.
>■ M ore or less stable coastline is subjected to
more erosion than unstable coastline.
V ertical coast land (c liffs) having deep
water is less eroded because the sea w aves
are reflected back w ithout causing much
harm to the cliff.
On the other hand, the c liffs, w hich rise
m oderately from w ide basal platform and
i f the sea water is o f sh allow depth, are
prone to more hydraulic action and pluck­
ing because the breakers or sw ash strike
the c liff w ith great ferocity and enormous
pow er and thus ham mer the rocks.
A vailability o f erosion to o ls (sands, grav­
els, pebbles and cobbles and som etim es
boulders), and
»* Duration o f marine erosion.
Hydraulic action refers to the im pact o f
m oving water on the coastal rocks. Large storm
w aves attack the coastal rocks w ith enormous
hammer blow s am ounting to 50 k g f per square
centim etre (gravity force (f) is 9.81 and hence sea
w aves, norm ally, hurl a force o f 50 kg per square
centim etre o f the coastal rocks). R epeated blow s
o f striking sea w aves enlarge the incipient joints,
fracture patterns and thus help in breaking the
rocks into sm aller join t-b ound ed blocks. The
w aves are capable o f d islo d g in g larger fragments
o f rocks w eig h in g several tonnes in w eight. This
process o f displacem ent o f rock fragm ents is also
called as quarrying and plucking. In fact, wave
quarrying and w a v e plu ck ing caused by the
hydraulic pressure and turbulence o f breaking
w aves is very e ffe ctiv e m echanism o f erosion o f
w eathered and join t-b ound ed fresh bedrocks. The
striking breaking w aves also exert enormous J
pressure on the air trapped in the crevices an1
 SEA WAVES, SHORELINE PROCESSES AND COASTAL SCENERY
hollows w ithin the co astal rocks. T hus, alternate
process o f co m p ressio n (w hen the w aves strike
the rocks as sw ash) and d eco m p ressio n (w hen the
waves retu rn as b ack w ash ) causes p ressu re
changes and w eak en s the ro ck s to b re a k into the
blocks o f sev eral tonnes.
T he c liff ero sio n in the p e rm a fro st in the
A rctic re g io n is c alled thermoabrasion by the
R u ssian s b u t th is is c o m m o n ly te rm e d as
thermoquarrying.
Abrasion o r corrasion is an o th er effectiv e
m e ch a n ism o f c o asta l ero sio n by m arin e w aves
w ith the h e lp o f to o ls o f ero sio n (co arse sands,
p e b b les, c o b b les and so m etim e b o u ld ers). H igh-
en erg y s to rm w a v es charge#d w ith large cobbles
d rill o u t c irc u la r p o th o le s and abrade the standing
b e d ro c k s. Attrition in v o lv e s m e ch an ical tear and
w e ar a n d c o n se q u e n tia l b re a k d o w n o f fragm ents
d u e to th e ir m u tu a l c o llisio n effected by backw ash
a n d rip c u rre n ts w h ic h rem o v e the fragm en ts from
th e c liff b a se an d tra n sp o rt th em tow ards the sea.
Corrosion or so lu tio n refers to the chem ical
a lte ra tio n o f ro c k s m a in ly carb o n ate ro ck s (lim e ­
sto n e s, d o lo m ite s and ch alk s) due to th e ir co n tact
w ith s e a w a ter. B e sid e s h y d ra u lic actio n , ab rasio n
a n d c o rro s io n , c o a sta l ro c k s are also w eak en ed
a n d d is in te g ra te d d u e to a lte rn a te p ro c e sse s o f
w e ttin g (h y d ra tio n ) a n d d ry in g (d e h y d ra tio n )
b e ca u se th e s e p ro m o te a w id e ra n g e o f ch em ica l
p ro c e sse s w h ic h h e lp in th e d is in te g ra tio n and
d e c o m p o sitio n o f c o a s ta l ro c k s. A lte rn a te free ze
and th a w a c tio n s in th e fo re s h o re z o n es in th e co ld
clim ates c a u se d is in te g ra tio n o f jo in t-b o u n d e d
rocks.
It m a y b e m e n tio n e d th a t lith o lo g ic a l
c h a ra c te ris tic s o f c o a s ta l z o n es a n d th e ir la y o u t
larg ely c o n tro l th e m e c h a n is m o f m a rin e e ro sio n .
It is a rg u e d th a t b a s a lts a n d o b s id ia n w e a th e r far
m ore in m a rin e w a te r th a n in fre sh w a te r. T h is
facto r e x p la in s th e u n u s u a l w id th o f c o n tin e n ta l
s h e lf w e s t o f th e D e c c a n b a s a lt re g io n o f
P e n in su la r In d ia . T h e w e st c o a s t o f M a h a ra sh tra
is c h a ra c te riz e d b y ria s , c o v e s, c a v e s, sta c k s,
inlets etc. b e c a u s e th e w a v e s s trik e th e jo in ts a n d
fissu res o f b a s a lts tra n s v e rs e ly a n d th u s h av e
cau sed d iffe re n tia l e ro s io n w h ile th e so u th c o a st
o f K a th ia w a r h a v in g th e sa m e lith o lo g y (b a s a lt) is
a lm o st d e v o id o f s u c h fe a tu re s b e c a u s e th e w a v es
do n o t attack th e co ast tra n sv e rse ly as th ey m o v e
p a re llel to the coast.
?.; +. l r i f '•>
8.9 COASTAL FEATURES AND HABITATS
S ig n ific an t c o asta l fe a tu re s fo rm ed d u e to
m arine ero sio n by sea w av es an d o th e r c u rre n ts
and so lu tio n al p ro c e sse s in c lu d e c liffs, co v es,
caves, in d en ted c o astlin e , sta c k s, c h im n e y s, arch ,
inlets, w a v e-c u t p la tfo rm s etc.
Cliffs
Steep ro c k y c o ast risin g a lm o st v e rtic a lly
above sea w a te r is c a lle d sea c lif f w h ic h is v e ry
p recip ito u s w ith o v e rh a n g in g c re s t (fig . 8 .8). T h e
steep n ess o f tru e v e rtic a l c liffs d e p e n d s o n
v ariatio n s o f lith o lo g y an d g e o lo g ic a l s tru c tu re
and relativ e ra te o f s u b a e ria l w e a th e rin g an d
ero sio n o f c lif f face an d c re st an d m a rin e e ro s io n
o f c liff b ase. I f m a rin e e ro sio n at th e b a s e o f c lif f
is m uch fa s te r th a n th e s u b a e ria l w e a th e rin g o f
c liff face an d c re st, o v e rh a n g in g c lif f w ith stee p
v e rtic al face is fo rm ed . O n th e o th e r h a n d , i f th e
su b a e ria l p ro c e sse s d o m in a te o v e r m a rin e p ro c ­
esses th e v e r t ic a l l y o f c lif f d is a p p e a rs a n d th e
c liff lo ses its tru e c lif f c h a ra c te r.
Cliff
—> Sea coast
I
Notch
High tide w a ter
Low tide w ater
i
Fig. 8.8: An example o f sea cliff.
T ru e c liffs are g e n e ra lly fo rm e d w h e re
b e d ro c k s a re a ffe c te d b y lo w ra te o f s u b a e ria l
w e a th e rin g a n d m a ss m o v e m e n t viz. lim e s to n e s ,
c h a lk , h o riz o n ta lly b e d d e d sa n d s to n e s, m a s s iv e ly
jo in te d ig n e o u s ro c k s a n d m e ta m o rp h ic ro c k s. In
fa c t, th e m o rp h o lo g y o f se a c liffs is d e te rm in e d b y
(i) th e in flu e n c e s o f b e d ro c k s lith o lo g y
 222
sUucture, and (ii) balance between marine and
subaerial erosional processes. A Guilcher (1958)
has identified 4 types o f cliffs on the basis o f their
m orphology determined by the aforesaid two
factors (fig. 8.9) viz. (1) resistant cliffs formed on
Resistant diff
Composite cliff
Sand stone
Fig. 8.9: Types o f cliffs, (A) resistant cliff. (B) resistant cliff, (C) weak cliff, (D) composite cliff, (E) composite cliffcnd(F)
complex cliffs (after A. Guilcher, 1958).
T he form ation o f sea c lif f b egin s w ith the
e ro sio n o f coastal rocks through the m echanism s
o f hyd rau lic actions and abrasion by breaker
w a v e s (sw a sh or su r f currents). This results in the
form ation o f n otch and the coast b ecom es
v e rtica l. T here is gradual ex ten sio n o f notch
lan d w ard due to con tin u ou s w a v e attack w ith the
resu lt the crest o f the cli^ f overh angs the notch. If
th e n o tch at the b ase o f the c lif f is extended
lan d w ard to su ch an exten t that the support to the
OCEANOGRAPHY
chalk (fig. 8.9A) and horizontally bedded sandstones
(fig. 8.9B ), (2) weak cliffs developed on clays and
shales (fig. 8.9C ), (3) composite cliffs o f chalk
overlying clay (fig. 8.9D ) and o f interbedded
sandstones and shales (fig. 8.9E ), and (4) complex
cliffs.
Resistant cliff
Composite cliff
Complex coast p
c lif f crest is w ea k en ed the overh anging head o f
the c lif f breaks and fa lls dow n resulting into
gradual r ec e ssio n o f the c liffs landward. The rate
o f c lif f rec e ssio n v a ries both in sp ace and time
depend ing on the fo llo w in g co n d itio n s :
^ rock lith o lo g y and g e o lo g ic a l structure,
^ su sce p tib ility to ch em ica l erosion,, mass
m o v em en t and sub aerial erosion ,
>• c lif f h eig h t, it& M
 SEAWAVES, SHORELINE PROCESSES AND COASTAL SCENERY
orientation o f the coast,
^ wave refraction and w ave energy,
^ offshore topographic features,
Fig. 8 .1 0 : Coastal scenery : headlands, cliffs, bays, caves, stack, beaches etc.
Wave-Cut Platform
R o ck -cu t flat surfaces in front o f cliffs are
called w av e-cu t platform s or sim ply shore plat­
forms (fig. 8 . 11) w hich are slightly concave
upw ard. T he origin and developm ent o f w ave-cut
p latfo rm s is re la ted to c liff recession. T hese are
also called w a v e-cu t b en ch es. Shore platform s are
form ed w here c liff recessio n is active due to
pow erful b o m b ard m en t o f c liff base by up rushing
breaker w aves and effectiv e rem oval o f eroded
m aterials b y b ack w ash (u n d erto w currents). The
form s o f w a v e-c u t p la tfo rm s dep en d on g eo lo g i­
cal factors. E x ten siv e p latfo rm s are develo p ed
where the ro ck s are le ast re sista n t to w ave
erosion. In o th e r w o rd s, th in ly b ed d ed and
densely jo in te d , an d h o riz o n ta lly d isp o se d rocks
with strike p a ra lle l to the co astlin e are m ore
vigorously e ro d e d b y u p ru sh in g b re a k e r w aves
and thus are a sso c ia te d w ith e x ten siv e shore
platform s. O n th e o th e r hand, n arro w and stee p e r
platform s w ith h ig h m ean e lev a tio n are d e v elo p ed
over re sista n t rocks. A s re g a rd s the p ro c e sses and
m echanism o f the d ev elo p m en t o f w a v e-c u t
platform s , q u a rry in g an d p lu c k in g b y larg e and
high-energy sto rm w a v es an d w a te r-le v e l w eath -
ermg are e ffe ctiv e m a rin e p ro c e sses o f sh o re
platform d ev elo p m en t.
223
rate o f rem oval o f debris from the c liff b a se
by the backw ash or undertow currents,
etc.
Cliff
"n Vty.
s.
r
Notch High tide water
Low tide water
Wave built platform
Wave-cut platform
1111111111111111111111111II11111111 iii
Fig. 8 .1 1 : Wave-cut and w ave-built platform s.
W av e-cu t p latfo rm s are g e n e ra lly d iv id e d
into the fo llo w in g 3 zo n es :
(1) Mesolittoral zone, b e tw ee n h ig h an d lo w tid e
w ater,
(2) Supralittoral zone, ab o v e h ig h tid e w a te r b u t
w ith in the ra n g e o f sp ra y , a n d
(3) Sublittoral zone, b e lo w lo w tid e w a ter.
O n th e b a sis o f m o rp h o lo g y w a v e -c u t
p latfo rm s are c la ssifie d in to th e fo llo w in g ty p e s :
(1) shore platforms w ith in c lin e d p la n e (a b o u t
o n e m e te r ab o v e h ig h e st tid e le v e l,
(2 ) stepped platforms, are fo rm e d b y tro p ic a l
w a te r-le v e l w e a th e rin g , b io lo g ic a l a c tio n ,
an d sm all tid a l su rg e s,
M --: y -W

224

(3 ) storm wave platforms, and

(4 ) solution platforms, w hich are developed on
carbonate rocks in the shore zone by
ch em ical processes m ainly solution.

Sea Caves And Associated Features

Sea ca v es are form ed along the coast due to Cave

gradual erosion o f w eak and strongly join ted
rocks b y uprushing breaker w aves (surf currents).
T he jo in ts are w idened into large cavities and
h o llo w s w h ich are further enlarged due to gradual
w a v e erosion into w e ll d evelop ed coastal caves.
S ea ca v es are m ore frequently form ed in carbon­
ate rocks (m ain ly lim eston es and chalks) because
th ey are eroded more by solutional processes. It
m a y b e p oin ted out that sea caves are not
perm anent features as they are very often d e­
stroyed by uprushing high -energy storm w aves.
W hen the caves are enlarged to such an extent that
their roofs becom e rem arkably thin, they u lti­
m ately collap se and fall and the debris are
rem oved by p ow erfu l backw ash and thus resultant
lon g narrow in lets are called ‘geo’ in Scottland.
S om etim es, the air in the cave is com pressed by
uprushing p ow erfu l storm w aves and finding no
other route to escap e it breaks open the r o o f o f the
cave and appears w ith great force m aking unique
w histlin g. Such h oles are called natural chimneys
or blow holes or gloup. “The nam e b low h ole refers
to the fact that during storm s spray is forcib ly
b lo w n into the air each tim e a breaker surges
through the cave beneath” (A . H olm es and D .L . Fig. 8.12 : C him ney a n d stack.
H o lm es, 1978). W hen caves are form ed on
o p p o site sid e s o f the seaw ard projecting h ead ­
land, a natural arch is form ed due to co a lesc en ce N ea rly all o f the a fo r e sa id co a sta l erosional
o f tw o ca v es (fig . 8 .1 2 ). It m ay be m entioned that features are fou nd a lo n g th e w e stern and eastern
natural arches are not perm anent coastal features coasts o f P en in su lar India. T h e author noticed the
b e c a u se the roof, after b ecom in g very thin ex a m p les o f c liffs , w a v e -c u t p latform s, caves,
c o lla p se s and thus the seaw ard part o f the arch arches, tidal in lets, c h im n e y s etc. along the
stands d etach ed from the coast. Such iso la ted eastern co a st in the environs o f Vishakhapatnam-
rem nant o f headland projecting w e ll ab ove sea Such features are freq u en tly observed on the
le v e l is c a lle d stack (fig . 8 .1 2 ). T his is also called w estern Indian c o a st m a in ly b e tw e en M um bai and
as chimney rock. Stacks are also called needles, M angalore. B . A ru n ach alam h as stu d ied 3 head-j
columns, pillars, skerries etc. The O ld M an o f H o y lands near R atnagiri. T h ese h ead lan d s are m arked
(1 3 7 m h ig h ) in the O rkney is an exam p le o f a
by o v erh a n g in g c liffs ran gin g in h eig h t from 4 5©
stack . t0 90 m . .
 SEA WAVES SHORELINE PROCESSES AND COASTAL SCENERY
Fig. 8.13 : Formation o f coves and island.
8.10 DEPOSITIONAL, COASTAL FEATURES
T he eroded m aterials are transported by sea
w aves in d ifferen t m anner but the transportational
w o rk o f sea w aves varies significantly from other
agents o f erosion and transportation. For exam ­
p le, the b ack w ash, or undertow currents (m oving
from the co ast and beach tow ards the sea) pick up
the e ro d e d m aterials and transport them seaw ard
b u t the u p ru sh in g b reak er w aves or su rf currents
p ick up th e se m aterials and bring them again to the
coast a n d beaches. Thus, the transportation o f
m aterials takes p lace from coastland tow ards sea
and from sea to w ard s the coast. W hen oblique
w aves strik e the coast, longshore currents are
generated. T h ese lo n g sh o re currents transp o rt the
m aterials p a ra lle l to the shoreline. The m aterials
involved in the tra n sp o rta tio n by sea w aves
include san d s, silts, g rav els, peb b les, cobbles and
som etim es b o u ld ers. W hen there is equilib riu m
betw een in c o m in g su p p lies o f sedim en ts by
uprushing b re a k er w aves and rem oval o f sedim ents
by b ackw ash o r u n d e rto w cu rren ts on the w ave-
cut p latform s, a p ro file o f eq u ilib riu m is achieved. I f
the w ave-cut ro ck p la tfo rm is c h aracterized by
steep slo p e to w a rd s the o cean ic slop e, the
destructive w av es b e co m e v ery a ctiv e and thus
resultant p o w e rfu l b a ck w a sh rem o v es the m a te ri­
als from the lan d w ard sid e so th a t the slope o f the
platform is lessen ed . O n the o th e r h an d , i f the
slope o f the w a v e-c u t p la tfo rm is less steep,
constructive w av es b eco m e m o re e ffe ctiv e as they
favour sed im en ta tio n and b e ac h d e p o sitio n on the
landw ard side so th a t the slope o f th e p latfo rm
becom es steeper. ‘The surface is th erefo re c o n ­
tinually m odified, and in such a w ay th a t a t each
p oint it tends to acquire ju s t the rig h t slo p e to
ensure that incom ing supplies o f sed im en t can be
carried away ju st as fast as they are received. A
profile so adjusted that this fluctuating state o f
balance is approxim ately achieved is called a profile
o f equilibrium ’ (A. & D.L. H olm es, 1978, p. 516).
Significant d ep o sitio n al lan d fo rm s d e v e l­
oped by sea w aves include sea b each es, b a rs an d
barriers, offshore and longshore bars, spits, hooks,
loops, connecting bars, looped bars, to m b o lo ,
barrier island, tidal inlets, w in g ed h ead lan d s,
pro gradation, w ave-built p latfo rm s etc.
B esides, m angrove sw am p s, sa b k h a an d
delta are also included in the category o f d ep o sitio n al
coastal landform s, th o u g h deltas are fo rm e d d u e
to deposition o f sedim ents b ro u g h t b y th e riv e rs
Beaches
T em porary o r sh o rt-liv ed d e p o sits o f m a ­
rine sedim ents co n sistin g o f san d s, sh in g le s,
cobbles etc. on the sea shore are c a lle d b e a c h e s.
A ccording to A. B loom (1 9 7 9 ) ‘th e s e d im e n t in
m otion along a shore is th e b e a c h ’. B e a c h e s are
deposited by b reak er w aves b e tw e e n h ig h a n d lo w
tide w ater. B eaches are in fa c t w e d g e -s h a p e d
sedim ent deposits on sea shore. In w id th b e a c h e s
vary from a few m etres to sev e ra l k ilo m e tre s .
B eaches are g en erally fo rm ed w h e n sea is c a lm
and w inds are o f low v e lo city . B e a c h m a te ria ls
consist o f fine to co arse san d s, sh in g le s (p e b b le s),
cobbles and b o u ld ers. T he m a jo r so u rc e s o f th e
supply o f b each m aterials are e ro sio n o f h e a d ­
lands and cliffs, sed im en ts b ro u g h t b y th e riv e rs
and nallas at th e ir m o u th s, m ass w a stin g a n d m a ss
m ovem ent (lan d slid es and slu m p in g ) o f c liffs ,
scouring o f the o ffsh o re zo n e o f sto rm w a v e s,
ero sio n o f p re -e x istin g b e ac h e s etc. T h e s ig n ifi­
can t b each es d e v elo p e d on th e w e st c o a sts o f In d ia
in clu d e Ju h u b e ac h (M u m b ai c o ast). C o lb a ,
K alan g u t, A n ja n a etc. alo n g G o a c o ast, K o b la m
b each alo n g K e rala c o ast etc. M a rin a b e a c h o n
T am il N ad u c o ast (C h e n n ai), V ish a k h a p a tn a m
b each on A n d h ra c o ast an d P u ri b e a c h a t P u ri
alo n g O rissa co ast etc. are im p o rta n t b e a c h e s
d e v elo p e d alo n g th e e aste rn c o a st o f In d ia.
 OCEANOGRAPHY

Upper beach Lower beach

Fig. 8.14 : Different components of an ideal beach (after A. Goudie, 1984).

I f Zv * i

eros

Plunge Offshore
line transport
Continental
shelf
Longshore
transport

Wave crest

Fig 8. IS : Transport of sediments an beach and surfzvne. Based on P.R. PmeU 2000
 SEA WAVES. SHORELINE PROCESSES AND COASTAL SCENERY 227

: An ideal beach consists o f two main parallel to the coastline or transverse to the coast.
elem ents e.g. u p p e r beach and low er beach and There are different forms o f sand bars and barriers.
several minor elem ents e.g. storm beach, beach If the bars are formed in such a way that they are
ridges, or berm s, beach cusps, sm all channels, ripples, parallel to the coast but are not attached to the land,
ridges and ru n n e ls etc. (fig . 8.14). The u p p e r beach they are called offshore or longshore bar* (fig. 8.16).
re p re s e n tin g the landward section o f the beach is If the sand bars are formed in such a way that their
composed o f coarser and larger materials such as one end is attached to the land w hile the other end
pebbles, cobbles and boulders and the slope projects or opens out towards the sea, they are
ranges betw een 10° to 20°. On the other hand, the called spits (fig. 20.11). A few spits have been
low er b each representing the seaward section o f the reported from the eastern and western coasts o f
beach is com posed o f sands and has low gradient India. For examples, 50 km long spit in the mouth
o f 2° or even less. The s to r m b e a c h is a sem i­ o f Chilka lake (Orissa coast), 16 km long spit near
permanent ridge which stands w ell above the Kalinagpatnam, a w ell developed spit growing at
level o f highest spring tides. The successive low the rate o f 12 km per century to the east o f Kakinada
ridges built by constructive w aves parallel to the Bay, 60 km long spit to the east o f Pulicat lake-all
coastline and b elow the level o f high spring tides along the east coast; 22 km and 55 km long two
are called b each rid g es or berm s. Beach cusps are spits enclosing the Vembanad Lake and converg­
sm all regular em baym ents and a series o f head­ ing at the port o f Cochin on the east coast o f India.
lands com posed o f shingles. Small anastomosing Rameshwaram spit projecting seaward from Tamil
drainage channels are developed in the sands Nadu coast is very important spit which is so
below the cusps. Sand ripples are developed on stabilized that it bears human settlements.
the low er beach section by w ave action or by tidal
currents. Ridges and runnels are broad and gentle
rises and depressions w hich are developed at the
seaw ard side o f the sand beach and are aligned
parallel to the shoreline.
B ea ch es are generally classified on the
basis o f beach m aterials into (1) sand beach (sand
grains ranging in size betw een 0.5 to 2m m ), (2)
shingle b ea ch (com p osed o f pebbles ranging in size
from 2 to 100 m m ), and (3) b o u ld e r b each (more
than 100 mm in diam eter). The regular increase in
the width o f sea b each es towards the sea is called
p ro g ra d a tio n w h ile d ep letion o f beaches due to
erosion and thus their narrowing or beach cutting
is called re tr o g r a d a tio n .

Bars and Barriers and Associated Features

The ridges, embankments or mounds o f

sands formed by sedimentation through sea waves
parallel to the shoreline are called b a rs . The larger
forms o f bars are called b a r r ie r s . The formation o f
bars and barriers starts with the developm ent o f
shoals due to deposition o f sands. These shoals
grow in height by addition o f sedim ents until they
appear above sea level. Bars and barriers may be
formed near the coast or away from the coast,
228
H igh -en ergy storm w aves very often m odify
the shape o f spits by bending them towards the
coast. T he curved spits assum e the shape o f hook
and thus such spits are called h o o k e d sp its or
sim p ly h o o k s (fig . 8.17). H ooks are stabilized
w h en there is equilibrium betw een constructive
and destructive w aves.
W h en the opposing currents becom e more
dom inant than the littoral currents, the spits are
bent to su ch an extent that they are attached to the
m ain land (coast) and thus form com plete loop
w h ic h e n c lo se s sea water in the form o f lagoons.
Su ch form o f a spit is called loop (fig. 8.18). W hen
su ch lo op is form ed around an island, it is called
lo o p e d b a r (fig . 8.18).
Fig. 8.18 : Loop and h o p ed bar.
C o n n e c tin g b a r s are form ed w hen bars are so
ex ten d ed that they either jo in tw o headlands or
tw o islan d s (fig . 8.18). C onnecting bars are
v a r io u sly nam ed on the basis o f their shapes and
form s. For exam p le, a bar connecting tw o
h ead lan d s is ca lled con n ectin g bar w h ile a bar
b e c o m e s to m b o lo w hen it con n ects the m ainland
w ith an islan d or con n ects a headland w ith the
isla n d (fig . 8 .1 9 ). T hus, a tom bolo acts as a bridge
b e tw e e n the coast and an island. A few exam ple o f
to m b o lo are ob served along the w estern coast o f
In d ia b e tw e e n R atangiri and M alvan. W hen bars
o f p e b b le s and c o b b le s are form ed on either side
o f a h ead lan d , su ch headland is called a w in g e d
h e a d la n d . There m ay be 3 location s o f bars in the
bays viz. (1) b a y h e a d b a r s , form ed at the head
(landward) o f the bay, ( 2 ) m id -b a y bars, formed in
the m iddle portion o f a bay, and (3) bay-mouth
b a r s , form ed at the opening o f a bay. L agoons are
formed w hen the c o v es or bays are com pletely
enclosed by bars. C hilka lake and Pulicat lake
on the east coast o f India are exam ples o f
lagoons.
Coastal Wetlands
Flat and rolling m arshy lands developed in
the co a sta l areas o f hum id tropics are called
c o a s ta l w e tla n d s , w h ich are gen erally formed
behind spits or bars. There is ab sen ce o f reliefs
and sea water rem ains stagnant in th ese wetlands.
Sedim ents are fin e and w ater is sa lin e. The floral
environm ent is dom inated b y m an groves. Such
w etlands are found e x te n siv e ly in the coastal
zones o f W est B en g a l w here the m an groves ofthe
w etlands are know n as S u n d a r b a n .
Sabkha
D ep o sitio n a l co a sta l areas h avin g flat sur­
face in the dry tropical zo n es are ca lled sa b k h a s
w h ic h are fla t b u t b arren c o a s ta l lands.
Sabkhas have d e v e lo p e d in the co a sta l zones
o f U A R (E g y p t), U A E , M e x ic o , B aja o f
C alifornia (U S A ) etc. Sabkhas are a lso called as
s a ltf la ts .
Fig. 8 .1 9 : Tombolo.
 SEA WAVES, SHORELINE PROCESSES AND COASTAL SCENERY
Fig. 8. 20 : Different types o f bars.
Delta
The deposition al feature o f almost triangu­
lar shape at the mouth o f a river debounching in a
sea is called delta. The word delta, derived from
Greek letter, was first used by Greek historian
H erodotous (485-425 BC) for the triangular
d ep osition al feature at the mouth o f the N ile river.
W hether sm all or large, alm ost every river forms
delta. The siz e o f delta o f major and sm all rivers
all over the w orld varies from a few square
k ilom etres to thousands o f square kilom etres (e.g.
G anga delta in India and B angladesh). The size o f
delta depends on the rock characteristics, vegetal
cover, rate o f eosion , amount o f annual rainfall
etc. The depth o f sed im ents has been reported to
be hundreds o f m etres. For exam ple, the average
depth o f sed im en ts in M ississip p i delta is about
610 m. The shape o f delta also varies from one
river to the other. C om m on shapes o f delta are
arcuate shape, b ird -foot shape, elongated shape
etc.
1. Conditions for Delta Formation
T he id eal favourable conditions for the
formation o f delta in clu d e the fo llo w in g :
^ suitable p lace in the form o f gently slopin g
continental sh e lv es w ith sh allow sea,
^ long cou rses o f the rivers (i.e. long rivers
so that they can bring huge am ount o f
eroded sed im en ts),
229
>* medium grain-size o f sedim ents (because
if the sedim ents are very fine, they w ould
be carried in the sea in suspension for
longer distances, and i f they are very
coarse-grained, they w ould soon settle
down at sea bottom, and hence no delta
would be formed),
>■ relatively calm and sheltered sea at the
mouths o f the rivers (so that ocean currents
strong sea w aves or high tidal or storm
w aves do not interfere w ith the natural
process o f gradual sedim entation and delta
formation),
>■ large amount o f sedim ent supply,
>- accelerated rate o f erosion o f terrigenous
rocks in the catchm ent area o f the co n ­
cerned river,
>■ almost stable condition o f sea co a st and
ocean bottom (because sea coast subjected
to frequent em ergence or subm ergence
caused by tectonic m ovem ents d oes not
alow regular sedimentation and thus disfavours
delta formation) etc.
2 . Delta Formation
The formation o f delta starts w ith the
deposition o f sedim ents i f the aforesaid favourble
conditions are available. The sedim entation takes
place regularly at the m outh o f the river, on the
sides o f stream channel, in the bed o f the river and
in front o f river mouth w here the river d eb ou ch es
in the sea. Thus, an exten sive fan is form ed w hich
slopes towards the sea. Several such fans are
formed at the mouth o f the river. T hese fans
gradually grow towards the sea. U ltim ately these
fans are coalesced and a delta is form ed. T hese
deposits obstruct the free flo w o f m ain river and
hence it is divided into several branches. T his
process o f segm entation o f m ain stream is know n
as bifurcation. Thus, the m ain channel is bifur­
cated into numerous sm all and narrow sub
channels w hich are called distributaries and the
stream w ith num erous distributaries is called
braided stream
230
o cea no graph y
3 . S t r u c tu r e of Delta 5. Classification of Delta

T h e d e p o sitio n o f sed im ents or say m ateri­
a ls ta k es p la c e in such a w ay that larger materials
( e S* g r a v els, p eb b les, cob b les etc.) are deposited
to w a rd s the co a sta l land and the size o f sedim ents
g ra d u ally d ecreases w ith increasing distance from
the c o a sta l land tow ards the sea. A n average delta
c o n s ists o f three beds o f sedim ents e.g. ( 1 ) to p s e t
b e d s , (2 ) f o r e s e t b e d s , and (3) b o tto ra s e t b e d s. The
to p se t b ed s represent the upperm ost bed o f
sed im e n ts o f a delta. T hese are quite extensive,
w id e and gen tle in slope. T hese represent delta
p la in s. T he top set beds are relatively higher than
se a le v e l. The series o f steeply dipping beds
in c lin ed tow ards the sea are called foreset beds
w h ic h are alw ays under sea water. The low est
bed s are called bottom set beds because they rest
on sea bottom s. D eltas undergo subsidence
because o f ( 1 ) gradual sedim entation and co n se­
quent increase in the w eigh t o f delta m aterials, ( 2 )
com paction o f sed im ents caused by load o f
sed im ents, (3) enorm ous thickness o f sedim ents,
(4 ) isostatic adjustm ent etc.
4. Growth of Delta
N o doubt, there is growth in all types o f
delta tow ards the sea but the rate o f grow th varies
co n sid erab ly from one situation to the other. The
nature and rate o f delta grow th depends on a
va riety o f factors e.g. ( 1 ) v e lo city o f the stream
flo w , (2 ) nature o f sea w aves, (3) supply o f
sed im e n ts, (4 ) ocean ic currents, (5) slop e and
h eig h t o f deltas etc. M ost o f the sedim ents are
u n load ed at the m ouths o f the rivers i f their
D eltas are generally c la ssified on the baiig
o f com m on characteristics o f shape, structure
size, growth etc. The shape o f deltas is determined
by the physical conditions such a discharge of
water, v elo city o f stream flo w , supp ly and amount
o f sedim ents, rate o f su b sid en ce, tidal waves, sea
w aves, oceanic currents, rate o f grow th etc. Some
scientists have related the shapes o f deltas to
hydrodynam ics. I f the river is overloaded with
sedim ents and the river w ater is heavier than the
sea water, an elongated subm arine delta is
formed. A lobate or fan-shaped delta is formed if
the river water is as d en se as the seawater.
A lternatively, a b ird-foot delta is form ed when the
river w a ter is lig h te r than sea water.
G enerally, deltas are d iv id ed on the follow ing two
bases :
( 1 ) On the basis o f shape
(i) arcuate delta
(ii) bird-foot delta
(iii) estuarine delta
(iv ) truncated delta
(2) On the b asis o f grow th
(i) grow in g delta
(ii) b lock ed delta
M e d ite rra n e a n S e a
.W NW SsJ*,* < » t *, ' f f • f > »
.W W W W W
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v e lo c ity is ex trem ely lo w and thus the grow th o f .w\v\\\\y\v.w\s\\

w w w v w w w w w s ^ y '»

■WWW W W W \ \ \ \ \ N \ \ \ \ \ \ {

d elta s tow ards the sea b ecom es slu ggish . On the

oth er hand, stream s w ith greater v e lo city trans­
port th eir load far greater distance in the sea and
th us a llo w faster rate o f delta grow th, but deltas
fo rm ed in su ch situation are narrow and long. '3IT0 ^ s \W W W W W W W \W W V A V

S tro n g s e a w a v e s and ocean ic currents retard the N \\\W N V W W W W W W W V \\W \W W W W \N N \\\W \i

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’ 4w \ \ \ \ w w w v \ \ w w w w W n s w w ^
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,
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h ig h er d e lta s tow ards the sea also encourages the

sea w a rd grow th o f deltas. Fig. 8.21: Arcuate delta (Nile delta).
 ggA WAVES, SHORELINE PROCESSES AND COASTAL SCENERY

( t) Arcuata Delta gravels, sands and silt. The main river is

bifurcated into numerous channels known as
Such deltas are like an arc o f a circle or a distributaries. Such deltas are very often formed
boW and are o f lobate form in appearance wherein in the regions o f semi-arid climate. Significant
middle portion has maximum extent towards the examples o f arcuate delta include Ganga delta,
sea whereas they narrow down towards their Rhine delta, N iger delta, Y ellow (Hwang Ho)
margins. Such deltas are formed when the river delta, Irrawaddy delta, V olga delta, Indus delta,
water is as dense as the sea water. The arcuate or Danub Delta, M eekong Delta, Po delta, Rhone
sem i-circular shape is also given to such deltas by Delta, Leena delta etc. Arcuate delta is an
example o f growing delta as it grows towards the
sea every year but the annual rate o f growth varies
from one delta to another. This process o f seaward
growth o f deltas is called progradation.

(2) Bird-Foot Delta

Bird-foot deltas resem bling the shape o f

foot o f a bird are formed due to deposition o f finer
materials which are kept in suspension in the river
water which is lighter than the sea water. The
rivers with high v elocity carry suspended finer
load to greater distances inside the ocean ic water.
The fine materials after com ing in contact w ith
saline oceanic water settle dow n on either side o f
the main channel and thus a linear delta is form ed.
sea w a v es and ocean ic currents. The N ile D elta is It is interesting to note that the distributaries o f the
the best exam p le o f arcuate deltas (fig. 8 .2 1 ), main channel also form linear segm ents o f delta.
w hich is a lso called as N ile type o f deita. Arcuate
deltas are form ed o f coarser m aterials including

North s e a

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^^N W SW W W W W W W \ \ A W A ' \ \ V \W W W SSW S W W W l
k W S \ \ S \ \ \ \ \ \ \ W \ > lVViVW y \ W ,V^ V iW V W V \\V V ■ , .sVAV\>'- w x w w w » » - w w w w w w w v
l % s W t v w V ‘ .W v W N V .N W W W W W W V
i^ > ^ N > \\\\\\N S N S N \N S V \\\N \V v S \\\v \N \y .V ‘
11 V y ■

Fig. 8.24: Bird-foot delta of Mississippi river.

Fig. 8.23: Rhine delta : an example of arcuate delta
 232
T hese linear bars o f sedim ents on either side o f the
distributaries o f the m ain channel resem ble the
fin gers o f human hand. Such delta is, thus, also
ca lled f i n g e r d e lta . The M ississip p i delta exhibits
the b est exam p le o f bird-foot delta (fig. 8.24).
(3) Estuarine Delta
T he deltas form ed due to fillin g o f estuaries
o f rivers are called estuarine deltas. Those mouths
o f the rivers are called estuaries w hich are
subm erged under marine water and sea w aves and
o c ea n ic currents rem ove the sedim ents brought by
the rivers. There is continuous struggle betw een
the rivers and sea w aves w herein the former
d ep o sit sedim ents w hile the latter rem ove them.
W h en ever rivers succeed in depositing sedim ents
at their subm erged m ouths, long and narrow
deltas are form ed. Such deltas are called estuarine
deltas. The deltas o f Narmada and Tapi (formerly
Tapti) rivers o f India are the exam ples o f estuarine
deltas. The other significan t exam ples o f estua­
rine deltas include M ackenzie delta, Vistuala
delta, Elb delta, Ob delta, Seine delta, Hudson
delta etc.
(4) Truncated Delta
Sea w aves and ocean currents m od ify and
e v en destroy deltas deposited by the river through
their erosion al work. Thus, eroded and dissected
d eltas are called truncated deltas.
(5) Blocked Delta
B lo c k e d deltas are those w h ose seaward
g row th is b lo ck ed by sea w aves and ocean
currents through their erosion al activities. The
progradation o f deltas m ay also be ham pered due
to sudd en d ecrease in the supply o f sedim ents
co n seq u en t upon clim atic change or m anagem ent
o f catch m en t areas o f concerned rivers.
(6) Abandoned Delta
W hen the rivers sh ift their m ouths in the
se a s and o c ea n s, n ew deltas are form ed, w h ile the
OCEANOGRAPHY
previous deltas are left unnourished. Such deltas %
are called abandoned deltas. The Y ello w (for­
m erly H w ang H o) river o f China has changed its 3
mouths several tim es and thus has form ed several
deltas. For exam ple, the present delta o f the
Y ello w river is to the north o f Shantung Peninsula
w hile the previous delta w as deposited to the
south o f the peninsula. The w estern part o f the
Ganga delta, w hich is drained by the H o o g li river,
is an exam ple o f abandoned delta.
(6) Major Deltas of Indian Ocean
■
Major deltas o f Indian O cean (in the B a y o f
B engal) include Ganga delta, M ahanadi delta,
Godawari delta, Krishna delta, and Cauvery delta.
The Ganga delta is the m ost ex ten siv e delta o f the
world, the arc o f w hich extends for 4 0 0 km from
H oogli to M eghna rivers. The outer m argin is
highly indented and the delta is frequented by
numerous north-south distributaries and tidal
(marine) inlets. The lands b etw een m arine inlets
are marshy lands w hich are partly transgressed by
marine water during high tidal w ater. T here are
several evid en ces w h ich indicate gradual subsid­
ence and sinking o f the delta. It is show ly
prograding towards the sea. T here are numerous
sm all and tiny islands bordering the outer margin
o f the Ganga delta (e.g. Sagar islan d , Bangaduni
islands etc.). M oore island is the exam ple o f
n ew ly em erged island due to progradation.
“The M ahanadi delta is triple delta where
deltaic sed im ents o f the M ahanadi, the Brahmani,
and the B aitam i are dropped” (E . A hm ad , 1972).
The arc o f the arcuate shaped M ahanadi delta, on
O rissa coast, stretches for a len g th o f about 300
km. The enorm ous delta has b een form ed due to
supply o f hu ge quantity o f sed im en ts consequent
upon accelerated rate o f flu v ia l erosion o f the
rugged terrain o f the catch m en t area o f the |
M ahanadi basin. T here are a lso a fe w deltaic lakes
such as Sar lake (2 4 km 2) and Sam ang lake (4.5 |
km 2) o f fresh w ater.
The G odavari d elta ex ten d s upto 3 5 km in
the B a y o f B en g a l o f f the co a st o f Andhra Pradesh
but the m axim u m len gth o f the longer side
through the m id d le portion o f th e delta is 90 kfl*
w h ile the other tw o sid e s are 3 5 km long'
SEA WAVES, SHORELINE PROCESSES AND COASTAL SCENERY
deltaic shore stretches for a distance o f 150 km.
This is also an exam ple o f arcuate shaped delta.
The strong m onsoon-generated ocean currents,
long-shore drifts and sea w aves obstruct in the
free growth o f the delta towards the sea.
8.11 DEVELOPMENT OF SHORELINE OF
SUBMERGENCE
The initial stage o f the evolution and
developm ent o f shoreline o f subm ergence begins
Pig. 8.25: Stages of the evolution of shoreline ofsubmer­
gence.
233
with the subm ergence o f coastal land under sea
water. Submergence o f coastal land takes place in
two w ays viz. (i) either due to rise in sea lev el
(positive change in sea-level) or (ii) subsidence o f
coast land so that m ost o f the coast land is
submerged under sea water due to its transgres­
sion on main land. R ise in sea -lev el m ay be either
due to rise in the oceanic floor due to tectonic
factors or due to return o f m elt-w ater locked in the
form o f ice sheets on the continents during ice age.
The initial form o f shoreline o f subm ergence m ay
be a r ia co a st or a fio rd c o a s t. The low er segm ents
o f the rivers at their mouths are dism em bered due
to submergence o f coast land. The initial sub­
merged coastline is highly irregular characterized
by numerous em baym ents, co v es, bays, head­
lands, inlets, islands etc. (fig. 8.25).
The evolution o f shoreline o f subm ergence
takes place in the fo llo w in g youth, mature and
penultimate stages :
Youth
Marine w aves m ainly swash or b r e a k e r w a v e s
or s u r f c u r r e n ts erode the exp osed coastal land
through the m echanism s o f hydraulic action and
corrasion (abrasion). The uprushing h igh energy
storm w aves bombard the densely jo in ted rocks
and dislodge larger rock blocks. C on seq u en tly,
the coastline is highly indented and b e c o m e s
crenulated and irregular. N um erous ca v es and
headlands are form ed due to differential ero sio n
o f coastal rocks. The breaker w a v es notch the
rocks at water lev el and thus initiates the
formation o f sea cliffs. In the b egin n in g the c liffs
are o f low height and are im p erfectly d ev elo p ed .
Gadually, the c liffs are sharpened due to regular
erosion at the c liff base. W ave-cut platform s
(shore platform s) are form ed in front o f c liffs due
to regular landward recession o f c liffs. T hough
the early youth is dom inated by erosional w ork
but som e depositional features are also d ev elo p ed
such as beaches in the back shore zone. W avecut
platform s are characterized by several coastal
features such as a r c h , s ta c k s , c a v e s, n a t u r a l c h im n e y s
etc. Late youth is characterized by m axim um
developm ent o f w ave-cut platforms as they be­
com e m ost extensive due to progressive recession
 OCEANOGRAPHY
234
o f c liffs. M o st o f the e ro sio n a l featu res start
disappearing and nu m erou s d e p o sitio n a l features
»#T1AL STAGE are form ed e.g . b a r s , o ff s h o re b a r s , c o n n e c tin g b a r s ,
s p its , h o o k s, lo o p s, lo o p e d b a r s , to m b o lo , b e a c h e s , etc.
Several types o f b ea ch es such as sh ore b ea ch es,
headland b each es, b ay-h ead b e a c h e s, b erm s, cusp
beaches etc. are d e v elo p ed . M ost o f the b a y s are
en clo sed by bars and thus la g o o n s are form ed.
C liffs are fu lly d ev elo p ed and thus th e co a st
becom es alm ost vertical.

Maturity

M ost o f the features d e v e lo p e d during

youthful stage are obliterated. P ro file o f e q u ilib ­
rium is attained due to balan ce in the rate o f
erosion and deposition. M ost o f the d e p o sitio n a l
features are destroyed by late m aturity and th us
the coastline becom es alm ost straight and regu lar.
The height and gradient o f co a stla n d d ecrea se
significantly.

Old Stage

C oast and shore are sig n ific a n tly lo w ered in

height because o f con tin u ed w eath erin g and
erosion. A djoining land areas are eroded d ow n to
sea-level. Thus, the co a st and shore b eco m e
straight and slop e very g en tly tow ards the sea. It
m ay be pointed out that this m ay be p o ssib le only
when there is crustal sta b ility for lo n g period. It is
obvious that the co n d itio n s o f o ld stage are only
theoretically p o ssib le b eca u se c o a sts are affected
by em ergence and su b m erg en ce due to diastrophic
forces.

8.12 DEVELOPMENT OF SHORELINE OF

EMERGENCE

Sh orelin e o f em e rg e n c e is e v o lv e d in tw o
w ays v iz . (i) due to u p liftm en t o f co a stla n d in
relation to se a -le v e l b e c a u se o f te c to n ic e v e n ts, or
(n ) due to fall in s e a -le v e l b e c a u se o f su b sid en ce
o f o cea n ic floor. In itia lly , sh o r e lin e s o f em er­
Ftg. 8.26: Stages of the evolution of shoreline of emer­ gence are straight and regular. C o a sta l plains
gence. extend for great d ista n ce in se a w a ter but their
gra ient is quite g en tle. S in c e th e.d ep th o f water
 SEA WAVES, SHORELINE PROCESSES AND COASTAL SCENERY
is shallow, most o f the sea waves break in offshore
zone. The breakers erode the coast to form ‘notch’
and small cliffs. Such small cliffs are called ‘nips’.
S u b m a rin e b a r s a re f o r m e d d u e to d e p o s itio n o f
sediments on submerged coastal plains These
submarine bars gradually grow in height and are
aligned parallel to the shoreline.
v„„,h
The youthful stage o f marine cycle o f
erosion on shoreline o f emergence begins with the
appearance o f submarine bars above the sea-level.
Numerous independent small bars are united and
thus form offshore bars. These offshore bars
protect the coast from wave erosion. Sea water
locked betw een the coast and offshore bars
becom es lagoon. Sea waves break offshore bars at
som e places and thus make their way to the
lagoons. Such openings in the offshore bars are
called tidal inlets. Lagoons are filled with
sediments brought by the rivers (which debouch in
the lagoons) and wind. Sometimes, lagoons
become swamps and marshes because o f vegeta­
tion.
Late youth is characterized by migration o f
offshore bars towards the coast. Seaward side o f
these bars is steepened due to their erosion by
storm w aves. Eroded materials are deposited by
sea w aves on the landward side o f these bars. This
process causes gradual shifting o f offshore bars
coastward w ith the result lagoons become nar­
rower.
Maturity
Offshore bars, lagoons, swamps and marshes,
tidal inlets etc. are distroyed by the beginning o f
mature stage. Sea w aves erode the submerged
coastal platform upto w ave base. M ost o f the
coastal irregularities are obliterated and the
coastline becom es sim ple and straight. The slope
o f the coast becom es steep and the depth o f water
increases.
3
Old Stage
T h e deve^°Pment o f o l d s t a g e o f th e m a rin e
cycIe o f erosion on shoreline o f m ergence can be
dedu<*d theoretically only as its practicability is
n0t possible-
13. IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
A rcuate d e lta : is like an are o f a circle or bow
and is o f lobate form in appearance wherein
middle portion has maximum extent towards
sea whereas it narrows down towards its
margins.
Back shore : represents the beach zone
starting from the limit o f frequent storm waves to
the cliff base.
B ars and b a rrie rs : The ridges o f sands
formed by sedimentation through sea waves
parallel to the shoreline are called bars. The bars
o f larger dimension are called barrier bars.
B e a c h e s : Temporary or short-lived deposits
o f marine sediments consisting o f sands, shingles,
pebbles, cobbles etc. on the sea shore are called
beaches.
Beach c u s p s : are small regular embayments
and a series o f headlands composed o f shingles.
B erm : The successive low ridges built by
constructive waves parallel to the coastline and
below the level o f high spring tides are called
beach ridges, or berm s.
B irdfoot d e l t a : resembling the shape o f foot
o f bird is formed due to deposition o f finer
materials which are kept in suspension in the river
water which is lighter than the seawater.
C ap illa ry w a v e s : Initially, the sea waves are
very small with shortest wavelengths, usually less
than 2 centimeters, and are called ripples or
capillary waves having rounded crests and V-
shaped troughs.
C e le rity : is in fact wave speed and this term
is used by the physicists to denote the speed o f
 236
w a v e s b eca u se w ater m ass does n ot m ove forward
rather the w a v e form m oves forward.
Circular orbital motion : in v o lv es the m o v e­
m en t o f w ater particles in a circular orbit in w ind-
gen erated sea w a v es w herein the w aves pass the
en erg y forward. T he circular orbital m otion o f
w in d -g e n e ra ted w a v e s disappears w hen the
depth o f w ater increases one h a lf o f the w a v e­
len gth .
C liff : Steep rocky coast rising alm ost
v e rtica lly ab ove seaw ater is called c lif f w hich is
v ery precip itou s and overlapping w ith over
h a n g in g c liff.
C o a s ta l w e tla n d s : Flat and rolling marshy
lands d e v elo p ed in the coastal areas o f humid
trop ics are called coastal w etlands, w hich are
g e n e ra lly form ed behind spits or bars.
Fetch : The distance or length o f sea surface
o v e r w h ich w ind b lo w s in one direction for longer
duration is ca lled fetch.
F i n g e r d e lta : The delta consisting o f linear
bars o f sed im ents on either side o f the distributaries
o f the m ain channel o f the river resem bling the
fin gers o f human hand is called finger delta (also
c a lle d as birdfoot delta).
F o r e s h o r e : The portion o f sea shore betw een
the lo w tide w ater and high tide water is called
fo resh o re.
F u l ly d e v e lo p e d sea : The stage o f m axim um
d e v e lo p m e n t o f sea w a v es, w hen sea w aves attain
m a x im u m w a v e h eigh t and w avelen gth is called
‘fu lly d e v e lo p e d s e a ’ under certain condition o f
w in d sp eed .
Gravity w a v e s : T he sea w aves having
d o m in a n t restorin g force o f gravity and having
w a v e le n g th o f m ore than 2 cen tim eters are called
g ra v ity w a v e s, the sp eed o f w h ich is con trolled by
g ra v ity .
Internal waves: T he undersea m ovem en t o f
w a ter m a s se s o f d ifferen t d en sities creates large
u n d ersea w a v e s are c a lle d internal w a v es, such as
tu rb id ity currents.
o ceanography
-
O ffsh o re : represents the zon e o f shallow
bottom o f the continental slope
O sc illa to ry waves : The w aves generated in
deep ocean water by gusty w inds are called
oscillatory or deep ocean water w aves w hich do
not have any interactions w ith ocean bottom s. The
water particles m ove in orbital circle and they
return very nearly to their original position after
the passage o f w aves w h ile w ave form or wave
energy m oves forward.
P lucking : The process o f d islod gin g and
displacem ent o f rock fragm ents by. attacking sea
w aves is called plucking or q u a r r y i n g , w hich is
effected by hydraulic pressure and turbulence o f
breaking waves.
Plunge l i n e : The distance from the sea shore
where the w aves break due to shallow water depth
and enormous w ave height is called plunge line.
P lunging b r e a k e r s : are those in w h ich water
falls vertically and rushes shoreward in the form
o f turbulent foam ing water m ass.
Pycnocline zone : is that part o f the ocean
w hich are characterized by rapidly changing
densities o f water m asses.
R o a rin g forties : The gusty w esterly winds
w ith enorm ous speed in the latitude zon e o f 40°-
50° south are called roaring forties.
R ogue w aves : The o cca sio n a l and non­
regular sea w aves o f enorm ous w a v e height are
called rogue w aves or m o n s tr o u s w aves only
because o f the fact that such rogue w aves occur
very rarely and assum e very great h eight and thus
b ecom e very severe and destructive. T hey are also
called s u p e r w aves.
S a b k h a : The d ep osition al coastal areas
having flat surface in the dry tropical zones are
ca lled sabkhas w h ich are flat but barren c o a s ta l
lands.
Sea a r e a : sim p ly ca lled ‘se a ’ by the
m ariners represents the area o f the ocean where
sea w a v es are generated by w inds and radiate IB
all directions. S ea area, in fact, is
w ind -generated w a v es.
 SBA WAVES, SHORELINE PROCESSES AND COASTAL SCENERY
StlchM i are harbour w aves wherein water
moves back and forth. S eich es, in fact, are
itatlonary or standing wave* in harbours and bays.
These are the result o f w ave reflection.
Significant wave height: is the average o f the
highest one third o f all the w aves present in the
area o f surface. The significant w ave height
w ill alw ays be more than the average wave
height.
Spilling breakers : are m ost com m on type o f
breakers in w hich water does not fall but
gradually sp ills dow n the front o f sea w aves and
forms prom inent foam ing coast.
S t a n d in g w aves : or stationary w aves are
those in w hich there is no actual horizontal
m ovem ent o f water. ‘In effect, the water level
o scilla te s up and down about the fixed node,
w h ich is located near the center.’ These are
generated by w ave reflection.
S t o r m w aves : V ery high energy w aves o f
great h eigh t created by severe tropical cyclones
on the ocean surface are called storm w aves or
s to r m s u rg e s .
S u r f w aves : The foam ing w aves or currents
generated by breaking o f w aves at the plunge line
are ca lled s u r f w a ves, or swash or u p ru sh .
S u r f z o n e : The zon e o f peawater betw een the
plunge lin e and the sea shore is called surf zone
w hich is dom inated by su rf currents.
S u r g in g b r e a k e r s i are those in w hich water
m oves rapidly shorew ard. Such breakers occur
very c lo se to sea shore.
Swells : T he undulations o f seaw ater at the
place o f their origin are called sw e lls, w hich are
low , broad, regular and rounded ridges and
troughs o f seaw ater. A ltern atively, the regular
pattern o f sm o o th , rounded w aves that character­
ize the surface o f the ocean during fair weather is
called s w e ll’.
T h e r m o a b r a s io n : T he c l i f f erosion in the
perm afrost o f th e A rctic region is ca e
therm oabrasion or thermoquarrying.
Tidal wave* ? The sea wave* caused by the
ocean tides due to the gravitational pull o f the
moon and the sun on the sea surface are called
tidal waves or tidal surges, which occur twice a
month.
Transitional w a v e s : Sea waves between the
categories o f deep water waves and shallow water
waves are called transitional or intermediate
waves in which the depth o f water or wave base is
greater than l / 2 0 th part o f wavelength o f shallow
water waves but less than 1/2 o f the wavelength o f
deep-water waves.
Translatory motion : The forward movement
o f water particles and water mass following
flattemed orbit is called translatory motion and the
resultant waves are called translatory waves
wherein the water particles move forward approxi­
mately at the same velocity as the wave form.
Tsunamis : The long-period casual ocean
waves caused by the displacement o f enormous
volum e o f water due .to undersea tectonic activi­
ties such as occurrence o f undersea powerful
tsunamigenic earthquakes (exceeding the magni­
tude o f 7.5 on Richter scale); faulting, up and
downthrusting o f ocean floors due to plate
movements; undersea volcanic eruptions; under­
sea m assive landslides etc., are called tsunamis.
These are very com m only known as ocean seismic
waves.
U ndertow c u r r e n t s : are the seabound back­
wash currents which are caused due to return o f
surface currents towards the sea after reaching the
sloping beaches.
W ave b a s e : The depth o f orbital circle o f sea
w aves is called w ave base which is one half o f the
wavelength o f the concerned wave.
W a v e -b u ilt platform : is that seaward part o f
the continental shelves which have thick terrigenous
deposits.
W a v e -c u t p la tf o r m : Rock-cut flat surfaces in
front o f c liffs are called wave-cut platform or
Simply s h o re p la tf o r m , w hich are slightly concave
upward.
238
W ave d r ift: T h e s lig h t forw ard m ovem en t o f
w a te r in th e w a v e s w h erein w ater particles m ove
in o r b ita l c ir c le is c a lle d w a v e drift.
W aveorth ogon als: are eq u i-sp a ced arrows or
ra y s d ra w n p erp en d icu lar to the crestlin es o f sea
w a v e s b e fo r e th e w a v e s are refracted. T hese w ave
o r th o g o n a ls are u se d to dem onstrate the distribu­
tio n o f w a v e e n erg y .
W ave reflection : sim p ly m eans bou ncing
b a c k o f w a v e e n e rg y w h e n the p rogressive w a v es
str ik e th e straigh t c o a stlin e s o f resistant rocks, say
c l i f f c o a s tlin e s , or m an -m ade protective struc­
OCEANOGRAPHy
tures such as seaw alls, the w ave energy i 8
r e fle c te d b a ck and sea -b o u n d w a v es are
created.
W a v e re f r a c tio n : m eans the bending o f the
crests o f the progressive sea w aves approaching
the sea shore, caused b y dragging o f shorebound
w a v es along the sea bottom .
W h ite c a p s : T he breakers o f sea w aves with
w hite foam are called w hite caps, w hich are
form ed w hen the steep ness o f sea w aves attains
the threshold value o f 1:7 and the w aves break
along the plunge line.
CHAPTER 9 : TSUNAMIS ° 239-257
tsunam is : nature and characteristics, 239
., tsunam is : causes and origin, 241
chronology o f tsunami w aves, 242
arrival o f tsunam i, 246
adverse effects o f tsunami disaster, Sumatra tsunam i, 247
m anagem ent o f tsunami disaster, ' 252

To m ost o f the com m on people tsunamis
mean ocean seism ic w aves caused by tsunamigenic
undersea earthquakes but tsunamis are not only
created by undersea earthquakes but a host o f
other factors such as tectonic activities occurring
on the ocean floors due to plate m ovem ents,
undersea volcan ic earthquakes, undersea land­
slides etc. also create tsunam is. In fact, the w aves
created in the ocean s due to displacem ent o f
enormous volu m e o f w ater caused b y internal
factors, say undersea factors as described above,
are called tsunam i w a v es or sim p ly tsunam is. On
the other hand, norm al sea w a v es, as d iscu ssed in
the p recedin g 8th chapter o f this book are
generated b y external factors such as w inds, tidal
force o f the m oon and the sun, though som e
internal factors a lso cau se norm al w a v es and
currents, such as turbidity currents are generated
by gravity force. T sunam is are very disastrous
oceanic extrem e ev en ts and hazards. W henever
tsunamis strike inhabited islan d s and coasts o f
continents, th ey b eco m e m ost m onstrous d isa s­
ters, as th ey in flic t h ea v y lo ss to hum an liv es and
property. It m ay be m entioned that all the
undersea tectonic activities and disturbances as
mentioned above cause undersea earthquakes in
9
TSUNAMIS
one w ay or the other, w hich in turn cause
tsunamis, that is w hy tsunam is are generally
called ‘seism ic sea w a v es’. Tsunam is differ from
normal sea w aves in the sen se that these do not
break w hen they approach the shore as n o r m a l sea
w aves do, rather the entire water m ass lik e a w a ll
invades the coastal areas. Thus, tsunam is resem ­
ble tidal w aves and hence they are m isnam ed as
‘tid a l w a v es’.
Like other normal sea w aves, water mass in
tsunamis does not m ove forward rather only w ave
form or w ave energy' m oves forward in deep sea.
Rem em ber, tsunam is after b eing originated radi­
ate outward in deep sea and travel with great speed
exceeding 760 km per hour but they do not pose
any threat to v e sse ls in deep sea because on one
hand, their wave height is extremely low , on the
other hand, water m ass does not m ove forward.
But as they m ove in the shallow water o f the
continental shelves, their w ave height assum es
unusual great height while their w avelengths are
extremely shortened, they do not break and hence
invade the coastlands and submerge them under
deep water. Thus, tsunamis becom e disasters only
when they strike the coasts having human
settlem ents. Tsunamis are not single w ave phe-
 240
r ? °n rat^er th eY are m ultiple w ave phenom -
in o onnL?!180 ° f Very large w a v elen gths, exceed -
8 k ilo m eters, tsunam i w a v es are considered
S i f !? W' Water w a v e s every w here in the ocean,
w n eth er it is deep sea or continental s h e lf area.
B e c a u s e o f extrem ely lo w h eight o f even 0.5m
tsu n am i w a v e s are not observed in the open sea.
h e y are o b serv ed o n ly in the sh allow water zone
o f the se a w h ere they assum e enorm ous w ave
h e ig h t, so m e tim e s ex ce ed in g 10 m eters but their
sp e e d is co n sid era b ly slo w ed down. This sudden
f Fig. 9 .1 : Tsunami wave caused by undersea slumping. After T. Hatori, 1983, in P.R. Pinet, 2000.
9.1 TSUNAMIS : NATURE AND
CH AR ACTER ISTICS
T su n a m is are h igh en ergy w a v es in the
o c e a n s g en era ted by high m agnitude earthquakes
in th e o c e a n flo o rs (e x c e e d in g 7.5 on R ichter
s c a le ) , or b y v io le n t central v o lca n ic eruptions or
b y m a s s iv e la n d slid s o f co a sta l lands or o f
s u b m e r g e d c o n tin e n ta l s h e lv e s and slo p es or in
d e e p o c e a n ic tren ch es. T sunam i is a Japanese
w o r d m e n in g th erb y harbour waves. Tsunam i
c o n s is t s o f J a p a n ese w ord s tsu + n ah + m e = ‘tsu’
("means h arb ou r) and ‘nam i’ (m ean s w a v es).
T s u n a m is are c a lle d as ‘seismic sea waves’ b ecau se
m o s t o f th e tsu n a m is are g en erated by undersea
s e is m ic ev en ts (ea rth q u a k es). T h ese are a lso
c a l le d high energy tidal waves. T su n am , m o v es
oceanography
decrease in w ave speed but enorm ous increase ia
w ave height the forward m oving water mass is
piled us as a w all, w hich invades and submerge the
coastal areas. The first tsunam i w ave is followed
by a few su ccessiv e w aves and ultim ately the
water m ass receds and the tsunam i episode is
over. This is w hy tsunam i phenom ena are long-
period events because the factors, which are
responsible for their origin, are not regular
features o f ocean environm ent.
aw ay from the center o f origin w ith high speed
and lo w crests across the o cea n and is usually not
n o ticed as the m a ssiv e o cean w a v es moove
silen tly but assum e destru ctive form as these
travel through sh a llo w w aters o f continental
sh elv es and approach coastal w aters and cause
w idespread d evastation a lon g the coastlines o f
lo w h eigh t and g en tle slo p e.
T sunam is are gen era lly d ivid ed into the
fo llo w in g tw o ty p es :
(1 ) distant tsunam i or deep sea tsunamis,
and
(2 ) lo ca l tsunam i.
A fter b ein g origin ated in the deep waters
in itial tsun am is are sp lit in tw o e .g . distant
tsunam i and lo ca l tsunam i. D istant tsunam i m oves
TSUNAMIS
out to the deep ocean (open ocean) w hile local
travels towards the coasts. Thus, two
tsunamis m ove in oppsoite directions. Distant or
deep tsunamis travel much faster than local
tsunamis but it is the local tsunami that causes
destruction in the coastal zones.
The follow ing are the characteristic fea­
tures o f tsunami w aves :
> T s u n a m is are h ig h en erg y sea w aves
c a u s e d b y a h o st o f cau sativ e factors but
u n d e rs e a e a rth q u a k e event is the m o st
p o te n t factor.
> T h e s e are lon g w av es h av in g longer
w a v e le n g th s ex c e e d in g 1 0 0 k ilo m eters in
the deep oceans but as these m ove coastward,
th e ir w a v e le n g th s decre ase rem arkably.
> A fte r th e ir origin tsu n am i w av s are split
in to tw o b ra n c e s e.g. d istan t or deep
ts u n a m i, and local tsunam i. T hese two
ts u n a m is m o v e in opposite directions i.e.
local tsu n am is m ov e tow ards coastlines
w h ile dista n t tsu nam is travel out to deep
o cea n . T h e sp eed o f m o v e m e n t o f these
tw o w a v e s dep en d s on the depth o f ocean
w a te r an d h en ce varies as ‘square root o f
w a te r d e p t h ’ o f the ocean.
> A s s ta te d ab o v e, the speed o f tsunam i
in c r e a s e s w ith increase in w ater depth and
v ic e versa. N o rm ally , d istant tsunam is
tr a v e l in the d eep o cean w ith the speed o f
5 0 0 to 1 0 0 0 k m /h o u r w h ile the speed
d e c re a s e s r e m a r k a b ly as the local ts u n a ­
m is a p p ro a c h th e c o ast b e c a u se the w a te r
d e p th a lso d e c r e a s e s su b sta n tia lly .
> The w avelength o f distant tsunamis in the
deep ocean is much longer exceeding 1 0 0
kilometers but the w avelength decreases as
the local tsunam is approach the coasts.
> The wave height o f distant tsunamis in the
deep ocean is very low , say about a meter
or so but as tsunam is approach the coasts
the heights o f both, distant and local
tsunamis, increase phenom enally, som e­
tim es exceeding 25 meters or so. In fact, as
the depth o f water on continental shelves
decreases, the tsunami speed decreases but
w ave height increases. This is w hy tsuna­
241
mis are not detectable in the deep ocean
because o f their very low w ave height. This
is the reason that ships travelling at the top
o f tsunamis in deap oceans do not feel the
impact o f tsunamis.
> The height o f water o f tsunami w aves
above mean sea lev el (M SL ) in the near
shore zone is called ‘ts u n a m i r u n - u p ’. This
is the ‘run-up’ or w ave am plitude that
brings w alls o f water in the coastal zone
and by sudden flooding o f coasts these
cause devastation.
> Tsunami w aves do not break at the plunge
line as do the surf currents rather tsunam is
come over the beaches as w alls o f huge
volume o f water and invade the coastal
zone far inland and the strong current and
floating debris, may be called flo a tin g
m issiles or ts u n a m i m issies, cause havoc in
the coastal areas by destroying hum an
structures and killing people.
> The time lag betw een su ccessiv e tsunam i
waves ranges betw een 20 to 40 m inutes. In
other words, tsunami is not a sin g le w a v e
p h e n o m e n o n but is a m u ltip le w a v e p h e n o m ­
enon. So, one should not return to the beach
after the first w ave has returned back
because after the sea recedes there m ay
come a few more tsunam is after an interval
o f 20-40 minutes. U nlike norm al sea
w aves, su ccessive tsuam i w av es do not
break nearing the beaches but enter the
coastal zone further inland w ith fu ll energy
and force.
> Tsunamis, som etim es, generate peculaiar
w aves called as ‘e d g e w aves* w h ich m ove
back and forth and parallel to the c o a sts’.
These edge w aves are responsible for the
occurrences o f su ccessiv e w aves w ith tim e
interval o f 2 0 -4 0 m inutes. This phenom ­
enon further com plicates the tsunam is and
produces ts u n a m i s y n d ro m e (nam ed by
S avd ind ra sin g h , 2 0 0 6 ). T he w a v e
height or sim ply the crest o f the first
tsunami w ave n ecessarily m ay not b e
highest, the next tsunam i w ave w ith further
higher r u n - u p (w ave height) m ay invade
the coast. -
24 2
> T he arrival o f tsunam is in the coastal zone
is heralded by sudden recession o f sea
water.
> T he detection, tracking and m onitoring o f
tsuam is in the deep sea is not possible
b ecau se o f low w ave height. These can be
d etected on ly w hen these enter the shallow
w ater zone o f the continental shelves
w here tsunam is assum e enormous w ave
crest but the tim e available to forewarn and
to send an alarm o f alert is very short.
G enerally, the tim e available is 2 0 to 30
m in utes w hen tsunami hooters on the coast
can work.
> W hen tsunam is are generated along a fault
zon e due to upthrusting o f one side, they do
not radiate in all directions, follow ing
circular paths rather they m ove in east-
w est or north-w est directin depending on
the orientation o f fault. In the case o f
Sumatra tsunami o f 2004, the direction o f
the rupture o f fault m easuring 1 2 0 0 km was
north-south and hence the w aves m oved in
east-w est direction.
9.2 TSUNAM IS : CAUSES AND ORIGIN
It m ay be em phasized at the very outset that
tsunam is in the oceans are not generated by the
forces com in g outside the earth’s surface such as
gravitational pull o f the m oon and the sun rather
these are produced by the forces com ing out from
w ithin the earth such as tectonic m ovem ents
w hich cause undersea earthquakes, volcanic
eruption, undersea lan d slid es, fau lting and
dow nthusting etc., w hich becom e plausible causes
o f tsunam is. In fact, tsunam is are produced due to
large scale displacem ent o f im m ense volum e o f
sea water due to sudden tectonic disturbances in
the sea floor. The changes and disturbances in sea
floor are produced by a host o f causative factors
such as faulting in the sea floor, slum ping and
m a s siv e u n d ersea la n d slid e s, s lid in g o f
large b lock s o f ice near the fiord coasts, ava­
lanches, subm arine volcan ic eruption, undersea
s e is m ic e v e n ts e tc . T h u s, the fo llo w in g
factors m ay be identified as tsunami producing
factors :
o c ea n o g r a ph y
>► U n d e rse a p o w e rfu l e a r th q u a k e event exceed­
ing 7.5 m agnitude on Richter scale. The
tsunami o f D ecem ber 26, 2004 in the
Indian O cean is a fin e exam ple o f earth­
quake-generated tsunam is.
> U n d e rs e a m a ssiv e la n d s lid e s caused b y sud­
den tectonic m ovem ents displace seawater
upward w hich generates tsunamis, (fig
9.1).
>► Collision of c o n v e rg e n t d e s tru c tiv e plates and
subduction o f rela tiv ely heavier plate
below relatively lighter plate results in
upthrusting o f plate m argins which causes
sudden upward m ovem en t o f immense
volum e o f seaw ater resulting into the
gen esis o f tsunam is (fig . 9.3). The dimen­
sion and m agnitude o f tsunam is in terms of
force and energy depend upon the nature of
rupture o f plate m argins and upthrusting
thereof. The Sumatra tsunam i o f 2004 in
the Indian O cean w as the result o f such
rupture and upthrusting and consequqnt
occurrence o f ts u n a m ig e n ic e a rth q u a k e of
the m agnitude o f 9.3 on Richter scale.
> E x p lo siv e v o lc a n ic e r u p ti o n s in the sea floor
or on islands also generate powerful
tsunami w a v es. The violent eruption o f
Krakatoa v o lca n o in the year 1883 gener­
ated a pow erful 1 2 0 -fo o t (36 meters) high
tsunam i w hich claim ed the lives o f 36,000
people o f Java and Sumatra.
I f w e exam ine the causes o f genesis of
tsunam is as d iscu ssed above it becom es evident
that it is the tectonic m ovem ents and disturbances
in the sea floor w h ich are the pivatal cause of
tsunam is b ecause undersea earthquakes, undersea
volcan ic eruption, underw ater m assive lan d slid es
etc., w hich are sources o f the origin o f tsu n am is,
are th em selves the results o f sudden tectonic
m ovem ents such as fau lting, rupture o f seabeds,
c o llisio n o f convergin g plates and upthrusting*
The expedition team o f the experts o f seV®r*,
d iscip lin es including tsunam i m odellers, funde
by the D iscovery C h a n n e l, spent 17 days on boar
th e ship P e r f o r m e r in M ay 17, 2005 to find out the
exact cause o f the origin o f tsunam i o f 2004 in e
Indian O cean. T h e team found that the h a lf o f ® j
2 4 0 0 km long fault in the Indian Ocean rupture |
 t s u n a m is
on D e c e m b e r 2 6 ,2 0 0 4 due to subduction o f Indo-
Austnd*311 plate below Burma plate, a part o f A sia
plate. This sudden collision o f two plates and
i ra p tu re o f southern h a lf ( 1 2 0 0 km) o f the said fault
lifted the seafloor by 10 to 12 meters and thus
displaced 2 0 0 trillion tonnes o f seawater which
generated strong tsunami initially travelling at the
speed o f 500 m iles (800 km) per hour.
The m om ent the plates collide and rupture,
the ruptured part o f the plate is displaced and
lifted upward, the potential energy o f displace­
ment is changed into kinetic energy which
generates horizontal m ovem ent o f water in the
form o f w aves, w hich are called tsunamis. Thus,
the w aves so generated from the place o f
displacem ent m ove outward in all directions.
Initially, the w ave height is generally a meter or
two but as the tsunami w aves approach shallow
waters o f continental sh elves, their height (am pli­
tude) increases but the speed decreases. Such high
crest tsunami w aves becom e disastrous when they
strike the coasts o f very low height and gentle
gradient. This is the reason that the breadh o f
continental sh elves control the energy and feroc­
ity o f tsunam is. M uch o f the energy o f tsunamis is
dissipated on broader and and shallow continental
sh elves and hence tsunam is becom e less destruc­
tive than the coasts having narrow continental
shelves.
9.3 CHRONOLOGY OF TSUNAMI EVENTS
T hough to the m ost o f Indians the word
tsunami w as alien b efore D ecem ber 26, 2004
when the p ow erfu l tsunam i struck the coasts o f
southern India and p layed a dreadful drama by
killing thousands o f p eo p le and destroying prop­
erties worth b illio n s o f rupees, but the people o f
the P acific coasts k n ew the killer tsunam i long
before. T hough tsunam i is a natural phenom enon
and is asso cia ted w ith the earth’s tectonic
activities and h en ce is a part o f the dynam ics o f
oceans and m igh t have occurred sin ce the oceans
came into e x isten ce but due to lack o f proper
recording o f tsun am is, the accurate ch ronological
description is not p o ssib le. It is b e liev ed that the
evidences o f earliest kn ow n tsunam is are av a il­
able sin ce 1400 B .C . w h en a p o w erfu l and v io len t
243
volcanic eruption in the Santorin island generated
high energy tsunami in the eastern Mediterranean
Sea which w ashed out the ancient Minoan
civilization. In fact, w e get system atic description
o f tsunami tragedy from the 19th century. The
follow ing is probable chronological order o f
important tsunami disasters :
1400 B.C. : A powerful tsunami, triggered by a
violent volcanic eruption in the island
Santorin in the eastern M editerranean sea,
washed out and com pletely obliterated the
ancient M inoan civilization.
1 7 0 0 A.D. (J a n . 2 6 ) : Powerful tsunami w aves were
generated at 9 p.m. on January 2 6 ,1 7 0 0
A.D. due to the occurrence o f pow erful
tsunamigenic undersea earthquake o f the
magnitude o f 9.0 (estim ated, no proper
recording was done) o ff the north-w est
Pacific coast o f the U S A (w est o f Seattle)
caused by the subduction o f Juan de Fuca
Plate beneath the North A m erica Plate
along Cascadia subduction zone. The tsu­
nami waves,, so generated, radiated from
the source o f origin and adversely affected
Japan, Pacific coasts o f South A m erica,
Alaska, and the Kamchatka P eninsula in
Russia.
1 7 7 5 (P o rtu g a l) : The great tsunamis caused b y the
Lisbon earthquake (Portugal) o f the year
1 7 7 5 generated about 12-m high sea w a v es
w hich damaged m ost parts o f L isb on city
and killed 30,000 to 6 0 ,0 0 0 people.
: The Kutch earthquake (Gujarat,
1 8 1 9 (I n d ia )
India) o f June 6 , 1 8 1 9 generated strong
tsunam is w hich subm erged the coastal
areas. The land area m easuring 24 km in
length w as raised upward b ecause o f
tectonic m ovem ents. This raised land area
was called the A lla h ’s B u n d (B und created
by the G od).
1 8 6 8 ( P e r u ) : A dreadful tsunam i having 2 1 m w ave
height adversely affected A frican and Peru
coasts. The tsunami w ave w as so p ow erful
that it carried ships 5 km inland.
1881, December 31 (In d ia ) : The first tsunam i even t
on the eastern coasts o f India w as recorded
on D ecem ber 31,1881 w hen an earthquake
244
m easuring 7.5 on Richter scale caused by
the subduction o f plate to the east o f
N icobar Island triggered tsunami w aves.
1847 ( I n d i a ) : 31 October, Great Nicobar and Car
N icobar.
1 8 8 3 , A u g u st 2 7 (In d o n e sia ) : A severe earthquake
caused by violent volcanic eruption in
Krakatoa, located between Java and Sumatra
on A ugust 27, 1883 generated furious
tsunami w aves ranging between 30 to 40m
in height (average being 120 feet or 36.5m )
w hich devastated the coasts o f Java and
Sumatra and killed 36,000 persons and
rendered lacs o f people hom eless.
1 8 9 6 , J u n e 15 (J a p a n ) : nearly 27,000 people were
killed on the east coast o f Japan.
1 9 3 3 (J a p a n ) : A powerful tsunami caused by
tsunamigenic quake took o ff in the Japan
Trench with a wave height o f 27m. The
tsunami took 10 hours to reach Sans
Fransisco on the west coast o f U SA and 20
hours to reach Chile on the w est coast o f
South America.
1941 ( I n d i a ) : A tsunami triggered by tsunamigenic
earthquake in the Andman islands was
noted on June 26, 1941 but could not be
recorded due to military disturbances and
political uncertainty created by Japanese
attack on Andmans in 1941. The earth­
quake was measured 8.5 magnitude on
Richter scale.
1 9 4 5 (In d ia ) : A 11. 8 -meter tsunami hit the G ulf o f
Combay, Gujarat, in November 1945 but
no records are available.
1 9 4 6 ( N .A m e r i c a .): The Aleutian tsunami (April 1 ,
1946), generated by Aleutian earthquake
o f the m agnitude o f 7.8 on Richter scale,
with a height o f 35 meters killed many
people in A laska and Hawaiian coastal
areas.
1 9 5 2 (K a m c h a tk a ) : The Kamchatka tsunami was
generated on N ovem ber 4, 1952 due to
tsunam igenic quake o f the m agnitude o f
8 . 2 . This tsunami with a height o f 15 meters
was a P acific-w id e phenom enon.
OCEANOGRAPHY
1 9 5 7 ( A l a s k a ) : An earthquake o ft h e m agnitude o f
8.3 on Richter scale generated a Pacific-
w ide tsunami w ith a height o f 16m , known
as A leutian tsunam i, on M arch 9 , 1957.
This tsunami adversely affected Hawaii
islands.
I960 (C hile): A strong earthquake o f the magni-
tude o f 8 . 6 generated a Pacific-w ide
tsunami, known as C hilean tsunam i, on
M ay 22, 1960 and claim ed 2 ,3 0 0 human
lives in Chile alone.
1 9 6 4 ( A l a s k a ) : A strong tsun am igenic quake o f the
magnitude o f 8.4 on R ichter scale, gener­
ated 15m high w ave know n as Alaskan
tsunami on March 2 8 ,1 9 6 4 and killed more
than 120 people in A laska.
1 9 7 5 (P h ilip p in e s ) : The tsunam igenic Moro Gulf
quake generated 5-m eter high tsunami
w aves on A ugust 16, 1975 w hich killed
3000 people, injured 8 , 0 0 0 persons and
rendered 1 2 , 0 0 0 fa m ilies hom eless.
1 9 7 6 , A ugust 23, Philippines : N early 8,000 people
killed.
1 9 9 2 (N ic a ra g u a ) : Septem ber 2, 1992, maximum
w ave height 1 0 m eters, human casualities
170 in Nicaragua.
1 9 9 2 (Flores I s l a n d ) : D ecem ber 1 2 ,1 9 9 2 , in Flores
Island o f East Indies, S.W . P acific Ocean,
maxim um w ave height 26 m eters, human
casualities more than 1 , 0 0 0 .
1 9 9 3 ( J a p a n ) : July 12, 1993 Okushiri, Japan,
m axim um w ave height 31 m eters, human
casualities 239.
1 9 9 3 (P a p u a New G u in e a ) : July 12, 1993, S.W.
P acific O cean, East Indies, m a x i m u m wave
height 15 m eters, hum an deaths more than
2 ,200 .
1 9 9 4 (E a s t J a v a ) : June 2, 199 4 , m axim um wave
height 14m, human ca su la lities 238.
1 9 9 4 (M in d o ro I s la n d ) : N o v em b er
14, 1994,
M indoro Island o f P h ilip p in es, maximum
w ave height o f 7m , hum an casualities 49.
1 9 9 5 ( J a p a n ) : O ctober 9, 1995, Jalisco (Japan)*
m axim um w a v e h eigh t 11 m eters, leas*
human casualty (o n ly one).
TSU N A M I 245

19% (Sulawesi Island): January 1, 19% , Sulawesi
Island ot'East Indies in S.W , Pacific Ocean,
maximum w ave height V4 meters, human
c a su a lties 9,
1996 (Iria n J a y a ) : February 17, 19%, near Papua
N ew Guinea in S.W . Pacific Ocean, maxi­
mum w ave height 7.7 meters, human
deaths l(>l.
1996 (Peru) : February 21. 1996, north coast o f
Peru, maxim um wave height 5 meters,
human c a su a ltie s 1 2 .
1998 (Papua New Guinea) : July 17, 1998, a
moderate intensity (7.0 on Richter scale)
submarine earthquake and resultant mas­
sive submarine landslides generated 30m
high tsunami which claimed thousands o f
human lives along the coasts o f lagoon.
2004 (South and South East Asia) : December 26,
2 004, a powerful earthquake o f the raagni-
tude o f 9.3 on Richter scale, o ff the coast o f
Sumatra with its epicenter at Simeulue in the
Indian Ocean occurred at 00:58:53 (GM T),
7:58:53 (Indonesian Local Tim e) or 6.28
a.m. (Indian Standard Time, 1ST) and
generated a powerful tsunami w ith a
wavelength o f 160 km and initial speed o f
960 km/hr. The deep oceanic earthquake
was caused due to sudden subduction o f
Indian plate below B u rm a p late upto 20
meters in a boundary line o f 1 2 0 0 km or
even more. This tectonic m ovem ent caused
1 0 -1 2 m rise in the oceanic bed w hich
suddenly displaced im m ense volum e o f
water causing killer tsunami. This earth­
quake was largest (highest on Richter
scale) since 1950 and the 4th largest sin ce
1900 A.D. The Andnian and N icobar group
o f islands were only 128 km (80 m iles)
away from the epicenter (Sim eulue) and

Tsunam is of the recent p ast

Ja n u a ry 1, 1996 J u ly 12, 1993 October 9, 1995
Sulawesi Island Okushiri. Japan Jalisco. Mexico
Maximum wave: 3.4m Maximum wave: 31 m Maximum w ave: 1 lm
Fatalities: 9 Fatalities: 239 Fatalities: 1
December 12, 1992 November 14, 1994 February 17, 1996 September 2, 1992
Flores Island M indoro Island Irian Java Nicaragua Maximum
Maximum wave: 26m Maximum wave: 7mj Maximum wave: 7.7m wave: 10m
Fatalities: >1.000 Fatalities: 49 Fatalities: 161 Fatalities: 170
July 12, 1993 February 2 1 , 1 9 %
J u n e 2, 1994 Papua New Guinea North coast of Peru
East Java
Maximum wave: 15m Maximum wave:
Maximum wave: 14m
Fatalities: >2,200 5m, Fatalities: 12
Fatalities: 2 3 8 \x

Pacific Ocean
/ ) Indian July 1 7 , 2 0 0 6
— Oc e a n C — v J
December 2 6 , 2 0 0 4 Simeulue. Sumatra - S.W, Java coast
Ocean
Maximum wave: 10- 12m, Casualties: > 200.000 Fatalities; > 600

Fig. 9.2 : Major tsunamis from 1990 to 2006. Source: Frontline, 2005.

246
th e ea st co a sts o f India w ere about 1920 km
(1 2 0 0 m ile s ) aw ay from the ep icen ter. The
fu riou s tsunam i w ith a h eigh t o f about 10 m
a d v ersely a ffected 12 countries bordering
the Indian O cean , w orst a ffected areas
in clu d ed T am il N adu co a st and A ndinan-
N ico b a r Islands o f India, Sri Lanka, Indo­
n esia and T hailand. T he strong tsunam i
took about 3 hours to strike T am il N adu
co a st. The k iller tsunam i claim ed m ore
than 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 human liv es in the affected
cou n tries w herein Indonesia, Sri Lanka
and India stood 1st, 2nd, and 3rd in the
num ber o f human casu lalities. D etailed
d is c u s s io n on Sumatra tsunami w ill
be presented in the su cceed in g subsection.
2006 (Java) : 17 July, 204 km S.W . o f Java,
undersea earthquakes o f 7.7 and 6 .1 m agn i­
tude generated 2.5 to 3.0m high tsunami
k illin g more than 4 0 0 p eople o f Java.
2011 (Japan) : 11 March, m agnitude o f undersea
earthquake = 8.9, height o f tsunami w aves
= 10 m, dead persons = over 1 0 , 0 0 0 .
Tsunam is occur m ostly in the P acific O cean
wherein 8 6 per cent o f the total tsunam i occu r­
rences are the products o f tsunam igenic undersea
earthquakes. In fact, the P acific rim is the m ost
favoured tsunam igenic region b ecause this region
represents the co llisio n (and h ence subduction)
zon e o f continental and ocean ic plates and hence
is the tecton cially m ost active area and generates
m ost o f w orld ’s earthquakes, m ost o f the P acific
tsunam is are the result o f undersea earthquakes.
T hough tsunam is are com paratively rare ph en om ­
ena in the Indian O cean but not unprecedented
natural even ts. The decadal average num ber o f
tsunam i ocurrences w orldover is 57 w hereas the
d ecade 1 9 9 0 ’s alon e accou nted for as m any as 82
tsunam is. T he last major 10 tsunam is, leavin g
2 0 0 4 Sumatra tsunam i, claim d about 4 ,0 0 0 human
liv e s w hereas D ecem ber, 2 6 , 2 0 0 4 Sumatra
tsunam i o f Indian O cean claim ed m ore than
2 5 0 ,0 0 0 hum an liv e s in 12 countires bordering the
Indian O cean. S ign ifican t tsunam is sin ce 1990
h a v e been sh ow n on fig . 9.2.
T he o ffic ia l records o f tsunam i even ts in
Japan sin c e 8 6 4 A .D . sh o w that sin ce then Japan
o cea no graph y
has b een a d v e r se ly a ffe c te d b y m o re than 150
strong tsu n a m is. T h u s, Japan is m o re frequently ,
a ffec te d b y tsu n a m is than a n y oth er country
around the P a c ific and Indian O c ea n s. T he Mejji
Santriku tsun am i o f A .D . 1 8 9 6 a lo n e claim ed
m ore than 2 7 hum an liv e s in Japan.
9.4 : A R R IV A L OF TS U N A M I
A s stated earlier tsu n a m is in the o p en ocean
are not o b serv ed b e c a u se o f th eir lo w height,
usu ally on e m ater or e v e n le ss . L ik e w ind-
generated w a v e s w ater m a ss d o e s n o t m ove
forw ard, rather w ater p a rticles m o v e in circular
orbits in tsunam i w a v e s. T h u s, o n ly the w a v e form
or w a v e en ergy m o v e s forw ard. In m a n y c a s e s , the
arrival o f tsunam is at the c o a sts is h e ra ld ed by
sudden seaw ard retreat o f o c e a n w a ter. W hen
tsunam is enter sh a llo w w a ter z o n e , th ey assu m e
enorm ous h eig h t w ith sh orter w a v e le n g th . The
w a v es do not break in th e s h a llo w sea w a te r like
w ind -generated w a v e s rather th e en tire water
m ass m o v e s forw ard lik e a w a ll o f w a ter w hich
enters the c o a sta l land s m o re ra p id ly than tidal
w a v es or su rges. T he w a ter a g a in retreats w ith the
arrival o f trough o f tsu n a m i w a v e and w ater drops
dow n m any m eters lo w e r than du rin g the occur­
rence o f the lo w e s t tid e. S o m e tim e s, people
m istak in gly c o n sid e r tsu n a m i w a v e s as tid es and
go to the sh ore after the c rest o f tsunam i is
w ithdraw n but after fe w m in u te s tsun am i wave
again su rges and e n g u lfs th e p e o p le and washes
them to d eep o c ea n . In fa c t, tsunami system
c o n sists o f a se r ie s o f s u c c e s s iv e w a v e s having
alternate a d v a n ce m e n t o f h u g e w a ter m ass over
the co a sta l areas and w ith d r a w a ls o f w ater mass.
The tim e lag b e tw e e n tw o tsu n a m i su rg es is only
o f a fe w m in u tes. It a ls o h a p p en s that the first
tsunam i su rge is n o t a lw a y s th e la rg est one with
h ig h est w a ll o f w a ter. It is not su re that w hich one
o f t h e ser ie s o f su r g es in a tsu n a m i sy ste m would
be largest o n e . S o m e tim e s , e v e n the last tsunami
surge b e c o m e s the la r g est and g rea test tsunaifl*
surge ev en t. S o , the p e o p le p resen t o n shoreline
sh ou ld not c o m e b a ck to th e sh ore u fll|8* |
s u ffic ie n t tim e has p a s s e d and th e se a conditio*^
has returned b ack to norm al c o n d itio n .
 t s u n a m is 247

Successively Increasing Wave Height

Fig. 9.3 : Genesis o f Sumatra tsunami of December 26, 2004 in the Indian Ocean. Source : Outlook, January, 2005.

9.5 ADVERSE EFFECTS OF TSUNAMI DISASTER
The adverse effects o f tsunami attacks are
many folds ranging from human casualties to loss
o f properties including cattle, crops, fishing,
tourism, transport system s, communication sys­
tem; destruction o f beaches, shifting o f location of
small islands, deposition o f sands on coastal
plains; destruction o f marine ecological resources
mainly corals and fishes. B esides, the ferocity o f
powerful tsunamis also creates social problems
such as mental stresses leading to physiological
disorder and several types o f diseases, such as
epidemics, restlessness, fear psychosis etc. The
following case study o f Sumatra tsunami o f
December 26, 2004 clearly demonstrates the
dim ension of adverse im pact of strong
tsunami.
9.6 SUMATRA TSUNAMI (2004)
Powerful and deadly tsunami w aves were
generated in the Indian Ocean on D ecem ber 26,
2004 due to occurrence o f severe undersea
earthquake measuring 9.3 on Richter scale with
its epicenter at Simeuleu o ff the coast o f Sumatra
and 250 km (fig. 9.4) sout-west o f Banda A ceh
town o f Sumatra. These killer w aves claim ed
more than 250,000 human lives o f 12 countries
bordering the Indian Ocean wherein Indonesia,
Sri Lanka, India and Thailand were worst
sufferers.
 OCEANOGRAPHY

Mumbai Visakhapatnum

Thailand
/) North Andamark \
/ \ /> /I q *fc Si J •: f L ;
Mangalore / J South Andaman -S'§ ) /
Chennai
/ ^ > ^ P o r t Blair s ly .y
X • * v Ponclicherry / ^ Little Andaman!? £; /
■c .Kozhikode A jt \ f . ' ° i 3 7 i
/ Kochi 1 'Jajeapattinam
£ '% .C a rNicobar 60/ U
^ V o lla r r 3 ' V-"*--* I j
Nrrinc^malee CL t‘ < V \ k
ThipiivflnnnthaDurajiK
Kanyakumari /ABatticaloa / - *1 ^ nCo Phuket
5 \ ^ G r e a t N ic o ^ a t ^ ^ ^ V ^ ^
Colombo ' f t ) j
G aU & J^ /
vV 'i> ri Lanka Banda~Xc<£‘V ^ \ Malaysia
_______ L----- ------ ,A ^ M id a n l
© *1 E P IC E N T R E
Maldives
9.0 magnitude [y \

^Sumatra
/ Indonesia

Tsunami
wave

Plate Boundary

Fig. 9.4: Sunuura tsunami o f2004 and adversely affected locations. Source: Outlook, January, 2005.

o f 9.3 on Richter scale (fig. 9.3). The expedition

The Sumatra tsunami w as generated b y the
T ectonic activities i.e. subduction o f In d o-A u s-
team o f the experts o f several disciplines includ­
trahan plate below Burmese plate and con seq u en t
ing tsunami modeller, funded by the Discovery
pow erful undersea earthquake o f the m agnitude
Channel, spent 17 days on board the ship
TSUNAMIS
P e r f o r m e r in M ay 9, 2 0 0 5 to find out the exact
cause o fth e orign o f tsunam i o f 2 0 0 4 in the Indian
Ocean. The team exp lored a fe w p o ssib ilities such
as undersea la n d slid es, fau lting and thursting as
probable cau ses o f Sum atra tsunam i and u lti­
m ately found that the h a lf o f the 2400-k m long
subm arine fau lt in the Indian O cean along the
con vergen ce z o n e o f Indo-A ustralian and A siatic
plates ruptured on D ecem b er 2 6 , 2 0 0 4 due to
sudden su b d u ction o f Indian plate b elo w Burm ese
plate, a part o f A sia plte. This sudden co llisio n o f
tw o convergent plates (fig. 9.3) and consequent
rupture o f southern h a lf ( 1 2 0 0 km) o fth e said fault
induced a high m agnitude (9 .3 ) earthquake w ith
its epicentre at Sim euleu and lifted the sea floor by
1 0 to 1 2 meters and thus displaced 2 0 0 trillion
tonnes o f seawater w hich generated strong tsuanmi
w aves initially travelling at the speed o f 500 m iles
(800 km) per hour in the deep sea and slo w in g
dow n w hile reaching the coastal areas.

Vital S tatistics of Sum atra Tsunam i, 2004

> D a y o f occu rren ce Sunday, D ecem ber 26, 2 0 0 4

>► T im e o f un dersea earthquake GMT; 00 : 58 : 53
Indonesian local time; 7 : 58 : 53, Indian
standard tim e : 6 . 28 a.m.
>- E p icen ter o f quake Sim euleu, 250 km south-east o f B anda A ceh
town o f Sumatra
> L o ca tio n o f ep icen ter 3 .3 ° N — 95.78° E
> M a g n itu d e o f quake on R ichter scale 9.3
>■ D is ta n c e from quake epicenter to Andman and
N ic o b a r 80 m iles (128 (km)
>- D is ta n c e from quake epicenter to Bangkok 1,260 km
>► D is ta n c e from quake epicen ter to Jakarta 1,605 km
> D is ta n c e from quake ep icen ter to eastern Indian
c o a st in T a m il N ad u 2 0 0 0 km

> T im e tak en b y tsun am i to reach east coast o f

one and h a lf hours after the quake i.e. 8 . 0 a.m .
Indin (a) C u d d alore
at 8.40 a.m.
(b ) C h en n ai
( c ) M a c h ilip a tta n a m 1 0 . 0 a.m.

6 hours from the event

> T im e tak en b y tsu n am i to reach A frican coast
4 meters (4.1 m as recorded b y Chennai
> A v e ra g e w a v e h e ig h t at the east-coast o f India
port, w hereas Ennore Port Trust recorded
3.5 m)

>- T otal number o f countries affected by tsunami 12

4th largest sin ce 1990; largest sin ce 1950
>■ Ranking o f the earthquake
> Total number o f human casualities by 10 big
4 .0 0 0
tsunamis since 1990
m ore than 2 5 0 ,0 0 0
v Total number o f huamn casulaities
 250
Indonesia
Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India and Thailand
were worst affected by killer tsunami. More than
150.000 people were killed in Indonesia alone and
Banda Aceh town o f Sumatra was almost wiped
out by 5m to 10m high waves and a few villages
were washed out from the map while only a few
houses could be saved. The bridges across the
estuaries were washed out. The worst sufferer
was Meulaboth town, only 150 km away from the
epicenter (Semeuleu) o f the quake as about
40.000 o f its total population of 120,000 perished
in the killer wave disaster.
Thailand
T su n am i w a v es hit the Thailand coasts at 8
a.m . lo c a l tim e. The Phuket and Phi Phi islands
p a ck ed w ith tourists w ere attacked by 10 m high
w a v e s, w h ich claim ed hundreds o f human lives.
T he o ffic ia l sources put the total death toll at
5,291 but the actual figures m ight have been m uch
m ore as thousands were reported m issing. The
foreign tourists enjoying at the beaches o f Phuket
island w ere caught by surprise and m any o f them
were w ashed into the sea.
Sri Lanka
The killer tsunami waves first
S ri L a n k a ,
struck the eastern Barticaloa district at 8.45 a.m.
local time and later ravaged 9 provinces of Jaffna,
Trincomalee, Barticaloa, Amparai, Hambantota,
Matara, Galle, Kulutara and Colombo and claimed
lives o f 30,882 people. More than 2.8 million
people lost their homes and about one million
were adversely affected. These figures were upto
January 14, 2005 but the figures might have gone
up. The unstopable waves measuring 8 to 11 feet
in height destroyed expensive hotels, roads,
bridges, rails, houses, other buildings, bus sta­
tions, vehicles in the northern, eastern and
southern coastal rims o f island nation. It was the
absence o f any tsunami warning system which
was responsible for the destruction beyond
imagination, otherwise there was ample time o f 2
hours for safe evacuation if the people would have
OCEANOOHAHl^ r |
been timely forewarned. ■• :I
Indian Scenario
The D ecem b er 2 6 , 2 0 0 4 Sum atra tsunami
hit the Indian co a sts o f Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, O rissa and K erala but the Tamil Nadu
coast w as w orst a ffected . B e s id e s , Andman and
N icobar islands w ere d ev a sta ted . Nagapattinam,
Cuddalore and K anyakum ari districts o f Tamil
Nadu and P on d ich ery su ffe r ed h e a v ily from the
killer tsunam i but N agap attin am was the worst
affected am ong the sunam i h it co a sta l districts of
south India. In the co a sta l rim o f Nagapattinam
‘th e fero city o f the w a v e s that hit Nagapattinam
tow n w as u n im agin ab le. The w a v e s lifted up
m e c h a n i s e d traw lers, spun them around, and
dum ped them on the r a ilw a y track there. One,
w eig h in g sev era l to n n es, land ed on the railw ay
line to N a g o r e ’ (F ro n tlin e, 2 0 0 5 ). The pow erful
tsunam i w a v es entered K alpakkam housing two
nuclear reactor p lan ts and k ille d 6 0 persons. The
M am allapuram tem p le w a s flo o d e d b y 6 -foot tall
w all o f seaw ater, the g ro y n e w a ll constructed for
the protection o f Mamallapuram beach was
breached. The o ffic ia l record s put death toll to
8 ,0 0 9 in Tamil N adu.
The tsunami affected districts o f Andhra
Pradesh included Nellore, Krishna, EastGodawari,
West Godawari, Prakasam and Visakhapatnam
where 107 persons were reported killed by
tsunami waves. The Kollam and Alappugha
districts o f Kerala were badly affected by surging
tsunami waves. As per official source 117 people
were washed in the Arabian Sea. Andman and
Nicobar islands suffered most from tsunami
onslaught on December 2 6 , 2 0 0 6 . The key
islands, which were worst affected, include Car
Nicobar (total population4 0 ,0 0 0 -5 0 ,0 0 0 , Noncowarie
Group o f Islands (total population 21,000),
Compbell Bay (total population 5 ,0 0 0 ), Little
Andman (total population 2 1 ,0 0 0 ) and Chowra
(total population 1 8 0 0 ). Car Nicobar w a s worst
affected as the island was almost flattened. The
Indian Air Force base in Car Nicobar was washed
away. Great damage was done to the t r i b a l s o f the
islands which included Great Andamanese, Onges,
Jarawa, Sentinelese, Shompens, and Great.
 251
TSUNAMIS
N ic o b a r e s e . The Andman groups o f islands were informs the Air Force base at Tambaram
worst sufferers o f the tsunami because o f their about the quake. The Tambaram A ir
n e a re s t location to the epicenter (Sem euieu) o f the Force base inform s the D efen ce
earthquake and flattish nature o f terrain. It may be M inister o f India.
mentioned that rich mangove and corals minimished 8.0 a.m, Tsunami waves hit Cuddalore, Chennai,
human causalities. The official sources put human and M achilipattanam .
deaths at 3,513 but un official sources recorded
8.31 a.m., IMD inform s C risis M anagem ent
more than 1 0 , 0 0 0 human casualties.
Group (CM G )

Tsunami Diary of India (2004)
6 . 28 a.m ., earthquake o f the magnitude o f 9 .3
on Richter scale occurs with its
epicenter at Sim enleu about 250 km
S.E. o f Banda A ceh o f Sumatra.
6.40 a.m ., Indian M eteorological Department
(IM D ) know s about the occurrence
o f the earthquake but does not
analyse the data because o f computer
develops defects.
7.3 0 a.m ., Tsunami hits Car Nicobar, the Car
N icobar base o f Indian Air Force
8.45 a.m., A fresh earthquake o f 7.3 m agnitude
occurs near Andm ans. Just after 15
minutes tsunami strikes India, Sri
Lanka and M aldives.
8.56 a.m., Department o f S cien ce and T ech n o l­
ogy and H om e M inistry are inform ed
about the tsunami attack.
10.30 a.m., The secretary o f the D epartm ent o f
Ocean D evelopm ent inform s the
C h ief Secretary o f India.
12 noon, Crisis M anagem ent Group m eets to
estim ate damage and d iscu sses resue
and r elief work.

Table 9.1 : D evastation b y Sum atra Tsunami in India, 2004

Tamil Nadu Kerala Andhra Pondic- Andman T otal

Pradesh hery & N icobar

Population affected 8.97 1.3 1.96 0.43 3.56 2 7 .9 2

(in lakhs)
Number o f v illa g e s affected 376 187 301 33 192 1,089

Human deaths 8,009 177 107 599 3,513 12,405

Orphaned children 289 3 6 39 143 480

Houses dam aged 190,000 13,735 481 10,061 2 1 ,1 0 0 2 5 3 ,3 7 7

Cropped area
affected (in hectares) 19,168 7,763 302 792 1 1 ,0 1 0 39,0 3 5

Boats dam aged 52,638 10,882 12,189 6 ,678 1,401 8 3 ,7 8 8

U verstock lost 1,653 — 86 2 ,685 2,7331 31,755

Damage (R s in crores) 4 ,5 2 8 .6 6 2 ,3 7 1 .0 2 342.67 4 6 6 .0 3 ,8 3 6 .5 6 11,544.91

Human deaths do not included ‘m issin g ’ in the Andman and N icobar Islands.
Source: ‘Tsunam i-A R eport to the N ation’, published by the M inistry o f Inform ation and Broadcasting,
Govt, o f India «
 252
9.7 JAVA TSUNAMI-2006
iyik- ... v»f> 'tig} •' •' j v>*v' ^ A s sta te d in th e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r t»
A localized tsunam i with wave height frorr|
2 .5 to 3 .0 m was generated due to the occurrence o
shallow focus ( 1 0 km deep) earthquake o ■ stages, and (2 ) p o s t - d i s a s t e r s ta g e . T h e d is a s te r j
m agnitude on July 17, 2006 about 245 km s 0 ^
w est o f Java o f Indonesia in the Indian O cean, e the f o llo w in g :
subduction o f A ustralian plate under Sunda plate
caused vertical uplift o f the latter by 90 cm along
150 km long fault zone. This vertical uplift caused
vertical disp lacem ent o f seaw ater and g enerated
tsunam i w aves m oving in two directions i.e. (l)
tow ards Java coast, and (ii) tow ards open sea in
the direction o f C hristm as Island. Since the
vertical displacem ent o f sea w ater was only 0.9m ,
the resultant tsunami was localized and hence its
en erg y was soon dissipated. This w as the reason
that this tsunam i could not reach Indian coasts.
T his tsunami killed m ore than 400 people in S.W.
Java coast and displaced 54,000 people.
9.7 b. JAPAN TSUNAMI, 2011
Date : M arch, 11, 2 0 11; tim e : Jap an tim e =
2.46 A. M., 1ST = 6.15 A. M.; u n d ersea earth
quake o f 8.9 m agnitude; e p ce n ter 130 km o f f the
coast o f Sendai City near L am en g V illag e and 380
km north-east o f Tokyo, at the depth o f 10 km on
sea bed; tsunam i w ave height 1 0 m; m o re than
10,000 people killed; m an y cities like M iy ak o ,
M iyagi, K esenn um a w ere flattened; S end ai air
po rt w as inundated w ith heaps o f cars, trucks,
buses and m ud deposits; aircrafts in c lu d in g
fig h te r p la n es stan d in g on air po rt w ere w a s h e d
o u t by g u sh in g tsunam i w av es; rotation sp eed o f
the earth in c re ased by 16 m ic ro s e c o n d s ; day
length d e c re a se d by 1.6 m ic ro se c o n d s; H o n sh u
island w as d isp la c e d by 2.4 m due to m o n s tro u s
q u a k e ; earth ro tatio n al axis w as d isp la c e d by 10
c e n tim e te rs ; 2 1 0 0 km stretch o f easte rn c o a s tlin e s
h a v in g sev eral v illag es, cities and to w n s w e re
b a tte re d by k ille r ts u n a m i; n u c le a r p o w e r p la n ts in
Fukushim a s e v e re ly d a m a g e d resulting into leak ­
a g e o f k ille r ra d ia c tiv e rad ia tio n ; m o re than 5 lakh
p e o p le in the ra d iu s o f 2 0 km from Fukushim a
p o w er plants w ere evacuated and sh ifted to safer
p la c e s .
9.8 M A N A G E M E N T OF TSUNAM I D I S A S T E R ^
m anagem ent o f any natu ral d isaste r i n c l u d t e t ^
principal c o m p o n e n ts s u c h a s (1 ) p r e - d . s a s ^
stag es o f r e d u c tio n o f t s u n a m i d is a s te r i n c l u d e ^
1 Pre-tsunam i disaster stage .
id e n tif ic a tio n a n d m a p p i n g o f area s o f
ts u n a m ig e n i c e a r t h q u a k e s ,
d e m a r c a ti o n o f c o a s t a l r e g u la tio n zone
(C R Z ) a n d to m a k e it f r e e fro m hum an
s e ttle m e n ts a n d d e n s e s tr u c t u r e s except a
few i m p o r ta n t i n s t a l l a t i o n s such as m ili­
ta ry b a s e s .
p r o te c tio n a n d c o n s e r v a t i o n o f n atu ra l line
o f p r o te c tio n f r o m t s u n a m i w a v e s such as
c o a s ta l d u n e s , b e a c h e s , m a n g r o v e s , corals
etc.
in s ta lla tio n o f t s u n a m i m e t e r s , tr a c k in g o f
u n d e r s e a e a r t h q u a k e s a n d r e s u l t a n t tsu­
nam i w aves.
> p ro v isio n s for ea rly tsu n a m i w a rn in g sys­
tem (T W S ) and p r e p a r e d n e ss for tim ely
ev a cu a tio n o f p e o p le liv in g in the danger
co a sta l z o n e to sa fe r p la c e s .
( 2 ) Post-tsunami disaster stage
T he fo llo w in g ste p s s h o u ld b e taken after
the tsunam i has stru ck a p a rticu la r lo c a lity o f a
country :
>■ rescu e and e v a c u a tio n o f stran ded alive
p e o p le ,
> im m ed ia te r e l ie f w o rk ,
> r e c o v e r y , and
»yy ‘.ll
> rehabilitation
(1 ) P r e - ts u n a m i D i s a s te r s ta g e : A s Sta
earlier a tsu n am i is g e n e r a lly g e n e r a te d w h en the
m agn itu d e o f u n d ersea (su b m a r in e ) earthquake is |
or m ore on R ic h te r s c a le . S u ch undersea S
q u ak es are c a lle d t s u n a m i g e n i c e a rth q u a k e s * ;Jj|
 t s u n a m is
T h e id en tification and preparation o f m aps o f
a r e a s o f potential tsu n a m ig en ic earthquakes is the
first step under tsun am i d isa ster reduction and
m itigation p rogram m es. T he su b d u ction zo n es o f
convergent p late boundaries*along the rim s o f the
Pacific O cean are very high tsu n a m ig en ic p o ten ­
tial areas. T he w estern co a sta l zo n es o f N orth and
South A m eric a s, and the eastern co a sta l rim s o f
A sia and A u stralia are the d anger zo n es o f h igh est
order and h en ce the p eo p le liv in g in th ese areas
sh ould a lw a y s b e prepared to fa ce tsunam i
tragedy. T h e su b d u ctio n z o n e o f In do-A ustralian
p lates and B u rm ese p la te, part o f A sia plate, are
a lso v u ln era b le to tsun am i ev en ts. T he occurrence
o f D e c e m b e r 2 6 , 2 0 0 4 Sum atra tsunam i proved to
be m o st d isa stro u s in the past h istory o f tsunam i
e v e n ts as regards hum an ca su a lities and property
lo ss. E x c e p t the stu d en ts o f earth sc ie n c e s and
c iv il e n g in e e r in g and s e is m o lo g y , the general
p u b lic , ad m in istrators, p o liticia n s etc. o f India
w ere not e v e n acq u ain ted w ith tsunam i word.
N o w e v e r y n ation h a v in g co a sts sh ould be in the
sta te o f p rep ared n ess to fa ce the fury o f tsunam i.
(2 ) C o a s ta l z o n e r e g u la tio n (C R Z ) should be
str ic tly e n fo r c e d in order to sa v e the hum ans from
death traps o f tsun am i w a v e s. In India coastal
R eg u la tio n Z o n e s w ere d eclared through g o v ern ­
m ent n o tific a tio n in 1991 w herein coastal and
m arine e c o s y s te m s are under co n tin u ed threat.
Such c o a s ta l z o n e natural e c o s y s te m s include
co a sta l d u n e s, b e a c h e s, m a n g ro v e forests and
coral r e e fs. T h e c o a s ts as per 1991 n o tific a tio n has
been d iv id e d in to 4 z o n e as fo llo w s :
> Zone I in c lu d e s m o st s e n s itiv e areas h avin g
m a n g r o v e s and coral reefs. N o d e v e lo p ­
m en t is a llo w e d w ith in 5 0 0 m eters o f the
h ig h tid e w a ter. It m a y b e m en tio n ed that
coral r e e fs and m a n g r o v e s are natural lin es
o f p r o te c tio n from tid al su rg es and tsunam i
___ w a v e s b e c a u s e th e se ab sorb a siz e a b le
p o rtio n o f w a v e e n e r g y and p rotect the
h u m an s from th e fury o f tid al su rg es and
tsu n am i w a v e s . T h e s e are v a r io u sly ca lled
su ch as n a t u r a l lin e o f d e fe n c e , n a t u r a l
b u f f e r s , n a t u r a l b a r r i e r s etc. T h e fo llo w in g
• th ree lo c a tio n s c o u ld su ffe r le a st d estru c­
tio n from D e c e m b e r 2 6 , 2 0 0 4 tsun am i
o n s la u g h t b ecau se of ric h n a tu ra l
b u ffers : :;; y t m a i -
(a) Pichavaram in T am il N adu
(b) M uthupet in T am il N adu
(c) B hitarkhanika in O rissa
P ichavaram and M u thupet in T am il N adu
have d en se c o v e r o f M a n g ro v es w h ich
w ere resp o n sib le for fe w e r hum an ca su a l­
ties and le ss p roperty lo s s during 2 0 0 4
tsunam i w a v e s. B h itark an ik a in O rissa has
the seco n d largest m a n g ro v e c o v e r in India
after Sunderbans m a n g ro v es o f W est B en ­
gal. T h is is w h y v illa g e s around B h itar­
kanika w ere lea st im p a cted b y 2 0 0 4 tsu ­
nam i.
B esid es the a b o v e m en tio n ed Indian lo c a ­
tion s, the M a ld iv es c o m p rised o f 1 ,1 9 0
tiny islan d s risin g on an a v era g e ab ou t on e
m eter a b o v e sea le v e l and h a v in g a lm o st
flat terrain h a v e rich coral reefs w h ic h
absorbed m o st o f the en erg y o f 2 0 0 4
tsunam i w a v e s and restricted hu m an ca u ­
sa lities to o n ly 85.
> Z o n e II in clu d es the areas a b o v e 5 0 0 m
distan ce lin e h a v in g to w n s and c itie s .
Here, n ew co n stru ctio n s are p erm itted
further landw ard from the alread y c o n ­
structed b u ild in g s.
> Z o n e II I co m p rises u n d e v e lo p e d areas and
tourists cen ters. P er m issio n to n e w c o n ­
structions and d ev elo p m en t plan s is granted
on the b a sis o f r ev iew o f in d iv id u a l c a se s.
> Z one IV includes A ndm ans and L akshadw eep
w here a zo n e o f 5 0 0 m eters from the c o a st
(h igh tid e w ater) is f u P y p ro tected and no
con stru ctio n and n ew d e v e lo p m e n t plan is
a llo w e d .
It m ay be m en tio n ed that the rules for CRZ
have b een rela x ed and d ilu ted sin c e 1991 through
sev era l am en d m en ts in 1 9 9 4 , 1 9 9 7 , 2 0 0 0 , 2 0 0 1 ,
2 0 0 2 and 2 0 0 3 (June) and thus the islan d and
co a sta l e c o lo g y has b een s y ste m a tic a lly erod ed by
the g o v ern m en t. For e x a m p le, the lim it o f n o ­
d ev elo p m en t z o n e in A n d m an s and N ico b a rs w as
relaxed from 2 0 0 m to 5 0 m on June 2 4 ,2 0 0 3 . T he
inhabitants o f A n d m an s p aid the p en alty o f this
 254
governm ent n egligen ce and deliberate action, on
ecem er 2 6 ,2 0 0 4 when the killer tsunami waves
sw a llo w ed thousands o f people o fth e islands and
flattened m ost o f human structures.
A s per report o f the US-based Earth
nstitute once m angrove forests covered 75 per
cen t o f w orld ’s coastlines o f tropical and sub­
tropical nations but now only 50 per cent is
covered with m angroves.
It is suggested that the Coastal Regulation
Z one should be properly maintained to strengthen
the c co lo g ica l security o f coastal areas. The
fish in g com m unities should be shifted beyond
2 0 0 m eters, seaw alls should be constructed along
the 2 0 0 m line and mangroves should be
d evelop ed all along the seawalls. Coastal dunes
and swam ps should not be reclaimed. New
m angroves should be developed along tsunami
vulernable coastlines, and existing mangroves
should not be destroyed in the name o f the
developm ent o f tourism industry and agriculture.
^ (3) T s u n a m i W a rn in g S ystem : The Pacific
X Tsunami Warming System (P T W S ) was set up in
W the year 1948 with total membership o f 26
countries around Pacific Ocean including Indone­
sia. The Tsunami Warning Centers (T W C ) have
been located in Alaska, Hawaii (U SA ) and Japan.
' Several tsunami meters (6 along the US Pacific
coastlin es, one near Chile and 14 o ff the Japanese
coasts) have been installed along the Pacific
coastlines. These tsunami meters detect, locate
and determ ine the magnitude o f tsunamigenic
undersea earthquakes and send the data to the
Pacifi Tsunami Warning Centers (PTWC) located
in A laska and Hawaii which transmit information
to Pacific Tsunami Warning System member
countries (26 in number) within 3 to 14 hours. The
tsunami meter consists o f three major com ponents
as fo llow s (fig. 9.5) :
( 1) Pressure recorder (or deep sea sensors),
(2 ) Floating buoys, and
(3) Satellite.
The pressure recorders or deep sea sensors
are placed at sea bottom (ocean floor) which
m easure changes in water pressure as a tsunami
passes overhead. The recorders send the data
OCEANOGRAPHY
through acounstic signal to floating buoys (placed
at sea level). The bouy measures wind speed,
temperature and barometric air pressure. The data
so derived are transmitterd to satellites which
relay information to. tsunamis warning centers.
These centers then issue warnings to member
countries. It may be m entioned that the Pacific
Tsunami Warning Center at Hawaii did know the
genesis o f Sumatra tsunami on Decem ber 26,
2004 but could not transmit to Indian Ocean
Countries except Indonesia due to lack o f the
capability to receive tsunami advisories in these
countries and to issue appropriate warnings.
Hawaii PTWC did inform Indonesia and Australia
which are members o f PTSW but they ignored the
warnings and did not inform India about tsunami
waves.
‘Had any o f the Indian Ocean nations been
members o f the Tsunami Warning System , they
would have got the advisory and India would have
had atleast three hours before the tsunami actually
struck its coast to order evacuation or signal
people to move to safety’ (India Today, January,
2005) but tim ely warnings w ould have not saved
Andmans and Nicobar Islands because ‘the
reaction time offered by the system (warning
system) would be o f the order o f 5-10 m inutes
only. Practically it is as good as having received
no warning’ (V.K. Porwal, Hindu, 2 005). But the
east coasts o f India w ould have been saved.
N ow , efforts are on to set up Indian Ocean
Tsunami Warning and M itigation System (IO T W S ).
Under this plan Australia, India, Indonesia, Iran,
M alaysia, Pakistan, and Thailand w ould set up
their National Tsunami W arning System (NTW S)
which w ould detect tsunami in Indian Ocean and
issue tim ely warnings o f tsunami occurrence.
Other countries w ould set up capabality centers to
receive tsunami advisories from the IOTWC and
then issue warnings to the p eople o f coastal areas
o f their own countries.
The IOTWS m ay install U S-m ade DART
(D eep -ocean A ssessm en t and Reporting o f Tsu­
nam is) w hich has tw o com ponents e.g. (i) sea
level gauges, and (ii) deep sea pressure sensors.
India is planning to create Tsunam i and Storm
Surge W arning System (TSSWS) at an estimated
cost o f Rs. 125 crores w hich w ould be operational
 ------------- Data are
transmitted to
a satellite that
relays information
to several
warning centers

— The buoy
measures
Sea level windspeed,
temperature
and barometric
pressure

Hydrophone

Anchor chain
19.800
feet Signal flag
under
sea
level

Recorder sends data Glass

via an acoustic signal ball
to the buoy flotation

A bottom pressure recorder

on the ocean floor measures
change in water pressure
as a tsunam i passes
overhead ------------------------------------ Not to
P ressure recorder scale

SOURCE: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).

Fig. 9.5: Tsunami warning system. Source : National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).

by 2 0 0 7 . T h is sy stem requires placing o f 20-25
automated sea le v el g au ges along the east and
w est coasts.
B e sid e s, 10 to 12 D A R T -typ e deep sea
pressure sen sors and sea lev el buoys w ould be
deployed to track tsunam i and tidal surge w aves
on the east and w est coasts. T he data from various
sensors w ould autom atically co m e to w arning -
center at H yderabad w here the Indian N ation al
Center for O cean Inform ation S erv ices (IN C O IS ), -
w ould handle the data. V isakhapatnam has also
been su ggest as ideal lo ca tio n o f w arning center.
 W'■' J p s n M H •V ^ .• • ' f . -r^. ■* .,
jrp:*Xvv ■■
OCEANOGRAPHY
256
M aldives etc.
(2) Post-tsunami Disaster stage : The post­
tsunami stage o f disaster m anagem ent includes Just after tsunam i struck the eastern coasts
o f India it started m a ssiv e r e lie f op eration under
three major steps, popularly known as ‘ three Rs’
the co d e- nam ed r e lie f op era tio n as ‘O p e r a tio n Sea
after the tsunami has actually struck the coasts
W a v e s ’ w herein 2 0 ,0 0 0 m en from arm ed forces,
such as relief work, recovery and rehabilitation. On
40 ships o f Indian N a v y and C o a st Guard, 34
an average, there is spontantancous response for
aircrafts and 4 4 h e lic o p te r s p ro v id ed the lo g istics
help i f any disaster strikes a nation. The response
o f the r e l i e f op era tio n s. W h ile r e lie f m ay n ot have
to a disaster cuts across the language, religion and
been prom pt or e x a c tin g , th e fa ct is that by day 10
politics. The im m ediate response to D ecem ber 26,
( f r o m D ecem b er 2 6 , 2 0 0 4 ) o v e r 6 lakh p eop le
200 4 tsunam i devastation from several countries
w ere evacu ated , 6 0 5 r e lie f c a m p s set up to h ouse
tells the truth o f human feelin gs o f helping the
579 506 p eo p le and 2 ,1 4 2 m e d ic a l team s are
p eop le in distress. Though India was itse lf
w orking round th e c lo c k to p rev en t any outbreak
severely attacked by 2004 tsunami, yet it helped
ep id em ic and d e a th ’ (In d ia T o d a y , January,
the countries w hich were worst affected by
2 0 0 5 ). It w a s sa id to b e ‘th e b ig g e s t ev er peace
tsunam i fury like Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Thailand,
M aldives etc. In fact, India stood tall as it initially tim e r e lie f o p era tio n . T a b le 9 .2 dp icts the
did not accept foreign help rather urged foreign con certed a ctio n o f In d ia to u n d erta k e r e lie f and
nations to help Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, restoration w o rk s :

Tabie 9 .2 : R eliefand rehabilitation package under R ajiv Gandhi R ehabilitation Program m e fo r tsunam ih it
states o f India (Rs in crores).
Tam il Nadu Kerala A ndhra P a n d i- A ndm an T otal
Pradesh ch ery & N Ic o b a r

(1) R elief and response 2 3 3 .3 3 17.161 8 .1 2 2 6 .0 3 1 0 7 .3 5 3 9 1 .9 9

(2) Subsistence allow an ce 118.80 12.30 — 1.05 2 3 .0 4 1 5 5 .1 9

(3) Temporary shelters 9 0 .0 0 17.39 0.31 6 .0 4 9 9 .1 0 2 1 2 .8 4
(4) Permanent housing 6 5 0 .0 0 5 0 .0 0 2 .3 0 5 0 .0 0 —
7 5 2 .3 0
(5) R e lie f equipm ent 54 .0 0 2 6 .0 0 12.60 1 .9 5 9 .7 5 1 0 4 .3 0
(6) Infrastructure 161.15 44.01 10.35 6 .6 1 3 0 5 .9 7 5 2 8 .0 9
(7) A griculture & anim al

husbandry 3 2 .3 5 3 .5 2 1.16 0 .8 0 2 6 1 .6 6 2 9 9 .4 9
(8) A ssistan ce to fisherm en 1007.56 7 8 .9 8 3 5 .1 6 6 3 .1 4 1 5 .0 1 1 1 9 9 .8 5
Total 2 3 4 7 .1 9 2 4 9 .3 6 7 0 .0 0 ~ T 5 5 j6 2 ~ 8 2 1 .8 8 3 6 4 4 .0 5
Source : ‘T sunam i • A Pnnnrt tUa : ____ >

Ministry ot Information and Broadcasting, Govt, o f India.

II may be mentioned that there was no

dearth o f men and materials for evacuation and im pedim ent in e x e c u tin g r e li e f o p era tio n in timei
relief work rather bureaucratic set up and mode o f ne reh ab ilitation p rogram m e is lo n g -p e rio d task
“ o f rellef materials including food w ic i m ay take a c o u p le o f y ea rs. T h e rehabili& ^f
clothes, shelters (te n ts), m edicines etc. w as major ion o 2 0 0 4 tsu n am i v ic tim s in India was*
nip ete e v en b y June 2 0 0 6 . T h e fis h in g coini

. wm
t s u n a m is
nities were th e w o rst sufferers as th ey lo st n ot o n ly
their houses b u t th e y a ls o lo s t th e ir m ea n s o f
livelihood su c h a s f is h in g n e ts and b o a ts. T h e
restoration o f su c h f a c ilit ie s req u ir es h u g e
m on etary fu n d . The recovery fro m m en tal
ag o n y and fea r is a ls o a lo n g -te r m p r o c e s s . T he
sea, o n c e a s o u r c e o f liv e lih o o d o f fish e r m e n ,
turned to th e m as d e m o n . T h is frig h te n e d the
fis h e r m e n to v e n tu r e in to th e s e a fo r w e e k s and
m o n th s from th e d rea d fu l tsu n a m i e v e n t on
D e c e m b e r 2 6 , 2 0 0 4 . T h e lo s s o f k ith and k in s
a ls o u p se t m a n y s u r v iv o r s w h o rem a in e d m en ­
ta lly s tr e s s e d fo r s e v e r a l m o n th s. T h u s, r e c o v ­
ery from m e n ta l s tr e s s c a u s e d b y any d isa ste r is
an u p h ill ta sk .
9.9 IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
Distant tsu n am is : T he tsunam i w a v es generated in
d eep ocea n and m o v in g outward are called
d istan t tsu n am is.
Edge waves : T h e tsunam i w a v e s m o v in g back and
forth and parallel to the co a sts are called
ed g e w aves.
Local ts u n am is : T h e tsu n a m is, after b ein g origin at­
in g in d eep sea , tra v ellin g in the coastal
areas are c a lle d lo ca l tsun am is.
N atu ral buffers : C oral reefs and m an groves are
natural lin e s o f p ro tectio n from tidal surges
257
and tsun am i w a v e s b eca u se th ese absorb a
s iz e a b le p o rtio n of w ave en ergy and
p rotect the h u m ans from the fury o f tsunam i
w a v e s. T h ey are a lso c a lle d n a t u r a l lin es
o f d e fe n c e , n a t u r a l b u f f e r s , n a t u r a l b a r r i e r s
etc.
Seismic sea w aves : T h e tsu n a m i w a v e s in the ocean s
cau sed by t s u n a m ig e n ic u n d ersea
earthquakes are c a lle d s e is m ic sea w a v e s.
Tidal surges : H igh en erg y w a v e s gen erated during
high tide (sp rin g tid e) w ith en o rm o u s w a v e
h eigh t and in v a d in g the co a sta l areas are
ca lled tidal su rges.
Tsunamigenic earthquakes : T he u n d ersea earth­
quakes e x c e e d in g the m a g n itu d e o f 7 .0 on
R ichter sc a le , w h ich h a v e the ca p a b ility o f
g en era tin g tsu n a m i w aves, are c a lle d
tsu n a m ig en ic earthquakes.
Tsunami missiles : T he flo a tin g d eb ris carried by
tsunam i w a v e s are ca lle d tsunam i m is s ile s
or floating missiles.
Tsunami run-up : T he h eig h t o f w ater o f tsun am i
w a v es a b o v e m ean sea le v e l in the near
shore zo n e is ca lled tsunam i run-up.
Tsunami syndrome : The co m p lex set o f su ccessiv e
w aves in a tsunam i system or even t w ith the
interval o f 2 0 -4 0 m inutes is called tsunam i
syndrom e (nam ed by Savindra Singh in 20 0 6 ).
CHAPTER 10 : S U R F A C E O C E A N C U R R EN TS 2 5 8 -2 9 3
meaning, concepts and types, 258
 ocean currents : characteristics and significance,
origin and factors of ocean currents,
circulation gyres,
Ekman spirals and Ekman transport,
geostrophic circulation, western intensification,
surface currents of the oceans,
surface currents of Atlantic Ocean,
sargasso sea,
surface currents of Pacific Ocean,
El Nino current,
effects of El Nino,
surface currents of Indian Ocean,
effects of surface ocean currents,

10.1 MEANING, C O N C E P TS AND TYPES
A s stated in chapter 8 , the atm osphere and
the ocean s are c lo se ly linked. Both are character­
ized by constant m otions o f different types and
nature. The interactions o f the atm osphere and the
o cea n s are both, clim atically and econ om ica lly
im portant as global hyd rological cy cle and
su rface and subsurface ocean currents affect life
on the land surface (continents) and in the oceans.
T he surface ocean currents are the direct result o f
the interactions o f the atm osphere with the ocean
surface b ecau se m ost o f ocean currents are
gen erated by w ind-drag. Thus, it is im perative to
stud y d ifferen t asp ects o f surface and deep ocean
currents in this and su cceed in g ( l l ) chapters.
The general m ovem ent o f a m ass o f ocean
w ater in a d efin ite direction is called ocean
current, w h ich is m ore or less sim ilar to water
stream s (rivers) draining on the land surface on
the earth. In fact, ‘ocean currents are m asses o f
o c ea n ic w ater that flo w from one place to another.
T his m o vem en t can in v o lv e large or sm all m asses
o f w ater. It can occu r at the surface or deep b elo w
the surface ....... sim p ly put, currents are water
10
SURFACE OCEAN CURRENTS
m asses in m o tio n ’(H. V . Thurman and A.P.
Trujillo, 1999). The w ater m a sses involved in
surface ocean currents m ay be warm or cold
m asses g iv in g birth to tw o d ifferen t types o f ocean
currents, nam ely w a r m and c o ld o c e a n cu rren ts.
O cean currents are m ost p ow erfu l o f all types of
dynam ics (m o tio n s) o f o cea n ic w ater, such as sea
w aves, ocean tid es, and o cea n currents, because
they drive o cea n ic w aters for thousands of
kilom eters aw ay. It m ay be m entioned that in sea
w aves w ater particles m o v e in orbital circle and
hence w ater m ass d o es not m o v e forward, only the
w ave form or w a v e en erg y m o v es forward but in
ocean currents entire w ater m ass m oves forward.
I f tidal w a v es are p erio d ica l phenom ena o f the
o cea n s, as they occu r tw ic e a m onth, the ocean
currents are all sea so n perennial ocean phenom­
ena.
The o cea n currents are d ivid ed into two
broad ca teg o ries on the b asis o f depth of
seaw ater :
• surface o cea n currents
• deep o cea n currents
SURFACE OCEAN CURRENTS 259

( 1) The s u rfa c e o c e a n c u r r e n ts , though is clearly dem onstrated b y c lo se parallelism

in-
volve only 1 0 per cent o f the total water m ass o f all betw een global w ind belts o f planetary w inds and
die oceans but they cover the largest surface area the patterns o f surface ocean currents. It m ay be
o f the oceans and affect m ost o f marine organism s m entioned that the pattern o f surface ocean
in one w ay or the other. The surface ocean* currents fo llo w in g planetary w inds i.e. trade
currents are originated due to friction o f prevail­ w inds, w esterlies, and polar w inds, is not sim ple
ing w inds on the ocean surface. Thus, w e can say as stated above, rather this is com plicated one due
that the surface ocean currents are the direct result to impacts o f distributional pattern o f continents
o f atm osphereocean interactions. This is w hy and coriolis force resulting from the rotation o f
surface ocean currents are also called w in d -d riv e n
the earth. The resultant g y re s in the m id dle o f
ocean c u r r e n ts . The atm osphere-ocean interactions
surface ocean currents in different ocea n s, nam ely
transfer on ly 2 percent o f w ind energy to the ocean
( 1 ) northern, and ( 2 ) southern subtropical g yres o f
surface but even this sm all transferred wind
the Atlantic Ocean (fig. 10.1); (3 ) northern, and
energy enables the surface currents to transport 10
percent volum e o f ocean water. T hese wind- (4) southern subtropical gyres o f the P a cific
driven surface ocean currents transport, besides Ocean; and (5) subtropical gyre o f the Indian
enormous water m ass, heat energy across the Ocean (fig. 10.1), denote the co m p lex ity o f the
latitudes i.e. from the tropical (lo w latitude) areas pattern o f surface ocean currents generated b y the
to high latitude (polar) areas. The impact o f frictional force o f the wind. This asp ect w ill be
atmospheric circulation on surface ocean currents elaborated later in this chapter.

----1----------- —'rTW"
150° W , 120° W 90° W ^ *^ 60° W 30° W , 60 90! E . < f : 120° E
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T r o p ic o f C a n c e r . \ VV'syvNWY
^W -Qy N.Equatorial C I W\s\sv>W Africa
i W w w ^ N w w w w w w s v w w V Vn s w w
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g. » ^------- ^ --------------_ _ _ _ _ ^ ________ y quatonal \ ^vw^vvwwmNsvwswv
0* E q u a to r _______ - > E q u a to r ia l C o u n te r c u iT e n t
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Antarctic Circumpolar Current
Circum-Anfaijtic'gyre C"

m n n m fw i\y m v
Antarctic Circumpolar Current
Circum-Antarctic gyre c i
(V W W W W W W W W N W W V W W W W W W W W W W V W S W V V
/VNWWNWWWWWNWWW - _ A______ .\\\\\VVSX\W\\\\\NW\S\N\\SNN\
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^WWWWVWWWWWWWWWWNS
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■V;\
Fig. 10.1: Surface ocean currents and gyres.

260
Surface ocean currents arc also divided on
the basis o f temperature o f water into the
fo llo w in g 2 c a te g o r ie s :
• w a rm o c e a n c u r r e n t s
s u rfa c e o cean c u rre n ts
• cold o ce an c u r r e n t s
The w a rm s u r f a c e o c e a n c u r r e n t s generally
fo llo w the directions o f planetary winds i.e. trade
w inds and w esterlies and flow from low latitudes
to m iddle and high latitudes and thus transport
heat from tropical areas to polar areas. On the
other hand, co ld s u rfa c e o c e a n currents flow in
north-south and south-north directions in the
northern and the southern hem ispheres respec­
tiv ely . Thus, cold currents bring cold water m ass
to the tropical and subtropical regions and also
help in the formation o f g y re s.
Surface ocean currents are also divided on
the basis o f volum e o f water mass, speed o f
currents and their directions into the follow in g 3
categories :
(i) Drifts : The surface ocean currents
m oving forward under the influence o f prevailing
w inds are called drift, for exam ple : North
A tlantic Drift, which flow s from south-w est to
north-east direction under the influence o f the
w esterlies (north-w esterly w inds) in the northern
A tlantic Ocean and W est Wind drift.
(ii) C u r r e n ts ; surface ocean currents in­
v o lv e the m ovem ent o f ocean ic water in defin ite
directions with greater velo city , for exam ple,
north and south equatorial currents.
(iii) S t r e a m s : Ocean streams in volve m o v e­
m ent o f enorm ous volum e o f ocean water say
large m ass o f ocean water like big rivers o f the
continent in a definite direction with greater
v e lo city than the drifts and currents, e.g. G u lf
Stream.
o cea no graph y
(2) Deep o c e a n c u r r e n t * ; T he ocea n curr
below the p y c n o c lin e l a y e r , w h ich is a zon e o f
rapid density ch an ge in the depth z o n e o f 300m
to 1 0 0 0 m, are ca lle d d eep o cea n currents or
sim p ly deep currents w h ich arc generated b y
density variations in o cea n w ater. S in ce the
density o f ocean w ater is the fu n ction o f its
temperature and sa lin ity , and h e n c e d eep currents
are also called t h e r m o h a l i n e c u r r e n ts # D eep ocean
currents in v o lv e about 9 0 p ercen t o f w ater o f the
ocean s. D eep ocean currents are generated due to
sinking or d o w n w e llin g o f d en ser seaw ater, and
hence they m ay a lso be c a lle d d o w n w e llin g ocean
c u rre n ts .
10.2 OCEAN CURRENTS : CHARACTERISTICS
AND S IG N IF IC A N C E
O cean currents h a v in g certain unique char­
acteristic features are o f great c lim a tic , b io lo g i­
cal, and eco n o m ic im p ortan ce. T h ou gh som e o f
the characteristic features o f o cea n currents have
been enum erated a b o v e but the fo llo w in g charac­
teristics may be m ore h ig h lig h te d :
U nlike sea w a v e s, the entire w ater mass
m oves forw ard in o cea n currents. It may be
m entioned that w ater p a r tic le s do not move
forward but m o v e in orbital c ir c le , and only
w ave form or w a v e e n e rg y m o v e s forward
in sea w a v e s g en era ted by w in d s.
>■ O nly 2 to 4 p ercen t o f w in d energy is
transferred to sea su rfa ce through friction.
Thus, i f the p r e v a ilin g w in d is blow ing
w ith the sp eed o f 6 0 k ilo m e ter s per hour
then the sp eed o f w in d -d riv en surface
currents w o u ld be o n ly 2 to 4 percent ot
w ind en ergy i.e. 1 .2 to 2 . 4 km per hour.
^ The surface o cea n currents in v o lv e only 10
percent o f v o lu m e o f o c ea n w ater, whereas
deep o cea n currents in v o lv e the largest
volu m e i.e. 9 0 p ercen t o f the total v o lu m e
o f ocea n w ater.
^ Su rface o cea n currents flo w ab ove and
w ithin p y c lo n c lin e layer. In other words,
the w ater m ass upto the depth o f o n ly 1 0 0 0
m eters (o n e k ilo m e ter ) is involved
surface o cea n currents, w hereas deep
SURFACE OCEAN CURRENTS
currents flow between pycnocline layer
and ocean bottoms.
>■ Ocean currents move in definite directions
as determined by a host o f factors such as
prevailing winds, coriolis force, pressure
gradient, density variations, convergence
and divergence etc.
>- The surface ocean currents and near­
surface prevailing winds are closely re­
lated as in most parts o f the oceans surface
ocean currents follow global wind belts o f
trade winds, westerlies and polar winds.
The Antarctic Ocean is the only exception
where surface ocean currents do not follow
wind patterns.
>• Major surface ocean currents form closed
circular pattern o f water motion in the
subtropical oceans except the Arctic and
the Antarctic Oceans. These closed circu­
lar patterns o f currents flow s are called
gyre. In the northern hemisphere, the gyre
is bordered by westward flow ing ocean
currents in the south, eastward flowing
currents in the north, and north-south
flow ing currents forming the eastern (par­
allel to western margins o f the continents),
and the western (parallel to the eastern
margins o f the continents) boundaries.
Similar patterns have developed in the
subtropical areas o f the oceans in the
southern hemisphere (fig. 10.1). There are
altogether 5 gyres in the Atlantic, Pacific
and Indian Oceans.
» - Antarctica is surrounded by a single ocean
current, w hich is known as circum-polar
ocean current.
>- The surface ocean currents flow ing along
the eastern margins o f the continent (the
to the human beings as w ell as marine organism s.
western margins o f ocean basins) are
B esides, ocean currents affect and m odify local
relatively narrow in width in the northern
and regional weather and clim atic conditions. The
hem isphere but flow with great speed
follow ing are the significan ce o f surface and deep
ranging from 40 to 1 2 0 kilom eters per
ocean currents :
hour, in volve water m ass upto the depth o f
one kilom eter, and cover longest distances
through different clim atic zones. Exam­
p les : the G u lf Stream and North Atlantic
D rift, K uroshio in North Pacific Ocean etc.
261
>* The surface ocean currents in the northern
hemisphere are deflected to the right o f
prevailing winds and to the left in the
southern hemisphere due to Coriolis force
caused by the rotation o f the earth.
>* The surface and deep ocean currents are
separated by pycnocline layer lying be­
tween 3 0 0 -1000m water depth.
> “ Deep ocean currents follow north-south
(northern hemisphere) and south-north
(southern hemisphere) directions and un­
like surface currents cross over the equa­
tor.
>• Deep ocean currents are sluggish in com ­
parison to surface ocean currents.
>- Deep ocean currents are generated by
sinking (downwelling) o f cold denser
water mass. Thus, deep ocean currents are
cold currents and m ove towards the equa­
tor on ocean floors.
>■ There is easy m ixing o f water m asses o f
different basins o f the Atlantic Ocean
separated by submarine ridges through
fractures (transform faults) in these ridges.
But the cold deep ocean currents o f the
Arctic Ocean is unable to enter the Atlantic
Ocean because they are stopped by east-
w est stretching Arctic Ocean ridge.
>- The cold water mass o f deep ocean currents
reappear on the ocean surface due to
upw elling o f water mass in the eastern
margins o f the oceans along the w estern
margins o f the continents. Such upw elling
o f cold water mass from greater depth
brings nutrients on the ocean surface w hich
are beneficial to marine organism s.
The ocean currents are o f great importance
• Ocean currents are considered as thermal
regulators of the oceans because they
transfer heat from the equator towards the
poles.

O cean currents n ot o n ly h elp in m ain tain
ing the heat b alan ce o f the o c e a n s but they
a lso h elp in m a in ta in in g the g lo b a l heat
b alan ce o f t h e ea rth ’s su rface through heat
ex c h a n g e s b e tw e e n the lo w latitu d es o f
surplus heat en erg y areas, and the h igh
latitud es o f d e fic it heat en erg y areas. It
m ay be m en tio n ed that the m ajor g lo b a l
w ind b elts transfer ab out 7 0 p ercen t o f total
heat en erg y from the tro p ics to the p o le s ,
w h ile the rem a in in g 3 0 p ercen t o f the total
heat en erg y is transferred b y o cea n cu r­
rents.
S u rface o cea n currents are d riven by so la r
radiant en erg y and fo llo w g lo b a l w in d
belts.
S in c e the actual flo w patterns o f o cea n
currents vary at any g iv e n lo c a tio n due to
va ria tio n s in day to day w ea th er c o n d i­
tio n s, and h en ce the nature o f current flo w
m ay h elp in m o n ito rin g the w ea th er c o n d i­
tion s o f a d efin ite lo c a tio n , th ou gh gen eral
pattern o f w in d -g en era ted su rfa ce o cea n
currents is d eterm in ed by the in teraction o f
w in d drag on o cea n su rfa ce, c o r io lis fo rce,
and pressure grad ien ts.
S u rface o cea n currents a ffe c t and c o n d i­
tion the w eath er and clim a te o f the
co n tin en ta l and islan d lo c a tio n s w h ich are
c lo s e to a d efin ite o cea n current. C old
cu rrents, w h ich flo w equatorw ard a lo n g
the eastern p o rtio n s o f the o cea n s and
w estern m a rg in s o f the co n tin en ts, m ake
the w ea th er c o n d itio n s dry, w h e rea s the
polew'ard flo w in g o cea n currents a lo n g the
eastern s id e s o f the c o n tin e n ts and in the
w estern parts o f o c e a n s bring m o ist w eath er
c o n d itio n s. F ore e x a m p le s, the G u lf Stream
and its e x te n d e d branch, the N orth A tla n tic
D rift m ak es m od erate w ea th er o f the
co a sta l reg io n s o f w e st and n o rth -w estern
E urope. It is, thus, ev id e n t that the w arm
o c e a n currents in crea se the tem p eratu re o f
v isite d co a sta l areas w h ile o ff-s h o r e c o o l
o cea n currents lo w er d ow n the tem p eratu re
o f coastal areas.
T h e c o n v e r g e n c e o f co ld and warm su rfa ce
— —n currents p ro d u ces in v er sio n o f tem ­
p eratu re an d d e n s e f o g s w h ic h b ecom e I
h a za rd s to s h ip s a n d v e s s e ls . F or exam p le, ;
th e c o n v e r g e n c e o f w a rm G u lf Stream and
c o ld L ab rad or cu rre n ts p r o d u c e s d en se f0g
o f f th e c o a s t s o f N e w F o u n d la n d . Sim i-
la rly , th e m e e t in g o f w a rm Kuroshio
cu rren t an d c o ld K u r ile cu rren t o f f the
c o a s ts o f Japan p r o d u c e s d e n s e fo g s.
• O c ea n cu rre n ts are o f v ita l s ig n ific a n c e to
b e n th ic m a rin e o r g a n is m s b e c a u se the
s in k in g or d o w n w e llin g o f c o ld water
m a sses in p o la r r e g io n s b rin g oxygen
d o w n w a r d . T h is d o w n w a r d transport of
o x y g e n w ith s in k in g c o ld w a ter mass
sp rea d s la te r a lly o n o c e a n b o tto m s and
th u s m a k e m a r in e lif e p o s s i b l e on the deep
o c e a n flo o r s .
• T h e r isin g or u p w e llin g w a te r m asses from
d eep o c e a n b a s in s b r in g n u tr ie n ts to ocean
su rfa ce. T h e s e n u tr ie n ts are c o n su m e d by
b oth p h y to p la n k to n s an d zoop lan tk an s.
T h is is th e r e a so n th at th e ea stern tropical
P a c ific O c ea n o f f th e c o a s t o f Peru and
E q u ad or o f S o u th A m e r ic a is rich fishing
area. D u r in g w e a k El N in o e v e n t, there is
c o n tin u o u s u p w e llin g o f c o ld w a te r o f f the
c o a s ts o f Peru and E q u a to r. R ic h nutrients
are b ro u g h t on th e ocean su rfa ce by
u p w e llin g c o ld w a te r s . P la n k to n s , both
p h y to and z o o p la n k t o n s , th r iv e on these
n u trien ts, w h ile f is h e s th r iv e o n planktons.
D u r in g s tr o n g El N in o e v e n t w a rm tropical
w a ter reaches th e c o a sts o f Peru and
E q u a d o r, w ith th e r e s u lt u p w e llin g o f
w a te r s to p s an d th u s th e s u p p ly o f nutrients
from b elow ' a ls o s to p s . T h is situation
resu lts in m a s s d e a th s o f f is h e s , m ainly
p r e c io u s a n c h o v y , d u e to sta rv a tio n be­
c a u s e p la n k to n s d o n o t th r iv e . O n the other
la n d , d u rin g th is p h a s e o f str o n g Ei N ino
e v e n t th e P e r u v ia n c o a s t s r e c e iv e 6 tim es
m o re rain th an n o r m a l rain.
• In th e e v e n t o f s tr o n g El N in o , th ere is weak
La N in a p h e n o m e n o n in th e w estern M
tro p ica l P a c if ic O c e a n . T h u s, m o n so o n is
w e a k e n e d in S o u th an d S o u th -E a s t A sia . j
O n th e o th e r h a n d , w h e n E l N in o is either ;Cg
w e e k or is n o t p r e s e n t in th e e a s t e ^ | | |
SURFACE O C E A N C U R R E N T S
tropical P a c ific O cean, La N in a b ecom es
strong in the w estern tropical P acific and
h ence m o n so o n b eco m es strong and v ig o r­
ous.
• The c o n v e rg e n c e o f w arm and co ld cur­
rents on the eastern sid es o f the continents
a llo w m ix in g o f w aters o f constrasting
tem peratures and nutrients. T hus, m ixing
o f w arm and c o ld o cea n currents bring rich
nutrients w h ic h support m arine organism s
and thus m ak es rich m arine e co sy stem
h a v in g h ig h p op u lation o f fish es and rich
fish in g ground s. For exam p le, the Grand
B an k s o f f N e w F oundland, is a rich fish in g
ground b e c a u se o f m eetin g o f warm G u lf
Stream and c o ld Labrador currents. S im i­
larly, sea around Iceland (due to con ver­
g e n c e o f w arm N orth A tlan tic D rift and
c o ld E ast G reenland currents), seas north
o f Japan (due to m eetin g o f warm K uroshio
and c o ld K urile currents) etc. have becom e
rich fish in g grounds due to m eeting o f
w arm and co ld ocean currents.
• S u rfa ce ocea n currents distribute and
d is p e r se m arine organism s m ainly algae
w h ic h is grazed b y several m arine organ­
is m s in the su rface w aters o f the oceans.
• B e s id e s m arin e organ ism s, surface ocean
currents and u p w e llin g o f cold w ater from
b e lo w a lso a ffe c t hum an life on the
c o n c e r n e d c o a sta l r eg io n s o f the continents
and isla n d s b e c a u se w eather and clim ate
are la r g e ly m o d ifie d b y ocean currents. I f
E l N in o b e c o m e s strong o f f the w e st coasts
o f S ou th A m e rica , it b e c o m e s injurious to
m arin e lif e and fish erm en but b eco m es
b e n e fic ia l to farm ers liv in g in the dry
w e ste r n parts o f E quador and Peru because
there is 6 tim es m ore rainfall than the
norm al rain. T h is situ a tio n h elp s the farmer
to h a v e rich h arvest o f crop s. B ut sin c e the
e c o n o m y o f Peru d ep en d s on fish in g ,
m a in ly fish in g o f a n c h o v y , w h ich has high
v a lu e in th e in tern ation al m arkets, the
strong E l N in o e v en t resu lts in m ass death
o f fis h e s as th e u p w e llin g o f w ater w ith rich
263
nutrients is stopped. This causes econom ic
recession in Peru affecting large human
population in one w ay or the other.
• In ancient tim es, w hen power-propelled
v e sse ls and ships w ere not invented, the
ocean currents helped the sailors from
Europe and A frica to reach A m ericas,
w hich w ere not explored before. Surface
ocean currents also helped sea trades in
ancient period. It m ay be m entioned that it
w as Benjamin Franklin w ho w as the first to
notice the influence o f the G u lf Stream on
postal m ail routes betw een A .D . 1753 and
1774. The sailors w h ile undertaking more
northerly route to reach North A m erica
took more tim e than those w ho undertook
southerly route. He realized that it w as the
resistance o f the G u lf Stream w h ich w as
respon sib le for longer tim e because w hen
the ships w ere sailin g against the currents,
they w ere som etim es pushed backwards.
After studying the reports o f sailors Benjamin
Frankline fin a lly opined that the strong
eastward flow in g strong currents obstructed
the sm ooth sailin g o f A m erica-bound ships
and thus w ere respon sib le for increasing
the tim e o f voyages.
10.3 ORIGIN AND FACTORS OF OCEAN CUR­
RENTS
The currents in the oceans are originated
due to com bined effects o f several factors acting
internally as w ell as externally. The factors, in
fact, controlling the origin and other characteris­
tics o f ocean currents, are related to different
characteristics o f ocean waters in terms o f their
thermal conditions, salinity and density, rota­
tional m echanism o f the earth and resultant
co rio lis force (d eflectiv e force), external factors
o f the atm osphere, topographic characteristics o f
the coasts, ocean basins and ocean bottom s. The
factors and causes o f ocean currents, w hich are
respon sib le for the g en esis o f ocean currents,
‘d eflectio n o f their directions, and m odifications
o f ocean currents, can be cla ssified as fo llo w s ;
264 (XKANOftftAPHy

(A ) Factors of the Origin of Ocean Currents 1. Planotary Wind* and Wind Drag
1. Factors related to atmospheric circulation
The atm ospheric circulation at th e interface
( 1) air pressure
o f the lower atmosphere and th e ocean surface is
( 2 ) planetary winds the m ost dominant factor o f the generation of
(i) wind drag surface occan currents. The w inds blow ing on th e
(ii) frictional force surface o f occan water collid e with the water
m olecules o f the seawater and drag the m olecules.
2. Factors related to the rotation of the earth
Thus, the collision o f air m olecules with the
( 1 ) pooling o f water mass m olcculcs o f ocean water produces friction
(2 ) coriolis deflection through which a portion o f wind energy, about 2 to
(i) ocean gyres 4 percent, is transferred to the water molecules.
This process o f transfer o f wind energy to water
(ii) Ekman spirals and Ekman
m olecule is called fric tio n a l d ra g , which sets the
transport
ocean water in m otion. This motion o f ocean
(iii) geostrophic circulation water caused by frictional drag or sim ply wiod
(iv) western boundary intensifi­ d ra g makes the surface o f ocean water undulating
cation which ultimately results in the formation o f swells
3. F a c to rs re la te d to atm o sp h eric m oisture which slow ly m ove forward follow ing wind
direction. It should be remembered that not all the
( 1 ) evaporation
wind energy is transferred to ocean surface. Only
(2 ) precipitation (rainfall and melt- 2 to 4 percent o f the total wind energy or wind
water) speed is transferred to the m olecules o f ocean
4 . F a c to rs re la te d to ocean w ater water which sets the surface water in m otion, i.e.
sea surface water m oves forward as ocean
( 1 ) pressure gradient
currents. It is, thus, evident that prevailing winds
(2 ) temperature variations (winds blow ing in the same direction throughout
(3) salinity variations the year, such as trade w inds, w esterlies etc.) not
(B ) F a c to rs o f th e M o d ificatio n s o f O cean C u rre n ts only generate surface ocean currents but also
( 1 ) direction (orientation) and shape of determines the speed o f flow o f surface currents.
For exam ple, if the wind is b low ing at the speed of
coastlines
40 kilom eters per hour, the speed o f current flow
( 2 ) bottom reliefs o f ocean basins would be l .2 to l .6 kilom eter per hour.
(3) season variation The patterns o f surface ocean currents (fig.
(4 ) rotation o f the earth (coriolis deflec­ 10.1) follow the global wind belts o f planetary
tion) winds (fig. 7.4, chapter 7), nam ely trade winds
It may be mentioned that the factors o f (N.E. and S.E trades), w esterlies (S.W . westerlies
ocean currents are so interrelated that it is not wise and N.W . w esterlies) and polar w inds (N.E. and
to isolate them. The coriolis deflection as the S.E. polar w inds). It may be remembered that the
product o f the rotation o f earth is, in fact, not the coriolis deflective force generated by the rotation of
factor o f the origin o f ocean currents rather it earth deflects the wind direction to the right in the
deflects the direction o f wind-generated currents. northern hem isphere and to the left in the southern
Ocean gyres and Ekman spirals and transport are hem isphere (fig. 7.9, chapter 7). This also applies
the outcome o f deflection o f ocean currents. The to the directions o f surface currents which are
geostrophic circulation and geostrophic currents, deflected to the right in the northern hemisphere
a n d the w e s te rn boundary intensification are not and to the left in the southern hemisphere. The
f a c to r s o f th e o rig in o f o c e a n currents in surface currents are also deflected by the conti­
th e m s e lv e s , ra th e r th e y a re s p e c ia l ty p e s o f surface nents. Thus, the w esterlies generate eastward and
flo w o f o c e a n w a te r , g e n e r a te d by a set o f factors. north-eastward flow in g surface currents while the
SURFACE OCEAN CURRENTS
trade winds produce westward flowing currents.
T he deflective force forms loops o f surface
cu rren ts in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian
O cean s, which are knows as circu latio n gyres (fig
10.1). This aspect is being discussed in the
following heading (coriolis deflection and gyres).
It is apparent from the above discussion that
prevailing or planetary winds {e.g. trades, wester­
lies and polar winds) play major roles in the origin
o f ocean currents. The wind blowing on the water
surface also moves water in its direction due to its
friction with the water. Most ofthe ocean currents
o f the world follow the direction o f prevailing
winds. For example, equatorial currents flow
westward under the influence o f N.E. and S.E.
trade winds. The G ulf Stream in the Atlantic and
the Kuroshio in the Pacific move in north-eastern
direction under the influence o f the westerlies.
There is seasonal change in the direction of
currents in the Indian Ocean twice a year (after
every 6 months) due to seasonal change in the
direction o f monsoon winds.
It has been commonly agreed by the
majority o f the scientists that friction caused by
the wind sets the sea water in motion. Karl
Zoppritz mathematically demonstrated in 1878
that a steady blowing wind through its friction
with sea water can drag water in its direction. He
further demonstrated that there is definite rela­
tionship between the direction o f winds and ocean
currents. According to Karl Zoppritz the currents
generated by wind force move the whole water
mass from sea surface to the bottom in wind
direction. Findlay has objected to this observation
o f Karl Zoppritz and has maintained that wind
force is active only upto the depth o f 30 to 36 feet
and thus only the upper water layer moves as
currents in the wind direction. Since the density
increases downward with increasing depth, the
wind becomes ineffective in dragging sea water at
greater depths. A ccording to H.U. Sverdrup there
is definite relationship between winds and veloc­
ity o f currents. A ccording to him the friction and
the stress o f the wind causing ocean currents is
proportional to the square o f the wind velocity.
The velocity o f ocean currents is 1.5 percent o f
wind velocity. For exam ple, if the wind blow s at
the velocity o f 50 km per hour, the velocity o f the
265
resultant current would be 0.75 km per hour. As
stated earlier in this section, it is commonly
agreed that the velocity o f surface ocean currents
is 3 to 4 percent o f wind velocity.
2. Rotation of the Earth and Coriolis Deflection
The rotation o f the earth on its axis from
west to east results in the genesis o f deflective fo rce
or coriolis force which deflects the general direc­
tions o f prevailing winds and ocean currents
because surface ocean currents are the result o f
frictional force caused by wind drag on ocean
surface. The coriolis force, named after famous
scientist G.G. Coriolis is not in itself a force rather
is an effect o f the rotational movement ofthe earth
and hence it is also called coriolis effect. The
characteristic features o f coriolis effect may be
summarized as follows :
>- Coriolis force becomes effective on any
object which is in motion such as wind,
seawater, flying birds, aircrafts etc.
>- Coriolis force affects (deflects) the direc­
tion o f winds and ocean currents and not
their speed as it deflects the wind and ocean
currents (and other moving objects) from
their expected paths.
>■ The magnitude o f coriolis force and d eflec­
tion is determined by wind speed. The
higher the wind speed, the greater is the
deflection o f wind and ocean currents due
to resultant greater deflective force.
>■ Coriolis force becomes maximum at the
poles due to minimum rotational speed o f
the earth while it becom es zero at the
equator.
It always acts at right angle to the
horizontally moving air, ocean currents and
other moving objects. The net effect is that
the horizontal winds and surface ocean
currents are deflected to right in the
northern hemisphere and to the left in the
southern hemisphere.
>- The magnitude o f deflection is directly
proportional to (i) the sine o f the latitude
(sine 0° = 0, sine 90° = 1), (ii) the mass o f
m oving body, and (iii) horizontal velocity
o f wind and ocean currents.
 266
i he net result o f the rotation o f the earth is
the g e n e sis o f co rio lis d eflectiv e force which
u ltim ately d e ile c ts the directions o f surface ocean
currents. For exam p le, currents flow in g from
equator tow ards the north pole or from north pole
tow ards the equator are deflected to their right in
the northern hem isphere w hile the currents
flo w in g north-south and south-north in the south­
ern h em isphere are d eflected towards their left.
The rotational force o f the earth causes m ovem ent
o f ocean w ater near the equator in opposite
d irection to ‘the w est to east rotation’ o f the earth
and thus e q u a to r ia l c u r r e n ts are generated. These
equatorial currents flo w from east to w est. Som e
ocean w ater m o v es in the direction o f the rotation
ot the earth i.e. from w est to east and thus c o u n te r
e q u a to r ia l c u r r e n ts are generated. The w esterly
w in d s, w hich are the outcom e ofp ressure gradient
and co rio lis d eflection , cause north-eastward
flo w o f ocean water in the northern hem isphere
such as the G u lf Stream and North-East A tlantic
Drift in the A tlantic O cean and K uroshio ocean
current in the P acific Ocean.
R e s u lta n ts o f W in d D ra g an d C o rio lis D eflection
The wind-drag, pressure gradient and coriolis
d eflection generate so m e unique typ es o f flo w s o f
ocean w ater and ocean circulation w hich need
explanations as fo llo w s :
(1) C irculation gyre
(2) Ekman transport
(3) W estern boundary in ten sification
(1) Circulation Gyres
In sim ple terms ocean circulation gyres are
closed system s o f surface ocean currents with
extensive area o f ocean in the centre surround by
ocean currents from all sides. D ue to higher water
level the central part o f the circulation gyre is
dom e-shaped having steep pressure gradient to
the w est and gentle gradient to the east (fig. 10.3).
It may be m entioned that in oceanography
the pressure gradient o f sea surface m eans
horizontal variations in the heights o f the surface
o f ocean water. W herever ocean water is p illed up
due to convergence o f surface water flow , it is
called w a te r m o u n d or w a te r h ill w hich is character-
OCEANOGRAPHY
ized by steep pressure gradient. The height of
ocean water mound is about 1 meter. On the other
hand, the areas o f divergence o f ocean water flows
are called ocean w a te r valleys. The difference of
height between the top o f the ocean water hill’
and the bottom o f the ‘ocean water v a lley ’ seldom
exceeds one meter.
The circulation gyres have developed in
subtropical zones o f the Atlantic, Pacific and
Indian Oceans in both the hemispheres (fig. 10.1)
and have been formed and bordered by four surface
ocean currents, namely westward flow ing equato­
rial c u rre n ts , w est b o u n d a ry c u r re n ts , eastward flow­
ing currents driven by the westerlies, and east
boundary currents. The equatorial currents are
driven by trade winds in both the hemispheres and
are almost parallel to the equator. The west
b o u n d a ry c u rre n ts flow along the western boundary
o f the respective ocean basins (the western
boundary o f the ocean basins is along the eastern
margin o f the continents) like the G u lf Stream and
Brazil currents. The w est boundary currents
carrying warm water o f the equatorial regions are
formed by the deflection caused by continental
barriers and coriolis effect. The eastward flowing
currents m ove forward under the influence o f the
w esterlies blow ing from south-w est to north-east
direction in the northern hem isphere, and from
north-west to south-east direction in the southern
hemisphere. The alm ost easterly direction o f the
westerlies is because o f coriolis d eflective force
and hence the eastward flow in g currents are also
influenced by coriolis deflection. The fourth
currents bordering the circulation gyre are east
b o u n d a r y c u r r e n ts , w hich flo w along the eastern
boundaries o f respective ocean basins. The east
boundary currents are cold currents because they
com e from the cold high latitude areas w hile west
boundary currents are warm surface ocean currents
as they com e from the warm tropical oceans.
Thus, the typ ical circular pattern o f flow s o f
ocean w ater o f equatorial w arm ocea n s through
w estw ard flo w in g warm equatorial currents to
w est boundary currents —►to eastw ard travelling
currents under the in flu en ce o f w esterlies and
c o rio lis d e fle c tiv e force and back —►to equatorial
ocean s through c o ld east boundary currents (fig-
1 0 . 1) is ca lled ocean circulation gyre or simply
gyre. In all, there are 5 circu la tio n g y res, 2 each in
SURFACE O CEA N CU RREN TS
the Atlantic, P acific and one in Indian Oceans.
There are also tw o less developed additional
gyres, nam ely subpolar gyre (marked by 6 in fig.
10.1) and circum -A ntarctic Ocean gyres.
A tlan tic O c e a n
( 1 ) N o rth A tlantic s u b tro p ic a l gyre
form ed by north equatorial current, w est
boundary current o f G u lf Stream, north
A tlantic current and Canary cold current
(east boundary current).
( 2 ) S o u th A tlan tic s u b tro p ic a l gyre
form ed by south equatorial warm current,
B razil warm current (w est boundary cur­
rent), w est w ind drift, and B enguela cold
current (east boundary current).
Pacific O c e a n
( 3 ) N o r th Pacific su b tro p ica l gyre
surrounded by north equatorial warm
current, Kuroshio warm current (west
boundary current), north Pacific warm
current, and California cool current (east
boundary current).
( 4 ) S o u th Pacific su b tro p ica l gyre
sourrounded by warm south equatorial
current, east Australia warm current (w est
boundary current), w est wind drift, and
cold Peru current (east boundary current).
Indian O c e a n
( 5 ) I n d ia n O cean su b tro p ic a l gyre
surrounded by south equatorial warm
current, Agulhas warm current (west boundary
current), w est w ind drift, and w est Austral­
ian cold current (east boundary current).
The centre o f all the aforesaid gyres is
characterized by o c e a n w a te r m o u n d s (h ills) w hich
are higher by about one meter than the peripheral
areas o f the gyres. Thus, pressure gradient is
oriented from the center o f the gyre towards its
periphery. This causes m ovem ent o f ocean water
from the central water m ounds towards the
peripheral w a te r v a lle y . Such flow o f water is very
much com plicated due to coriolis deflection. This
aspect w ill be discussed in subsequent headings.
It may be m entioned that the centers o f these
gyres, say central water m ounds, coin cid e with
30° latitude in both the hem ispheres.
A s m entioned above the subtropical gyres,
which is in fact Marge circular-m oving loop o f
w ater’ rotates in clo ck w ise direction in the
northern hem isphere and in anti-clockw ise direc­
tion in the southern hem isphere.
S u b p o la r c irc u la tio n g y re s are produced due
to the com bined effects o f polar easterlies and
coriolis deflection. The true subpolar gyre has
developed only in the Northern A tlantic Ocean
(fig. 10.1) betw een eastern Greenland and north­
w est Europe. This gyre is surrounded by East
Greenland current and N orw egian current but all
the currents are cold currents. The subpolar gyres
are poorly developed in the P acific and Indian
Oceans. The circum -Antarctic subpolar gyre is
the most extensive as it passes through the
Atlantic, Pacific and Indian O ceans (fig. 10.1).
(2) Ekman Spiral and Ekman Transport
V. W alfrid Ekman, a Scandinavian p h y si­
cist, developed a m athematical m odel o f d e fe c ­
tion o f surface ocean currents relative to w ind
direction caused by c o rio lis d e fle c tio n , in the year
1902. Later on this m odel o f deflection o f surface
ocean currents was named E k m a n s p ir a l and the
transport o f ocean water as E k m a n t r a n s p o r t in the
honour o f Ekman. The theoretical m od el d em o n ­
strates the deflection o f surface ocean currents
from the direction o f currents-generating w ind s.
According to Ekman the surface w'ater o f the
ocean, w hen set in m otion by the w ind, is
deflected to the right o f the direction o f the
current-generating w ind at alm ost 45° angle in the
northern hem isphere, and to the left o f the w ind
direction in the southern hem isphere. The m odel
further states that the speed o f each su ccessiv e
low er layer o f ocean water decreases in response
to the downward decrease o f frictional force o f
current-generating w ind. The frictional force o f
the w ind becom es alm ost zero at the depth o f 1 0 0
to 2 0 0 m eters and hence the subsurface m ovem ent
o f ocean water stops.
Let us explain this m odel w ith the help o f
figure 10.2. The w ind sets the surface water o fth e
ocean in m otion through its friction w ith the
surface o f oceans caused by w ind-drag. The
resultant m ovem ent o f surface water o f the ocean
268

does not fo llo w the direction o f wind but is
d eflected to the right o f the wind direction at the
angle o f 45° (fig. 10.2 A) in the northern
hem isphere and to the left in the southern
hem isphere. The frictional force o f current
generating wind is slightly slow ed down in the
subsequent low er layers o f ocean water (B in fig.
1 0 . 2 ) and hence the speed o f the lower layer lying
below the surface layer A is also slow ed down.
The direction o f the flow o f water in B layer is
deflected to the right o f the direction o f the
m ovem ent o f water in the layer lying above (A).
This process continues till the current generating
force o f the wind becom es either zero or
negligible. In other words,
layer o f ocean water upto the depth
meters m oves forward with less speed than
upper layer and is deflected to its right (in the
northern hemisphere in relation to the direction o f
m ovem ent o f water in the layer lyin g above it with
increasing depth o f water and are deflected to the
left in the southern hem isphere. Figure 10.2
show s that A is deflected to the right o f wind
direction, B is deflected to the right o f A, C is
deflected to the right o f B and so on in the northern
hemisphere. A ll these result in the formation o f
s p ira lin g c u r r e n t w hich is called E k m a n s p ira l.

Direction of
wind 4 5 *
Direction of
Net w a te r Surface
tra n s p o rt current
(bulk of Net water
w a te r) transport
+ / Ekman
90° transport

Fig. 10.2 : Ekman spiral and Ekman transport in the northern hemisphere. A, B, C, D etc. denote successive l o w e r layer m
water depth zone o f100-200 meters. The lengths of arrow denoting direction ofwaterflcnv. (A, B, C, D...........®
are in proportion to decreasing speed ofwaterflow with increasing depth. H denotes opposite direction to current
generating wind direction (CGD). Source : P. R .Pinet, 2000.

It is thus evident from above d iscussion and
figure 1 0 . 2 that each su ccessiv e low er water layer
p asses the w ind energy downward but this energy
d ecreases downward. C onsequently, velo city o f
w ater flo w o f each su ccessiv e low er layer also
decreases dow nward. Each low er layer’s dtree~
tion o f water flo w is d eflected to the right o f the g
flo w direction o f the w ater layer ly in g ju st above
it in the northern hem isphere w h ile the f t o *
direction is d eflected to the left in the soothe*51 j
 SURFACE OCEAN CU RREN TS
hem isphere. This p ro cess o f d e fle c tio n s o f flo w
direction o f each s u c c e s s iv e w a ter layer co n tin u es
upto a certain depth w h ere the flo w d irection
becom es o p p o site to the d irectio n o f current
generating w in d (fig . 1 0 .2 ). T hus , ‘the Ekman
spiral d escrib es the sp eed and d irectio n o f flo w o f
surface w aters at v a rio u s d e p th s’ (Thurm an and
Trujillo, 19 9 9 ).
It m ay b e m en tio n ed that the w ater o f
individual la y ers m o v e s in d ifferen t d irectio n s but
the o v era ll d ire ctio n o f the bulk o f w ater m ass o f
all the la y ers o f su rfa ce current is a lm o st 9 0° to the
right o f the cu rren t-g en era tin g w in d in the
northern h em isp h ere. T h is is ca lled net tr a n s p o r t
(bulk transport) o f all the la y ers, w h ich m o v es at
the a n g le o f 9 0 ° to the right o f current-generating
w in d d ire ctio n in the northern h em isp h ere and to
the le ft in the sou thern h em isp h ere. T his net or
b u lk transport o f w ater o f all the layers is called
E k m an tra n sp o rt.
It m ay b e m en tio n ed that in real sen se, as
r e v e a le d b y ex p erim en ts in the ocean s, surface
currents are d e fle c te d at the an gle less than 45°,
and E km an transport takes p la ce at the angle o f
less than 9 0 °, w ith resp ect to current generating
w in d d ir e c tio n . U su a lly , the an gle o f Ekman
transport is ab ou t 70° from the direction o f
cu rren t-gen eratin g w in d .
(3) Geostrophic Circulation
G e o str o p h ic currents are secon d ary surface
currents w ith in su b tro p ica l circu la tio n gyres and
are the c o m b in e d e f f e c t s o f c o r io lis d eflec tio n ,
Ekman tran sport and g ra v ity or pressure gradient.
As stated a b o v e th e p r e v a ilin g w in d s and co rio lis
d eflection c a u s e a lm o st circu lar m o v em en t o f
surface o c e a n cu rren ts in su b trop ical reg io n s o f
the o cea n s. T h is la rg e circu la r lo o p o f m o v in g
water is c a lle d c ir c u la tio n gy re (fig . 1 0 . 1 ) w h ich
has d ev elo p e d in all th e o c e a n s (alread y ela b o ­
rated). T h is g y re is ch a ra cterized by c lo c k -w is e
circulation o f w ater (g e o str o p h ic currents) in the
northern h em isp h ere and a n ti-c lo c k w ise in the
southern h em isp h ere. It m ay b e m en tio n ed that
Ekman transport m o v e s the w ater to the right ol
trade w in d s (n orthw ard in the northern h em i­
sphere and sou th w ard in the southern hem isp h ere,
at 9 0° a n g le) and the w e ste r ly w in d s (southw ard
or equatorw ard in the northern h em isp h ere, and
northward or equatorw ard in the southern h em i­
sphere at 9 0 ° a n g le). T h is w ater circu lation in
o p p o site d irectio n s w ith in the circu lation gyre
results in the c o n v e r g e n c e o f w ater m ass w hich
cau ses p ilin g o f w ater m a ss in the cen ter o f gyre.
T his his ca lled w a te r m o u n d or w a te r hill (fig 10.3).
T he w ater m o v es d o w n the s lo p e o f w ater m ound
under the force o f g ra v ity fo llo w in g the d irection
o f pressure gradient (sh o w n b y PG in fig. 10.3) but
the co rio lis force d eflec ts the w ater, w h ich flo w s
dow n the w ater h ill, to the right. T h u s, the gravity
force alw ays acts to m o v e w ater d ow n the slo p e o f
w ater hill. In other w ord s, g ravity a lw a y s k eep s
the w ater aw ay from the w ater h ill. On the other
hand, co rio lis e ffe c t co n tin u es to p ush the w ater
into water h ill through curved path. It is, thus,
evident that tw o o p p o sin g fo rces (g ra v ity and
co rio lis effect) are en g a g ed in m o v in g the w ater
aw ay from the w ater h ill (g ra v ity force) and
towards the w ater h ill (c o r io lis fo rce). W hen th ese
tw o op p osite fo rces are b alan ced , the w ater m o v e s
along the contours o f w ater h ill i.e. around the
center o f gyre. T his circular m o tion o f w ater
around the w ater h ill in the gyre is ca lled
geostrophic circulation (fig . 10.3) or g eo stro p h ic
c u rre n t.
It m ay be m en tion ed that th eo retica lly in
geostrop h ic circu lation w ater p articles m o v e
parallel to the contours o f w ater h ill in the gyre (as
sh ow n by TD in fig . 10.3) but actu a lly th is d o es
not happen b eca u se ‘due to friction b etw een w ater
m o lec u les, the w ater d o es co n v erg e and b u ild up,
but it gradually m o v es d ow n the slo p e o f the h ill
( o f w ater) as it flo w s arou n d ’ (Thurm an and
T rujillo, 1999). T he actual path fo llo w e d by
geostrop h ic currents (circu la tio n ) is sh ow n by A G
in figure 10.3.
(4) Western Intensification
It is ev id en t from fig . 10.3 that the appex o f
the w ater m ound (w ater h ill) is not in the center o f
the gyre, rather it is nearer to the w estern
boundary o f t h e gyre or the w estern boundary o f
o cean basins bordering the eastern m argin o f the
 Appex
Western side of gyre Eastern side of gyre,
closely spaced lines, t
hill (mound) of water surface widely spaced lines, gentle
steep gradient, fast gradient, slow speed of
speed of surrface surface current
current

CD = Coriolis deflection (coriolis e ffe c t) PG = pressure gradient (gravity force)

TD - Theoretical path of geostrophic circulationAG = actual path of geostrophic circulation

Fig. 10.3 : Geostrophic circulation in the center ofthe gyre. CD = coriolis deffective force, PG = pressure gradient force
(gravity), TG = theoretical path of geostrophic current, AG = actual path ofgeotrophic current. The western part
ofthe diagram denotes western margin ofthe ocean basin where steep gradient ofthe central mound o f water
in the gyre is denoted by closely spaced lines whereas the eastern part ofthe water mound is characterized by
gentle gradient as indicated by widely spaced lines.

continents because the shape o f the water mound
is asym m etrical as is indicated by steep gradient
on the w estern sid e and gentle gradient in the
eastern sid e. This situation is responsible for the
narrow w idth and faster v elo city o f western
b o u n d a r y s u rf a c e c u r r e n ts (for exam ple, G ulf
Stream in the case o f subtropical North Atlantic
gyre). On the other hand, the gentle gradient ofth e
eastern sid e o f w ater m ound provides ample space
betw een the appex o f w ater m ound and eastern
margin o f the ocean basin because o f greater
distance b etw een the appex o f water mound and
eastern m argin o f the ocean basins. This situation
results in greater w idth but slow er velocity o f
e a ste rn b o u n d a r y su rfa c e c u r r e n ts (for exam ple,
Canary current in the subtropical North A tlantic
gyre). T hese anom alous characteristics o f w est
and east boundary surface currents are validated
from the data o f w idths and v elo cities o f these
currents in the subtropical gyres given in table
10.1. Thus, the high v elo city o f w est boundary
surface currents in the w estern arms (w estern
parts) o f the circulation gyres in all o f the
subtropical gyres whether in the northern or the
southern hem isphere is called w e s te rn b o u n d a ry
intensification or sim ply w e stern in te n sific a tio n . I t is,
thus, evident that all the w est boundary surface
currents o f all the subtropical circulation gyres in
both the hem ispheres are w e stern intensified.
3. Factors Related to the Oceans
Local variations in the ph ysical properties
o f the oceans, nam ely pressure gradient, tempera­
ture differences, salinity variations, density vari­
ations etc. generate both surface and deep ocean
currents. The fo llo w in g 3 factors are exclusively
related to the oceans, w hich help in the generation
o f ocean currents :
>■ temperature variation,
>* salinity variation, and
>■ density variation.
 SURFACE OCEAN CURRENTS

lo c a tio n and type width depth speed Transport o f volum e

o f boundary currents (km ) (km ) (m /sec) o f water (sv)

1. Western boundary currents < 100 km l-2 k m > 1.5m /sec > 50 sv
(hundreds o f
Exam ples : kilometers per
G u lf Stream day)
Brazil current
K uroshio current
2. Eastern boundary currents > 1 ,0 0 0 km < 0.5km < 0.3m /sec 10-15 sv
(tens o f kilometers
E xam ples : per day)
Canary current
B en gu ela current
C alifornia current

One sv = one m illion cubic meters per second

sv = rate o f transport o f volum e o f ocean water is named in the honour o f famous oceanographer H .V .
Sverdrup.

Temperature Variation o f ocean water. The G ulf Stream and K uroshio

The am ount o f insolation received at the
earth’s surface and consequent temperature de­
creases from equator towards the pole. Due to high
temperature in the equatorial region the water
density d ecrea ses because o f greater expansion o f
water p articles w hereas the density o f sea water
becom es com p aratively greater in the polar areas.
C onsequently, w ater m oves due to expasion o f
volum e from equatorial region ( o f higher tem ­
perature) to polar areas (cold er areas) o f relatively
very lo w tem perature. There is m ovem ent o f
ocean w ater b elo w the water surface in the form o f
subsurface current from colder polar areas to
warmer equatorial areas in order to balance the
lo ss o f w ater in the equatorial areas. Thus, the
polew ard surface current and equatorward subsur­
face currents form a com plete circulatory system
warm currents m oving from equator towards
north are exam ples o f such currents.
Salinity Variation
Oceanic salinity affects the density o f
ocean water and density variation causes ocean
currents. Salinity increases the density o f ocean
water. If two areas having equal temperature are
characterized by varying salinity, the area o f high
salinity w ill have greater density than the area o f
low salinity. The denser water sinks and m oves as
subsurface current whereas less saline water
m oves towards greater saline water as surface
current. In other words, ocean currents on the
water surface are generated from the areas o f less
salinity to the areas o f greater salinity. Such
system o f surface and sub-surface currents caused
 272
b y s a lin ity variation is originated in open and
o s e d se a s. For exam ple, the current flow in g
o m the A tla n tic O cean to the M editerranean Sea
v ia G ibralter Strait is caused because o f salinity
feren ce. fact> the salinity o f the M editerra­
n ean S ea is m uch higher than the adjoining
A tla n tic O cean . C onsequently, water sinks in the
M ed iterranean Sea. In order to com pensate the
lo s s o f w ater A tlantic water flow s as surface
current into the M editerranean Sea. The sinking
w ater in the M editerranean Sea m oves as subsur­
fa c e current towards the A tlantic Ocean. Sim i­
larly, su ch system o f surface and subsurface
currents is generated betw een the Red Sea and the
A rabian S ea via Babel M andeb Strait. The salinity
o fth e B a ltic Sea is low ered due to the flow o f fresh
w ater by the rivers but the lev el o f water is raised.
W ith the result water m oves northward as a
surface current into the North Sea and subsurface
current m o v es from the North Sea to the Baltic
Sea.
Density Variation
In fact, difference in the density o f oceanic
water is the m ain cause for the m ovem ent o f
ocean ic w ater as ocean currents. Water density
depends on a number o f factors e.g. temperature,
salin ity, pressure etc. In other w ords, density is
the function o f temperature, air pressure and
salin ity. A s a rule, water m oves from the areas o f
low er d en sity to the areas o f higher density. The
den sity variation caused by temperature and
salin ity and resultant m ovem ent o f oceanic water
as ocean current has been explained just above.
The density o f water also decreases due to influx
o f fresh w ater resulting from m elting o f ice in the
polar areas. H igh density is caused due to
sig n ifican tly very lo w insolation in the polar areas
but at som e p laces density is low ered due to influx
o f m elt-w ater. C onsequently, cold water m oves as
co o l current from polar areas towards the equator.
East G reenland current is supposed to be caused
by this factors.
It m ay be pointed out that the factors o f
pressure, tem perature, salinity and density should
be con sid ered together and not separately. It may
be sum m arized that low density water is lighter
y-m
OCEANOGRAFJfy f
and hence expands and m oves forward as surface 1
current towards high density water where there is
sinking o f water. The high density water then
m oves as subsurface current from greater density
to lesser density b elow the water surface.
4. Factors Related to the Atmosphere-Ocean
Interactions
Ocean currents are greatly influenced and
controlled by atm ospheric conditions like atmos­
pheric pressure and resultant pressure gradients,
w ind direction and speed, evaporation, precipita­
tion etc. The effects o f atm ospheric pressure and
air circulation on ocean currents have already
been explained under the heading o f ‘planetary
winds and wind d r a g ’.
The pressure gradient in oceanography
relates to the difference in the heights o f water
surface. The ocean surface is seldom flat, rather it
is undulating characterized by w a te r mounds or
w a te r hills having higher le v el o f water surface,
and w a te r valleys o f low er water level. The
difference o f heights betw een water mounds and
water valleys is generally o f one meter. Thus
pressure is directed from the crests o f water
mounds (hills) towards water va lley s. This is
called pressure gradient w hich is the product of
the follow in g :
PG = pgh
w here = p is pressure
g is gravity acceleration
h is height o f water
This results in the circulation o f water down
the slope o f water m ounds (h ills). In other words,
water m oves from the water m ounds towards the
water v a lley s fo llo w in g pressure gradient. All the
c irc u la tio n gyres (subtropical and subpolar circula­
tion gyres, sea figs. 10.1 and 10.3) have central
water m ounds. The dow nhill circulation of
surface water is d eflected to the right in the
northern hem isphere and to the left in the s o u th e rn
hem isphere by coriolis d eflectiv e f o r c e a n d hence
the water circulation fo llo w s curved paths arouad
the water mound. Thus, the water circulation i#
each circulation gyre in the northern h e m is p h ^
 SURFACE OCEAN CURRENTS
rotates in clockw ise direction, and anti-clockwise
in the southern hemisphere. This aspect has
already been explained in the above headings o f
g e o s t r o p h ic c irc u la tio n and w e ste rn b o u n d a ry in te n si­
fication.
Evaporation and Rainfall
The sea water level becom es relatively
higher in the areas o f low evaporation and high
rainfall than those areas which record low rainfall
but high evaporation. In fact, evaporation and
rainfall are also related to oceanic salinity and
density. L ow evaporation coupled with high
rainfall low ers the amount o f salinity and thus
reduces water density. This mechanism results in
the rise o f sea level. On the other hand, high
evaporation and low rainfall increases salinity
and water density and thus lowers the sea level.
Thus, surface ocean currents are generated from
the area o f high water level to the area o f low water
lev el. O cean currents are originated near the
equator because o f high water level caused by
excep tion ally heavy daily rainfall and relatively
low evaporation. Thus, ocean currents after being
originated in low latitudes m ove towards high
latitudes. O cean currents are also generated in
polar areas due to high water level resulting from
low evaporation due to exceptionally low tem­
perature and abundance o f water due to melting o f
ice m ass. T hese polar cofd currents m ove towards
low latitudes.
(B) FACTORS OFTHE MODIFICATIONS OF OCEAN
CURRENTS
M od ification s in the ocean currents are
primarily related to changes and deflection o f
ocean currents, flo w v e lo city and flow volum e,
and width o f ocean currents. The direction o f
ocean currents is determ ined, m odified and
deflected by prevailing w inds, rotation o f the
earth and resultant coriolis effect (these factors
have already b een explained above), configura­
tion o f coast lin es and bottom reliefs o f the ocean
basins, w h ile the w idth, flo w v elocity and flow
volum e are prim arily determ ined by the asym m e­
273
try o f w a te r m ounds in the subtropical circulation
gyres (this aspect has already been discussed in
the heading, western boundary intensification and
the facts o f characteristic features o f western and
eastern boundary currents have been given in
table 10.1). Thus, only the effects o f the following
factors on ocean currents are discussed here :
>- configuration o f coastlines,
>■ bottom reliefs o f ocean basins, and
seasonal variations.
Configuration of Coastlines
Direction, shape and configuration o f coastlines
deflect the surface ocean currents which strike the
coasts. Configuration o f the coasts means inden­
tations characterized by headlands and embayments,
depositional features like bars, barriers and
beaches, nature o f shoreline such as shoreline o f
submergence and emergence, position o f islands
etc. The disposition o f coastline perpendicular to
the natural flow direction o f surface ocean
currents obstructs them (currents) with the result
surface ocean currents are some time bifurcated
and turn in opposite directions and flow parallel to
coastlines. The south equatorial current after
being obstructed by the Brazilean coasts o f South
America is bifurcated in two branches e.g.
northern branch and southern branch (fig. 10.4). It
is to be remembered that originally south equato­
rial current flows in westerly direction parallel to
the equator. The northern branch, known as G ulf
Stream, flow s along the eastern coasts o f the U SA
while the southern branch flow s southward in the
name o f Brazil current along the east coasts o f
South America. The Indian Penisula largely
controls the surface ocean currents which flow
along the coastline o f India, though the direction
o f currents is determined by the directions o f S.W.
and N.E. m onsoon winds. The south equatorial
currents in the Indian Ocean are deflected
southward due to obstructions created by Mada­
gascar and east coasts o f Africa. The S.W.
m onsoon ocean currents follow almost southerly
direction along the w est coast o f peninsular India
but are turned north and north-eastward by the
southern tip o f Indian Peninsula and Sri Lanka but
 274 OCEANOGRAPHY

after entering the B ay o f B engal they again turn Oceans but they have poorly d evelop ed in the
southw ard due to obstruction offered by w est Antarctic Ocean (Southern O cean) and Arctic
co a sts o f M ynmar. Ocean. There are dense network o f surface ocean
currents in the P acific and the A tlantic O ceans in
Bottom Reliefs of Ocean Basins comparison to the Indian O cean because o f vast
stretches o f the former tw o ocean s in both the
hem ispheres w hile Indian O cean has compara­
The irregularities o f the bottom reliefs o f
tively less areal extent to the north o f equator.
the ocean basins m odify the surface ocean
This is w hy the P acific and A tlantic Oceans have
currents above pycnocline layer and deep ocean
two w ell developed c ir c u la tio n g y re s each (north
currents b elo w pycnoclin e layer. A ccording to
and south subtropical gyres in both, the Pacific
Ekm an the ocean currents tend to follow the
and Atlantic O ceans), w h ile there is only one
bottom contours in the m iddle and high latitudes circulation gyre to the south o f equator in Indian
but they are independent o f bottom reliefs in the Ocean. The significan t surface ocean currents o f
lo w latitudes. The submarine ridges usually the oceans are as fo llo w s :
d eflect the course o f currents. Generally, the
ocean currents w hile crossing over a sub-marine
1. Atlantic Ocean
ridge are deflected to the right in the northern
hem isphere and to the left in the southern
North Equatorial Current (warm)
hem isphere. For exam ple, the North Atlantic Drift
(the extension o f the G u lf Stream) is deflected to (1) A n tilles current
the right w hen it crosses over the W yville (2) Caribbean current
Thom pson R idge. Sim ilarly, the north equatorial South Equatorial Current
current is deflected to the right w hile crossing
Counter Equatorial Current
over the m id-A tlantic R idge. The Antarctic
G u lf Stream system
Circum Polar Current, to the south and south-w est
o f N ew Zealand, bends sharply north and south ( 1) Florida current
w hen it crosses M acquarie Ridge. (2) G u lf Stream
(3) North A tlantic Current (drift)
Seasonal Variation
(A ) northern branch - Norway
There is seasonal change in the directions o f current
currents in som e areas in response to seasonal (B ) southern branch - Irminger
change in w eather conditions e.g. in the regions o f current
m onsoon clim ate as the currents o f the Indian
(C) eastern branch
Ocean show seasonal changes in their flow
directions. The m onsoon drifts (currents) m ove (i) currents o f Mediterra­
east to w est along the coast during north-east nean Sea
m onsoon in w inter season w hile these flow in (ii) R ennel current
north-eastern direction under the influence o f (iii) w est w ind drift
south-w est m onsoon in sum m er season.
Labrador Current (co ld )
Brazil Current (warm )
10.4 SURFACE CURRENTS O F TH E
ATLANTIC OCEANS Falkland Current (co ld )
South A tlantic Drift (cold )
D efin ite patterns o f surface circulations Canary Current (co ld )
have d eveloped in the A tlantic, P acific and Indian B enguela Current (cold )
 SURFACE OCEAN CURRENTS

2. Pacific Ocean gyre is surrounded by four major surface currents

e.g. equatorial currents, western boundary cur­
North Equatorial P acific current (warm) rents (G u lf Stream in the case o f northern Atlantic
Counter equatorial current gyre and Brazil current in the case o f southern
Atlantic gyre), north-east and eastward (in the
South Equatorial current
North Atlantic) and south-east and eastward (in
K uroshio system the South A tlantic) flow in g currents (North
(1) K uroshio current Atlantic current and W est W ind Drift in the North
(2) K uroshio extension and South Atlantic Ocean respectively), and
eastern boundary currents such as Canary current
(3) North P acific drift
(North Atlantic) and B enguela current (South
(4) T sushim a current Atlantic Ocean). Each circulation gyre has cen ­
(5) C ounter-K uroshio current trally located w a te r m o u n d or w a te r h ill having
O yashio Current (cold) asynmetrical shape i. e. the eastern side has gentle
gradient w hile the western side has steep gradient
C alifornia Current (cold) (fig. 10.3). Thus, the ocean currents flo w in g to the
Peru Current (cold) w est o f water mound or in the w estern arm o f the
El N in o or Counter Current (warm) gyre are narrow in width but sw ift in v e lo city .
This is called w e ste rn b o u n d a r y in te n s ific a tio n . G u lf
E ast A ustralia Current (warm)
Stream is an exam ple o f w estern boundary current
W est W ind Drift (cold) in the subtropical North Atlantic gyre. On the
other hand, the eastern arm has wider ocean area
3. Indian O cean and hence the eastern boundary current is w id e but
slow in velocity. The Canary current is the
N orth-E ast M onsoon Current (warm) exam ple o f east boundary current in the subtropi­
Indian Counter-Current (warm) cal North Atlantic gyre (fig. 10.1). The subtropi­
Sou th -W est M onsoon Current (warm) cal circulation o f the South Atlantic O cean (fig .
1 0 . 1 ) is formed by westward flo w in g south
Indian Equatorial Current (warm)
equatorial current, Brazil current (w estern b ou nd­
M ozam biqu e Current (warm) ary current), W est W ind drift and B en g u ela
W est W ind D rift (cold ) current (eastern boundary current). The subtropi­
cal circulation gyre rotates in clo ck w ise direction
A gu lh as current (cold )
in the northern A tlantic O cean and a n ti-clo ck w ise
W est A ustralia current (cold ) direction in the southern A tlantic O cean. Such
circulation o f water around water m ound is called
4. Antarctic (S o u th e rn ) O cean g e o s tro p h ic c irc u la tio n w herein water particles
m ove along the contours o f water m ound (fig .
A ntarctic C ircum Gyre 10.3). G eostrophic circulation o f surface water
East W ind D rift results where the coriolis force and gravity force
are balanced.
W est W ind D rift
The fo llo w in g are the significan t surface
currents o f the A tlantic O cean (fig . 1 0 .4 ):
10.5 SURFACE CURRENTS OF
ATLANTIC OCEAN
(1) North Equatorial Current (warm)

There are w e ll d evelop ed netw orks o f

surface currents in the A tlantic O cean. Tw o N orm ally, the north equatorial current is
subtropical circulation gyres have d evelop ed in the form ed betw een the equator and 10° N latitude.
North and South A tlan tic O cean. Each circulation This current is generated because o f up w ellin g o f
 • %■
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 SURFACE O C E A N C U R R E N T S
cold water near the w e st coast o f A frica and
movement o f w ater due to w ind drag and resultant
friction by N .E . trade w ind s w hich drive the
surface w ater tow ards the w est. Here coriolis
effect is alm ost zero due to high rotational speed
o f the earth. T his is w h y north equatorial A tlantic
current is seld o m d e fle c te d and thus flo w s in
w esterly direction. T his w arm current is also
pushed w estw ard b y the co ld Canary current. On
an average, the north equatorial warm current
flow s from east to w e st but this salin e current is
d eflected northw ard w h en it cro sses the m id-
A tlantic R id g e near 15°N latitude. It again turns
southward after c ro ssin g over the ridge. This
current, after b ein g obstructed b y the land barrier
o f the east c o a st o f B razil, is bifurcated into two
branches e.g. (i) A n tille s c u r r e n t , and (ii) C a r ib b e a n
c u r r e n t. T he A n tille s current is diverted northward
and flo w s to the east o f W est In d ies islands, and
h elp s in the form ation o f Sargasso Sea eddy w h ile
the secon d branch kn ow n as the C aribbean current
enters the G u lf o f M e x ic o and b eco m es G u lf
Stream (fig . 10.4).
(2) South Equatorial Current (warm )
South equatorial current flo w s from the
w estern c o a st o f A frica to the eastern coast o f
South A m e rica b e tw e en the equator and 20°S
latitude. T h is current is m ore constant, stronger
and o f greater ex te n t than the north equatorial
current. In fact, th is current is the contin uation o f
the B e n g u e la current. T h is w arm current is
bifurcated in to tw o b ran ch es due to obstruction o f
land barrier in th e form o f th e east co a st o f B razil.
The northw ard branch after tak in g n orth -w esterly
course m e r g es w ith the north equatorial current
near T rinidad w h ile the se c o n d branch turns
southward and c o n tin u e s as B ra zil warm current
parallel to the e a st c o a st o f Sou th A m erica. T his
current is b a s ic a lly o rig in a ted under the stress o f
trade w in d s.
(3) C ounter-equatorial C urrent (w arm )
T he cou n ter eq u atorial current flo w s from
w est to ea st in b e tw e e n the w estw ard flo w in g
strong north and so u th eq u atorial currents. T his
277
current is less developed in the w est due to stress
o f trade winds. In fact, the counter current m ixes
with the equatorial currents in the w est but it is
more developed in the east where it is known as
the G uinea S tre a m . The counter equatorial current
carries relatively higher temperature and lower
density than the two equatorial currents. Several
ideas have been put forth to explain the origin o f
the counter equatorial current. According to som e
scientists this current is originated because o f the
influence o f e q uatorial westerlies w hich blow from
w est to east in the calm zone o f the d o ld ru m or in
the convergence zone o f the north-east and south­
east trade winds. It is argued that south-w est
m onsoon winds develop in the zone o f equatorial
calm (doldrum) during northern summers. These
equatorial w esterlies drag the waters and force
them to flow from w est to east under their
influence. This concept is disputed on the ground
that the counter equatorial current is all year
phenom enon. In other words, it flow s throughout
the year w hile the m onsoon winds (say equatorial
w esterlies) in the equatorial calm zone disappear
during winter season. According to another v iew
the counter equatorial current is originated due to
piling up o f im m ense volum e o f water because o f
the convergence o f the two great equatorial warm
currents near the coast o f Brazil. The piling up o f
water raises the water level and hence water flow s
eastward as com pensation c u rr e n t upto the G u lf o f
Guinea.
(4) Gulf Stream System (warm)
The G u lf Stream is a system o f several
currents m oving in north-easterly direction. This
current system originates in the G u lf o f M exico
around 2 0 °N latitude and m oves in north-easterly
direction along the eastern coast o f North
A m erica and reaches the w estern coasts o f Europe
near 70°N latitude. This system , nam ed G u lf
Stream because o f its origin in the M exican G ulf,
co n sists o f (i) Florida current from the strait o f
Florida to Cape Hatteras, (ii) G u lf Stream from
Cape Hatteras to the Grand Bank, and (iii) North
A tlantic D rift (current) from Grand Bank to the
W estern European coast.
 278
0) Florida Current
Florida current is in fact, the northward
ex ten sio n o f the north equatorial current. This
current flo w s through Yucatan channel into the
G u lf o f M exico, thereafter the current m oves
forward through Florida Strait and reaches 30° N
latitude. Thus, the Florida warm current contains
m ost o f the characteristics o f the equatorial water
m ass. The average temperature o f water at the
surface is 75°F (2 4 °C) w hile the salinity is 36%o.
The temperature never falls b elow 43.7°F (6.5°C )
at 39°N latitude. The current becom es narrow
w h ile passing through the Florida Strait but
thereafter its width increases and the current
flow s clo se to the coast. The current is about 30
nautical m iles (55 km) aw ay from the coast near
A ugustine and it is 85 nautical m iles (156 km ) o ff
the coast near 15°N latitude but the current com es
very clo se to the coast near Cape Hatteras where
it is only 10-20 nautical m iles (18.4k m to 36.8km )
aw ay from the coast. There is w ide range o f
variation in the width o f the Florida current at
different places. Its width is 30 nautical m iles
(55k m ) in the Florida strait, 60 nautical m iles (110
km ) near Cape Canaveral and 120 to 150 nautical
m iles (2 2 0 to 275km ) at Charleston. Further
northward this current is join ed by the A ntilles
current, a branch o f the north equatorial current,
near 3 0 °N latitude. The origin o f Florida current is
attributed to the p i l i n g up o f im m ense volum e o f
water in the G u lf o f M ex ic o due to pow erful trade
w inds. Thus, the w ater is forced to m ove out o f
Florida Strait. The annual average v e lo city o f
Florida current is about 72 m iles per day but it
b eco m es 100 to 120 m ile s per day in January
and June. A c c o r d in g to W ust the d isch a rg e o f
Florida current p a s sin g through F lorid a Strait is
26 m illio n m 3 per se c o n d or 1 0 0 b illio n ton s o f
w ater p a sse s per hour th rou gh F lorid a Strait.
The latest M easu rem en t has r e v e a le d that the
v o lu m e o f w ater carried by F lorid a current
so m e tim e s e x c e e d s 35 m illio n cu b ic m eters per
average v e lo c ity in the o p en o cea n is 1 0 to 15
sec o n d (3 5 sverdrup ). O ne sverdrup (n am ed
m iles per day. It attains the v e lo c ity o f 72 m iles
after fam ou s o cean ograp h er Sverdrup) is eq u al
per day near N e w Y ork but it slo w s dow n to 30
to o n e m illio n cu b ic m eters o f w ater per
m iles per day further eastw ard. T he G u lf Stream
sec o n d .
lo s e s its origin al characteristics near 4 0 °N lati-
(ii) Gulf Stream
G u lf Stream w as d isco v ered for the first
tim e by P once d e L eon in the year 1513 A .D . The
G u lf Stream is the w estern boundary current o f the
subtropical N orth A tlan tic c ir c u la tio n g y re having
narrow width o f w ater m ass and v ery fast, rather
fastest surface ocean current as a result o f the
w e stern b o u n d a r y i n te n s if ic a tio n . T he average width
o f the current ranges b etw een 50 to 75 km and the
depth is 1.5 k ilom eters. The v e lo c ity o f G ulf
Stream ranges from 3 to 10 k ilo m eters per hour. It
m ay be m entioned that the G u lf Stream is the
fastest surface ocean current o f all o f the
oceans.
The Florida current after h a v in g the water
o f A n tille s current is k n o w n as G u lf Stream
beyond Cape Hatteras. T his current is very wide
and warm and is separated from the S a r g a s s o sea to
its right (in the east) and r e la tiv ely c o ld w ater near
the coast to its left. T he tem perature o f w ater near
the coast ranges betw en 4 ° and 1 0°C . This zone o f
cold water b etw een the co a st and the G u lf Stream
is called cold w all. The e x iste n c e o f this cold w all
o f cold w ater neai the eastern c o a st o f the U S A is
attributed to m any factors. S o m e scien tists opine
that strong w esterly w in d s drive the warm waters
o f the coast eastw ard and c o o l w aters o f the cold
Labrador current m o v e south erw rd along the
coast upto Cape H atteras, w h ile so m e scientists
b eliev e that the co ld w ater o f th e G u lf o f St.
Law rence is d e fle c te d sou th w ard along the
eastern coast o f the U S A . T he G u lf Stream carries
warm w ater northward into the c o ld w ater o f high
latitudes and thus m o d ifie s the w eath er conditions
o f the adjoinin g areas. T he G u lf Stream generally
fo llo w s the co a st lin e but it is d e fle c te d eastward
at 4 0 °N latitude due to the in flu e n c e o f w esterlies
and d e fle c tiv e force o f the ea rth 5s rotation
(co rio lis e ffe ct). Further northw ard this current is
divided into sev era l branches k n o w n as the D elti
o f th e Gulf S t r e a m . T he m ain north -easterly branch
is still ca lled G u lf Stream . T here is w id e range o f
variation in the v e lo c ity o f the current. The
SURFACE OCEAN CURRENTS 279

tude b e c a u s e it m ixes with the cold Labrador
c u rre n t. This c u r r e n t transports 7 4 to 93 million
o f water per second to the north o f Chesapeake
Bay. The inversion o f temperature (warmer air
above cool air) caused due to the covergence o f
warm G ulf Stream and cold Labrador current near
Newfoundland results in the formation o f dense
fogs w hich present effective obstructions in the
navigation o f ships.
The G u lf Stream follow s a meandering
course after Cape Hatteras (fig. 10.5). Several
rings o f rotating water are separated from the
meandering course o f the G ulf Stream, These
rings are called w a rm c o re rin g s and cold co re rin g s.
( 1 ) W a rm co re rings are in fact water eddies or
vortices and are surrounded by the rings o f cold
water. These warm core rings thus have warm
water in the centre o f rings and cold water
surrounds the warm core. Warm core rings
located to the north o f G ulf Streams, rotate in
clockw ise direction. On the other hand, cold c o re
rin g s have cold water in the center o f rings
(eddies) and wrm water surrounds the cold core
rings, and rotates in counter-clockw ise direction.

G u lf o f M aine

United S ta te s of America

Cold w a te r

Warm W a rm C ore ring

Water
W a rm W a te r
Cape
H a tte ra s

W a rm
W a te r

Gulf of Mexico
Guif
^ S tre a m

Kg. 10.5: Meandering path of the GulfStream with cold core rings to its southern side and wa/m core rings to its northern
side. The cold core rings have cold water in the core and are surrounded by rings of warm water, while warm
core rings have warm water in the core and are surrounded by rings of cold water The GulfStream moves north-
eastward, while cold core rings, rotating in counter-clockwise direction, move in south-westerly direction to meet
the Gulf Stream. On the other hand, warm core rings rotate in north-easterly direction.
280
T h e c o ld core rings loctated to the south o f
G u lf Stream , are relatively narrow, diam eter
b e in g 5 0 0 k ilom eters, at the ocean surface but
w id e n s w ith increasing depth o f water. It is
sig n ifica n t to m ention that cold rings m ove in
so u th -w est direction i.e. in opposite direction o f
G u lf Stream , w hich m oves in north-east direction,
but th ese cold core rings are very sluggish in
m o tio n as daily rate o f their south westward
m o v em en t ranges betw een 3 and 7 kilom eters.
T he south-w estw ard m ovem ent allow s the cold
core rings to m erge with the G u lf Stream, and thus
they reinforce it (G u lf Stream) with additional
volu m e o f water (fig. 10.5) w hich w as earlier
withrawn by the core rings as they were detached
from the meanders o f G u lf Stream.
(iii) N orth A tlan tic C u rre n t
The G u lf Stream is divided into many
branches at 45° N latitude and 45°W longitude.
A ll the branches are co llectiv ely called as North
A tlantic D rift or current. (A ) N o rth e rn b ra n c h
m oves north-eastward. It undergoes major changes
because o f m ixin g o f co o l water o f the cold
Labrador current w ith its warm water. Though the
temperature and salin ity are significan tly reduced
yet it m aintains its main characteristics as warm
current. The v e lo city o f the current also de­
creases. This current is further divided into
several m inor branches, (a) One branch, know n as
N orw egian c u r r e n t , flo w s along the coast o f
N orway across W y v ille T hom pson R idge and
reaches the N orw egian Sea. (b) Second branch is
known as I r m in g e r c u r r e n t w hich flow s north and
north-westward upto the southern coast o f Ice­
land. (c) Third branch m oves tow ards the eastern
coast o f Greenland where it jo in s the Greenland
current. (B ) E a s te r n b r a n c h is com paratively
warmer than the northern branch. This branch
flow s in easterly direction and reaches the w estern
coasts o f France and Spain. This branch is also
divided into several sub-branches, (a) One branch
emers the Mediterranean Sea w h ile (b) the other
known as R ennell c u r r e n t (nam ed after
scientist Rermell), enters the B ay o f B isca y and
flow s upto the northern coasts o f France and
OCEANOGRAPHY
Spain. Rennell current is further divided into sub-
branches w herein one branch enters the English
Channel w hile the other branch after flow ing to
the south o f Iceland m erges w ith the North
A tlantic Current, (c) Third branch is the main
branch w hich flow s through the coasts o f Spain.
A zores etc. and reaches the w estern coast of
A frica to jo in the cold C anary current.
The G u lf Stream sy ste m la rg ely m od ifies
the w eather co n d itio n s o f the eastern co a sts o f the
U S A and the w estern co a sts o f E urope. The
tem peratures o f th ese co a sta l areas are 4®F higher
than the average tem peratures o f their latitudes.
G u lf Stream is resp o n sib le for un iq u e characteris­
tics o f W est European T yp e o f C lim ate. The
temperature o f the sou th -eastern and eastern USA
becom es ex ce p tio n a lly h ig h during summers
because the w in d s co m in g from o v er the G u lf
Stream bring m ore heat in th ese areas but the
eastern coastal areas o f the U S A are not b enefitted
by the G u lf Stream during w in ter b eca u se the
w inds are o f f shore (from the land tow ards
the A tlantic O cean). T he c o n v e r g e n c e o f warm
G u lf Stream and co ld Labrador current near
N ew foundland cau ses in v ersio n o f tem perature
w hich results in the form ation o f d en se fo g s w h ich
hinder sea transport.
(5) Canary Current (cold)
The Canary current, a c o ld current, flo w s
along the w estern coast o f north A fr ic a b etw een
M aderia and Cape V erde. In fact, th is current is
the continuation o f N orth A tla n tic D rift w hich
turns southward near the S p an ish c o a st and flo w s
to the south alon g the c o a st o f C anaries Island.
The average v e lo c ity o f th is current is 8 to 30
nautical m iles (9 .2 to 55 k ilo m e ter s) per day. This
current brings co ld w ater o f th e h ig h latitudes to
the warm w ater o f the lo w latitu d es and finally
m erges w ith the north equatorial current. The
Canary co ld current am elio ra tes th e oth erw ise hot
and h u m id w e a th e r c o n d it io n s o f the
w estern coasts o f N orth A frica . T his current is
the eastern boundary current w h ich form s the
eastern boundary o f the subtropical North Atlantic
gyre.
 S U R F A C E O C E A N C U R R E N T S
(6) Labrador Current (cold)
The Labrador current, an exam ple o f cold
c u rre n t, originates in the B affin Bay and Davis
Strait and after flow ing through the coastal waters
o f Newfoundland and Grand Bank merges with
the G ulf Stream around 50°W longitude. The flow
discharge rate o f the current is 7.5 m illion m 3 o f
water per second. This current brings with it a
large number o f big icebergs as far south as
Newfoundland and Grand Bank. These iceberges
present effective hindrances in the oceanic
navigation. D ense fogs are also produced due to
the convergence o f the Labrador cold current and
the G u lf Stream near Newfoundland.
(7) Brazil Current (warm)
The B razil current is characterized by high
temperature and high salinity. This current is
generated because o f the bifurcation o f the south
equatorial current because o f obstruction o f the
B razilean coast near Sun Rock. The northern
branch flo w s northward and merges with the north
equatorial current w hile the southern branch
know n as the Brazil current flow s southward
along the east coast o f South America upto 40°S
latitude. Thereafter it is deflected eastward due to
the d eflectiv e force o f the rotation o f the earth
(coriolis effect) and flow s in easterly direction
under the in flu en ce o f the w esterilies. The
F a lk la n d cold c u r r e n t com ing from the south
merges with the Brazil current near 40°S latitude.The
Brazil current, also know n as the w estern b o u n d a ry
c u rr e n t form s the w estern lim it o f the s u b tro p ica l
South A tla n tic gyre.
(8 ) Falkland Current (cold)
The cold w aters o f the Antarctic Sea flow s
in the form o f Falkland cold current from south to
north along the eastern coast o f South A m erica
upto Argentina. T his current b ecom es m ost
extensive and d evelop ed near 30°S latitude.
This current also brings num erous icebergs from
the Antarctic area to the South Am erican
coast.
(9) South Atlantic Drift (cold)
The eastward continuation o f the Brazil
current is called South Atlantic Drift. This current
is originated because o f the deflection o f the
Brazil warm current eastward at40°S latitude due
to the deflective force o f the rotation o f the earth
(coriolis effect). The South Atlantic Drift, thus,
flow s eastward under the influence o f the w ester­
lies. This current is also known as the W esterlies
Drift or the Antarctic Drift.
(10) Benguela Current (cold)
The B enguela current, a cold current, flo w s
from south to north along the western coast o f
south Africa. In fact, the South A tlantic D rift
turns northward due to obstruction caused by the
southern tip o f Africa. Further northward, this
current merges with the South Equatorial Current.
This current, also known as the e a ste rn b o u n d a r y
c u rre n t, forms the eastern lim it o f the s o u th e r n
subtropical Atlantic Ocean gyre.
Sargasso Sea
In tro d u c tio n : There is an anticyclon ic
circulation o f ocean currents com prising the north
equatorial current, the G u lf Stream and the
Canary current in the North A tlantic O cean. The
water confined in this gyral (gyre) is calm and
m otionless. Thus, the m otionless sea o f the said
gyral (gyre, figs. 10.1 and 10.4) is called Sargasso
Sea w hich is derived from the Portuguese w ord
‘sa rg a s s u m ’ meaning thereby sea w eed s. It m ay be
pointed out that sim ilar sargasso sea is not found
in the South A tlantic Ocean.
E x te n t : The extent o f the sargasso sea is
delineated on the basis o f the extent o f sea w eed s
and the gyral o f ocean currents. A ccording to
M anner the sargasso sea is found betw een 20°-40°
N latitudes and 35°-75° W longitudes. A ccording
to W ing the boundary is determ ined by 27° W
longitude in the east, by 20 aN longitude in the
south, by 40°N latitude in the north and by the
location o f the G u lf Stream in the w est.
 282
Origin , The origin o f the sargasso sen is
attributed to several factors:
»* The sizeable portion o f the waters of the
North Atlantic Ocean is confined in me
gyral system formed by the anticyclonic
circulation of the North Equatorial current,
the Gulf Stream and the Canary current and
thus the confined water does not have any
connection with remaining waters of the
ocean. Thus, the confined water becomes
calm and motionless.
»* The sargasso sea is located in the transition
zone o f the trade winds (N.H. Trades) and
the w esterlies. This zone is characterized
by the subsidence o f air from above and the
resultant anticyclonic conditions. Thus,
the anticyclonic conditions cause atm os­
pheric stability and hence there are very
feeble and calm w inds due to w hich there is
little m ixing o f confined water (sargasso
sea) w ith the rem aining waters o f the North
Atlantic Ocean.
>• The North A tlantic Ocean is less extensive
betw een 20°-40° N latitudes than other
oceans in the same latitudes.
>• The confined waters becom e calm due to
higher velo city o f the North Equatorial
Current and the G u lf Stream.
M a in : The sargasso sea
C h a r a c te r is tic s
records the high est salinity (37%o) o f the Atlantic
O cean due to high temperature and evaporation.
The salin ity is also increased because o f no
m ixing o f the water o f the sargasso sea with the
rem aining water o f the North A tlantic Ocean. The
mean annual temperature is 28°C. The sea is
covered w ith rootless sea w eeds w hich obstruct
navigation. There are contrasting opinions about
the extent and origin o f sargassum (sea w eed s).
According to one group the sea w eeds grow along
the banks o f A zores and Baham as and these are
brought by the sea w aves and w inds. A ccordin g to
another theory sea w eed s grow in the M exican
G ulf and these are brought by the G u lf Stream to
the sargasso sea. The third group b eliev es that the
sea w eeds o f the sargasso sea are floating plants
without roots.
10.6 SURFACE CURRENTS OF PACIFIC
The Pacific O cean, like the A tlan tic Ocean,
is also characterized by tw o w ell developed
circulation gyre, in the N orth and S outh Pacific >
O cean in tropical and su b tro p ica l r e g io n s o f the
occan. Each circu la tio n g y re is surrou nded by
four w e ll d e v e l o p e d su rfa ce o c e a n currents w hich
m ove in c lo c k w is e d irectio n in the N orth Pacific
O cean and in a n ti-c lo c k w is e d ir e ctio n in the
South P a c ific O cean . T he s u b t r o p i c a l North Pacific
g y re is form ed by w e stw a r d flo w in g north
equatorial P a c ific current, K u r o sh io current which
is know n as the w estern b o u n d a ry current and is
the result o f w e s te r n b o u n d a r y i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n , North
P a cific current and C a lifo rn ia current, k n ow n as
the e a s te r n b o u n d a r y c u r r e n t . T h e s u b t r o p i c a l South
P a c ific g y re is form ed b y so u th eq u a to ria l Pacific
current (northern b o u n d a ry ), E a st A u str a lia cur­
rent, know n as the w estern b o u n d a ry current,
w hich is the result o f w e ste r n b o u n d a ry in ten sifi­
cation, the w e st w in d drift or S o u th P a c ific D rift
(southern boundary), and Peru current, w hich is
know n as the eastern b o u n d a ry current. A s stated
earlier each circu la tio n g y re is ch aracterized by
centrally lo ca ted w ater m o u n d (h ill) w h ic h is one
to tw o m eters h igh er than th e w a te r v a lle y s in the
periphery o f the w ater h ill bu t th ere are tw o water
h ills in the su b trop ical N o rth P a c ific gyre (fig.
10.6). T here is g e o s t r o p h i c c i r c u l a t i o n o f water
around the w ater h ill.
The fo llo w in g are th e s ig n ific a n t surface
current o f the P a c ific O cea n :
(1) North Equatorial C urrent (w arm )
The north eq u atorial current o rig in a tes o ff
the w estern co a st o f M e x ic o and flo w s in w esterly
direction (fig 10 .6 ) and rea ch es the Philippines
coast after c o v er in g a d ista n ce o f 7 5 0 0 nautical
mi es. (1 3 8 3 0 km ). T h is current is originated
ecau se o f the C aliforn ian current and north-east
m on soon . T he v o lu m e o f w ater con tin u ou sly
increases w estw a rd b e c a u se nu m erou s m inor
branches jo in th is current from the north. A few
branches a lso co m e out o f the m ain current and
turn tow ards north and south . O n e branch em erges
from the north equatorial current near T aiw an and ;J§j
 SURFACE O CEA N CU R REN TS

flow s northward to jo in Kuroshio current w hile

marginal areas. The velocity o f the current ranges
the southern branch turns eastward to form c o u n te r between 12 and 18 nautical m iles ( 2 2 to 32
e q u a to ria l c u r r e n t . It is significan t to note that
kilom eters) per day. W ith the northward (northern
north equatorial current flow s as a continuous summer) and southward (southern summer) mi­
current in the north P acific O cean but there are gration o f the sun this current m oves northward
seasonal variations in its northern and southern and southward but it alw ays remains to the north
o f equator.

A W W W W W W vW SxW W W V W SW SV W W SW W W W W W N SW W W W SN N N W W VSSSW i
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Fig. 1 0.6: Surface currents o f the Pacific Ocean. 3 = SNPG = subtropical North Pacific gyre; 4= SSPG = subtropical South
Pacific gyre.

(184 kilom eters) a day. N um erous minor currents

(2) South Equatorial Current (warm) join this current from the left and thus the volum e
o f water continuously increases westward. The
current is bifurcated into northern and southern
The south equatorial current is originated
branches near N ew Guinea. The northern branch
due to the in flu en ce o f sou th -east trade w inds and
turns eastward and flow s as -c o u n te r e q u a to r ia l
flow s from east to w est. T his current is stronger
c u r r e n t w h ile the southern branch m oves towards
than the north equatorial current. The average
the northern and north -eastern c o a sts o f
velocity is 2 0 nautical m iles per day w h ile the
Australia.
maxim um v e lo c ity b eco m es 1 0 0 nautical m iles
 284
(3) C ounter Equatorial C urrent (warm)
The current flow in g w est to east between
the north and south equatorial currents is termed
counter equatorial current. Because o f trade
w inds im m ense volum e o f water is piled up in the
w estern m arginal parts o f the ocean, with the
result there is general slope gradient o f water
surface from w est to east. This higher water level
in the w est and descending slope gradient o f water
surface from w est to east make the oceanic water
flow in easterly direction in the name o f counter
equatorial current which is the most developed
counter current in the Pacific Ocean. This counter
equatorial current is extended upto the Panama
Bay. The average temperature and salinity are
27.5°C and 34.5%o respectively. The current
transports oceanic water at the rate o f 25 m illion
m 3 per second.
(4) Kuroshio System (warm)
The Kuroshio system com prised o f several
currents and drifts is similar to the G ulf Stream
system o f the Atlantic Ocean. This system runs
from Taiwan to the Bering Strait and consists o f
the Kuroshio current, the Kuroshio extension, the
north Pacific drift, the Tsushima current and the
counter Kuroshio current.
(i) Kuroshio Current
The north equatorial current turns north­
ward due to the obstruction o f Philippines and
thus gives birth to the Kuroshio current w hich
flow s from Taiv/an to Ryuku ridge at 30°N
latitude. The K uroshio, a warm current, is sim ilar
to the Florida current o f the North A tlantic Ocean.
The average temperature and salinity are 8°C and
35%o respectively. The depth o f water involved in
this current between Taiwan and South Ryuku is
700m w hile its average velocity is 89 cm per
second. The average discharge is 20 m illion m 3
per second.
The Kuroshio current is the w e ite r n b o u n d ­
a ry c u r r e n t and forms the western margin o f the
subtropical North Pacific gyre.
(ii) Kuroshio Extension
The K u ro sh io c u rre n t leaves Japanese coast
and turns eastward near 3 5®N latitude under the
influence of the westerlies and is bifurcated int0
two branches. One branch moves in easterly
direction while the second branch flows m north­
eastern direction upto 42°N latitude and thereafter
it also turns eastward. The northern branch
ultimately merges with the cold O ya.hio current
coming from the north.
(iii) North Pacific Drift
The K uroshio current is e x te n d e d further
eastward under the in flu e n c e o f th e w e sterlies and
reaches the w estern c o a st o f N o rth A m erica. Just
before 150°W lo n g itu d e th e m a jo r part o f this
current turns southw ard w h ile th e remaining
water m o v es eastw ard upto H a w a iia n coast and
the w estern co a st o f N . A m e rica . T h e north Pacific
drift is bifurcated into tw o b ra n ch es. T he northern
branch b eco m es A le u tia n current w h ile the
southern branch g iv e s birth to the C alifornian
cold current. T he A le u tia n current is further
divided into tw o b ra n ch es. O n e branch goes
towards the B erin g Strait w h ile th e s e c o n d branch
m oves tow ards G u lf o f A la sk a .
The K u roshio E x te n s io n and the North
P acific D rift form the north ern b o u n d a ry o f the
subtropical N orth P a c ific g y r e.
(iv) Tsusima Current
N ear 3 0 °N latitu d e o n e b ran ch separates
from the K u rosh io current and en ters the Japan
Sea and flo w s a lo n g the w e ste r n c o a st o f Japan in
the nam e o f T su sh im a current. T h is w arm current
w ith rela tiv ely h ig h er tem p era tu re and salinity
m o d ifies the w eath er c o n d itio n o f th e Japanese
coast.
(v) Counter-Kuroshio Current
The Kuroshio current forms a gyral system
etween Hawaiian islands and the American coast :
an t us the oceanic water moves in westerly |
irection in the name o f counter Kuroshio current
 SURFACE OCEAN CURRENTS
(5) Oyashio Current (cold)
The Oyashio cold current is also known as
Kurile cold current. This cold current flow s
through the Bering Strait in southerly direction
and thus transports cold water o f the Arctic Sea
into the Pacific Ocean. Near 50°N latitude this
current is bifurcated into two branches. One
branch turns eastward and merges with the
Aleutian a n d K uroshio c u rr e n ts . The second branch
moves upto the Japanese coasts. This current is
comparable to the cold Labrador current o f the
North Atlantic Ocean. The convergence o f cold
Oyashio (Kurile) and warm Kuroshio current
causes dense fogs which becom e potential haz­
ards for navigation.
(6 ) California Current (cold)
The California current, an exam ple o f cold
current, is similar to the Canary cold current o f the
A tlantic Ocean in m ost o f its characteristics. In
fact, this current is the eastward extended portion
o f the North Pacific drift. The cold California
current is generated because o f the movement o f
oceanic w ater along the Californian coast from
north to south in order to compensate the loss o f
water w hich is caused due to large-scale transport
o f water o f f the coast o f M exico under the
influence o f trade w inds in the form o f the north
equatorial current. This current after reaching the
M exican coast turns westward and m erges with
the north equatorial current.
(7) Peru C u rren t (co ld )
The cold current flow in g along the western
coast o f South A m erica from south to north is
called Peru current or H u m b o ld t c u r r e n t. The
current is know n as Peru coastal current near the
coast w hile it is called Peru ocean ic current o f f the
coast. M ean annual temperature ranges betw een
H°C and 17°C and the average v e lo city o f m oving
water is 15 nautical m iles (27 km ) per day. The
temperature o f sea water increases from the coast
towards the ocean.
The winds blow ing in the coastal areas o f
the w est coast o f South America drives the surface
ocean water through E k m a n tra n s p o rt. This situa­
tion causes upw elling o f cold ocean water o ff the
coasts o f Peru and Ecuador. This rising or
upwelling ocean water brings nutrients from
below on the sea surface. These nutrients are
consumed by phytoplanktons w hich then becom e
rich food for fishes. This is the reason that Peru
has emerged one o f the largest fish catching
countries o f the world. A nchovies (a variety o f
fishes) command fish markets o f the world. The
weather and ocean conditions o f f the coasts o f
Ecuador and Peru, say the eastern tropical South
Pacific Ocean, and in the w estern tropical P acific
Ocean in terms o f El Nino-La N ina events (phenom ­
ena), W a lk e r circulation and S o u th e rn O scillation,
and El N ino-Southern Oscillation (E N S O ) events
have already been explained in m uch detail in
chapter 7 (figs. 7.20 and 7.21) o f this book.
Readers are advised to go through these top ics in
chapter 7. These aspects are not reproduced here
in order to avoid repetition.
(8 ) El Nino or Counter Current (warm)
A subsurface warm current, know n as E l
N ino Current, flow s from north to south b etw een
3°S and 36°S latitudes at a distance o f about 180
km from the Peruvian coast. The southw ard
shifting o f the counter equatorial warm current
during southern winter g iv es birth to E l N in o
current. The temperature at Peruvian co a st d oes
not fall considerably because o f this current.
Though the amount o f rainfall increases alo n g the
coasts due to this current but fish es die due to
disappearance o f planktons and occurrence o f
guano disease and pests caused oy El Nino. It m ay
be pointed out that El N in o also affects m on soon s
in the Indian Ocean. W hen El N in o is extended to
the southern end o f S. A m erica warm w ater is
pushed eastward to jo in the South A tlantic
w esterlies drift w h ich brings warm water in the
southern Indian O cean during southern w inters.
C onsequently, the high pressure in the Indian
O cean during southern w inter is not in ten sified
due to w hich the south -w est sum m er m on soon is
w eakened.
 286
This aspect has been d in secti
i s c u s s e d
7.13 and 7.14 o f the 7th chapter o f this boo .
Presently, El Nino is consj?er?J. “ £
weather event or phenomenon,
considered as Christ child while a i
younger sister o f El Nino. El Nino has been related
to the increase o f temperature o f east act ic
Ocean o ff Peruvian coast while La Nina is related
to the warming o f the western Pacific Ocean. The
strong El Nino brings heavy rainfall exceeding
normal rainfall resulting into lush green otherwise
dry coastal land o f Peru. The cold water mass near
Peruvian coast becomes warm due to strong E
Nino event resulting into heavy rainfall in the first
half o f the year (January to March). Earlier the
people o f Peru in the event o f dry conditions w hile
looking towards the sky prayed ‘Ye God, give us
rain and keep drought away! but when they came
to know that copious heavy rainfall causing mass
destruction o f marine life (mainly death o f fishes
due to disappearance o f planktons) was associated
with strong El N ino event, they began to pray, ‘Ye
God, give us rain and keep El N ino aw ay.’ The
heavy rainfall associated with strong El N ino
event makes coastal Peruvian deserts green and
there is rich harvest o f cotton, coconuts and
bananas but there is oceanic biological disaster. It
may be maintained that in the event o f strong El
N ino the tropical eastern Pacific receives four to
six tim es more rainfall than normal amount but
dry condition prevails in the tropical western
P acific resulting into severe drought in Indonesia,
B angladesh, India etc. The widespread fire in the
forest o f Indonesia in 1997-98 was related to
drought resulting from strong El N ino event. La
Nina is a counter ocean current w hich becom es
effective in the tropical western P acific w hen El
N ino b ecom es in effectiv e in the tropical eastern
Pacific. The dry condition in the western P acific is
terminated and w et condition is introduced in the
tropical w estern P acific by La Nina.
The major E N SO (El N ino-Southern O scil­
lation) events occurred in the years 1899-1 9 0 0
(strong), 1902 (m oderate), 1907 (m oderate),
1991-1912 (strong), 1914 (moderate), 1917 (strong)!
1923 (m oderate), 1925-1926 (very strong), 1932
(strong), 1939 (m oderate), 1940-1941 (strong),
1943 (m oderate), 1953 (m oderate), 1957-58
, ♦ 1965 (m oderate), 1972-73 (strong^
976 (m oderate), 1982-1983 (very str o n |) 1 9 8 7
(m oderate), 19 9 1 -1 9 9 4 (stron g), 1 9 9 7 -9 8 (very
strong) etc.
It appears from the ab o v e ch ro n o lo g y o f El
N ino events that very strong El N in o ev en ts have
occurred only thrice ( 1 9 2 5 - 2 6 ,1 9 8 2 -8 3 and 1997-
98) in the last century. O ut o f 2 0 occu rrences o f El
N ino in the 20th century, there h a v e b een 3 very
strong events, 7 strong ev en ts and 10 moderate
events.
Effects of El Nino
The occurrence o f El N in o e v e n ts brings far
reaching im pacts on w eath er c o n d itio n s, periodic
clim atic fluctuations from lo c a l through regional
to global le v els. T he norm al w ea th er conditions
becom e altogether d ifferen t during E l Nino
events. The ch an ges in w ea th er and clim atic
conditions a ffect m arine life , v e g e ta tio n on land,
agriculture, forest fires, flo o d in g , droughts, hu­
man health and w ealth , fish in g etc. T h e fo llo w in g
two exam ples o f very stron g E l N in o events
during 1982-83 and 1 9 9 7 -9 8 dem onstrate the
effects o f these ev en ts on w ea th er and clim ate and
related spheres :
(1) 1 9 8 2 - 8 3 El Nino : T h e 1 9 8 2 -8 3 E N SO (
N ino-Southern O sc illa tio n ) e v e n t w a s the strong­
est even t in the record ed h isto ry o f El N ino
phenom ena. T his stro n g est E l N in o ca u sed the
fo llo w in g e ffe c ts not o n ly a lo n g the Ecuador-Peru
coasts, i.e. in the equatorial eastern P a c ific Ocean
but also in the fa r-flu n g areas o f th e glob e as
m entioned b e lo w :
^ The Peruvian coasts, which are arid areas
during normal weather conditions— when
El Nino is not active, received more than
3 0 0 0 mm o f rainfall but there was substan­
tial decrease in fish catch which adversely
affected the economy o f Peru. It may be
mentioned that during strong El Nino
upwelling o f cold water o ff the Peru coast
is stopped, and hence the supply o f rich
nutrients from below is also stopped. In the
absence o f nutrients phytoplanktons, which
are foods o f fishes, do not thrive and hence
fishes die o f starvation.
 SURFACE ocean currents
The heavy downpour in the Peruvian
coasts caused extensive damage through
flooding and landslides in the coastal
areas.
> There w as substantial rise in sea tempera­
ture, w hich caused c oral bleaching in the
tropical P acific O cean, with the result there
was exten sive dam age to corals.
The marine productivity in the tropical
P acific O cean w as remarkably reduced,
w hich adversely affected marine animals
and sea birds.
There w as rise in temperature in Canada
and A laska and thus winter becam e warm.
>■ There w as rise in temperature during
w inter in the eastern parts o f the U SA .
Severe drought conditions and failure o f
m on soon in S.E. and South India, m ainly in
Indonesia and India.
Spread o f encephalitis disease in the
eastern U .S .A .
D roughts in M exico, S.E. Africa, Australia
and N e w Zealand.
M ore southerly extent o f jet streams over
U S A resulting into the genesis o f more
p o w e r fu l storm s w hich brought more than
3 tim es m ore rainfall than normal rainfall
in the south -w estern parts o f the U SA .
H igh sea le v e l and storm surges caused
co a sta l erosion and exten sive damage to
hum an settlem en ts through flood ing by
storm su rges in the w estern coastal areas o f
the U S A .
>■ S ev ere c o ld in Europe.
(2) 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 El N in o : caused rise in normal
sea surface tem perature b y 5°C in the tropical
Pacific O cean , 8°C o f f the coasts o f Peru and 2°C
in the Indian O cean , w h ich resulted in coral
bleaching and m ass destruction o f corals. About
95 percent sh a llo w w ater corals in Baharin,
M aldives, Sri Lanka, Sin gapore and Tanjania
were k illed due to catastrop hic b leach in g, w h ile
50 to 70 percent corals died due to severe
bleaching in the sea s o f K en ya, S e c h e lle s, Japan,
Thailand, V ietn am , A ndm an and N icob ar Islands
° f India etc. T here w as sev ere w ild fire in the
2 87
forests o f Indonesia. India faced very severe
drought conditions. On the other hand, the
Peruvian coasts received many times more rain­
fall than normal rainfall, the hurricane activities
were increased in M exico, California (USA)
received 2 times more rainfall than normal which
caused severe flooding and landslides etc.
It may be concluded that in the year o f
strong El N ino, the coastal areas o f Ecuador, Peru
and Chile receive copious rainfall which is several
times higher than normal rainfall and thus the
deserts on the w est coasts o f South America
becom e lush green but the weather in the tropical
western Pacific Ocean (South and S.E. A sia)
becom es dry, m onsoon fails and hence there is
extreme drought condition. C onversely, if El
N ino is weak, La Nina becom es strong in the
western tropical Pacific Ocean and hence the
weather conditions during strong El N ino are
reversed i.e. the western coastal areas o f South
America face extreme drought conditions, w hile
South and S.E. A sia receive sufficient rainfall as
m onsoon becom es strong.
(9) East Australia Current (warm)
South equatorial current is bifurcated near
the Australian coast into northern and southern
branches. The southern branch flo w s as east
Australia current from north to south along the
eastern coasts o f Australia. N ew Zealand is
surrounded by this current. It is d eflected ea st­
ward near 40°S latitude due to d eflectiv e force o f
the earth and flo w s in easterly direction under the
influence o f the w esterlies. This is a warm and
more consistent current. It raises the temperature
o f east Australian coast for considerable distance
southward.
(1 0 ) W est Wind Drift (cold)
A strong ocean current, know n as w est wind
drift, flo w s from w est to east under the influence
o f the w esterlies betw een Tasm ania and South
A m erican coast in the zon e o f 4 0 °-5 0 °S latitudes.
T his current b eco m es m uch stronger b ecause o f
im m ense volu m e o f w aterm ass and high v e lo city
 288
w inds called as roaring forties and thus the current
flo w s w ith great velocity. In the far east the
current is bifurcated into two branches. One
branch enters the Atlantic Ocean through Cape
Horn w h ile the second branch turns northward
and jo in s Peru current.
1 0 .7 SURFACE CURRENTS OF INDIAN OCEAN
The current system s o f the Indian O cean are
largely controlled and m odified by landm asses
and m onsoon winds. Indian Ocean being sur­
rounded by the Indian subcontinent, A frica and
(1 ) N orth -east M onsoon C urrent (w arm )
N orth-east m onsoon w inds b low from land
to the ocean during w inter season in the northern
hem isphere and thus w estw ard b low in g north­
A ustralia d oes not p resent m o st favourable
conditions for the d ev elo p m en t o f perm anent an #
c o n s i s t e n t sy stem o f o cea n currents. The currents
in the northern Indian O cean ch a n g e their flow
direction tw ice a year due to north -east and south­
w est m on soon w in d s.
U n lik e P a c ific and A tla n tic O cea n s, Indian
O cean has o n ly o n e subtropical circulation gyre
w hich is form ed b y the sou th eq u atorial current in
the north, M ozam bique current— a w estern boundary
current in the w est, w e st w in d drift in the south,
and w est A ustralia currents, an eastern boundary
current, in the east.
east monsoon currents are produced between
Andman and Somali (fig. 10.8) This c u r r e n t flows
to the south o f 5°N latitude. B esides, son#
independent currents originate in the Bay
Bengal and Arabian sea and flow in
westerly direction.
 SURFACE OCEAN CURRENTS 289

developed during winter season disappears due to

100 110 120 this current.
\N\SNSW S\W S

i\ns\\\NV'\^\wwwww>A
nsSNNNN4 | A \ \ \ v n n . s \ s \ \ \ \ w w
»
AVN\>N\\W
\VW
\W
W >J1O*W
SW
) ^ \\\\S S V S S W \S \\S \\N \\|| \V\\<VV \S V ,\V V \\W V V V N \'J /

SWWWWWV V >" W > *WNNSN' 7 yX

^ W v s s s s s \Y I w w w w w k - ' / -O
0 \.
K \v s v \\v n v v w ^ -
^ VwwwwwJ Q
▼w W s x v s v v s v . V (4) Indian Equatorial Current (warm)
^Jr ^ \\ N"W w"
^ \\\s s v w \) I s v w v ^ Ml
wvC'V
W SN
VN
\ V
^ m W W W W W W > \^ J) -V
VW L. W \W \V W \V \y / j
\W 5 WWWWWWjT >/ f
v \v
v sv o
3 x w v s s w y P ^ A ,.
,\N \S \V W V
v The currents o f the southern Indian Ocean
WW <D NNN
NSW * 3
Counter Current
svvw o are least affected by seasonal change in the
— __ - 4 r----------
cr
\wv£} direction o f monsoon winds. The Indian Ocean
* w \\ S. Equatorial Current
\\\\\
wwv equatorial current flows from east to w est
wwv O
w w v «C
wwwwj 'V.s\v\i
between 10°S and 15°S latitudes from Australian
W W \N W
WNWWY Indian Ocean coast to African coast. After being obstructed by
WWWV
wvwy
w v>/ |

West Wind Drift Madagascar this current is divided into many

--> ---- -> -- branches. One major branch flow s southward in
- > ---- ->
the name o f Agulhas c u rre n t (warm) while the other
Warm Current > Cold Current branch is directed towards the north.
L = Leeuwin Current

(5) Mozambique Current (warm)

Fig. 10.8 :Surface currents of Indian Ocean during winter.

One branch o f the southern Indian Ocean

(2 ) Indian Counter Current (warm)
equatorial current m oves southward through
Mozambique Channel known as M ozambique
Indian counter current is originated during current. This current joins the A gulhas current
winter season (northern hemisphere). This cur­ near 30°S latitude and m o v es upto the
rent flow s in easterly direction between 2°-8°S southern tip o f Africa and is ultimately diverted
latitudes from Zanzibar to Sumatra. eastward.

(3) S.W. Monsoon Current (warm) (6) West Wind Drift (cold)

Th6re is com plete reversal in the direction Like Pacific and Atlantic Oceans eastward
o f m onsoon w inds during summer season. In other flowing current, known as w est wind drift, is also
words, north-easterly direction o f winter monsoon generated in the Indian Ocean. This current is
winds becom es south-w esterly during summer produced due to eastward blow ing w esterlies
season in the northern hemisphere. This reversal along 40°N latitude known as ‘roaring forties*.
o f direction o f m onsoon w inds also reverses the This current bifurcates in tw o .branches near
direction o f ocean currents o f Indian Ocean 110°E longitude. One branch turns northward and
during sum m er season. North-east m onsoon flow s as W est Australia cold current along the
ocean currents disappear and south-w est m onsoon western coast o f Australia and near the Tropic o f
ocean currents are developed. The general direc­ Capricorn turns towards w est and north-west
tion o f m onsoon currents is from south-w est to and u ltim a tely m erges w ith the south
north-east (fig. 10.7) but several minor branches equatorial current near 100°E longitude. The
emerge from the main branch and m ove in the Bay second branch o f the w est w ind drift turns
o f Bengal and Arabian Sea. The counter current southward.

290
;? It m ay be mentioned that like other• su
tropical circulation gyres o f the southern
and Pacific Oceans, the Indian cean
(located to the south o f equator) rotates in cou
clock w ise direction. The Indian Ocean gy
formed by the westward flow ing equatona
current in the north, Agulhas current-the western
boundary current, which flow s southward, eas*
ward flow ing the West Wind Drift in the south an
the W est Australian Current (an eastern boundary
current) in the east. It is interesting to note that in
the South Pacific and Atlantic Oceans gyres the
eastern boundary currents are cold currents w hich
flow very close to western coasts o f the continents
and thus are responsible for dry conditions as the
western parts o f southern continents receive less
than 250 mm o f annual rainfall but in the case o f
the Southern Indian Ocean gyre, the cold eastern
boundary current o f the W est Australian current is
pushed away from the coast by southward flow in g
warm current i.e. Leeuwin c u rr e n t. Thus, the
impact o f the W est Australian cold current is
offset by warm Leeuwin current because the
former becom es o ff shore current. This is w hy the
south-western Australia has m ild clim atic con d i­
tions and receives around 1250 mm o f annual
rainfall. The Leeuwin current becom es more
energetic and active when El N ino becom es w eek
but La Nina becom es strong. In the event o f strong
El N ino this current is weakened and hence the
weather becom es dry in south-w est Australia.
1 0 .8 EFFECTS OF SURFACE OCEAN CUR­
RENTS
1. M odifications in t h e C oastal Clim ate
Surface ocean currents while flow ing alone
the coasts m od.fy their weather conditions in a
num ber o f ways. The m ost effective im pacts o f
ocean currents are seen on the tem perature o f
affected coastal lands. The effects are both
positive (beneficial) and negative (injurious) for
. , ima The w arm cu rren ts, w h en they
flora and fa ■ ^ ^ ^ th e ir tem pera-!
re3Ch to faH rather they keep th e m relatively
‘“"m er in winter months. T he origin o f id eal and
— ble European type o f clim a te o f the
western coasts o f Europe is due to the effects of
the north Atlantic warm current w hich ,s the
extension o f the G ulf Stream . T he temperatures of
the coastal countries (e.g. th e G re a t B ritain,
Norway, Sweden, Denmark, N e th e rla n d s etc.) are
higher during winter than th e av era g e tem pera­
tures for their respective la titu d e s. T he G ulf
Stream, on the other hand, raises the temperature
o f Atlantic and G u lf coastal plains o f the USA
during sum m er m o n th s and c a u s e s a n d in te n sifie s
heat w a v es and thus b e c o m e s r e s p o n s ib le for
hazardous w ea th er c o n d itio n s . S o m e tim e s, the
tem perature rise s so r a p id ly that s e v e r a l p eop le
die o f sun strok es. T h e c o a s ta l la n d s o f the east
and so u th -ea st U S A are n o t b e n e fite d from the
w arm ing e ffe c ts o f the G u lf S trea m d u rin g w inter
b ecau se the w in d s are o f f sh o r e i.e. w in d s b low
from the m ain land to w a rd s th e A tla n tic O cean .
O cean currents h e lp in m a in ta in in g the
tem perature b a la n ce o f o c e a n w a te r as th e warm
currents transport w arm w a te rs o f th e tropical
zo n es to the c o ld e r areas o f the te m p er a te and
polar zo n e s and c o ld currents b rin g c o ld w aters of
high latitudes to the areas o f lo w la titu d e s. Thus,
ocean currents h elp in b r in g in g h o m o g en eity in
the distribu tion o f tem p era tu re o f o cean w ater and
thus help in m a in ta in in g th e h o r iz o n ta l heat
balance o f th e earth b e c a u s e th ey transfer
add ition al heat o f lo w la titu d e s (area o f surplus
eat) to h ig h la titu d es (area o f d e fic ie n t heat).
C old currents, on th e o th e r h an d , low er
own the tem perature co n sid e ra b ly o f th e affected
, ^ US cause sn ow fall. L ab rad o r, K urile
a an<^ c° ld cu rren ts are resp o n sib le for
avy snow fall in the affected areas during
w inters. |
The w inds blow ing over w arm cu rren ts pick
up m oisture and h elp in in creasin g th e am o u n t o f |
 SURFACE OCEAN CURRENTS
precipitation in the affected coastal areas. For
exaniple, the N orth A tlantic D rift and K uroshio
c u r r e n t bring in su fficien t rainfall along the
western coasts o f Europe and eastern coasts o f
Japan respectively. On the oth er hand, cold
currents discourage rainfall. For exam ple, K ala­
hari desert along the w estern coast o f South
A frica and A catam a d esert along the w estern
coast o f south A m erica ow e th eir existence to
some extent to B enguela and Peru currents
respectively but the arrival o f El N ino currents
results in w et co n d itio n and four to six tim es
more rain fall than the norm al am ount is received
w hich m akes the arid P eruvian coast lands green
and there is rich harv est o f cotton, banana,
coconut etc.
The convergence o f w arm and cold currents
causes dense fogs w hich pose obstacles in
navigation. Such conditions are created near
N ew foundland due to convergence o f w arm G u lf
Stream and cold L abrador current and near the
eastern c o ast o f Japan due to convergence o f
K u roshio w arm current and K urile (O yashio) cold
current.
2. Effects on Fishing
Ocean currents act as distributing agents o f
nutrients, oxygen and other elem ents necessary
for the existen ce and survival o f fishes. Ocean
currents transport planktons from one area to the
other area. T hese planktons are useful food for
fishes. G u lf Stream carries planktons from M exi­
can G u lf to the coasts o f N ew foundland and north­
western Europe. It m ay be pointed out that many
significant fishing grounds have developed in
these areas. Som etim es, a few ocean currents
destroy planktons. For exam ple, El N ino current
destroys planktons o f f the Peruvian coasts and
causes several diseases resulting into m ass deaths
° f fishes.
291
3. Effects on Trade and Navigation
Ocean currents determ ine m ajor ocean
routes for the navigation o f com m ercial ships in
ancient tim es but presently pow er-m otored ships
do not care for the ocean currents and prevailing
winds. The occurrence o f fogs due to convergence
o f w arm and cold cu rien ts pose serious threats to
navigation. L arger icebergs bro u g h t by cold
currents (e.g. by L abrador and F alklan d cold
currents) dam age ships.
The other effects o f ocean cu rren ts have
been discussed in section 10.2 o f th is ch ap ter.
10.9 IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
Circulation gyre : O cean circ u latio n g y res
are closed system s o f surface ocean cu rren ts w ith
extensive areas o f the oceans in the c en te r
surrounded by surface ocean cu rren ts fro m all
sides w herein surface currents m ove in clo ck w ise
direction in the no rth ern h em isp h ere and a n ti­
clockw ise in the southern h em isp h ere.
Circum-polar ocean currents : A sin g le s u r­
face ocean current en circlin g A n ta rc tica is c a lle d
circum -polar ocean current.
Cold core rin g s: The rin g s or ed d ies o f o c e a n
w ater having cold w ater in the core an d w a rm
w ater surrounding the core and ro ta tin g c o u n te r­
clockw ise in the loops o f G u lf S tream are c a lle d
cold core rings.
Cold w a ll: T he zone o f co ld w a te r b e tw ee n
the east coast o f the U SA and w arm G u lf S tream
is called cold w all.
Coriolis deflective force : is the force w hich
deflects the direction o f surface w inds. C oriolis
force or effect is not a force in its e lf in real sen se
rather it is an effect o f the rotational m ovem ent o f
the earth (nam ed after G .G. coriolis).
C o ra l blea c h in g : Coral bleaching refers to
the loss o f algae from the corals resulting into

292
white colour caused by increase in the surface
temperature of the oceans and consequent mass
death o f corals.
C urrents : The movement or circulation o f
ocean water in definite direction with greater
v elo city is called current, e.g. G ulf Stream.
Deep ocean c u r r e n t : The ocean currents
below pycnocline layer, which is zone o f rapid
density change in the depth zone o f 3 00m- 1000m,
are called deep currents. These are also called
th erm ohaline c urrents.
Downweiling : Sinking o f dense and salty
surface water o f the oceans downward is called
downweiling.
Downweiling ocean c u r r e n t s : The deep ocean
currents caused by sinking or dow nw eiling o f
more dense seawater downward are called
downweliing ocean currents.
D r i f t s : The surface ocean currents m oving
forward under the influence o f prevailing winds
are called drifts, e.g. North Atlantic Drift.
East b o u n d a ry cu rre n ts : The surface ocean
currents making the eastern boundary o f the ocean
circulation gyres and flow ing along the eastern
margin o f the ocean basins are called east
boundary currents.
Ekm an spirals : The spiralling currents
caused by coriolis deflection are called Ekman
spirals on the basis o f the name o f noted physicist
Ekman.
E k m a n t r a n s p o r t : The net or bulk transport
o f seawater to the right angle o f wind direction is
called Ekman transport.
G eostrophic c irculation : The circular motion
o f seawater around the water hill (m ound) in the
circulation gyre is called geostrophic circulation
or geostrophic current.
Gyres : The closed circulation pattern o f
current flow s in the oceans is called circulation
gyre or sim ply a gyre.
OCEA
Ocean currents: The general m ovem en t
mass o f ocean water in a definite direction *
called ocean current, which is more or less similar
to water stream (river) draining on the land
surface o f the earth.
P y cn o clin e layer : is a zone o f rapid density
change in the depth zone o f 3 0 0 m to 1 0 0 0 m in the
oceans. Pycnocline simply means the density
gradient o f ocean water.
S a r g a s s o : The m o tio n le ss se a o f subtropical
North A tlantic gyre surrounded b y north equato­
rial current in the south, G u lf Stream in the west,
North A tlantic D rift in the north and Canary
current in the east is ca lled sa rg a sso sea . T he name
‘sargasso’ is derived from P o rtu g u ese word,
‘s a r g a s s u m ’ m eaning th ereby sea w e e d s. T he said
gyre is studded w ith such sea w e e d s.
S t r e a m s : O cean stream s in v o lv e m ovem ent
o f enorm ous volu m e o f ocea n w ater lik e b ig rivers
o f the continents, in a d e fin ite d irectio n with
greater v elo city , e.g. G u lf Stream .
S u rfa c e ocean c u r r e n t s : T he o cea n currents
o f surface w ater o f the o cea n s upto the depth o f
100 m eters are ca lled su rface o cea n currents
which in v o lv e o n ly 10 percent o f the total water
mass o f all the ocean s.
T h e r m o h a li n e c u r r e n t s : T he density-driven
deep ocean currents b e lo w p y c n o c lin e layer are
called therm ohaline currents b e c a u se h ig h density
o f water is the o u tcom e o f tem perature (thermo)
and salinity (h aline).
W a r m c o re r i n g s : W arm co re rings are water
eddies or v o rtices havin g w arm seaw ater in the
center and surround by rings o f c o ld w ater. These
warm core rings are form ed in the c o ld w a ll to the
north o f the G u lf Stream and rotate in clock w ise
direction.
W a te r mound : T he p iled up w ater due to
con vergen ce o f surface w ater flo w in the subtropi­
cal circulation gyre is ca lled w ater m ound or
water hill h avin g steep gradient tow ards tfce
SURFACE OCEAN CURRENTS
western boundary current and gentle gradient
towards the eastern boundary current.
W ater valley : The w ater depressions around
water m ounds (w ater hills) in the subtropical
gyres are called w ater valleys.
W estern bou n d ary currents : The surface
ocean currents w ith faster velocities m aking the
western boundaries o f subtropical circulation
gyres are called the w estern boundary currents,
293
e.g. G ulf Stream and Brazil current in the N orth
and South A tlantic subtropical gyres.
W estern boundary intensification : The high
velocity and narrow width o f the western bound­
ary surface currents caused by steep gradient o f
central water m ounds (hills) in the w estern arms
(w estern parts) o f the circulation gyres in all o f the
subtropical circulation gyres o f northern and
southern hemispheres, is called the w estern bound­
ary intensification or simply western intensified.
CHAPTER 1 1: WATER MASSES AND DEEP CURRENTS 294-306
w ater m asses, 2 94
typ es o f water m asses, 295
sou rces o f water m asses, 296
d eep currents and therm ohaline circulation, 2 98
c y c lic pattern o f therm ohaline circulation, 2 98
w ater m asses o f A tlantic O cean, water m asses o f P acific O cean, 299
w ater m asses and therm ohaline circulation in Indian O cean, 3 00
c o n v e y e r b elt circulation, dow n w eliin g, 301
u p w ellin g , ___ 3 0 2

W ater m asses and deep ocean currents are
c lo se ly related. In fact, deep ocean currents
in v o lv e subsurface (b elow seawater surface)
m ovem ent o f w ater m asses w hich are driven by
density variations. A s stated above deep currents
are density-driven currents w hich involve the
m ovem ent o f im m ense volum e o f ocean water
b elow pycnocline layer, w hich is a zone o f rapid
density change in the depth zone o f 300 m to 1000
m. Since the density o f ocean water is the function
o f its temperature and salinity, and hence deep
ocean currents are also called thermohaline cur­
rents. D eep ocean currents involve about 90
percent o f ocean water. D eep ocean currents are
generated due to sinking (downwelling) o f denser
seaw ater, and hence they may also be called
downwelling ocean currents. Since huge water
m asses m ove b elow the pycnoclin e layer in deep
ocean currents, and hence it is necessary to
d iscu ss ocean water m asses first.
11.1 WATER MASSES
Subsurface water m ass is defined as exten­
siv e hom ogen eou s body o f im m ense volum e ot
ocean water in terms o f temperature and salinity.
WATER MASSES AND DEEP CURRENTS
Thus, there is alm ost hom ogeneity o f temperature
and salinity in water mass w hich covers very
extensive areas across the oceans. In other words,
one water mass is not confined to a single ocean,
rather it includes extensive regions o f hom ogene­
ous water body below the pycnocline layer in all
the oceans. This is w hy w orld oceans are not
closed system s rather they are open systems
because they are inter-connected by water masses.
The source areas o f subsurface water m asses are,
in fact, sea surfaces in high latitudes where
density o f sea water increases due to very low
temperature. Thus, dense surface seawater sinks
and forms subsurface water m ass. Sinking o f
seawater is called downwelling. Once the surface
seawater sinks, it becom es stabilized in terms o f
temperature and salinity. In other words, there is
more or less uniform ity in temperature and
salinity in the subsurface water mass across the
oceans. It does not mean that there is no temporal
and spatial variation in temperature and salinity in
a water m ass. There is slight change in tempera­
ture and salinity o f a water mass with time when
there is m ixing o f seawater o f adjoining water
m asses. It may be m entioned that the process o
m ixing o f adjoining water m asses is very slow an
W ATER MASSES & DEEP CURRENTS
hence change in tem perature and salinity is
negligible. T his is w hy subsurface w ater mass
m oves very sluggishly. The follow ing are the
m ain characteristic features o f subsurface water
m asses :
^ S ubsurface w ater m ass is huge and exten­
sive hom ogeneous w ater body.
>• W ate r m asses have definite tem perature
and salin ity characteristics i.e. there is
a lm o st uniform ity o f tem perature and
sa lin ity in a w ater m ass.
^ W a te r m ass is the result o f dow nw eiling o f
d e n se r cold w ater and upw elling o f less
dense water. This process is called thermohaline
circulation because density o f seaw ater is
th e fu n c tio n o f tem perature and salinity.
^ W a te r m ass is not confined to a single
o c e a n ra th e r it involves extensive water
b o d y across the oceans, i.e. it is associated
w ith all the oceans.
>- W a te r m asses m ove very slowly.
T h o u g h there is stability in w ater masses in
te rm s o f tem perature and salinity but
w h e re v e r there is m ixing o f water o f
a d jo in in g w ater m asses, there is slight
c h an g e in tem perature and salinity, but
sin c e m ix in g is exceedingly a slow proc­
ess, the ch an g e in these two variables is
n e g lig ib le .
>■ S in ce th e re is uniform ity in tem perature
a n d sa lin ity o f a w ater m ass, inspite o f its
m o v e m e n t co v erin g distances o f thousands
o f k ilo m e te rs, tem perature and salinity are
u se d as sig n ific a n t param eters for distin­
g u ish in g d ifferen t w ater m asses.
>• U n ifo rm ity o f tem perature and salinity o f a
w a te r m ass invo lv in g w ater o f oceans
(a c ro ss the o cean s) denotes the fact that
o c ea n s are n o t c lo sed system s but are open
sy stem s.
>• M o st o f the w a ter m asses are cold w ater
m a sse s, w hich m eans the subsurface ocean
w a te r is cold. In fact, m ore than 75 percent
o f o c ea n w a ter o f all the oceans is
c h a ra c te riz e d by tem perature ranging be­
tw een 0°C an d 5°C , and salinity ranging
295
between 34%0 to 35%0, which validates the
fact that the sinking or downweiling o f
cold surface water o f high latitudes pro­
vides all the w ater o f subsurface water
masses.
>■ Once the surface, as cold water, sinks in the
high latitudes and becomes subsurface
water mass, it is not affected by atmos­
pheric conditions.
^ The movement o f subsurface water mass
through thermohaline circulation is closely
linked with the circulation o f surface water
through conveyer belt circulation. This means
there are interconnected integrated circu­
lation patterns o f surface water (through
surface currents) and deep water (through
deep ocean currents).
>■ W ater masses vary in terms o f their
characteristics o f temperature and salinity
with depths. Thus, water masses are
distinguished in 3 types (categories) with
increasing depths e.g. (1) central water
mass, (2) intermediate water mass, and (3)
deep and bottom water mass.
Types of Water M asses
Since the source o f subsurface water
masses o f the oceans is downweiling or sinking o f
cold and denser surface water in high latitudes,
and hence the only criterion o f the classification
o f subsurface water masses is depth o f oceans. On
the basis o f depth water masses are classified into
the following 3 types :
1. Central water mass, from 100 meters to 1000
meters i.e. upto the base o f thermocline
layer.
2. Intermediate water mass, from 1000 meters
(one kilom eters) to 3,000 meters (3
kilometers).
3. Deep and bottom water mass, from 3,000
meters to the bottom o f the oceans.
These three m ajor categories o f subsurface
w ater m asses are further subdivided into 16 types
as follows :
IP^m __
tem perature (°C ) salinity
w ater m asses
<*>

1% C en tral w a ter m aaaea

9°“ 20° 3 4 .3 -3 6 .2
(1 ) SPC W - south Pacific ccntrnl water mass
(2 ) N P C D ** north Pacific central water mass 7 ° -2 0 ° 3 4 .1 -3 4 .8

(3 ) N A C W * north Atlantic central water mass 4 ° -2 0 ° 3 5 .0 -3 6 .8

(4 ) SA C W » south A tlantic central water mass 5 °~ I8 ° 3 4 .3 -3 5 .9

(5 ) SICW * south Indian central water mass 6 ° - 16° 3 4 .5 -3 5 .6

2 . In term ed iate w ater m a s s e s

(6 ) N PIW = north Pacific intermediate water mass 4 ° -1 0 ° 3 4 .0 -3 4 .5

(7 ) R SIW = Red Sea intermediate water mass 23° 40

(S) M IW = Mediterranean intermediate water mass 6 ° - l 1.9° 3 5 .3 -3 6 .5
(9 ) AJW = A ntarctic interm ediate water mass 0 ° -2 ° 34.9
(1 0 ) A A IW = Antarctic intermediate water mass 2 .2 ° -5 ° 3 3 .8 -3 4 .6

3. Deep a n d bottom w ater m a ss e s

(1 1 ) C oW = com m on water m ass 0 .6 ° -1 .3 ° 3 4 .7

(1 2 ) P SW = P acific sub-A rctic water mass 5 °-9 ° 3 3 .5 - 3 3 .8
(1 3 ) N A D W = north A tlantic deep water mass 3 °-4 ° 3 4 .9 - 3 5 .0
(1 4 ) A A D W = A ntarctic deep water mass 4.0° 35
(1 5 ) A A B W = Antarctic bottom water mass -0 .4 ° 3 6 .6
(1 6 ) N A B W = north A tlantic bottom water mass 2 .5 °—3 .1 0 3 4 .9

Source : M .U . Sverdrup, M .W . Johnson, and R.M. Flem ing, 1942,

A. D efant, 1961, and O.R. M armaev, 1975

1 1 .2 SOURCES OF WATER MASSES denser seaw ater m o v e s dow nw ard vertically

A s stated above the major source o f the
form ation o f subsurface water m asses is the
sinking (d ow n w ellin g) o f denser surface water o f
oceans in high latitude regions where seaw ater
attains its higher density through co o lin g o f water
due to insign ificant amount o f insolation and high
rate o f albedo (reflection o f incom ing solar
radiation), and increase in ocean salinity through
the process o f ice form ation. Thus, the sinking
w herever pycnocline layer is absent. A fter reaching
such depth w here the tem perature and salin ity o f
sunken water m atch w ith the tem perature and
salinity o f p revailing seaw ater at that depth, the
dow nward vertical m o v em en t o f w ater changes
into horizontal (a d v ectio n a l) m ovem ent. Thus,
subsurface water m ass is form ed.
The aforesaid process o f the form ation o f ;
sub-surface w ater m a sses is m o st a ctiv e in N orfe Jj
and South A tlan tic O cean and South P acific f&
M
 297
WATER MASSES & DEEP CURRENTS

Ocean, and moderately active in North Pacific, 3. Weddell Sea o f A ntarctica

but it is not active in the Indian Ocean because o f
its location in the southern hemisphere. The
following are major s >urce areas o f the origin of
subsurface water masses (fig. 11.1).
1. Norwegian Sea Area
2. Irminger Sea, o ff south-eastern Greenland
and Labrador Sea
4. Antarctic Basin, north o f Lazarev Sea to
the north o f A ntarctica
5. Extreme North Pacific betw een 45°—50° N
latitudes, to the south o f A leutian Trench
6. Southern Ocean, to the south o f P a c ific -
Antarctic Ridge

1 5 0 °W 120'

North
America

South ^
^America

Pacific-Antaratic ridge /

r A n ta r c n c C ira e
Southern Ocean
!Antarctica ^V ^
12 0 °E 150*E / 180'

------------- AABW --------------AAIW

--------------PSW --------------NADW

F,g 111; Major source areas o f the formation o f subsurface water masses; flow paths o f subsurface writer
thermohaline circulation. AABW = Antarctic Bottom water mass, AAIW = Antarctic Intermedin w T ” ’
PSW = Pacific Subarctic Water mass, NADW = North Atlantic Deep Water mass, MIW =
Intermediate Water mass, 1 to 6 denote source areas of subsurface water mass : J. Norwegian Sea 7
Irminger Sea area, 3. Weddell Sea area. 4. Antarctic Basin area, 5. Extreme North Pacific area and 6. W r il.
Ocean area. Based on A.L Gordon, 1990-91.

298
11.3 DEEP CURRENTS AND THERMOHALINE
CIRCULATION
T he density-driven subsurface curren ts
in v o lv in g m ovem ent o f extensive w ater m as
b elow the pycnocline layer are called deep curren
or therm ohaline circulations o f w ater m asses, ince
the deep currents are originated due to d en sity
v ariatio ns and density o f ocean w ater is the
function o f tem perature (therm o = tem p eratu re)
and salinity (haline = salt) o f ocean w ater, and
hence deep ocean currents are called therm ohaline
circulation o f subsurface w ater m asses.
L ow tem perature or high salinity or both
increase density o f seaw ater, and denser surface
w ater o f the ocean sinks, the process o f w hich is
called downweiling. Thus, high density o f seaw ater
results from the follow ing tw o factors and
processes :
>- increase in density through decrease in
tem perature and increase in salin ity o f
ocean w ater, and
>■ increase in salin ity due to excessive e v a p o ­
ration o f w ater or through the process o f ice
form ation.
The em pirical studies have show n that
increase in density due to low ering o f tem peratu re
o f surface w ater o f the ocean due to m inim um
am ount o f insolation and increase in salin ity o f
ocean w ater due to form ation o f ice occurs in the
high latitude regions and hence the source areas o f
the origin o f subsurface w ater m asses and deep
currents are the sea surfaces o f high latitu d e
regions. It is, thus, clear that high density surface
w ater in the high latitude regions sinks th ro u g h
the p ro cess o f d o w nw eiling beneath the su rface
w ater, and originates deep currents w hich take
subsurface route. The deep currents carry w ith
them the initial c h aracteristics o f tem p eratu re and
salinity w hich they gained at the tim e o f
dow nw eiling and hence there is u n ifo rm ity o f
tem perature and salin ity in the deep cu rren ts and
subsurface w ater m ass except m in o r m o d ific a ­
tions due to m ixing o f ad jo in in g w ater m asses. It
m ay be m entioned that the p h y sical p ro cess, su ch
as insolational heating, ev ap o ratio n , reflectio n
etc., w hich change the ph y sical and ch em ical
OCEANOGI
p ro p e rtie s o f o cea n w ater, are a c tiv e and func-
tional o n ly at the sea su rfa ces, sa y su r fa c e w ater o f
t h e o cean s but as the d en se su rfa ce sea w a ter sinks
it b eco m es free from th e in flu e n c e s o f external
factors and p ro cess, as n am ed a b o v e and hence
su n k en subsurface w ater is n o t a ffe c te d b y the
said factors, w ith the result there is h o m o g en eity
in term s o f tem perature and s a lin ity o f subsurface
o cean w ater.
It is im portant to n o te that d o w n w e il in g o f
surface w ater and u p w e llin g o f d e e p w a ter results
in vertical m ix in g o f o c ea n w a ter and th is p ro cess
occurs w herever p y c n o c lin e l a y e r is n o t present.
This situation also d e v e lo p s in th e h ig h latitude
areas.
D eep ocean currents are ch ara cterized by
the fo llo w in g properties :
>- D eep o cea n currents are, in fa ct, su b su r­
face w ater m a sses.
>- These currents originate due to d o w n w e liin g
o f cold denser su rfa ce w a ter in h ig h
latitude areas.
>■ D eep ocean currents are v e ry s lu g g is h in
forward m o v em en t as th e y m o v e at th e
speed o f 1 0 -2 0 km per year.
>■ D eep ocean currents are n o t c o n fin e d to
only one o cea n , rather th e y m o v e across
the o c ea n s.
>■ D eep ocean currents c o m p le te cyclic path­
w ays. T his c y c lic path b e g in s fro m the
sinking o f d en se su r fa c e w a ter, p a sses
through bottom o f th e o c e a n s and is
com p leted by m ix in g o f d e e p w a ter w ith
surface w ater. T hus th e cycle o f deep ocean
currents b eg in s th rou gh downweiling o f
surface w ater and en d s w ith upwelling o f
deep w ater, th ough the p r o c e ss o f u p w ellin g
in high latitu d e areas is n o t properly
understood.
Cyclic Pattern of Thermohaline Circulation
The th erm oh aline c ircu la tio n o f d eep ocean
currents and w ater m a sse s tak es a c y c lic pathw ay
starting from d o w n w e liin g o f d e n se su rfa ce w ater
in high latitude areas, h o rizo n ta l flo w co v erin g
 WATER MASSES & DEEP CURRENTS
thousands o f kilom eters betw een less dense
surface w ater and m ore dense bottom w ater, and
ending with upw elling o f deep w ater and reap­
pearance on sea surface to com plete the cycle
which takes about 1000 years because the
movement o f subsurface w ater m ass is very slow.
Question arises as to w hen the sinking o f dense
surface w ater spreads laterally and m oves hori­
zontally? W hen dense surface w ater sinks and
moves vertically it reaches such depth w here the
density o f sinking w ater equals the density o f
w ater mass lying there and hence the sunken w ater
mass is placed betw een upper surface w ater mass
o f less density and bottom w ater m ass o f m ore
dense w ater, w ith the result sunken w ater mass
moves h orizontally as deep currents flow or
therm ohaline circulation.
1 1 .4 WATER MASSES OF ATLANTIC OCEAN
ANDTHERMOHALINE CIRCULATION (Deep
C u rren ts)
T here are tw o principal source areas o f the
fo rm atio n o f w ater m asses o f the A tlantic Ocean
as fo llo w s :
>■ N o rw eg ian Sea, w here w ater sinks and
takes subsurface southw ard route to form
N A D W w ater m ass i.e. North Atlantic Deep
W ater mass.
W eddell Sea o f A n tarctica and o ff the
A n ta rc tic coasts, w here dense w ater sinks
d ue to high salin ity caused by ice form a­
tion an d alo n g the A n tarctic convergence
to form A A D W i.e. Antarctic Deep W ater
m ass an d Antarctic Interm ediate W ater mass.
T he North Atlantic Deep W ater (N A D W ) m ass
is form ed d u e to sin k in g o f su rface w ater in the
N o rw egian Sea. H ere d en se su rface w ater form s
due to c o o lin g d u rin g n o rth ern w in ter and
increase in sa lin ity due to ice form ation. The
sunken w a ter m ass u n d e rta k es su b su rface route
and enters th e N o rth A tla n tic O ccan w here the
N A D W re c eiv e s a d d itio n a l w a te r from the sin k ­
ing o f den se su rfa ce w a te r n e ar Irm in g er Sea
located to the s o u th -e a st o f G re en lan d , and
L ab rador Sea. T h is m o st e x te n siv e w a te r m ass o f
the A tlan tic O cean re c e iv e s fu rth e r su p p ly o f
299
w ater w hich com es from the M editerranea Sea as
dense and m ore salty w ater m oves tow ards the
A tlantic O cean to strengthen N A D W m ass.
T hereafter this w ater m ass spreads laterally and
covers m ost o f the bottom s o f the A tlantic O cean.
It may be m entioned that the N A B W lies o v er the
A ntarctic Bottom W ater (A A B W ) m ass because
the form er is less dense than the latter.
The Antarctic Bottom W ater (A A B W ) m ass
form s due to sinking o f dense surface w ater o f the
W eddell Sea o f A ntarctica. The ice form ation
during w inter season in the southern h em isp h ere
in the W eddell Sea and the n orthern p arts o f the
Southern O cean o ff the A ntarctic co asts causes
high density o f w ater through lo w erin g o f
tem perature and increasing salin ity . T he AABW 7
having high density sinks to the g reatest d ep th o f
the South A tlantic O cean and thus form s very
extensive deep bottom w ater m ass an d m oves
northw ard on the bottom s o f the A tlan tic O cean.
The second w ater mass form ed due to sin k in g o f
dense w ater o ff the northern co ast o f A n ta rc tica is
called Antarctic Deep W ater (A A D W ) m ass w h ich
is relatively less dense than the A A B W m ass, and
hence it lies over the A A B W . T he A n tarctic
Bottom WTater m ass w hile m o v in g n o rth w ard
crosses the equator and enters the N o rth A tlan tic
Ocean. The A ntarctic D eep w a ter (A A D W ) lies
betw een the less dense N o rth A tlan tic D eep W ater
(N A D W ) mass and m ore d ense A n tarctic B o tto m
W ater m ass (A A B W ).
B esides these 3 m ajo r deep w a te r m asses,
nam ely A A B W , A A D W and N A D W , th e re are
several interm ediate w ater m asses in th e A tla n tic
O cean, such as A rctic In term ed iate W ate r (A IW ),
A ntarctic Interm ediate W ater (AAIW r), M e d ite r­
ranean In term ed iate W ater (M IW ) etc.
11.5 WATER MASSES OF PACIFIC OCEAN AND
THERMOHALINE CIRCULATION
The subsurface water masses and thermohaline
circulations are not as developed in the P acific
Ocean as they are in the A tlantic O cean because o f
the follow ing reasons :
>■ The m ixing o f the A rctic w ater m ass w ith
the water m ass o f the P acific O cean is n ot
 m OCEANOGRAPHY
strong because the flo w o f cold deep water
m uss and cold bottom water m ass o f the
Arctic O cean into Ihc North Pacific Ocean
is stopped by the shallow Bering strait
T he Antarctic D eep Water (A A D W ) and
the Antarctic Intermediate Water (A A IW )
m asses arc not w ell d eveloped in the
extrem e southern P acific O cean.
>* Due to uniform ity o f temperature and
salinity o f ocean water below the depth o f
20 0 0 m in the Pacific O cean different
layers o f water m asses in terms o f varying
com bin ations o f temperature and salinity
have not d evelop ed .
Low salinity o f surface water in the North
P acific O ceans docs not encourage sinking
o f surface water.
In v iew o f the above facts subsurface
Pacific w ater m asses are dom inated by Common
W ater (C oW ) m asses, w hich have developed due
to interm ixing o f Antarctic Bottom W ater(A A BW )
and North A tlantic D eep Water (N A D W ). This is
w hy the therm ohaline circulations o f subsurface
water m asses o f t h e P acific Ocean are sluggish.
B esid e s C om m on W ater (C oW ), the impor­
tant su b s-su rface water m asses o f the Pacific
O cean are as fo llo w s :
North Pacific C entral W ater (N P C W ) mass
h avin g tem perature and salinity range o f
7°-20°C and 34.1-34.8%o respectively.
>- South Pacific C entral W ater (SPCW ), with
tem perature and salinity ranges o f 9 ° -
20°C, and 34.3-36.2%o respectively.
>• N orth Pacific Interm ediate W ater (N PIW ),
w herein water tem perature ranges betw een
4°-10°C , and salin ity is found betw een 3 4 -
34/.5%o.
>■ Pacific Subarctic W ater (P SW ), having tem ­
perature and salin ity ranges from 5 °-9 °C ,
and 33.5-33.8% o resp ectively.
11.6 W ATER M ASSES AND TH ER M O H ALIN E
CIR C U LA TIO N IN INDIAN O CEA N
The therm ohaline circulations have poorly
d e v elo p ed in the Indian O cean b ecau se o f the
location o f m ost parts o f the Indian O cean in the
southern hem isphere. Thus there is no sinking o f
dense cold surface water in the north and
southward m ovem ent o fsu b su rfa cc water masses,
say deep ocean currents, as is the situation in there
is A tlan tic O cean w here A rctic cold surface dense
water sinks to form North A tlantic D eep Water
and North A tlantic B ottom W ater. T his is w hy the
C om m on Water (C oW ), is produced due to
adm ixture o f A ntarctic B ottom W ater (A A B W )
and North A tlantic D eep W ater (N A D W ). Thus
C om m on Water o fth e Indian O cean is an exam ple
o f hybrid subsurface water m ass b ecause its upper
portion carries the properties o f North Atlantic
D eep Water m ass w hereas the low er portion is
characterized by the properties o f A ntarctic D eep
Water. The Antarctic Interm ediate W ater (A A IW )
is also poorly d eveloped in the Indian O cean. The
Red Sea Interm ediate W ater (R SIW ) m ass is
characterized by the h igh est sa lin ity (m ore than
40%o) o f all the subsurface w ater m a sses o f all the
oceans. This water m ass m o v es southw ard below
the depth o f 3000m and m ix es w ith the Com m on
Water (C oW ).
The fo llo w in g are the w ater m a sses o f the
Indian Ocean :
1. Common W ater (CoW ) mass, which is
formed due to m ix in g o f A ntarctic B ottom Water
(A A B W ) m ass, and North A tlan tic D eep Water
(N A D W ) m ass, and o c cu p ie s m ost o f the Indian
Ocean.
2. Antarctic Bottom Water (A A B W ) is very
ex ten siv e deep w ater m ass w h ich exten d s into the
A tlantic and Indian O cean.
3. A ntarctic In term ed iate W ater (AAIW) mass
is form ed at the A ntarctic co n v e rg e n c e zone and
spreads into the A tlan tic and Indian O ceans.
4. Indian Ocean C en tral W ater (ICW) is ;
spread to the south o f equator and is located at the
depth o f 1000 m eters. T his w ater mass with
salin ity ranging b etw een 34.5%o and 36%o is
form ed due to d o w n w e llin g o f surface w a t e r mass
at the subtropical c o n v erg en ce zo n e near 40°S.
latitude. A fter reaching the depth o f 1000 mete*^
the w ater m ass takes horizontal flo w path to w a i^ ^
the equator. . '/
WATER M A SSES & D E E P C U R R E N T S 30!

5. Red Sea Deep W ater (RSDW) m ass is
form ed d u e to d o w n w e llin g o f higli d e n sity
surface w a te r m a ss. It m a y b e m e n tio n e d th a t th is
w ater m a ss c a rrie s v e ry h ig h sa lin ity o f m o re th an
40%o w h ic h is th e re s u lt o f h ig h ra te o f e v a p o ra ­
tion by th e w a rm a n d d ry a ir b lo w in g o v e r R ed
Sea. T he w in te r c o o lin g a lso in c re a se s th e d en sity
o f su rfa ce w a te r. T h u s, h ig h d e n sity su rfa ce w ater
a fte r sin k in g u p to the d ep th o f 300 0 m e te rs m o v e s
o u t o f R ed S ea th ro u g h th e S trait o f B a b e l
M an ad eb and m ix es w ith th e deep w a te r m a sse s o f
the In d ian O cean . , vu
6. Equatorial Shallow W ater (ESW) m
carries alm o st u n ifo rm sa lin ity o f 35 to 35.5%o.
T his w ater m ass o rig in ate s n o rth o f 10°S la titu d e .

150°W 120°W

Arctic Circle Arctic"

Alaska
Circle
60°N
'/ NorthoJ y
North
Pacific Ocean
North Ame­
America / rica
30°N
-Tropic of Cancer Tropic OT
A fric a Cancer-

0° Equator A ----------- —■ y t - - 0° Equator

< S o u th Atlantic
Warm
P acific ^America KOcean ' ( \ shallow current
Tropic o f Capricorn x VTropic o f Capricorn
30°S I / A u stralia
U 30°S
/ In d ia n
South
O cean Pacific
Ocean
cold and s o l t y j g ^
D eep h low & & & & $
So ut
itarctic C irde
Antarctica
150°W 120°W

F ie 1 1 2 ■ C onveyer Bell C i r c u l a t i o n o r global deep water circulation across the oceans. After: M.S. M cCartney , 1994. This
g lo b a l ocean circulation m odel shows exchange o f warm shallow water and deep cold and more saline water.

indicates reap p earan ce (u p w ellin g ) o f deep w ater.

11.7 CONVEYER BELT CIRCULATION Thus, it is n ecessary to explain the p ro cesses o f
(Global Ocean Circulation Model) dow nw elling and u pw elling.

T h e c o n v e y e r b e lt c irc u latio n m odel o f the Downwelling

oceans sim p ly m e a n s e x ch a n g e o f w a ter m asses o f
surface w a te r a n d d eep w a te r a cro ss the oceans
D ow nw elling is the p ro cess o f sin k in g o f
th ro ugh th e p ro c e ss o f d o w n w ellin g and upw elling
dense surface w ater d ow nw ard in v e rtic a l m an n er.
w h erein th e fo rm e r d e n o te s sin k in g o t high
The d ow nw elling or sin k in g o ccu rs w h e n th e
density su rfa ce w a te r in p o la r areas and the latter

302
d e n sity is h ig h e r th a n th e d e n sity o f la y ers ly in g
b e lo w . In o th e r w o rd s, d o w n w eliin g o ccu rs o n ly
w h e n th e p y n c n o c lin e lay e r, w h ic h d e n o tes sh arp
d e n sity c h a n g e (in c re a se ) w ith in the d ep th zo n e o f
3 0 0 m -1000 m e te rs, is ab sen t. S uch d o w n w eilin g
m a y b e te rm e d as d e n s ity -d e p e n d e n t dow nw eliing.
T h e d e n sity -d e p e n d e n t sin k in g o r d o w n w e lh n g o f
d en se su rfa c e w a te r o ccu rs in h ig h la titu d e areas,
say p o la r a re as w h ere h ig h d e n sity o f su rface
w a te r re s u lts fro m tw o p ro c e sses, n a m ely (1)
th ro u g h c o o lin g o f w a te r due to least am o u n t o f
in so la tio n re c e iv e d at the sea su rface, and (2)
in c re ase in sa lin ity o f sea w ater th ro u g h the
p ro c e ss o f ice fo rm atio n . T he sin k in g , a fte r
re a c h in g su ch as d ep th w here its te m p e ratu re and
sa lin ity are eq u al to the te m p e ratu re and salin ity
o f p re v a ilin g w a te r at th a t d ep th , spreads laterally
an d ta k es e q u a to rw a rd h o riz o n ta l flow paths.
S uch d e n sity -d e p e n d e n t d o w n w eilin g is m ost
activ e in th e p o la r areas o f the A rctic O cean and
N o rth A tla n tic O cean , and m o d erately active in
th e e x tre m e N o rth P a c ific O cean to the south o f
B erin g S tra it in the n o rth e rn hem isphere; and in
th e S o u th ern O cean, say in the extrem e southern
p a rt o f the South A tla n tic O cean (fig. 11.1).
T he second type of downweliing o f surface
w ater is c au se d due to co n v erg en ce o f surface
o cean c u rren ts. Such d o w n w eilin g m ay be term ed
c o n v e rg e n c e-d e p en d e n t downweiling. The co n v er­
g en ce o f su rface cu rren ts com ing from opposite
d ire c tio n s forces the w ater to sink in the sam e
m a n n e r as co n v erg en ce (co llisio n ) o f tw o plates
alo n g su b d u c tio n zone forces the relativ ely
h e a v ie r p la te to go dow nw ard. A few exam ples
m ay be c ite d to ex p lain the c o n v erg en c e-d ep e n d ­
en t d o w n w eliin g . T he co n v erg en ce o f w arm G u lf
S tream , an d co o l L a b ra d o r cu rren t and cool E ast
G re en lan d c u rre n t n e ar N ew fo u n d lan d causes
d o w n w e liin g o f su rface w ater. S im ilarly , the
c o n v e rg e n c e o f w arm K u ro sh io cu rren t, and cool
K u rile c u rre n t o f f the east coasts o f Japan causes
e ffe ctiv e d o w n w eilin g o f su rface w ater.
T h e t h ir d type o f d o w n w eilin g is coastal
dow nw eiling c au se d by E k m a n t r a n s p o r t o f ocean
w ater. It m a y b e re m e m b ered , as d iscu ssed in the
p re c e d in g 10th c h ap te r, th a t E km an tran sp o rt
m o v es th e w a te r to th e rig h t o f w in d d irectio n in
th e n o rth e rn h e m isp h ere an d to the le ft o f w ind
,' ?. i
d ire c tio n in th e s o u th e rn h e m isp h e re . T h e coastal
d o w n w e liin g o c c u rs w h e n w a te r is p ile d tow ard
sh o re. T h is m a y b e e x p la in e d w ith ex am p les. In
th e n o rth e rn h e m is p h e re c o a sta l d o w n w eliin g
w ill o c c u r w h e re v e r th e w in d s b lo w p a ra lle l and
rig h t to th e c o a st fro m s o u th to n o rth (fig . 11.3 A).
In su ch c ase E k m an tra n s p o rt w ill m o v e th e w ater
to th e rig h t o f w in d d ire c tio n , i.e. to w a rd th e w est
c o a st and h e n ce re s u lta n t p ilin g o f w a te r w ould
cau se d o w n w eilin g . I f th e w in d b lo w s p a ra lle l to
th e c o a st fro m n o rth to so u th a n d th e c o a s t is to the
rig h t o f w in d d ire c tio n , d o w n w e liin g w o u ld o ccu r
alo n g th e easte rn c o a st o r w e ste rn m a rg in o f o cean
b asin in the n o rth e rn h e m isp h e re (fig . 1 1.3B ). In
the so u th ern h e m isp h e re i f th e w in d b lo w s fro m
so u th to n o rth p a ra lle l to th e c o a st an d i f th e c o a st
is to the left o f w ind d irectio n , co asta l d o w n w e ilin g
(fig. 1 1.4D) w ill o c cu r alo n g th e e a ste rn c o a s t o r
w estern m arg in o f o cean b a sin b e c a u se h e re
E km an tran sp o rt m o v es th e w a te r to th e le ft o f
w ind d irectio n . C o n v erse ly , i f th e w in d s b lo w
p arallel to the c o ast in th e s o u th e rn h e m is p h e re ,
and the co ast is to th e le ft o f w in d d ire c tio n ,
d o w n w eilin g w o u ld o c c u r a lo n g th e w e s te rn c o ast
if the w in d is b lo w in g fro m n o rth to s o u th (fig.
11.4C ).
It ap p ears fro m th e a b o v e e x a m p le s and
ex p lan atio n o f c o a sta l d o w n w e liin g d u e to E km an
transport that in the northern hem isphere dow nw eiling
alw ays o ccu r alo n g su ch c o a sts w h e re w in d s are
p a ra llel to the co asts an d c o a sts are to th e rig h t o f
w in d d ire c tio n , a n d in th e s o u th e rn h em isp h ere
w hen the co asts are to th e le ft o f w in d d irectio n .
D o w n w eliin g o f su rfa c e w a te r tran sp o rts
ox y g en d o w n w ard w h ic h is m u c h n e e d e d by the
m arin e o rg a n ism s b u t th is p ro c e ss d isco u rag es
e n rich m en t o f se a w a te r b y b rin g in g n u trie n ts, and
h en ce the areas o f d o w n w e liin g o f s u rfa c e w ater
are not c o n d u civ e to m a rin e life a n d h en ce they
are the areas o f lo w m a rin e p ro d u c tiv ity .
Upwelling
U p w e llin g o f w a te r m a sse s re fe rs to reap­
p e aran ce o f co ld d e ep w a te r o n th e sea surface.
T h u s, u p w e llin g is v e rtic a l rise o f deep water
cau sed by d iv e rg e n c e o r sp re a d in g o f surface
w a te r in d iffe re n t situ a tio n s. U p w ellin g is o f two V <
m ain ty p es as fo llo w s : *
 A DEEP CURRENT

Sea Laval

SEA

S e a Level

Ekman
Transport

S e a Level
LAND
Ekman
Transport
few est
^ C o a s t^ ^

I land

i « t
E a st|
Ekman
C o a st
Transport

Northern Hemisphere, Ekman Transport to the right of Wind Direction

Fig. I I J ; Downwelling and upwelling in the northern hemisphere. A = Downwelling along west coast when winds blow
from south to north, B = Downwelling along east coast when winds blowfrom north to south, C = Upwelling along
west coast when winds blowfrom north to south, and D = Upwelling when winds blowfrom south to north parallel
to east coast. Ekman transport is to the right o f wind direction.
 304
1. d iv e rg e n c e -d e p e n d e n t u p w ellin g o r e q u a­
to ria l u p w e llin g .
2. E km an transport-dependent coastal upwelling.
T h e d iv e rg e n c e o f su rface ocean cu rren ts
c a u s e s u p w e llin g o f co ld deep w a ter alo n g the
e a s te rn m a rg in s o f e ach o cean b asin s o r alo n g the
w e ste rn c o a s ts in th e e q u a to ria l region. T he trad e
w in d s d riv e th e e q u a to ria l c u rre n ts (n o rth and
s o u th e q u a to ria l c u rre n ts) to w a rd w est in each
o c e a n . T h e E k m a n tra n sp o rt m oves the w a te r to
th e rig h t o f w in d d ire c tio n in the n o rth e rn
h e m is p h e re o r to th e n o rth side o f E q u a to r to w ard s
m o re n o rth e rly re g io n , and to the left o r to w ard s
m o re s o u th e rly areas in the so u th ern h e m isp h ere .
T h is c a u s e s d e fic it on the easte rn sid es o f o cean
b a s in s , w ith th e re su lt co ld deep w a te r com es
u p w a rd to c o m p en sa te the loss o f su rfa ce w ater.
S u c h ty p e o f u p w e llin g o f c o ld d eep w a te r m ay be
c a lle d d iv e r g e n c e -d e p e n d e n t upw elling, w h ich is
a lso c a lle d e q u a to r ia l upw elling b e c a u se it occu rs in
th e e q u a to ria l re g io n s o f the ocean s.
T he s e c o n d ty p e o f u p w e llin g is coastal
upwelling caused by E km an transport. Such upw elling
a lw a y s o c c u r w h e n th e w in d s b lo w p a ra lle l to the
c o a sts a n d c o a sts are p la c e d to the left o f w ind
d ire c tio n in th e n o rth e rn h e m isp h e re , and to the
rig h t o f w in d d ire c tio n in the so u th ern h e m i­
s p h e re . In fa c t, c o a sta l u p w e llin g o ccu rs w hen
c o a s ta l w a te r is d riv e n aw ay from the co asts, so
th a t th e re o c c u rs w a te r d e fic it o r w a te r v o id . T hus,
c o ld w a te r fro m b e lo w m o v es u p w a rd v e rtic a lly to
fill u p th e v o id . F o r e x a m p le , in the n o rth e rn
h e m is p h e re i f w in d s b lo w in g p a ra lle l to th e co ast
is fro m s o u th to n o rth a n d i f the c o ast is to the left
o f w in d d ire c tio n , E k m a n tra n s p o rt m o v es the
w a te r a w a y fro m th e c o a st a n d u p w e llin g o f co ld
d e e p w a te r o c c u rs a lo n g he e a ste rn c o a sts or
w e ste rn m a rg in o f o c e a n b a sin (fig. 11.3D ). I f the
w in d b lo w in g p a ra lle l to th e c o a st are from n o rth
to s o u th in th e n o rth e rn h e m is p h e re c o a sta l
u p w e llin g w o u ld o c c u r a lo n g th e w e ste rn c o a sts
o r a lo n g th e e a s te rn m a rg in o f o c e a n b a sin (fig.
1 1 .3 C ).
C o n v e rs e ly , in th e s o u th e rn h e m is p h e re if
th e w in d s a re b lo w in g p a ra lle l to the c o a s t fro m
s o u th to n o rth , c o a s ta l u p w e llin g w o u ld o c c u r
a lo n g th e w e s te rn c o a s ts o r e a s te rn m a rg in o f
o c e a n b a s in s (fig . 1 1 .4 A ), a n d i f th e w in d s are
O CEA N
b lo w in g fro m n o rth to so u th , c o a sta l upw elling
w o u ld o c cu r alo n g th e e a ste rn c o ast o r w estern
m arg in o f o cean b a sin s (fig . 11.4 B ).
U p w ellin g o f co ld d eep w a te r is im portant
and b e n e fic ia l to m a rin e o rg a n ism s because
d isso lv e d o x y g e n a n d n u trie n ts are b ro u g h t to the
su rface th ro u g h u p w e llin g . T h e se n u trien ts in­
crease m a rin e p ro d u c tiv ity an d th u s su p p o rt rich
m arin e o rg a n ism s. T h e e q u a to ria l u p w e llin g is
re sp o n sib le fo r ric h h a rv e st o f fish e s in the
e q u ato rial w a ters. It m a y be re c a lle d th a t it is the
u p w e llin g o f n u trie n t ric h co ld w a te r o f f th e coast
o f P eru th a t h as m ad e th e c o u n try o n e o f the
lead in g fish c atc h in g n a tio n s o f th e w o rld . T he
an ch o v y v a rie ty o f P e ru v ia n fish c o m m a n d s larg e
m ark et o f fish es in the w orld.
L et us u n d e rstan d th e c o n v e y e r b e lt c irc u la ­
tion o f the o cean s a fte r u n d e rsta n d in g its tw o
m ajo r p ro c e sses o f d o w n w e liin g a n d u p w e llin g
(figs. 11.3 and 11.4). C o n v e y e r b e lt c irc u la tio n
in v o lv es the m o v e m e n t o f w a rm s u rfa c e w a te r an d
co ld deep w a te r o f th e o c ea n s in a re g u la r and
co n tin u o u s ch ain a c ro ss a ll th e o c e a n s. T his
g lo b al o cean c irc u la tio n b e g in s w ith th e tra n sp o rt
o f w arm su rfa ce w a te rs o f th e In d ia n a n d P acific
O cean s th ro u g h s o u th e rn a n d c e n tra l A tlan tic
O cean to N o rth A tla n tic O c e a n w h e re th e tra n s­
p o rte d h eat e n e rg y o f w a rm w a te r is tra n s fe rre d to
lo w er a tm o sp h ere th ro u g h ra d ia tio n d u rin g w in ter
seaso n . T he su rfa c e w a te r in th e h ig h e r la titu d e s
o f the n o rth A tla n tic O c e a n is c o o le d during
w in te r m o n th s. S u b s e q u e n tly , d e n s ity o f seaw ater
is in c re ase d . T h e s a lin ity a lso in c re a s e s d u e to ice
fo rm atio n . T h u s, d e n s e r a n d m o re s a lty surface
w a te r sin k s d o w n w a rd (d o w n w e ilin g ), a n d after
re a c h in g su ch d e p th w h e re d e n s ity a n d s a lin ity o f
th e s in k in g w a te r m a tc h e s w ith th e d e n sity and
s a lin ity o f w a te r at th a t d e p th , m o v e s h o riz o n ta lly
as d e ep w a te r m a ss o r th e rm o h a lin e currents
so u th w a rd . T h is d e e p w a te r flo w tra v e ils through
the A tla n tic o c e a n a n d re a c h e s In d ia n a n d Pacific
O c e a n s a fte r c o m b in in g w ith c irc u m -A n ta rc tic
d eep w a te r m a ss. T h is d e e p w a te r m a ss reap p ears
th ro u g h upwelling on th e s u rfa c e o f In d ia n and
P a c ific O c e a n s a n d is a g a in h e a te d through
in c o m in g s o la r ra d ia tio n a n d is u ltim a te ly w a n n ed
a g a in a n d jo in s th e u p p e r lim b o f w a rm w a te r o f
th e c o n v e y e r b e lt (fig . 1 1 .2 ) a n d th u s th e circuit o f >
g lo b a l c irc u la tio n o f s u rfa c e a n d subsurface
w a te rs o f a ll th e o c e a n s is c o m p le te .
m WATER M A SSES & D E E P C U R R E N T S

Sea Level

Ekman
Transport

LAND

Ekm an Transport

p u i
ISLA N D

- a m

Southern Hemisphere, Ekman Transport to the Left of Wind Direction

Fig. 11.4 : Downwelling arul upwelling in the southern hemisphere, A = Upwelling, when winds blow from south to north
parallel to west coast; B = Upwelling, when winds blowfrom north to south [Kirallel to east coast; C = Downwelling,
when winds blow from north to south parallel to west coast; and D = Downwelling, when winds blow from south
to north parallel to west coast. Ekman transport is to the left o f wind direction in the southern hemisphere.

306
11*8 IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
C o a s t a l d o w n w e ilin g : T he sinking o f water
due to p ilin g o f h u ge w ater m ass along the coasts
cau sed b y Ekm an transport is called coastal
d o w n w e ilin g .
C o a s t a l u p w e l l i n g : R isin g o f cold water from
b elo w a lo n g the coasts and reappearance o f cold
w ater due to d ivergen ce o f surface water from
coastal areas under the influence o f Ekman
transport is ca lled coastal up w elling.
C onveyer belt circulation : The circuitous
circulation o f warm surface water and cold
subsurface (d eep ) w aters across all the ocean s in
a chain is ca lled con veyer belt circulation.
Convergence-dependent downweiling : The
sin k in g o f surface seaw ater due to pilin g o f huge
w ater m asses caused by convergence o f surface
ocean currents is called convergence-dependent
d o w n w eilin g.
Cycle of deep ocean currents : The c y clic
pathw ay beginn ing from the dow n w elin g o f dense
surface w ater in higher latitudes, its journey
through the bottom o f the ocean and its reappear­
ance on surface o f the ocean s in higher latitudes is
called deep ocean currents cycle.
OCEANOGRAPHY
Density-dependent d o w n w e ilin g : T he sinking ■j
o f denser and sa lty surface w ater o f the ocean s in
high latitude areas, sa y polar region s, is called
d en sity -d ep en d en t d o w n w e ilin g .
Downweiling : is the p ro cess o f sinking o f
dense surface w ater d ow n w ard in vertical manner.
Pycnocline : T he layer o f the ocean water
b etw een the depth z o n e o f 3 0 0 m -1 0 0 0 m, where
there is sharp ch a n g e in d en sity (increase) o f
seaw ater dow n w ard is c a lle d p y cn o clin e i.e.
p y cn o clin e d en o tes ste ep gradient o f sharp in­
crease o f d en sity d ow n w ard w ith in a depth zone
o f 3 0 0 m -1 0 0 0 m in the o c ea n s.
Thermohaline circulation : T he circulation o f
den sity-d riven d eep o c ea n currents is called
therm ohaline circu la tio n b e c a u se the density o f
seaw ater is the fu n ctio n o f temperature (thermo =
tem perature) and sa lin ity (h aline = salinity,
salin ity).
Upwelling : T he reappearance o f deep ocean
w ater through upw ard v ertica l m o v em en t on sea
surface is c a lle d u p w ellin g .
W ater mass : W ater m a ss is defined as
ex ten siv e h o m o g en eo u s b o d y o f im m en se volume
o f ocean w ater, in term s o f u n ifo rm density and
salinity.
CHAPTER 1 2 : TID ES ~ 307-322
tid e s : m ean in g and concepts, tides : characteristic featu res, 307
tid e g e n eratin g fo rce, 310
tim e o f tid e, 311
ty p e s o f tid e s, 313
th e o rie s o f th e orig in o f tides, equilibrium m odel o f tid es, 315
e q u ilib riu m th eo ry o f N ew ton, 316
p ro g re s siv e w ave th eory , 317
s ta tio n a ry w a v e th eory, 318
tid a l b o re s, 319
tid a l c u rre n ts , A A A
320
A A -A

12.1 TIDES : MEANING AND CONCEPTS
W a v e s , c u rre n ts (b o th s u rfa c e an d d eep
o c e a n c u rre n ts ), a n d tid e s are o f v ita l sig n ific a n c e
a m o n g v a rio u s ty p e s o f o c e a n m o v e m e n ts. W av es
a n d o c e a n c u rre n ts h a v e a lre a d y b e e n d is c u s s e d in
th e p re c e d in g c h a p te rs 8 ,9 ,1 0 a n d 11 o f th is b o o k .
D iffe re n t a s p e c ts o f tid e s , su ch as m ean in g ,
c h a r a c te ris tic fe a tu re s , tid e g e n e ra tin g fo rces,
tid a l tim e s , ty p e s o f tid e s , th e o rie s o f th e o rig in o f
tid e s e tc . a re b e in g d is c u s s e d in th is c h ap te r.
T id e s a re , in fa c t, th e m o s t im p o rta n t o f all
th e o c e a n m o v e m e n ts b e c a u s e tid a l cu rre n ts a ffe c t
the w h o le w a te r m ass fro m sea surface to the bottom .
T h e ris e a n d fa ll o f s e a w a te r d u e to
g ra v ita tio n a l fo rc e s (c e n tre p e ta l) o f th e su n an d
the m o o n a re c a lle d tid e s . P. R. P in e t (2 0 0 0 ) has
defined th e tid e in th e fo llo w in g m a n n e r :
“ T id e s a r e w a v e s w ith v e ry lo n g w a v e ­
le n g th s— m u c h lo n g e r th a n o r d in a ry w in d
w a v e s -th a t c a u se s e a le v e l to r ise a n d fa ll w ith
e x tr a o r d in a ry re g u la r ity . In fa c t, tid e s a re the
m o st u n ifo r m ly v a r y in g p h e n o m e n o n in the
ocean”
— P .R . P in e t, 2 0 0 0
TIDES
It a p p e a rs fro m th e a b o v e s ta te m e n ts th a t
tid e s are sim p ly p e rio d ic ris e a n d fa ll o f s e a le v e l
c au se d by e x te rn a l so u rc e s e .g . s u n a n d m o o n .
A c c o rd in g to H .V . T h u rm a n a n d A .P . T r u jillo
(1 9 9 9 ) “T id es a re th e p e rio d ic ris in g a n d lo w e rin g
o f a v erag e sea le v e l th a t o c c u rs th r o u g h o u t th e
o cean s o f th e w o rld .”
12.2 TIDES : CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES
A s s ta te d a b o v e tid e s are rh y th m ic ris e a n d
fa ll o f o cean s u rfa c e c a u s e d b y th e g ra v ita tio n a l
(a ttra c tio n a l) fo rc e s o f th e su n a n d th e m o o n . T h e
o cean tid e s are c h a ra c te riz e d b y th e fo llo w in g
ty p ic a l fe a tu re s :
T id es are sin g le w a v e p h e n o m e n o n w h ic h
c o v ers th e e n tire o c e a n bagin. O n th e o th e r
h a n d , w in d -g e n e ra te d se a w a v e s a re s u c ­
c e ssio n o f w a v e s a p p ro a c h in g th e se a sh o re
o n e a fte r a n o th er. T h e fro n t o f th e tid a l
w av e cau ses u p w a rd m o v e m e n t o f s e a w a te r
(rise o f sea le v e l) in o n e p a rt o f th e o c e a n
b a sin , w h ile d o w n w a rd m o v e m e n t o r sa y
fall o f sea le v e l on th e o th e r sid e o f th e .
sam e o c e a n b a sin .

► T id e s are sh a llo w w ater w a v es but w it
v e r y lo n g w a v elen g th ev en in the eep
o c e a n basin.
► T id e s are d ifferentiated from w in d -d riven
se a w a v e s w ith resp ect to w a v elen g th ,
w a v e h eigh t, m od e o f origin etc. 1 a
w a v e s and sim p le w in d -d riven sea w a v e s
h a v e on e com m on asp ect i.e. sou rce o f
fo rces resp on sib le for the origin o f tid es
and sea w a v es. B oth have external sou rces
for their origin. T ides are origin ated due to
interactions o f the sun and m o o n w ith
o cean surfaces w h ile sea w a v e s are g en er­
ated by w ind -drag. B e s id e s , sea w a v e s are
also origin ated b y other factors such as
atm osph eric p ressu re, tem perature varia­
tio n s, sa lin ity v a riation s etc.
T id es are lo w w a v e s but w ith h igh energy,
w h ile se a w a v e s are h ig h w a v e s w ith low
en erg y . V e ry h ig h sea w a v e s su ch as rogue
w a v e s and storm breakers have very high
crests but are lo c a liz e d p h en om en a but
tid es are w id esp rea d p h en o m en a b ecau se
th ey stretch across the entire ocea n basin.
L ik e w in d -d r i\e n sea w a v e s tidal w a v e s
are a lso ch aracterized b y crests (rise o f
w ater) and troughs (fa ll o f w ater). The tidal
w a v e h e ig h t is ca lle d tida! range. The
v e rtica l d iffe re n c e b e tw e en h igh tid e w ater
(c r e st o f tid al w a v e ), and lo w tide water
(tro u g h o f tid al w a v e ) is c a lled the tidal
w a v e h e ig h t or tid al range which g en era lly
v a r ies b e tw e e n le s s than 2 m etes to m ore
than 4 m eters. On the b a sis o f h eig h t tidai
ran ge is d iv id e d into the fo llo w in g three
c a te g o r ie s (fig . 1 2 .1 ) :
(1 ) microtidal range, h eig h t (w a v e h eig h t)
le s s than 2 m eters
(2 ) m e s o t id a l r a n g e , w a v e h e ig h t b e tw e en 2
to 4 m eters
(3 ) m a c r o t i d a l r a n g e , w a v e h eig h t m ore
than 4 m eters
>* T h e r ise o f sea w a ter and its m o v e m e n t
to w a rd th e c o a st is c a lle d tid e and the
resu lta n t h ig h w ater le v e l is k n ow n as hig h
t i d e w a t e r (H .T .W .), w h ile the fa ll o f
se a w a te r and its m o v e m e n t tow ard the sea
is c a lle d e b b and th e resu lta n t lo w wafer 1
le v e l is k n o w n as lo w t i d e w a t e r ( L . T . W . ) , I
>■ T h ere is m u ch v a r ia tio n in th e h e ig h t o f
h ig h and lo w tid e s at d iffe r e n t p la c e s in
d iffe re n t o c e a n s b e c a u s e o f v a r y in g char*
a c te r istic s o f th e d ep th o f o c e a n water,
c o n fig u ra tio n o f se a c o a sts and c o a stlin e s
and o p e n n e ss or c lo s e n e s s o f th e sea s.
G ra v ita tio n a l p u ll o f o c e a n w a ter is ca lled
tid al bulge w h ic h o c c u r s at tw o p la c e s , one
b u lg e is tow ard the m o o n and th e o th er is
aw a y from the m o o n on th e o p p o s ite s id e o f
the earth i.e o p p o site to the fir st b u lg e . T he
tidal b u lg es created on th e e a r th ’s w ater
su rface by the g r a v ita tio n a l fo r c e o f the
m o o n are c a lle d lu n a r tid al bulges (f ig . 1 2 .4 ,
at T p la c e , fa c in g the m o o n , and at A p la c e ,
ori ented on the o p p o site s id e o f th e ea rth ).
T h ese tw o b u lg e s are h ig h tid e s . T h u s e a ch
p la ce on the earth e x p e r ie n c e s b u lg e s or
high tid es tw ic e e a ch d a y i.e . th e y o c c u r at
the in terval o f 12 h ou rs 2 5 m in u te s each
day. T he total p e r io d o f tw o b u lg e s (tid e s)
each day is c a lle d lu n a r day. It m a y be
m entioned that solar day is o f a b ou t 24
hours.
>■ L ik e m oon, as referred to a b o v e , su n also
produces b u lg e s on o p p o s ite s id e s o f the
earth b y its g r a v ita tio n a l fo r c e (p u ll). The
b u lg e s crea ted b y th e su n o n th e earth’s
w ater su rfa ce are c a lle d so la r bulges. One
b u lg e is o r ien te d tov/ard th e s id e o f the sun
w hile the oth er b u lg e is o r ie n te d to w a rd the
o p p o site s id e o f th e earth. S in c e the
d ista n ce o f th e su n fr o m th e earth is far
greater than th e d is ta n c e b e tw e e n th e m oon
and the earth, the s iz e o f so la r b u lg e is 46
p ercen t sm a ller than the lunar b u lg e because
the g ra v ita tio n a l p u ll o f th e m o o n far
e x c e e d s the g ra v ita tio n a l p u ll o f the sun.
^ T h e c o a stw a r d tr a n sg r e ssio n o f seaw ater
under th e in flu e n c e o f tid a l w a v e s or
sim p ly tid a l b u lg e is c a lle d flo o d tide w hile
sea w a rd r e g r e ss io n o f w a te r o f tid al bulge
is c a lle d e b b t id e .
^ A n y p la c e on th e earth fa c in g o c e a n s (also
s e a s ) w ill e x p e r ie n c e tw o flo o d tid e s and
tw o e b b tid e s e a c h lun ar d a y .

T he h e ig h ts o f h ig h a n d low tid e s are n e v er
id e n tic a l ra th e r th e se g re a tly vary. In o th er
w o rd s, n o tw o h ig h tid e s o r tw o low tid es
are e v e r o f sam e h e ig h t.
>- T he m o n th ly an d a n n u a l cy cles o f tid al
ra n g e s a lso c h a n g e b e ca u se th ey are
d e p e n d e n t o n th e c h a n g in g d ista n ce s o f the
su n a n d th e m o o n fro m th e e arth b e ca u se o f
e llip tic a l s h a p e o f the e a rth ’s orbit.
>• T h e re a re tw o h ig h tid e s (sp rin g tid e s) and
tw o n e e p tid e s in ev ery m o nth.
T h e re a re e x c e p tio n s to th e o c cu rren c e s o f
tw o h ig h tid e s an d tw o lo w tid e s each lu n ar
d a y in so m e lo c a litie s due to com p lex
fa c to rs. T h u s, th e tid a l p a tte rn s o f a lu n ar
coastlines ofthe world. After A. Couper, 1983, in P.R. Pinet. 2000.
12.1: Tidal patterns and tidal range along the
309
d ay are d iv id e d in to th e fo llo w in g 3
p a tte rn s :
(1) D iurnal tidal p attern re fe re s to th e
o c c u rre n c e o f o n ly o n e h ig h tid e a n d
one lo w tid e e ac h lu n a r d a y in sh a llo w
seaw ater.
(2) Sem idiurnal tidal p attern, tw o h ig h tid e s,
and tw o lo w tid e s e ach lu n a r d a y
h av in g a lm o st id e n tic a l tid a l h e ig h ts o f
su cc e ssiv e h ig h an d lo w tid e s. S u ch
tid al p a tte rn o c cu rs a lo n g th e w e ste rn
p arts o f the A tla n tic O c ea n fa c in g e a st
co asts o f th e U SA .
(3) M ixed tid a l p a tte rn is c h a ra c te riz e d b y
the o ccu rren ces o f d iu rn a l as w e ll as
 s e m id iu rn a l tid a l p a tte rn s b u t th e
h e ig h ts o f s u c c e ss iv e h ig h o r lo w tid e s
a re n e v e r id e n tic a l ra th e r th e y fre ­
q u e n tly c h a n g e . T h is tid a l p a tte rn is
th e m o s t c o m m o n p a tte rn o f th e o c c u r­
re n c e s o f tid e s a lm o st in all th e o c e a n s.
T h e v a ria tio n s in th e h e ig h ts o f s u c c e s ­
s iv e h ig h a n d low tid e s o f m ix e d tid a l
p a tte rn a re c a lle d d i u r n a l in e q u a litie s .
T h e stee p w a ll o f w a te r c re a te d in th e
n a rro w e stu a rie s o f riv e rs th a t d e b o u c h in
th e o c ea n s or in th e b a y s h a v in g n a rro w an d
c o n stric te d m o u th s due to in c o m in g tid e is
c a lle d tid a l b o re . T id a l b o re is fo rm e d due to
fric tio n o f se a w a rd flo w in g riv e rs and
in c o m in g tid a l w a v es. T h e fric tio n a l o b ­
s tru c tio n c a u se d by in c o m in g tid e to the
fre e flo w o f th e riv e r fo rces the w a ter to
rise u p to a b n o rm a l h e ig h t, and th u s tid al
b o re is fo rm ed .
12.3 TIDE GENERATING FORCE
T he o rig in o f tid e s in th e o cean s is p rim arily
c o n c e rn e d w ith th e g ra v ita tio n a l forces o f the sun
an d th e m o o n . It m a y b e p o in te d o u t th at the earth
ro ta te s fro m w e st to e a st and re v o lv e s aro u n d the
su n fo llo w in g an e llip tic a l o rb it. S im ilarly , the
m o o n ro ta te s fro m w e st to east and re v o lv e s
a ro u n d th e e a rth (fig. 12.2) a lo n g an e llip tic a l
o rb it so th a t th e d is ta n c e b e tw ee n th e m o o n and
th e e a rth c h a n g e s (fig . 12.2) d u rin g d iffe re n t
tim e s in e v e ry m o n th . T he p e rio d o f th e fa rth e st
Moon
Flg' 122 ■' Si’nilar direction of rotation and revolution of
the earth and the moon.
distance betw een the m oon and the earth (407,000
km ) is called apogee w hile the period o f the nearest
distance (356,000 km ) is called perigee (fig. 12.3).
The surface o f the earth w ith its diam eter of
12.800 km (8,000 m iles) is 6,400 km nearer to the
m oon than its centre. T he centre o f the moon is
3.84.800 km (2,40,000 m iles) aw ay from the
centre o f the earth. The e a rth ’s o u ter surface is
3,77,000 km (2,36,000 m iles) aw ay from the outer
surface o f the m oon. It is evident th at the earth’s
outer surface, w hich is opposite to th at surface of
the earth w hich faces the m oon (fig. 12.4 T) is
3,90,400 km aw ay from the m o o n ’s surface. The
gravitational force o f the m oon w ill be m axim um
at the earth ’s surface facing the m oon (at T in fig.
12.4) w h ile it w ill b e m in im u m a t th e o p p o s ite
sid e o f the earth (a t A in fig . 12 .4 ). C o n s e q u e n tly ,
the w a te r o f th e e a r th ’s s u rfa c e fa c in g th e m o o n is
a ttra c te d an d p u lle d a n d h ig h tid e o c c u r s (fig.
12.4). H ig h tid e is a lso fo rm e d a t th e o p p o s ite side
o f the earth (A in fig . 1 2 .4 ) s im u lta n e o u s ly
b e ca u se o f th e re a c tio n a ry fo rc e ( c e n trifu g a l) o f
th e g ra v ita tio n a l (c e n trip e ta l) fo rc e o f th e m o o n
c au sin g o u tw a rd b u lg e o f w a te r.
Moon
Moon
Fig. 12.3 : Varying distances between the and the
e a r t h
moon. Situations o f apogee and perigee.
It m a y b e m e n tio n e d th a t tid e s are caused in
th e e a r th ’s o c ea n d u e to th e fo llo w in g tw o main
fa c to rs :
>* g ra v ita tio n a l fo rce (a ttra c tio n ) o f th e m o
an d
 TIDES
High Tide
High Tide
Lunar
Nadir Bulge
A Moon
Lunar
Tidal
Bulge
Fig. 12.4 : Effects o f gravitation alforce o f moon on earth ’s
w a te r surface an d occurrence o f high tides.
Sim ultaneously there are tw o lunar bulges on
the e a r th ’s surface a t p la c e T, facin g the moon
(zenith) an d a t p la ce A, on opposite side ofth e
earth (nadir).
c e n tr if u g a l fo rc e a ss o c ia te d w ith th e ro ta ­
tio n o f th e e a rth a n d th e m o o n .
T h e fo llo w in g p rin c ip le s go v ern the stren g th
o f g r a v ita tio n a l a ttra c tio n b e tw e e n tw o c ele stia l
b o d ie s :
1. G ra v ita tio n a ttra c tio n is p ro p o rtio n a l to the
m a s s o f th e b o d y i.e. th e g re a te r th e m ass o f
a b o d y , th e g re a te r th e g ra v ita tio n a l a ttra c ­
tio n a n d v ic e v e rs a . ‘In fact, th e s tre n g th o f
g r a v ita tio n a l a ttra c tio n v a rie s d ire c tly w ith
th e m a s s e s o f in te ra c tin g b o d ie s ’ (P .R .
P in e t, 2 0 0 0 ).
2. G r a v ita tio n a l a ttra c tio n a lso d e p e n d s on
th e d is ta n c e s b e tw e e n tw o in te ra c tin g
b o d ie s . In fa c t, th e g ra v ita tio n a l fo rce is
in v e r s e ly p r o p o r tio n a l to th e s q u a re o f th e
d is ta n c e b e tw e e n tw o in te ra c tin g b o d ie s o f
v a r y in g m a s s e s . In a v e ry s im p le te rm , th e
g r e e te r th e d is ta n c e b e tw e e n tw o in te ra c t­
in g b o d ie s , th e le s s e r th e g ra v ita tio n a l
fo rc e a n d v ic e v e rs a . It m a y b e m e n tio n e d
th a t th e r e is s o m e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n
g r a v ita tio n a l fo r c e a n d tid e g e n e ra tin g
fo rc e . T h u s , tid e - g e n e r a tin g fo rc e s te n d to
‘v a ry in v e r s e ly a s th e c u b e o f th e d is ta n c e
fro m e a c h p o in t o n th e e a rth to th e c e n te r o f
th e tid e - g e n e r a tin g o b je c t (m o o n o r su n ),
in s te a d o f v a r y in g in v e rs e ly to th e sq u a re
o f th e d is ta n c e a s d o e s g ra v ita tio n a l
a ttra c tio n ’ (H .V . T h u rm a n a n d A .P . T ru jillo ,
1 9 9 9 ).
311
T h is is to re m e m b e r th a t th o u g h th e m ass Qf
th e su n is 10 m illio n tim e s g re a te r th a n th e m ass o f
th e m o o n b u t th e s tre n g th o f g ra v ita tio n a l
a ttra c tio n o f th e m o o n is 2 tim e s m o re th a n th e su n
b e c a u se th e m o o n is 390 tim e s c lo se r to th e e a rth
th a n the sun. T h is is w h y th e m o o n h as tw ic e th e
tid e -g e n e ra tin g fo rc e on th e e a r th ’s s u rfa c e to th a t
o f th e s u n ’s tid e -g e n e ra tin g fo rce on th e e a rth , a n d
th u s, m o o n is m o re p o te n t so u rc e o f tid e
g e n e ra tio n on th e e a r th ’s su rfa c e th a n th e su n .
T h u s, th e tid e -g e n e ra tin g fo rc e o f th e m o o n
cau ses tw o l u n a r tid a l bulges o n th e e a r th ’s s u rfa c e
at the sam e tim e. O ne b u lg e o f o c e a n w a te r,
lo c ated at T in fig. 12.4, is on th a t sid e o f th e e a rth
w h ich faces the m o o n . T h is sid e o f th e b u lg e is
c alled z enith. T h e o th e r lu n a r tid a l b u lg e , lo c a te d
at A in fig. 12.4, is on o p p o site sid e o f th e e a rth ,
o p p o site to th a t sid e o f th e e a rth (T in fig . 12 .4 )
w h ich faces th e m o o n . T h is sid e o f lu n a r b u lg e is
called n a d ir . T h e zenith l u n a r b u lg e (a t T in fig .
12.4) is c au se d b y th e g ra v ita tio n a l a ttra c tio n o f
the m oon, w h ile th e n a d i r l u n a r bu lg e (a t A in fig .
12.4) is g e n e ra te d b y th e ‘c e n trifu g a l e ffe c t
asso c iate d w ith th e ro ta tio n o f th e e a rth a n d th e
m o o n .’
T hus, tw o tid e s an d e b b s are e x p e rie n c e d
tw ice at ev ery p la c e o n th e e a r th ’s w a te r s u rfa c e
w ith in 24 h o u rs. W h en th e su n , th e e a rth a n d th e
m o o n are in th e sam e lin e (a t th e tim e o f fu ll m o o n
an d new m o o n ) th e ir g ra v ita tio n a l fo rc e s w o rk
to g e th e r an d h ig h tid e s are fo rm e d (fig . 1 2 .5 ). O n
the o th e r h an d , w h e n th e su n a n d th e m o o n a re at
th e p o sitio n o f rig h t a n g le w ith re fe re n c e to th e
e arth (fig. 12. 6), th e g ra v ita tio n a l fo rc e s o f t h e
sun an d th e m o o n w o rk a g a in s t e a c h o th e r a n d
h e n c e low tid e s are fo rm ed . T h is s itu a tio n o c c u rs
d u rin g th e 8th d ay o f e ac h fo rtn ig h t o f a m o n th .
12.4 TIME OF TIDES
O n an a v e ra g e , e v e ry p la c e e x p e rie n c e s
tid e s tw ic e a day . S in c e th e e a rth c o m p le te s its
ro ta tio n in ro u g h ly 24 h o u rs, e v e ry p la c e sh o u ld
e x p e rie n c e tid e a fte r 12 h o u rs b u t th is n e v e r
h a p p e n s. E a c h d ay tid e is d e la y e d b y 26 m in u te s
b e c a u s e th e m o o n a lso ro ta te s o n its a x is (w e st to
e a st) w h ile re v o lv in g a ro u n d th e e a rth . S in c e th e
e a rth ro ta te s fro m w e st to e a st an d h e n c e th e tid e
312
c e n tre s h ifts w e stw a rd . W hen th e tid e cen tre
c o m p le te s o n e ro u n d , th e m o o n ’s p o sitio n is
a h e a d o f th e tid e cen tre b y th a t tim e b e c a u se th e
m o o n a lso re v o lv e s a ro u n d th e earth , w ith the
re s u lt th e tid e c en tre tak es a n o th e r 52 m in u te s to
co m e u n d e r the m oon. T hus, a p a rtic u la r tid e
c e n tre ta k e s 2 4 h o u rs 52 m in u te s to co m e u n d e r
th e m o o n b u t b y th a t tim e th e re is a n o th e r tid e at
th e o p p o site sid e o f th e re fe rre d tid e c e n tre an d
th is h a p p e n s a fte r 12 h o u rs 26 m in u tes.
L e t u s u n d e rsta n d th is p ro c e ss w ith th e h elp
o f a d ia g ra m (fig. 12.7). S up p o se i f P e x p e rie n c e s
first tid e a t 4 P .M ., the sec o n d tid e w ill o c c u r at
4 .2 6 A .M . an d the n e x t tid e w ill b e e x p e rie n c e d at
4 .5 2 P.M . T h e m o o n is a t ‘K ’ lo c a tio n (fig. 12.7)
an d the p la c e ‘P* o n th e e a r th ’s w a te r su rface
u n d er th e m o o n (K ) w ill e x p erien c e tid e at 4 p.m .
T he p la c e ‘P ’ a fte r c o m p le tin g its fu ll ro ta tio n in
24 h o u rs c o m es to its o rig in a l p la ce b u t b y th a t
tim e th e m o o n m o v e s to ‘L ’ p o sitio n w h ich is
ab o v e ‘F* p la c e o n the e a rth ’s su rface. N o w the
New moon
Fig. 12.5: situations o f full and new moon and high tide.
p la c e *P* h a s to c o v e r e x tra d is ta n c e o f P -F s o that '•V
it m a y c o m e u n d e r L p o s itio n o f th e m o o n a n d ‘p ‘
m a y e x p e rie n c e n e x t tid e . T h e e a rth h a s to spend
52 m in u te s to c o v e r P -F d is ta n c e . T h e m oon
c o m p le te s its o n e re v o lu tio n a ro u n d th e earth in
27 d a y s, 7 h o u rs , 43 m in u te s a n d 17.5 seco n d s
(a v e ra g e 2 7 .5 d a y s). T h u s , th e P -F d ista n c e is
2 /5 5 th p a rt o f th e m o o n ’s o rb it. T h e p la c e ‘P ’ w ill
ta k e 2 4 x 6 0 x 2 /5 5 = 5 2 m in u te s to c o v e r th e dis­
ta n ce o f 2 /5 5 (P -F ) p a rt o f th e m o o n ’s o rb it,
th e re fo re , th e p la c e ‘P ’ w ill e x p e rie n c e n e x t tid e at
4 .2 6 A .M . w h e n it is a t O p la c e a n d su b se q u e n t
tid e o ccu rs at 4 .5 2 P .M . It is e v id e n t th a t a t each
p la ce ev ery d ay tid e o c c u rs a fte r 12 h o u rs a n d 26
m in u te s an d a fte r th e tid e , e b b o c c u rs a fte r 6 h o u rs
13 m in u tes. It m a y b e p o in te d o u t th a t e a c h p la c e
e x p erien c e s tid e tw ic e a d a y i. e. w h e n th e p la c e is
u n d e r th e m o o n a n d w h e n th e p la c e is a t the
o p p o site sid e o f th e m o o n a n d th u s each
tid e at p a rtic u la r p la c e is d e la y e d b y 2 6 m in u te s
d aily .
moon
o
Full moon
i
 • spring tid es
moon • neep tides
• tro p ical an d e q u ato rial tid es
C l • apogean and p erig ean tides
• d iu rn al an d sem i-d iu rn al tid es
• eq u in o ctical sp rin g tid es
• d irect and in d irect tid es (zen ith an d n a d ir
tides)

Spring Tides

V ery high tid e is cau sed w h en th e su n , th e

m oon and the earth are alm o st in th e sam e lin e .
Such high tides are c alled sp rin g tid e s. T h e
position o f the sun, the m o o n an d th e e a rth in a
straight line is called syzygy. W h en th e su n , th e
o m oon and the earth are in seq u e n tia l o rd e r in a
moon straight line, in o th e r w ords w h en th e su n a n d th e
m oon are in one side o f the earth , th e p o s itio n is
Fig. 12.6 : situation o f quarature and low tide. called conjunction (the situ a tio n o f so lar e c lip se ).
W hen the p o sitio n o f the earth is in b e tw ee n th e
sun and m oon, this is c alled opposition (fig . 1 2 . 8 ) .
On the other hand, w hen the sun, th e e arth a n d th e
m oon are in a p o sitio n o f a rig h t an g le (fig . 1 2 . 6 ) ,
this p o sitio n is c a lle d q u a d r a t u r e . T h e p o s itio n s
o f conjunction an d opposition ta k e p la c e d u rin g
new m oon and full m oon re s p e c tiv e ly . In th e s e
situ atio n s the g ra v ita tio n a l fo rc e s o f th e s u n a n d
the m oon w o rk to g e th e r w ith c o m b in e d fo rc e a n d
thus h ig h tid e is cau sed . T h e h e ig h t o f s u c h
sp rin g tid es is 20 p e r c en t m o re th a n th e n o rm a l
tid es. Such tid es o c c u r tw ic e e v e ry m o n th
(d u rin g fu ll m o o n an d n ew m o o n ) a n d th e ir
tim in g is fixed.

Fig. 1 2 .7 : Time o f the occurrence o f tide.

Neep Tides

1 2 .5 TYPES OF TIDES
T he sun, th e e arth an d th e 'm oon co m e in th e
p o sitio n o f q u ad ratu re (i.e fo rm rig h t a n g le) o n
T h e o c e a n ic tid e s a re c a u se d due to tide
sev en th o r e ig h th day o f ev ery fo rtn ig h t o f a
p ro d u c in g fo rc e s o f th e su n an d the m oon. T h ere m o n th and th u s the tid e p ro d u c in g fo rces o f th e
is a lo t o f te m p o ra l a n d sp a tia l v a ria tio n in the tide
sun and th e m o o n w o rk in o p p o site d ire c tio n , w ith
p ro d u c in g fo rc e s b e c a u s e o f d iffe re n t p o sitio n s o f
the re su lt low tid e is caused. Such tid e, w h ic h is
the su n a n d th e m o o n w ith th e earth . B ec a u se o f
lo w er in h e ig h t th an th e n o rm a l tid e , is c a lle d n e a p
v a ria tio n s in th e in te n s ity o f tid e p ro d u c in g forces
tide. T h e h e ig h t o f n eap tid es is g e n erally 2 0 p e r
sev e ra l ty p e s o f tid e s a re c a u se d . A few im p o rtan t
cen t lo w er th an th e n o rm al tides.
typ es o f tid e s a re g iv e n b e lo w :
 314
Sun’s Rays
Sun
Q uadrature
Fig. 12.8 : Position o f the sun, earth and moon and the situation o f conjunction, opposition and quadrature.
T ro p ical a n d E q u ato rial T ides
L ik e th e su n th e re is also n o rth w a rd and
s o u th w a rd p o s itio n o f th e m o o n in re la tio n to the
e q u a to r o f th e e a rth . I f th e sun c o m p le te s its
n o rth w a rd a n d s o u th w a rd p o s itio n in one y e ar i.e.
in ro u g h ly 365 d a y s, th e m o o n c o m p le te s it in 27.5
d a y s o r s a y in o n e s y n o d ic m o n th . W h en th e re is
m a x im u m d e c lin a tio n o f th e m o o n to th e n o rth o f
e q u a to r, th e m o o n ’s ra y s fall v e rtic a lly on th e tid e
c e n tre s (n e a r th e T r o p ic o f C a n c e r ) a nd h en ce
s p rin g tid e s a re c a u se d . S u ch tro p ic a l tid e s m o v e
w e s tw a rd a lo n g th e T ro p ic o f C an c e r. S p rin g tid es
a re a lso c a u s e d a lo n g th e T ro p ic o f C a p ric o rn
w h ic h is o p p o s ite to th e T ro p ic o f C an c e r. T h u s,
s u c c e s s iv e h ig h a n d lo w w a te r o c c u rrin g a lo n g the
tro p ic s o f C a n c e r a n d C a p ric o rn are o f u n e q u a l
h e ig h ts . S u c h tid e s a n d eb b s a re o f h ig h e r an d
lo w e r h e ig h ts th a n th e n o rm a l tid e s an d eb b s
re s p e c tiv e ly . S u c h tid e s re c u r tw ic e e v e ry m o n th
w h e n th e m o o n ’s ra y s fa ll v e rtic a lly on th e tro p ic s
o f C a n c e r (d u r in g n o rth w a rd p o s itio n o f the
m o o n ) a n d C a p ric o rn (d u rin g s o u th w a rd p o s itio n
o f th e m o o n ). T h u s , th e tid e s o c c u rrin g a lo n g the
tro p ic s o f C a n c e r a n d C a p ric o rn a re c a lle d tro p ic a l
tides. T h e re is n o d iu rn a l in e q u a lity o f tid e s in
te rm s o f h e ig h ts o f tw o n e a p tid e s a n d tw o sp rin g
tid e s b e c a u s e th e m o o n is v e rtic a l o n th e e q u a to r
e v e ry m o n th . S u c h tid e s a re c a lle d e q u a t o r i a l tid e s.
A pogean a n d P e rig e a n T id es
T h e n e a r e s t p o s itio n o f th e m o o n w ith th e
e a rth is c a lle d p e rig e e w h e n th e d is ta n c e b e tw e e n
OCEANOGRAPHY
Quadrature
moon
th em is 3 ,5 6 ,0 0 0 km . T h e tid a l fo rce o f th e m o o n
is m o st p o w e rfu l d u rin g th is p o s itio n a n d h e n c e
high tid es are cau sed . S u ch tid e s, c a lle d as
p e rig e an tides, are 1 5 to 20 p e r c e n t h ig h e r th a n the
n o rm al tid es. O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e tid a l fo rc e o f
the m o o n is m in im u m d u rin g th e p o s itio n o f
apogee w h en th e m o o n is a t th e fa rth e s t d ista n ce
(4 ,0 7 ,0 0 0 k m ) fro m th e e a rth a n d h e n c e lo w tides
are cau sed . S u ch lo w tid e s, c a lle d as a p o g e a n tides,
are 20 p e r c e n t lo w e r th a n th e n o rm a l tid e s. W hen
the sp rin g tid e an d p e rig e a n h ig h tid e o c c u r at the
sam e tim e , th e re s u lta n t tid e b e c o m e s abnorm al.
S im ilarly , w h e n n e ap tid e a n d a p o g e a n tid e occur
at th e sam e tim e , th e w a te r le v e l becom es
sig n ific a n tly lo w .
Daily and S em i-diurnal T id es
T h e tid e s re c u rrin g a t th e in te rv a l o f 24
h o u rs 52 m in u te s d a ily a re c a lle d d iu rn a l o r daily
tid e s w h ile th e tid e s re c u rrin g at th e in te rv a l o f 12
h o u rs 26 m in u te s a re c a lle d s e m i-d iu rn a l tides.
E q u in o cto rial S p rin g T id es
T h e tid e s re c u rrin g a t an in te rv a l o f 6
m o n th s d u e to th e re v o lu tio n o f th e e a rth around
th e su n a n d s u n ’s v a ry in g d e c lin a tio n s are called
e q u in o c tic a l tid e s .
Z enith a n d N adir T id es
A s s ta te d e a r lie r th e s tre n g th o f
tio n a l a ttra c tio n o f th e m o o n is g re a te st at
 TIDES
earth’s water surface that fa ces the m oon (T in fig.
1 2 .4 ) at zen ith , w ith the result h igh tidal bulge
(high tide) is created at the zen ith . T his is called
zen ith tid e or d i r e c t tid e . S im u lta n eo u sly h igh tide is
also created at the o p p o site sid e (A in fig . 12.4,
nadir) o f the earth at nadir. P lea se rem em ber this
opposite sid e o f the earth d o es not face m oon but
is opp osite to that sid e o f the earth (zen ith) w hich
faces the m oon . T h is n a d i r l u n a r t id a l b u lg e (high
tide) is c a lle d n a d i r t id e or i n d i r e c t tid e becau se it is
not generated b y the gravitation al attraction o fth e
m oon, but is gen erated b y the cen trifugal force
resulting from th e rotation o f the earth and the
m oon.
1 2 .6 THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN OF TIDES
N u m e r o u s th eories have been propounded
from tim e to tim e to exp lain the origin o f tides in
th e o c ea n s. S in ce the origin o f ocean tides
d ep en d s up on the tide generating force resulting
from the in teraction s b etw een the earth and the
m o o n , and b e tw e en the earth and the sun i.e. the
g r a v ita tio n a l attraction o f the sun and the m oon,
the ro tation o f the earth-m oon system , it requires
the u n d erstan d in g o f p rin cip les and law s o f
a str o p h y sic s, p h y sic s , g e o p h y sic s, m athem atics,
h y d ro d y n a m ics etc. T he spatial variations in tidal
w a v es c o m p lic a te the prob lem o f the origin o f
tides. In the b e g in n in g B ern o u lli, L aplace, A iry,
Poincare etc. ven tu red in this precarious field and
based th eir h y p o th e se s and exp lan ation on h y p o ­
th etica lly c o n c e iv e d o c ea n s. T his is w hy their
concep ts c o u ld n ot h o ld on for lo n g tim e because
they co u ld n ot e x p la in actual tid es in real ocean
basins o f h e te r o g e n e o u s character. B a sic a lly , the
fo llo w in g 2 m o d e ls o f the o rig in o f tid es in the
oceans h a v e b e e n p o stu la ted :
^ e q u i l i b r i u m m o d e l o f tid es, and
^ dynam ic m odel o f tid e s .
T he b a sic d iffe r e n c e b e tw e e n th ese m od els
o fth e origin o f tid es in th e o c ea n s is related w ith
the m ovem en t or n o m o v e m e n t o f l u n a r tid a l
bulges. T he eq u ilib riu m m o d el o f tid es assu m es
continuous o c e a n w ater su rface on the earth s
surface w ith in fin ite depth and no m ovem en t o f
tidal b u lg es w ith th e rotatin g earth. On the other
315
hand, dynam ic m od el o f tid es assu m es both land
and ocean surfaces on the earth, and m ovem en t o f
tidal b u lges as r o t a r y w aves. M ost o f the th eories o f
the origin o f tid es rev o lv e around th ese m o d els o f
tid es. T hese theories include the fo llo w in g :
1. equilibrium theory o f N e w to n (1 6 8 7 )
2. dynam ical theory o f L aplace (1 7 5 5 )
3. progressive w ave theory by W illiam W hew ell
(1 8 3 3 )
4. canal theory by G .B . A iry (1 8 4 2 )
5. stationary w ave theory by R .A . Harris
1. Equilibrium Model of T ides
The equilibrium m odel o f the origin o f tid es
is based on the fo llo w in g assu m p tio n s, say
axiom s:
>• That the hypothetical earth’s surface is
covered by only w ater surface w ith in fin ite
depth,
>• That there is no land surface and there is no
obstruction from the ocean bottom s due to
their infinite depth in the m o v em en t o f
tidal w aves.
>• That the w aves generated b y tid al b u lg es
are progressive w aves.
>• The water is alw ays in equilibrium state
w ith respect to gravitational attraction o f
the m oon and centrifugal e ffe c t o f the
rotation o f the earth-m oon sy stem .
A ccording to this m od el the gravitational
attraction o f the m oon is greatest at the w ater
surface o f the earth facin g the m oon b ecau se there
is shortest distance b etw een the m oon and the
earth, say the m oon is c lo se st to the earth. T his
greatest pull o f the m oon cau ses l u n a r bu lg e o f
w ater at the surface o f the earth (zen ith ) facin g the
m oon. On the other hand, the other sid e o f the
earth w h ich is op p osite to the m oon (nadir) is
farthest from the m oon and h en ce gravitational
pull o f the m oon is m inim um and thus centrifugal
force dom inates over gravitational attraction o f
the m oon , w ith the result w ater again b u lg es
outw ard at the sid e op p osite to the m oon b ecau se
o f outw ard centrifugal force resulting from the
rotation o f the earth-m oon sy stem . T hus, w e have
 316
tw o b u lg e s (tid e s ) at th e sam e tim e on the e a r th ’s
s u rfa c e , o n e is zenith l u n a r b u lg e on the sid e o f the
e a rth th a t fa c e s th e m o o n , th e seco n d one is n a d ir
l u n a r b u lg e on th e o th e r sid e o f the earth , th at is
o p p o s ite to the m o o n (fig. 12.4).
A c c o rd in g to th is e q u ilib riu m m o d el the
tid a l b u lg e s do n o t m o v e a lo n g w ith th e ro ta tio n o f
th e e a rth b u t re m a in s ta tio n a ry . S in ce the earth
ro ta te s o n its a x is, a p la c e on th e e a r th ’s su rface
p a ss e s in a n d o u t o f th e tid a l b u lg e s. W h en the
p la c e p a ss e s th ro u g h th e b u lg e w a te r rise s c au sin g
tid e s a n d w h e n th a t p la c e go es o u t fro m the b u lg e,
th e w a te r fa lls c a u sin g ebbs. T h e d iffe re n t p laces
o f e a rth ’s su rfa c e p a ss th ro u g h d iffe re n t p a rts o f
th e tid a l b u lg e s. T h is is w h y th e re is v a ria tio n in
th e p e rio d s o f tid e s on th e e a r th ’s su rfa ce fro m low
la titu d e s to th e h ig h e r la titu d e s. F o r exam p le,
th e re are d i u r n a l tid e s in h ig h la titu d e s (p o lar
re g io n ), m ix e d tid e s in th e m id d le la titu d e s, and
s e m id iu r n a l tid e s in th e low la titu d e s.
T h o u g h th is e q u ilib riu m m o d el a p p ears at
firs t s ig h t to o ffe r rig h t e x p la n a tio n to so lv e the
p ro b le m o f o rig in o f o c ea n tid e s b u t sin ce it is
b a se d o n h y p o th e tic a l e arth h a v in g w a te r su rface
all a ro u n d it, it c a n n o t be a p p lic a b le in real w orld
b e c a u se th e re a l w o rld has b o th o c ea n b asin s as
w e ll as c o n tin e n ts . F u rth e r m o re, it is not
p a la ta b le to a c c e p t th e s ta tio n a ry p o s itio n o f tidal
b u lg e s o n a ro ta tin g e arth .
2. E quilibrium T h eo ry of N ew ton
S ir Is s a c N e w to n p ro p o u n d e d h is th e o ry o f
g ra v ita tio n in h is P rin c ip ia in th e y e a r 1687
w h e rein he s ta te d th a t e v e ry c e le s tia l b o d y o f the
u n iv erse p o s se ss e s g ra v ita tio n a l fo rce. T h e c e le s ­
tial b o d ie s a ttra c t e a c h o th e r th ro u g h th e ir
g ra v ita tio n a l fo rc e in su c h a w a y th a t th e y rem ain
in e q u ilib riu m . T h u s, th e su n , th e e a rth an d the
m oon are also in e q u ilib riu m due to th e ir
re sp ec tiv e p u ll to w a rd s e ac h o th e r. T h o u g h the
g ra v ita tio n a l fo rce o f th e sun is fa r g re a te r th an
th a t o f the m o o n b u t th e lu n a r g ra v ita tio n a l fo rce
has m ore e ffe c t o n the e arth th a n th e su n b e ca u se
o f its n e arn ess to th e earth . T h e e arth an d th e m o o n
w hile a ttra c tin g e ach o th e r re v o lv e a ro u n d th e ir
OCEANOGRAPHY
c o m m o n c e n tre o f g ra v ity an d thus two types of
fo rce are p ro d u c e d e.g. (i) centrifugal forct which
w o rk s o u tw a rd fro m th e c e n tre , an d (ii) centrlpet»i
force w h ich w o rk s to w a rd s th e cen tre.
C e n trifu g a l fo rce is s im ila r at all p o in ts on
th e e a r th ’s su rfa c e . T h e e a r th ’s su rfa c e u n d er the
m o o n is 6 ,4 0 0 k m (4 ,0 0 0 m ile s) n e a re r to the
m o o n ’s su rfa c e th an its ( e a r th ’s) c e n tre so th at the
c e n trip e ta l o r g ra v ita tio n a l fo rce (a ttra c tiv e force)
is g re a te r th an th e c e n trifu g a l fo rce at th e e a rth ’s
su rface. C o n se q u e n tly , th e w a te r o f th e e a rth ’s
su rfa ce u n d e r the m o o n is a ttra c te d an d p u lle d and
high tid e is cau sed . T h e o p p o s ite sid e o f the
e a rth ’s su rface also e x p e rie n c e s tid e b e c a u se the
re a ctio n a ry fo rce (c e n trifu g a l fo rce ) o f th e g ra v i­
tatio n al force (c e n trip e tal fo rce) o f th e m o o n is
m ore e ffectiv e. In o th e r w o rd s, th e c e n trifu g a l
force o f the m oon is g re a te r th a n th e a ttra c tiv e
force at the o p p o site sid e o f th e su rfa c e o f the
earth and thus a b u lg e o f w a te r is c au se d .
G ra v ita tio n a l an d c e n trifu g a l fo rces b al­
ance each o th e r a lo n g th e lin e jo in in g b o th the
po les re su ltin g in a re s u lta n t fo rce w h ic h is
d irected to w ard s the cen tre o f th e earth . This
forces causes lo w erin g o f sea le v el an d d e p re ssio n
i.e. low tide. It is a p p a re n t th a t each p la ce
e x p erien ces tw o h ig h tid e s e v ery day. S im ilarly ,
th ere are tw o tid es on th e e a r th ’s w a te r su rfa c e at
the sam e tim e, one is c au se d d u e to g ra v ita tio n a l
(c e n trip e ta l) fo rce b e in g g re e te r th a n the c e n trifu ­
gal fo rce w h ile th e sec o n d o n e is cau se d due to
c e n trifu g a l (o u tw a rd ) fo rce b e in g g re a te r than the
g ra v ita tio n a l fo rce so th a t b o th m a y b a lan c e each
o th er. It m ay b e sta te d th a t th e h ig h e st p o in ts o f
rise o f w a te r o r say h ig h tid e s lie n e arest to and
fa rth e st aw ay fro m th e m o o n w h ile the low est
p o in ts o f w a te r su rfa c e o r say lo w e st tid es lie at
p la c e s p e rp e n d ic u la r to th e a b o v e p laces. These
fo u r p h e n o m e n a v iz. tw o h ig h tid e s and tw o low
tid e s o c c u r sim u lta n e o u s ly at o n e tim e on the
e a r th ’s su rfa ce .
E valuation of N ew ton’s Theory of Tides
>• S in ce th e e a r th ’s su rfa ce is comprised of
land and water and hence the gravitation*
tides
force o fth e m oon w ill n o t be so e ffectiv e as
it w o u ld h a v e b e en i f th e e a r th ’s
su rfa ce w o u ld have been com posed o f only
w ater.
>- S eco n d ly , the bulge o f w ater m ay not be
p o ssib le u n le ss som e so rt o f horizo n tal
m o v e m e n t o f tid e is involved. In other
w o rd s, c h an g e s in the p o sition o f w ater
m a sse s in th e form o f h o rizo n tal m ovem ent
is e sse n tia l fo r the bu lg in g o f sea w ater
o u tw a rd . In o rd e r to overcom e this sh o rt­
com ing the theory was subsequently amended.
T h e th e o ry en v isa g e s that w aves are
g e n e ra te d d u rin g the o ccu rren ce o f tides
a n d th e se w av es m ove w estw ard w ith their
c re sts d ire c tly u n d e r the m oon.
T h ird ly , the tim e o f hig h tide should be the
sam e at all p laces along each m eridian but
th is n e v e r h appens. F o r exam ple, L iv er­
p o o l and L eith , both are situated on 8°W
lo n g itu d e (m erid ian ) but the tim e d iffer­
e n ce o f hig h tides o f these tw o places is o f
th re e hours.
F o u rth ly , the p ro p o sed theoretical tim e by
th is th e o ry fo r a tidal w ave to m ove round
th e e arth w o u ld be slig h tly m ore because
th e re is v a st v a ria tio n in the configuration
o f th e c o asts o f d ifferen t oceans and their
d e p th s and thus the tid al w aves have to
m o v e u n d e r in te rn a l as w ell as external
fric tio n s. In fact, the tid al w aves are not
fre e b u t are fo rc e d w av es w hich are very
o fte n o b s tru c te d by c o n tin e n tal and o ce­
a n ic b a rrie rs (b o tto m reliefs). G .B . A iry
re g a rd e d th is e q u ilib riu m th eo ry as an
e rro n e o u s a p p ro a c h to ex p lain ocean tides.
A c c o rd in g to h im it is e rro n eo u s to explain
th e o rig in o f tid e s on the basis o f g ra v ita ­
tio n a l fo rce.
>- T h e tid a l b u lg e s are seld o m statio n ary but
th e y m o v e as r o t a r y waves w ith in an ocean
b a s in as e n v isa g e d in d y n a m ic theory o f
o c e a n tid e s.
>■ T h e e q u ilib riu m theory ignores the presence
o f c o n tin e n ts and th eir o bstructions in the
fre e m o v e m e n t o f tid al bu lg es. T his
h y p o th e tic a l c o n sid eratio n is far from
re a lity .
3. P rogressive Wave Theory of T ides
W. W hcw ell p ro p o u n d ed h is progre«ffve
wave theory in the year 1833 to ex p lain v a rio u s
problem s o f the o ccu rren ces o f tid es in the o cean s
such as origin o f tides, tim es o f tid es, p ro p a g a tio n
o f tidal w aves etc. W hew ell p re p a re d a m ap o f
cotidal lines o f the w orld o cean s w h ich he h im s e lf
revoked after he w as co n v in ced by th e c o n c e p ts o f
ocean tides as fo rw ard ed by G .B . A iry in th e y e a r
1842. The th eo ry o f ocean tid es p ro p o u n d e d by
Airy is know n as ‘canal t h e o r y ’. T he ‘p ro g re ssiv e
w ave th e o ry ’ and ‘canal th e o ry ’ o f o cean tid e s is
based on the follow ing facts :
>• The earth is a h etero g en eo u s b o d y an d n o t
a hom ogenerous p e rfe ct flu id as w as
conceived in eq u ilib riu m m o d el o f o c ea n
tides. In o th er w ords, the earth c o n sists o f
both continents (lith o sp h ere) an d o c ea n s
(hydrosphere).
>- Tide occurs at d ifferen t p o in ts o f lo c a tio n
at different tim es on the sam e lo n g itu d e .
>• There is tim e-lag o f tides aw ay fro m th e
source o f origin i.e. the tim e o f th e
occurrence o f tides v aries (is d e lay e d ) as
we go aw ay from the source.
>■ There is v ariatio n in the m a g n itu d e an d
am plitude o f tides at d ifferen t p laces.
>■ Tide is in the form o f tid al w av e w h ich
travels from east to w est.
The crests and troughs o f such tid al w av es
becom e tides and ebbs resp ectiv ely . T h ese w av es
are originated in the oceans u nder the in flu e n c e o f
tidal force o f the m oon. The length and v e lo c ity o f
tidal w aves depend on the d »pth o f seas an d
oceans. In a globe co m p letely su rro u n d e d by
w ater the tidal w aves w ould travel freely from
east to w est but the p o sitio n o f land and w ater
hinders the v elo city and d irectio n o f these
w aves.
Since the co n tin en ts ro u g h ly stretch from
n orth to south and hence they ham p er the free
m ovem ent o f tidal w aves. T hese w aves are least
ham pered in the oceans su rro u n d in g the A n tarctic
continent. ; ,
318
Fig. 12.9 : C o-tidal lines o f the Atlantic Ocean, based on
pro g ressive w ave theory.
T h u s, tid a l w a v es are g e n e ra te d in the
so u th e rn o c e a n in th e so u th e rn h e m isp h ere u n d e r
th e in flu e n c e o f tid e -p ro d u c in g fo rce o f th e m oon.
T h e se w a v e s a re c a lle d p r i m a r y w aves w h ic h m o v e
fro m e a s t to w e st in th e fo rm o f fo rc e d w aves. T h ese
w av es a re o b s tru c te d b y th e c o n tin e n ts an d are
c o n se q u e n tly re fra c te d n o rth w a rd . S e c o n d a ry waves
are g e n e ra te d w h e n th e w e stw a rd m o v e m e n t o f
p rim ary w a v e s is o b s tru c te d b y la n d m a sse s.
T h ese n o rth w a rd m o v in g w a v e s are c a lle d s e c ­
o n d ary w a v e s o r d e riv e d w aves w h ic h a lso m o v e
from e a st to w e st.
F u rth e r m in o r w a v e s are g e n e ra te d fro m
th ese se c o n d a ry w a v e s. T h e s e s e c o n d a ry a n d
m in o r w a v e s p ro g re s s iv e ly m o v e n o rth w a rd
th o u g h th e re is g ra d u a l d e c re a se in th e ir m a g n i­
tu d e a n d a m p litu d e b u t th e se w a v e s g e n e ra te tid e s
ev ery w h e re. I t m a y b e p o in te d o u t th a t th e
p rim ary w a v e s a re in flu e n c e d b y th e m o o n b u t th e
m in o r w a v e s m o v e fre e ly . It is, th u s , a p p a re n t th a t
th e tid a l w a v e s a fte r b e in g o rig in a te d in th e
OCEANOGRAPHY; ^ j
-Is
so u th ern o cean p ro g ressiv ely m o v e n o rth w ard
w ith co n tin u o u s lag o f tim e a n d d issip a tio n o f
w ave energy. In o th e r w o rd s, th e arriv a l o f these . v|
p ro g ressiv e w a v es at su cc e ssiv e p la c e s n o rth w ard
along the sam e lo n g itu d e is also p ro g ressiv ely
delay ed . T h is is w h y th ere is d iffe re n c e o f tim e o f
tid e at d iffe re n t p la c e s o n th e sam e lo n g itu d e. In
o th er w o rd s, th e tim e o f tid e s is p ro g ressiv ely
d e lay ed n o rth w a rd a lo n g th e lo n g itu d e . T h ese
progressive w aves becom e ineffective after reaching
n o rth pole. T he c re sts an d tro u g h s o f th e se w av es
a fte r re a ch in g th e c o asts c a u se tid e s a n d eb b s
re sp ec tiv e ly . F ig . 12.9 d e p ic ts th e co-tidal lines
(the lines jo in in g th e p o in ts o f h ig h w a te rs
o ccu rrin g at th e sam e h o u r are c a lle d c o -tid a l
lines) o f the A tla n tic O cean.
E valuation of th e T h eo ry
A cco rd in g to th e p ro g re s s iv e w a v e th e o ry
the age o f tid e s in c re a se s n o rth w a rd . In o th e r
w o rd s, i f tid e is g e n e ra te d in th e s o u th o n a
p a rtic u la r lo n g itu d e it re a c h e s q u ite la te a t the
p o in ts lo c a te d fu rth e r n o rth o n th e s a m e lo n g i­
tude. O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e d a ta a v a ila b le so far
ab o u t th e tim e o f tid e s d e n o te th a t th e tim e o f
sp rin g tid e s is a lm o st th e sa m e fro m C a p e H o rn to
G re en lan d in th e A tla n tic O c e a n . N o rm a lly , the
tid es are lo c a l o r re g io n a l p h e n o m e n a r a th e r th an
p h e n o m e n a o rig in a tin g in th e s o u th e rn o c e a n and
m o v in g p ro g re s s iv e ly n o rth w a rd . A t so m e la ti­
tu d es d a ily a n d s e m i-d iu rn a l, b o th ty p e s o f tid es
are o b se rv e d . F u rth e r, th e re is s p a tia l v a ria tio n in
th e irre g u la rity o f tid e s in d iff e r e n t o c e a n s . T h ese
v a ria tio n s c a n n o t b e e x p la in e d o n th e b a sis o f
p ro g re s s iv e w a v e th e o ry .
4. Stationary W ave T heory
R .A . H a rris o f th e U .S . C o a s t a n d Geodetic
S u rv e y p ro p o u n d e d th e c o n c e p t o f statio n ary
w a v e s as o p p o s e d to th e p ro g re s s iv e w a v es. T his
th e o ry o ffe rs a lm o s t s a tis fa c to ry e x p la n a tio n for
lo c a l d iffe re n c e s in tid e s , th e ir ty p e s a n d th e ir age.
A c c o rd in g to H a rris tid e p h e n o m e n a a re not due to
p ro g re s s iv e w a v e s w h ic h o rig in a te in the southern j
o c e a n s as c la im e d b y W illia m W h e w e ll b u t;
d u e to s ta tio n a ry w a v e s w h ic h originate
t id e s
pendently in e a c h o c e a n . In o th e r w o rd s, tid e
p h e n o m e n a a re re g io n a l p h e n o m e n a . T h e s ta tio n ­
ary w ave th e o ry c a n b e e x p la in e d w ith th e h elp o f
an e x p erim en t. I f a re c ta n g u la r ta n k o f ‘d e v e lo p ­
ing tra y ’ c o n ta in in g w a te r is ro c k e d fro m o n e side
to the o th e r o r is s im p ly tilte d , th e w a te r le v el rises
along one s id e o f th e tra y b u t fa lls a lo n g th e o th e r
side. T h is g e n e ra te s o s c illa tio n in th e w a ter
c o n tain ed in th e tra y . S u c h o s c illa tio n s in the
w ater are c a lle d s ta tio n a ry w a v es. T h e re is su ch a
cen tre in th e m id d le o f th e tra y w h ere th e re is no
ch an g e in th e le v e l o f w a te r. T h is p o in t is c alled
n odal p o in t (fig . 12 .1 0 ). T h e w a te r le v el m oves
rh y th m ic a lly fro m o n e en d o f th e tra y to th e o th er
end a lo n g a lin e w h ic h is c a lle d nodal line. The
p e rio d o f o s c illa tio n o f w a te r in th e tra y d epends
on th e le n g th a n d d e p th o f the tra y and the force o f
sh o c k s a p p lie d to th e tra y . T h e a fo re sa id exam ple
is th e c a se o f u n in o d a l sy ste m (fig. 12.10 A) but
th e re m a y a lso b e b in o d a l o sc illa tio n sy stem (fig.
1 2 .1 0 B ).
N o d a l L in e N oda Line
v N o d a l P o in t / these w aves reach th e co asts, th e ir c re sts a n d
----- V
r
I A
B
Fig. 12.10: Uninodal (A) and binodal (B) oscillation systems.
B a s e d o n a b o v e a n a lo g y , d iffe re n t o cean s
o f th e e a rth a re lik e g ia n t w a te r c o n ta in in g trays.
The tid a l fo rc e s o f th e su n a n d the m o o n cau se
o scillatio n s in th e o c e a n ic w a te rs b u t the o s c illa ­
tio n s do n o t o c c u r a lo n g s tra ig h t lim e s as in th e
case o f th e tra y ra th e r th e y o c c u r a ro u n d c e n tra l
p o in t b e ca u se o f th e ro ta tio n a l fo rc e o f th e e a rth ,
w ith th e re s u lt s e v e ra l a m p h i d r o m i c p o in ts a re
g e n erate d . T h e tid a l bu lg es la g b e h in d th e ro ta ­
tio n a l sp ee d o f th e e a rth a n d h e n c e th e se b re a k
in to n u m e ro u s c e lls in th e o p e n o c e a n . T h e c re sts
and tro u g h s o f th e tid a l w a v e ro ta te a ro u n d a p o in t
lo cated in th e c e n te r o f e a c h c e ll. T h is c e n tra l
p o in t is called a m p h i d r o m i c p o i n t. T h e o c e a n ic
w ater rem ain s c alm an d s ta tio n a ry a t th e se p o in ts
w h ereas w a te r lev el c h a n g e s a ro u n d th e m . T h is
m ech an ism re su lts in th e fo rm a tio n o f w a v e s
w h ich m ove in a n ti-c lo c k w ise d ire c tio n a ro u n d
these am phidrom ic points. Such o sc illa to ry m e c h a ­
nism o f w ater o ccu rs in e v e ry o c e a n a n d is
c o llectiv ely called as oscillation sy ste m . N u m e ro u s
statio n ary w av es are g e n e ra te d fro m th e s e
am p h id ro m ic p o in ts. E v e ry sta tio n a ry w a v e h a s a
d efin ite tim e o f its o sc illa tio n . T h e o s c illa tio n
system and m e ch a n ism are a ffe c te d b y th e d e p th ,
c o n fig u ratio n an d le n g th o f th e o c e a n b a s in s a n d
the ro tatio n al sp eed o f th e earth . T h e s ta tio n a ry
w aves after b ein g o rig in ated fro m the a m p h id ro m ic
centres m ove to w ard s th e co asts. T h e fo rw a rd
m ovem ent o f th e se w av es is h a m p e re d b y th e
co n tin en tal p en in su las, isla n d s, b a y s e tc. W h e n
tro u g h s cause tid es an d eb b s re s p e c tiv e ly . T h e re
is p o sitiv e c o rre la tio n b e tw e e n th e d e p th o f th e
o ceans and the h e ig h t o f tid e s. In o th e r w o rd s , i f
the d ep th o f th e o cean b e c o m e s g re e te r, h ig h e r
statio n ary w av es are g e n e ra te d an d h ig h w a v e s
gen erate h ig h or sp rin g tid e s. L o w tid e s are
gen erated in sh allo w seas b e c a u se o f lo w e r h e ig h t
o f statio n ary w av es.
1 2 .7 TIDAL BORES
Tidal bores are steep wall o f seawater
moving upstreams from their mouths when the
tidal waves enter the low-lying rivers. “A tidal
bore (bore ® crest or wave) is a wall o f water that
moves up certain low-lying rivers due to an
incoming tide. Because it is a wave created by the
tides, it may be considered to be true tidal wave”
(H.V. Thurman and A.P. Trujillo, 1999). Tidal
bores are formed when tidal waves with great
 320
h e ig h t i.e . h ig h tidal range (here tidal range means
eight o f the crests o f tidal waves), enters a
narrow and low-lying river, which debauches in
the sea or bay, and rushes upstream and is
obstructed by the flow o f the river. Consequently,
the tide water is forced to have a steep wall-like
crest. T he following conditions are conducive for
the occurrence o f tidal bore :
^ N arrow and low -lyin g coastal river with
gen tle channel gradient,
> A b a y w ith n arro w opening and tap p erin g
h ead ,
L arg e tid a l range (w ave h eig h t), u su ally
m o re th an 5 m eters,
>■ U p w ard d ecreasin g w a ter depth, m eaning
th ereb y d ecrea sin g dep th o f w ater in
u p riv e r sectio n , etc.
W hen tid e w a ter en ters the co astal riv er
w ith h ig h tid al ran g e, th e sea w ard flow o f the riv er
o b stru cts th e in co m in g tide, w ith the re su lt the
fro n t o f tid a l w av e c re st is forced to assum e high
tid a l ran g e. T h u s, the tid al w ave w ith steap tidal
w all o f m o re th a n 5 m in h e ig h t rushes u pstream or
u pbay. T h is w a ll-lik e h ig h tid al w aves are called
tid al b o res w h ic h m o v e u p stream w ith average
sp ee d o f 2 0 -2 2 k ilo m e te rs p e r hour. A s the tidal
b o res m o v e u p stre a m , th e ir effects co n tin u e to
d ecrease. T h e A m a zo n riv e r o f South A m erica has
800 k m lo n g e stu a ry w h ich is tra v e lle d by tidal
b ores. T h e e stu a ry o f the C h ie n tan g riv e r o f C hina
is k n o w n to h a v e th e h ig h e st tid a l bore, m easu rin g
m ore th an 8 m e te rs in h e ig h t, in the w orld. L arge
tidal b o res are n o tic e d in P e titc o d ia c riv e r o f N ew
B runsw ick o f C anada, the Seine riv e r o f F rance etc.
Tidal bores also o c c u r in H o o g h ly riv er o f India.
It m ay be m e n tio n e d th a t it is not the tid al
range w hich a lw ay s d e te rm in e s the h e ig h t o f tid al
bores. F o r e x am p le, th e B ay o f F u n d y o f N o v a
S cotia has the la rg e st tid a l ra n g e in th e w o rld (17
m eters) b u t the tid a l b o re has th e h e ig h t o f ab o u t
one m eter o r so. T h is is b e ca u se the B ay o f F u n d y
has qu ite w ide m o u th at its op en in g . T h u s, it is
evident th at larg e tid a l b o re can o c cu r o n ly in
those co astal riv e rs and b ay s w h ic h h av e n a rro w
an d c o n stricted o p e n in g s in th e sea.
OCEANOGRAPHY
1 2 .8 TIDAL CURRENTS
Water currents are generated by tides due to
upward and downward movement of sea level in
the open and nearshore regions. The coastward
movement o f tides causes flood currents which pile
up seawater against the sea coast. The currents
caused by returning tides are called ebb currents.
Thus, flood currents move coastward while ebb
currents move away from the coasts.
T he cu rren ts a sso c ia te d w ith tid e s in the
o p en o cean are c alled r o t a r y c u r r e n ts w h ic h tu rn in
c o u n terclo c k w ise d ire c tio n in th e n o rth e rn h em i­
sp h ere and clo ck w ise in the so u th ern h em isp h ere.
W hen the ro tary cu rren ts e n te r th e sh a llo w w ater
o f n earsh o re areas they su ffe r fro m fric tio n and
u ltim ately they change to a lte rn a tin g o r r e v e rs in g
c u rr e n ts . The v elo city o f ro ta ry c u rre n ts in the
open sea is very slow , aro u n d o n e k ilo m e te r per
hour, b u t the rev ersin g c u rre n ts m o v e v e ry fast
w ith the v elo city o f 44 k ilo m e te rs p e r hour. The
rev ersin g tid al cu rren ts assu m e g re a te r velocities
in the region o f irreg u la r c o a stlin e s, in n arro w and
co n stricted bays, and in n arro w co astal rivers.
The rise and fall o f tid es, an d flo o d currents
and ebb cu rren ts have g re a t p o te n tia ls for the
g en eratio n o f e le c tric ity w h e re v e r th e re are bays
w ith n arro w o p en in g s and c o n stric te d tid al inlets
or n arro w estu aries. T h is a sp e c t w ill be discussed
in the c h ap te r ‘m arin e re s o u rc e s .’
1 2 .9 IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
A m b p h id ro m ic p o int : T h e c en tral p o in t or
no d al p o in t in an a m p h id ro m ic sy stem , is called
a m p h id ro m ic p o in t from w h ere the co -tid a l lines
ra d iate in all d ire c tio n s.
Apogean tid e s : T h e low tid e s, c au se d at the
tim e w h en the m o o n is at th e fa rth e st distance
fro m th e earth , are c a lle d a p o g ea n tid e s, w hich are
20 p e rc e n t lo w e r th a n n o rm a l tid es.
C e n trif u g a l force : is th e fo rce th a t w orks
o u tw a rd o n a b o d y ro ta tin g a b o u t an axis.
C entripetal fo rc e : is fo rce th a t w o rk s tow ard
the c e n te r o f a ro ta tin g b o d y .
 Conjunct*011 : T h e s itu a tio n o r p o sitio n o f
the sufl aad th e m o o n i® stra ig h t lin e o n on e side
o f t b e e ^ is c a ^le d c o n ju n c tio n .
Cotidal lines : T h e lin e s jo in in g all such
paints w here h ig h tid e s o c c u r a t th e sam e tim e , are
called cotidal lines.
D iu rn a l in e q u a litie s : T h e v a ria tio n s in the
heights o f s u c c e ssiv e h ig h a n d lo w tid e s o f m ix ed
tidal p attern are c a lle d d iu rn a l in e q u a litie s.
D iu r n a l tid a l p a t t e r n : re fe rs to th e o c c u r­
rence o f o n ly o n e h ig h tid e an d one low tid e each
lunar d ay in sh a llo w sea w ater.
E b b : T h e fa ll o f sea w a te r an d its m o v e m e n t
aw ay fro m th e c o a st, i.e. to w a rd the sea, is called
ebb.
Ebb : T h e c u rre n ts c au se d by
c u rre n ts
re tu rn in g tid e s are c a lle d ebb cu rren ts.
E b b tid e s : S e a w ard re g re ssio n o f seaw ater
o f tid a l b u lg e are c a lle d ebb tides.
F lo o d : T he co astw ard m oving
c u r r e n ts
c u rre n ts c a u s e d b y tid e s are c a lle d flo o d currents
b e c a u s e s u c h c u rre n ts flo o d the coasts by pilin g
up s e a w a te r a g a in s t th e co asts.
F lo o d tid e s : T h e c o a stw a rd m o v in g no rm al
tid es a re c a lle d flo o d tid e s.
H ig h tid e w a t e r : T h e rise o f se a w a te r at the
o c c u rre n c e o f tid e is c a lle d h ig h tid e w ater.
Low tid e : T h e fa ll o f sea w ater
w ater
a ss o c ia te d w ith th e re tu rn o f tid e s is c a lle d low
tide w a te r.
L u n a r t i d a l b u lg e : T h e tid a l b u lg e s created
on th e e a r th ’s w a te r s u rfa c e b y th e g ra v ita tio n a l
force o f th e m o o n a re c a lle d lu n a r tid a l b u lg e s.
M ix e d t i d a l p a t t e r n : re fe rs to th e o c c u rre n c e
o f d iu rn a l a s w e ll as s e m id iu rn a l tid a l p a tte rn s
b ut th e h e ig h ts o f s u c c e s s iv e h ig h o r lo w tid es
are n e v e r id e n tic a l r a th e r th e y f r e q u e n tly
change.
N a d i r l u n a r b u l g e : T h e lu n a r b u lg e c a u se d by
the c e n trifu g a l e ffe c t a s s o c ia te d w ith th e ro ta tio n
o f th e e a rth a n d th e m o o n , o n th e o p p o s ite sid e o f
the e a rth w h ic h fa c e s th e m o o n , is c a lle d n a d ir
lu n ar b u lg e .
N a d ir t i d e : T h e tid e c re a te d a t th e o th e r s id e
o f th e earth th a t d o es n o t face th e m o o n b u t is
o p p o site to th a t sid e o f th e earth (z e n ith ) w h ic h
faces the m oon, b y the c e n trifu g a l e ffe c t is c a lle d
n a d ir tid e o r in d ire c t tide.
Neep tide : T he tid e w h ic h h a s lo w e r tid a l
ran g e th an the n o rm a l tid a l ra n g e is c a lle d n e ep
tid e w h ich is c au se d w h en th e su n , th e e a rth a n d
the m oon com e in th e p o sitio n o f q u a d ra tu re i.e.
fo rm rig h t angle.
N odal line : T he lin e alo n g w h ic h w a te r
m oves rh y th m ica lly fro m one en d o f a w a te r b o d y
to the o th er end is c alled n o d al lin e.
N odal p o int : T he p o in t in th e w a te r b o d y
w h ere th ere is no ch an g e in w a te r le v el c h a ra c te r­
ized by statio n ary w aves is c a lle d n o d a l p o in t.
O pposition : refers to th a t s itu a tio n w h e n th e
earth com es b etw een th e sun an d th e m o o n in a
straig h t line.
Perigean tide : T he tid e g e n e ra te d a t th e
n earest p o sitio n o f the m o o n w ith th e e a rth
(perig ee) is c alled p e rig e an tid e w h ic h is 15 to 2 0
p ercen t h ig h e r th an the n o rm a l tid e s b e c a u s e th e
tid al force o f the m o o n is m o st p o w e rfu l.
Q u a d r a tu r e : T he p o sitio n o f th e su n , t h e
earth and the m o o n in rig h t a n g le is c a lle d
q u ad ratu re.
S e m id iu rn a l tid a l p a t t e r n :
re fe rs to th e
o ccu rren ce o f tw o h ig h tid e s an d tw o lo w tid e s
each lu n a r day h a v in g a lm o st id e n tic a l tid a l
h e ig h ts o f su ccessiv e h ig h an d lo w tid e s.
S olar bulges : T he b u lg e s c re a te d b y th e
g ra v ita tio n a l o f th e su n on th e e a r th ’s w a te r
su rfa ce are c a lle d so lar b u lg e s.
S p rin g t i d e s : V ery h ig h tid a l ra n g e s c a u s e d
b y th e c o m b in e d g ra v ita tio n a l a ttra c tio n o f th e su n
an d th e m o o n , w h e n th e y are in o n e sid e o f th e
e arth in a s tra ig h t lin e are c a lle d sp rin g tid e s.
Syzygy : T h e p o s itio n o f th e su n , th e m o o n
an d th e e arth in a s tra ig h t lin e is c a lle d sy zy g y .
Tidal bore : T h e stee p w a ll o f w a te r c re a te d
by in c o m in g h ig h tid e s in th e c o n stric te d e stu a rie s
o f c o a sta l riv e rs o r in b a y s h a v in g n a rro w a n d
c o n stric te d m o u th s is c a lle d tid a l b o re .
322
Tidal bulge : T h e gravitation al b u lg e o f
w ater su rfa ce o f th e o cea n is ca lle d tid al b u lg e
w h ic h o c cu rs sim u lta n e o u sly at tw o p la c e s, o n e
b u lg e is tow ard the m o o n (lunar b u lg e or solar
b u lg e ) and the other b u lg e is aw ay from the m o o n
on the o p p o site sid e o f the earth (lunar or solar
b u lg e).
T i d a l r a n g e : T he tidal w a v e h eigh t i.e .
the h eig h t o f the w a v e crests is ca lled tidal
range.
T id e s : T h e rise and fa ll o f sea le v e l caused
b y th e gravitation al attractions o f the m oon and
the sun are c a lle d tid es.
Z e n i th l u n a r b u l g e : T he tidal b u lg e facing the
m o o n and ca u sed b y the gravitation al attraction o f
the m oon is c a lle d zen ith lunar bu lge.
Z e n i th tid e s : refer to th o se tid es w hich are
caused on the w ater surface o f the earth facing the
m oon. ;
CHAPTER 13 : CORAL REEFS 323-339
com ponents o f coral reefs, 323
conditions for the growth of coral polyps, 324
coral ecology, 327
d istribution o f coral reefs, 329
types o f coral reefs, 330
o rig in o f coral reefs and atolls, subsidence theory, 332
standstill theory, 334
g lacial control theory, concept o f W .M. D avis, 335
coral bleaching, 336
______ _________ __ .__— . * -w w i Tfc-wm a m r 'i 'I 4 A

13 .1 INTRODUCTION
C o ra l re e fs a n d a to lls are sig n ific a n t su b ­
m a rin e fe a tu re s . T h e se a re fo rm e d d ue to a cc u m u ­
la tio n a n d c o m p a c tio n o f sk e le to n s o f lim e
s e c re tin g o rg a n is m s k n o w n as c o ra l p o ly p s. C oral
p o ly p s th riv e in th e tro p ic a l o c ea n s c o n fin e d
b e tw e e n 2 5 ° N -2 5 ° S la titu d e s an d liv e on lim e.
N u m e ro u s c o ra l p o ly p s liv e , at a p la c e , in g ro u p s
in th e fo rm o f c o lo n y a n d fo rm c a lc a re o u s sh ells
aro u n d th e m . C o ra l re e fs are fo rm e d d u e to
fo rm a tio n o f o n e s h e ll u p o n a n o th e r s h e ll alo n g
su b m a rin e p la tfo rm s a t s u ita b le d ep th . S in c e c o ra l
p o ly p s c a n n o t s u rv iv e a b o v e w a te r le v e l an d
hen ce c o ra l re e fs a re a lw a y s fo u n d e ith e r u p to sea
lev el o r b e lo w it. T h e y a re g e n e ra lly a tta c h e d to
su b m arin e p la tfo rm s o r is la n d s s u b m e rg e d u n d e r
seaw ater. It m a y b e m e n tio n e d th a t c o ra l re e fs are
m o re d iv e rs e th a n th e tro p ic a l ra in fo re sts b e c a u se
the c o ra l re e fs h a v e a b o u t 1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 sp e c ie s o f
w h ich o n ly 10 p e rc e n t h a v e b e e n stu d ied .
T his is w h y th e s e a re c a lle d as rainforests of the
oceans.
COR AL REEFS
1 3 .2 COMPONENTS OF CORAL REEFS
T h e c o ra l re e f s have th e fo llo w in g
co m p o n en ts :
>■ C oral o r p o ly p s as liv in g o rg a n is m s ,
C o ra llite , th e e x te rn a l s k e le to n o r h o u s e o f
the c o ra ls, a n d p o ly p s , a n d
>■ R eef, c e m e n te d a n d h a rd e n e d s tru c tu re o f
c alc iu m c arb o n ate .
T h u s, c o ra ls re e fs are c e m e n te d a n d c o m ­
p a c te d d e p o sits o f sk e le to n s o f c o ra ls in th e
tro p ic a l an d s u b tro p ic a l o c e a n s a n d se a s. C o ra l
re e fs are o rg a n ic a lly fo rm e d re e fs c o m p o s e d o f
m o stly c alc iu m c a rb o n a te (C a C 0 3). M o re th a n 5 0
p e rc e n t o f c a lc iu m c a rb o n a te s o f c o ra l re e fs is
c o n trib u te d by alg ae. C o ra l r e e f c o n s is ts o f c o ra ls ,
th e ir sk e le to n s an d r e e f as b a s ic c o m p o n e n ts
w h ic h n e ed b r ie f in tro d u c tio n .
C orals or Coral A nim als
T h e liv in g o rg a n is m s o f th e c a te g o ry o f
m a rin e a n im a ls an d re la te d to je lly fis h , w h ic h a re
324
re s p o n s ib le fo r b u ild in g co ra l re e fs, are c alled
polyps o r s im p ly corals. C o rals m ay live as so lita ry
in d iv id u a ls o r in a co lo n y b u t o n ly the c o ra ls
liv in g in g ro u p s in b ig c o lo n ie s can fo rm coral
re e fs . C o ra ls are lim e se c re tin g sea o rg a n ism s
b e lo n g in g to th e p h y lu m C n id a ria . T he clo se
e x a m in a tio n o f th e b o d y o f co ra l an im a ls (p o ly p s)
re v e a ls th e fa c t th a t the o u te r la y e r o f the flesh o f
th e a n im a l c o n sis ts o f u n ic e llu la r p h o to sy n th e tic
p la n ts , c a lle d as zo o x a n th e lla e , w h ich c o m p rise
m o re th a n 75 p e rc e n t o f the tissu e w e ig h t o f Coral
a n im a ls. T h e se p la n ts h elp in p ro v id in g n u trie n ts
to c o ra l an im al? and also a ssist th em in sec re tin g
c a rb o n a te s . T h u s, th e re is sy m b io tic re la tio n sh ip
(m u tu a lis m ) b e tw e e n c o ra l a n im a ls and p h o to sy n ­
th e tic z o o x a n th e lla e , w h ic h live to g eth er. T here
a re m a n y te n ta c le s at the m o u th s o f p o ly p s, w hich
h e lp th e m to c a tc h p rey s. In th is w ay coral anim als
g et th e ir fo o d th ro u g h tw o so u rces, nam ely (1)
th ro u g h z o o x a n th e lla e alg ae, and (2) thro u g h th eir
o w n te n ta c le s . P o ly p s are cu p -sh ap e d anim als o f
th e size o f a v e ra g e ants.
C orallite
T h e e x te rio r sk ele to n s o f coral anim als are
c a lle d c o ra llite s o r h o u ses o f p o lyps. In fact, coral
a n im a ls b u ild th e ir ow n sk eletal houses o f
c a lc iu m c a rb o n a te in w h ich th ey are pro tected
fro m p re d a to rs . In fact, c o ra llite s are the bodies o f
liv in g c o ra l a n im a ls, and are called exoskeletons
a n d are c o m p o se d o f co m p act rigid calciu m
c a rb o n a te (lim e sto n e ). T he b o tto m p o rtio n o f the
c o ra llite s c o n sis t o f a few v e rtic a l com partm en ts.
T h e se v e rtic a lly d iv id e d co m p artm e n ts are called
septa. T h e se c o ra llite s o r e x te rio r skeleto n s o f
c o ra l a n im a ls are the b asic raw m a terials fo r the
fo rm a tio n o f c o ra l reefs.
R eefs
T h e c o ra l reefs are c em en ted and c o m ­
p a c te d rig id m a ssiv e stru c tu re s o f n u m b erless
c o ra llite s (sk e le to n s) o f d ead coral anim als. It
m ay b e m e n tio n e d th a t o n ly the u p p e r and o u ter
p a rts o f co ra l re e fs are h o u sed by living coral
p o ly p s. In fa c t, th e sk eleto n s o f calciu m carb o n ate
o f c o ra l a n im a ls are d e p o sited one upon an o th er
OCEANOGRAPHY
a fte r th e d eath o f co ral an im als. T h ese carbonate
sk e le to n s are c e m e n te d and c o m p ac te d to form a
reef. T h e p ro c e ss o f re e f fo rm atio n c o n tin u e s and
a m a ssiv e larg e co ral reef, like the G re at Barrier
R e e f o f f the e ast c o ast o f A u stra lia , is form ed.
T h e o th e r c h a ra c te ristic fe a tu re s o f coral
a n im a ls w ill be d isc u sse d la te r in th is chapter.
1 3 .3 CONDITIONS FOR THE GROWTH OF CORAL
POLYPS
C o ral an im als (p o ly p s) n eed c e rta in co n d i­
tio n s o f te m p e ratu re, depth o f w ater, n atu re o f
sea w ater etc. fo r th e ir sm o o th su rv iv a l and g ro w th
as fo llo w s :
Temperature of Seawater
C oral p o ly p s are te m p e ra tu re se n sitiv e
shallow sea anim als b ecau se th ey c a n n o t su rv iv e
in eith er very h ig h or v ery lo w te m p e ratu re
c o n d itio n s. C orals are fo u n d m a in ly in th e tro p ical
o ceans and seas w h ere m ean m o n th ly tem p eratu re
rem ains m ore than 18°C b u t less th an 30°C
th ro u g h o u t the year. I f th e av erag e m onthly
tem p eratu re ex ceed s 30°C c o ra ls are b le ac h e d and
die. S uitable th erm al co n d itio n s are, th u s, found
in the b ro ad tro p ica l zone o f o cean s, o f w h ich the
p o lew ard b o u n d ary is d e te rm in e d by the 20°C
iso th erm s in b o th th e h e m isp h e re s. S ince the
annual range o f te m p e ratu re is u su a lly less than
3°C in the In d o -P afic O cean , th e re is the largest
v ariety o f co rals in th a t re g io n (fig. 13.2) as there
are m ore than 50 g en era o f co ral p o ly p s in the
tro p ical P acific O cean an d the In d ian O cean.
S om etim es, the te m p e ratu re o f sea w ater rises
above n orm al and hence m an y co rals die due to
coral bleaching (this asp ect w ill be elaborated
later). Such situ atio n a rises w h en the El Nino
p h en o m en a b eco m e stro n g and L a N in a becom es
w eak. Such situ atio n w as cre ate d d u rin g the year
1997-98 w hen 50 to 75 p e rc en t co rals died on
acco u n t o f coral b leach in g as a co n seq u en ce o f
rise in n orm al sea tem p eratu re cau sed by global
w a n n in g . W h erev er the w arm o cean cu rren ts flow
the p o lew ard lim it o f th e g ro w th o f polyps
in creases u p to 35° latitu d es in b o th the hem i­
sp h eres in the w estern m arg in s o f ocean basins.
 C Q R A L REEFS
D epth o f S e a w a te r
S u ffic ie n t s u n lig h t s h o u ld b e a v a ila b le fo r
the g ro w th o f c o ra l p o ly p s . It m a y b e m e n tio n e d
that s u n lig h t d o e s n o t fa v o u r c o ra l a n im a ls
d ire c tly ra th e r it h e lp s th e m in d ire c tly b e ca u se
z o o x a n th e lla e (a m ic ro s c o p ic a lg a e ) w h ic h are
e m b ed d e d in th e tis s u e s o f o u te r b o d ie s o f co ral
an im a ls (p o ly p s ) n e e d s u n lig h t to m a n u fa c tu re
fo o d th ro u g h th e p ro c e s s o f p h o to s y n th e sis . T h ese
z o o x a n th e lla e p ro v id e 60 p e rc e n t o f fo o d to co ral
a n im a ls in te rn a lly w h ile c o ra l a n im a ls g et re ­
m a in in g 4 0 p e rc e n t fo o d e x te rn a lly b y c ap tu rin g
th e ir p re y (s m a ll z o o p la n k to n s ) th ro u g h th e ir
s tin g in g te n ta c le s . S in c e th e s u n lig h t d ecreases
w ith in c re a s in g d e p th o f s e a w a te r, th e depth
b e c o m e s a lim itin g fa c to r fo r th e g ro w th o f coral
p o ly p s . It is to b e n o te d th a t su n lig h t can n o t
p e n e tr a te b e y o n d th e d e p th o f 200 m eters. The
z o n e o f s u n lig h t fro m th e sea le v el to 200 m depth
is c a lle d photic zone. T h u s, o n ly u p p e r p art o f
p h o tic z o n e is s u ita b le fo r c o ra l p o ly p s to thrive.
It is, th u s, a p p a re n t th a t c o ra l anim als
( p o ly p s ) d o n o t liv e in d e e p e r w a te r i.e. n o t m ore
th a n 6 0 -8 0 m e te rs b e lo w se a le v el b e c a u se m o st o f
p o ly p s d ie o f s ta rv a tio n as th e z o o x a n th e lla e algae
c a n n o t p e r f o r m p h o to s y n th e s is due to lack o f
p ro p e r s u n lig h t a n d h e n c e c o ra ls c a n n o t g et food
fro m in te r n a l s o u rc e (fro m th e ir o u te r tissu es
w hich are e m b ed ed w ith photosynthetic zooxanthellae
p h y to p la n k e to n s ) a n d th u s th e y d ie. T h e o x y g en is
a n o th e r f a c to r th a t lim its th e g ro w th o f co ral
p o ly p s . O x y g e n is v e ry m u c h re q u ire d by co ral
a n im a ls to th riv e . A s o x y g e n a lso d e c re a se s w ith
in c re a s in g d e p th , c o ra ls c a n n o t s u rv iv e in w a te r
d e e p e r th a n 8 0 m e te rs . A c c o rd in g to M .S . L an d
an d J.E . H o f f m e is te r (1 9 3 6 ) th e m a x im u m d ep th
fo r id e a l g ro w th o f c o ra l p o ly p s is 61 to 91 m e te rs
(200 to 3 0 0 fe e t) b e lo w s e a le v e l w h ile G a rd in e r
o b se rv e d s o m e c o ra ls th riv in g a t the d e p th o f 150
to 170 fa th o m s (o n e fa th o m = 6 fe e t) (2 7 4 m e te rs
to 310 m e te rs ) b e lo w s e a le v el.
Turbidity of S e a w a te r
T u r b id ity o f s e a w a te r m e a n s c lo u d in e ss o f
w ater c a u s e d b y th e p re s e n c e o f su sp e n d e d
m a te ria ls o f o rg a n ic a n d in o rg a n ic o rig in . So, it is
325
th e d e n sity o f s u s p e n d e d m a te ria ls w h ic h d e te r ­
m in e s th e d e g re e o f tu rb id ity o f s e a w a te r. A s a
ru le , th e h ig h e r th e d e n sity o f su sp e n d e d m a te ri­
als, th e g re a te r is th e tu rb id ity o f s e a w a te r a n d
v ic e v ersa. T u rb id ity o f o c e a n w a te r a lso d e te r­
m in e s its tra n s p a re n c y w h ic h d e c re a se s w ith
in c re ase in tu rb id ity a n d m u d d in e ss. T h e c o ra l
p o ly p s re q u ire c le a n s e d im e n t-fre e w a te r fo r th e ir
g ro w th b e ca u se m u d d y w a te r c lo g s th e m o u th s o f
co ral a n im a ls, as a re s u lt o f w h ic h th e y d ie
b ecau se th e y c a n n o t g e t fo o d th ro u g h filte r-
feed in g . T h is is w h y g e n e ra lly c o ra ls a re n o t
fo u n d in the v ic in ity o f th e m o u th s o f m a jo r riv e rs
b ecau se b ig riv e rs d u m p h u g e q u a n tity o f e ro d e d
sed im en ts fro m th e c o n tin e n ts in th e s e a s a n d
hen ce tu rb id ity o f se a w a te r in c re a s e s e n o r­
m ously.
Flux of F resh W ater
It m ay be m e n tio n e d th a t th o u g h c o ra l
p o ly p s re q u ire se d im e n t-fre e w a te r b u t fre s h
w ater is also in ju rio u s fo r th e su rv iv a l a n d g ro w th
o f coral an im als. T h is is th e re a so n th a t c o ra ls
avoid co astal lan d and b u ild th e ir c o lo n ie s a w a y
from the areas o f riv e r m o u th s. T h e re a re to ta l
absence o f b ig riv e rs on sea isla n d s a n d h e n c e
co rals large c o lo n ie s a ro u n d isla n d s. R ic h c o ra l
c o lo n ies have d e v elo p e d a ro u n d A n d m a n a n d
N ic o b ar Islan d s an d L a k sh w ad e ep o f In d ia , a n d
M ald iv es.
O cean Salinity
V ery h ig h p ro p o rtio n o f o c ea n ic s a lin ity is
in ju rio u s fo r th e g ro w th o f c o ra l p o ly p s b e c a u s e
such w aters c o n ta in little a m o u n t o f c a lc iu m
c arb o n ate s w h e rea s lim e is im p o rtan t fo o d o f
co ral p o ly p s. T he o c ea n ic sa lin ity ra n g in g b e ­
tw een 27%o an d 30%o is m o st id e al fo r th e g ro w th
an d d e v elo p m en t o f c o ra l p o ly p s.
O cean C u rren ts and W aves
O cean c u rre n ts an d se a w a v es a re favour*
ab le fo r c o ra l p o ly p s b e ca u se th e y b rin g n e c e ssa ry
fo o d su p p ly to th e sy m b io tic z o o x a n th e lla e a lg a e
326
w h ic h a re e m b e d e d in h e o u te r tissu e s o f co ral
a n im a ls. It is to be re m e m b ered th a t th ese
sy m b io tic a lg a e m a n u fa c tu re fo o d th ro u g h p h o ­
to s y n th e s is an d p ro v id e 60 p e rc en t o f fo o d
re q u ire m e n t o f c o ra l an im als. S ince ocean c u r­
re n ts a n d se a w a v e s b rin g n u trien ts w ith th em , the
s y m b io tic z o o x a n th e lla e alg ae use th e se n u trie n ts
a n d s u p p ly th e m to the co ra l polyps. It is, th u s,
o b v io u s th a t c o ra ls grow in o p ean seas and o cean s
w h e re th e re is am p le w ave en erg y b u t th ey die in
la g o o n s a n d sm all e n c lo se d seas b e ca u se o f lack
o f su p p ly o f n u trie n ts and food supply. C urren ts
a n d w a v e s also d e term in e the sh ap es o f co ral
re e fs. H ig h e n erg y sea w av es also dam age coral
re e fs by e ro d in g them .
Submarine Foundation
T h e re sh o u ld b e ex ten siv e subm arine p la t­
fo rm s fo r th e fo rm a tio n o f c o lo n ies by the coral
p o ly p s. S u ch p la tfo rm s sh o u ld not be m ore than
50 fa th o m s (3 0 0 fe e t o r 91 m ) b elo w sea level. The
p o ly p s s ta rt th e ir c o lo n ie s from a firm base o f hard
ro c k s a n d g ro w u p w a rd u n til th ey reach the sea
le v el. B e s id e s , p o ly p s a lso g ro w ou tw ard from the
s u b m a rin e p la tfo rm s .
Hum an Factor
H u m a n e c o n o m ic a ctivities viz. d e fo re sta tio n ,
in d u s tr ia liz a tio n e tc. c a u s in g global w a r m in g a d ­
v e rs e ly a ffe c t c o ra ls in th e ir h a b ita ts. C o rals are
m o re s u s c e p tib le to lo n g -te rm c lim a tic ch an g e.
C o ra ls a re g e n e r a lly te rm e d as r a in forests of the
o c e a n s . T h e s e c a n n o t s u rv iv e in e x tre m e w arm
e n v iro n m e n t. T h e s c ie n tis ts c la im th a t a b o u t 10
p e rc e n t o f th e c o ra ls h a v e d ie d an d b e co m e
s k e le to n s d u e to g lo b a l w a rm in g c a u se d by
a n th ro p o g e n ic fa c to rs m a in ly in d u s tria liz a tio n .
A c c o rd in g to re p o rt p u b lis h e d in D o w n to E arth
(A u g u s t 15, 1 9 9 9 ) 30 p e r c e n t o f c o ra ls are in
c ritic a l c o n d itio n a n d a fu rth e r 30 p e r c e n t are
u n d e r s e v e re e n v iro n m e n ta l stre ss . A c c o rd in g to
th e re p o rt o f th e U n ite d N a tio n s In te r-G o v e rn -
m e n t P a n e l o n C lim a te C h a n g e (IP C C ) ‘I f the
p ro je c te d le v e ls o f c lim a te c h a n g e are n o t
s to p p e d , th e d o o m m a y b e ju s t 30 y e a rs a w a y ’
(D o w n to E a rth , A u g u st 1 5 ,1 9 9 9 ). T h e in c re a se in
OCEANOGRAPHY
te m p e ratu re cau ses b le a c h in g in th e c o ra ls w herein
the c o ra ls lo se th e ir e m b ed e d a lg ae an d become
w h ite in c o lo u r. T h is p ro c e ss is c a lle d coral
bleaching, w h ic h c au se s d e ath to c o ra ls. A cco rd in g
to C liv e W ilk in so n o f th e G lo b a l C o ra l R e e f
M o n ito rin g N e tw o rk (G C R M N ) c o ra l b leach in g
has o c c u rre d at larg e sc a le o f f th e c o a sts o f W est
A sia, E ast A frica , S o u th , S o u th e a st a n d E a st A sia,
in th e In d ia n O cean , e a st P a c ific , th e C arib b ean
Sea and th e A tla n tic O c ea n (1 9 9 8 ). A c co rd in g to
him the In d ia n O cean is th e m o st ad v ersely
affected re g io n w h e rein ‘m o re th a n 70 p e r cent
m o rtality h as b een o b se rv e d o f f th e co asts o f
K enya, th e M ald iv es, th e A n d a m a n s and the
L ak sh w ad eep islan d s. T h e stu d ie s h a v e show n
th a t co ral b le ac h in g b e g in s w h e n th e tem p eratu re
rises 1°C ab o v e n o rm al te m p e ra tu re . T h e year
1998 has b een re p o rte d to be th e w a rm e st y e ar in
the last 1200 years. T he te m p e ra tu re in th e Indian
O cean w as reco rd ed 2°C h ig h e r th a n th e norm al
tem p eratu re in 1998. El Nino p h e n o m e n o n h a s also
been a sso ciated w ith c o ra l b le a c h in g (co ral
death). El N in o w as die stro n g e st on re c o rd in
1997-98 and hence cau sed la rg e -sc a le b le ac h in g
o f corals.
Pollution of Ocean Water
B esid es global w a rm in g , h u m an a c tiv itie s at
lo cal to reg io n al levels su ch as p o llu tio n o f
o cean ic w ater thro u g h ex cess flu x o f sed im en ts
and n u trien ts, in d u stria l efflu e n ts, u rb an w astes,
sew ag e; o v er fish in g ; clea ra n c e o f m aritim e forest
and fillin g o f w e tlan d s; m in in g o f co ral rocks;
c o lle c tio n o f rare sp ecies o f co rals etc. cause fatal
d isea ses to c o rals. R ec e n t stu d ies have s h o w n that
58 p er c e n t o f the w o rld ’s co ral reefs are
th re a te n e d by h u m an a ctiv itie s (D ow n to Earth,
1999).
Summary of Conditions for Coral Growth
T h e fo llo w in g co n d itio n s are required for
th e su rv iv a l and g ro w th o f co ral polyps .
>- C o ra ls are tem p eratu re-sen sitiv e. They
can n o t th riv e in e ith e r cold or very warn®
sea tem p eratu re. C orals can grow in
CORALREEFS
te m p e ra tu re ra n g e o f 20°C a n d 30°C (h ere
tem perature m ean s tem p eratu re o f seaw ater).
C o ra ls g ro w s u c c e s s fu lly in th e o cean
w a te r u p to th e d e p th o f 30 m e te rs b elo w
sea le v e l b u t th e y c a n n o t su rv iv e in
s e a w a te r d e e p e r th a n 80 m e te rs.
>■ H ig h tu rb id ity o f s e a w a te r i.e. h ig h c o n ­
c e n tra tio n o f su sp e n d e d m a te ria ls, bo th
o rg a n ic a n d in o rg a n ic , d o es n o t allo w
g ro w th o f c o ra ls b e c a u s e th e ir m o u th s are
c lo g g e d b y m u d d y w a te r a n d h en ce co rals
c a n n o t g e t fo o d a n d u ltim a te ly die o f
s ta rv a tio n .
F lu x o f h u g e v o lu m e o f fre sh w a te r into the
se a s b y b ig c o n tin e n ta l riv e rs is inju rio u s
fo r c o ra ls g ro w th . T h is is w h y co rals avoid
th e v ic in ity o f m o u th s o f m a jo r riv e rs i.e.
th e y a v o id c o a s ta l a re as b u t they thrive
a ro u n d s e a isla n d s b e c a u se th ere are no big
riv e rs lik e a ro u n d A n d m a n and N ico b ar
I s la n d s o f In d ia.
>* H ig h s a lin ity o f o c e a n w a te r is in ju rio u s for
c o ra l g ro w th . T h e o c e a n ic salin ity ran g in g
b e tw e e n 27%o and 30%o is m o st ideal for the
g ro w th an d d e v e lo p m e n t o f coral polyps.
O c e a n c u rre n ts a n d h ig h en erg y sea w aves
a re fa v o u ra b le fo r c o ra l p o ly p s becau se
th e y b rin g n u trie n ts to the sy m b io tic
z o o x a n th e lla e a lg a e , w h ic h are em b ed ed in
th e o u te r tis s u e s o f c o ra l a n im a ls (liv in g
c o ra ls i.e . p o ly p s ). T h e se em b ed e d algae
p re p a re fo o d th ro u g h p h o to s y n th e sis and
p ro v id e 6 0 p e rc e n t o f to ta l fo o d re q u ire ­
m e n t o f c o ra l p o ly p s .
^ T h e re s h o u ld be e x te n s iv e su b m arin e
p la tfo rm s fo r th e fo rm a tio n o f c o lo n ie s by
th e c o ra l p o ly p s . S u c h p la tfo rm s sh o u ld
n o t b e m o re th a n 91 m e te rs b e lo w sea level.
> T here sh o u ld b e p ollu tion free coastal
w ater for the su rvival and grow th o f corals.
Coral b le a c h in g ca u sed by sudden increase
in the tem perature o f seaw ater due to
an thropogenic so u rces such as em issio n o
green h ou se g a se s (carbon d io x id e, m eth­
ane, n itro g en o x id es e tc .) and resultant
g lob al w arm in g, results in m ass deaths o
coral p o ly p s.
327
1 3 .4 CORAL ECOLOGY
T he co ral e co lo g y m e an s in te ra c tio n s b e ­
tw een co ral a n im a ls (c o ra l p o ly p s) an d p h y sica l
e n v iro n m e n ta l c o n d itio n s, an d b e tw e e n co ral
p o ly p s an d o th e r m a rin e o rg a n ism s. L e t us first
d iscu ss the ty p es o f c o ra ls in d iffe re n t m arin e
en v iro n m en t. C o rals are b a sic a lly d iv id e d in to th e
fo llo w in g tw o c ate g o rie s :
(1) h erm aty p ic co rals o r h e rm a ty p e c o ra ls, and
(2) a h erm aty p ic o r h e rm a ty p e c o rals.
(1) H e rm a ty p e corals liv e in g ro u p s an d b u il
colonies and h en ce they m ay b e c a lle d colonizer
co rals. T h ese c o ra l a n im a ls h a v e e m b e d e d
zo o x an th ellae algae in the o u te r tissu e s o f th e ir
bodies. T hese corals th riv e in tro p ic a l seas an d
oceans m ain ly in tro p ica l w e ste rn P a c ific an d
In d ian O ceans. A s stated in se c tio n 13.3 o f th is
chapter, h erm aty p ic co rals can s u rv iv e o n ly in
such en v iro n m en t o f tro p ic a l sea s a n d o c e a n s
w here tem p eratu re o f se a w a te r ra n g e s b e tw e e n
2 0 °C -3 0 °C ; w ater dep th is u p to 30 m e te rs fro m
sea level (i.e. is sh allo w se a w a te r) b u t d o e s n o t
exceed 80 m eters; th ere is n o t h ig h tu rb id ity o f
seaw ater; salin ity ran g e is b e tw e e n 27%o an d
30%o; there are h ig h en erg y o cean c u rre n ts an d
w aves; ex ten siv e su b m arin e p la tfo rm s u p to d e s ir­
able depth are av ailab le; n u trie n t le v e l is h ig h etc.
The zo o x an th ellae alg ae, w h ich are e m b e d e d in
the outer tissu es o f the b o d ie s o f co ral a n im a ls, are
p h y to p lan k to n p lan ts and thus p re p a re fo o d
th ro u g h p h o to sy n th esis. T he co ral a n im a ls g e t 60
p ercen t o f th e ir fo o d re q u ire m e n t fro m in te rn a l
sources i.e. from z o o x an th e lla e alg ae.
It is ap p aren t th at th ere is symbiotic relation­
ship b e tw e e n c o ra l a n im a ls a n d e m b e d e d
z o o x an th ellae algae b ecau se th e p h y to p la n k to n
algae live in the o u te r tissu e s o f c o ra l a n im als and
in tu rn p ro v id e 60 p e rc en t o f fo o d to co rals.
S eco n d ly , th ese alg ae re c y cle th e w astes and
e x creta o f co ral an im als. T h u s, th ere is m u tu al
re la tio n sh ip b etw een h e rm aty p ic co rals (h erm a =
secret) and z o o x an th e lla e alg ae as th e la tte r
p ro v id e s fo o d to the co ral an im als w h ich in tu rn
p ro v id e n u trie n ts to z o o x an th e lla e alg ae. T h is is
th e reaso n th at c o ra ls su rv iv e in tro p ic a l seas
w h ere n u trien ts are n o t p len ty . C o ral a n im als get
re m a in in g 40 p e rc en t o f to ta l fo o d re q u ire m e n t by
 328 OCEANOGRAPHY

c a p tu r in g tin y z o o p la n k to n s th ro u g h th e ir s tin g ­ w a ter, fro m illu m in a te d (th ro u g h s u n lig h t) water

in g te n ta c le s . T h e to ta l b io m a ss o f a coral an im al to d a rk w a te r etc. T h u s, a h e m a ty p ic c o rals are
c o n s is ts o f tw o th ird o f alg ae b io m ass and only fo u n d fro m w a rm tro p ic a l o c e a n w a te r to cold
o n e th ird o f a n im a l b io m ass. p o la r w a te r, a n d fro m s h a llo w se a s to d e ep seas

(2 ) A h e r m a ty p e corals do n o t liv e in g ro u p s T h e c o ra l a n im a ls a re a d a p te d to varying

r a th e r th e y liv e in iso la tio n b e ca u se th ey are lo c a tio n s o f c o ra l re e fs w h ic h c o n s is t o f several
s o lita ry b y h ab it. T his is w hy a h erm aty p ic co rals m o rp h o lo g ic a l fe a tu re s as fo llo w s (fig . 1 3 .1 ):
d o n o t b u ild c o lo n ie s. T h ey are n o t c o n fin e d to a 1. a lg a e rid g e
p a rtic u la r lo c alitie s o f c ertain e n v iro n m e n ta l
2. b u ttre s s z o n e
c o n d itio n s. T his is w hy ah erm aty p ic c o ra ls are
fo u n d th ro u g h o u t w o rld o cean s in v a ry in g e n v i­ 3. r e e f face
ro n m e n ta l co n d itio n s. T h ey are fo u n d from 4. r e e f te rra c e
sh a llo w w a te r to deep w ater, w arm w a te r to cold 5. p a tch re e f

Fig. 13.1 : M orph ological fe a tu res o f coral reefs and different types o f corals a sso cia ted with them.

V e rtic a lly , th e c o ra l re e fs c o n s is t o f 3 m a jo r r e e f rid g e s a re s e p a ra te d b y a fu rro w . It is, thus,

m o rp h o lo g ic a l z o n e s fro m to p d o w n w a rd e.g. (1)
alg ae rid g e , (2) b u ttre s s z o n e , a n d (3) r e e f face.
T h e a lgae r id g e , c o m p o se d m o stly o f a lg a e , faces
th e fu ry o f sea w a v e s, say s u r f su rg e s. T h e se alg ae
re e fs a b so rb m o s t o f th e e n e rg y o f s u rg in g w av es
and th u s w e a k e n th e p o u n d in g w a v e s and sav e the
re e fs fro m w a v e e ro sio n . T h e s e c o n d m o rp h o lo g i­
cal zo n e is c a lle d b u t tr e s s zone w h ic h c o n sists o f
n u m e ro u s a lte rn a tin g rid g e s an d fu rro w s i.e. tw o
e v id e n t th a t b u ttre s s z o n e re p re s e n ts u ndulating
to p o g ra p h ic fe a tu re s c h a ra c te riz e d b y alternating
rid g e s an d fu rro w s o f c h a n n e ls . S u ch irregular
a n d u n d u la tin g to p o g ra p h y a lso d is ru p ts wave
e n erg y .
T h e th ird z o n e is r e e f face w h ic h extends
d o w n w a rd to g re a te r d e p th a n d h e n c e th e re are no
c o ra ls b e c a u s e p o ly p s c a n n o t g ro w b e y o n d 80 in
d e p th . T h e re is r e e f t e r r a c e to w a rd th e landw ard
 329
CORAL REEFS

side o f alg*e ridge. R e e f te rra c e is c h a ra c te riz e d >• E n c r u s t i n g c o ra ls g ro w a lo n g a lg a e rid g e

by flat and bro ad su rfa c e s o f re e fs and are at or
s lig h tly above low tid e w a te r (L T W ). T h is is the
* zone o f ric h g ro w th o f e n c r u s tin g algae, i.e. su ch
algae w hich can h e lp in b u ild in g sh e lls o f c alciu m
carbonate. In b e tw e e n th e in w a rd ed g e o f r e e f
terrace an d la n d th e re is b ro a d sh a llo w w a ter
lagoon (fig . 13.1) w h ic h h a s d e p o sits o f d ead co ral
rubbles o f c a lc iu m c a rb o n a te (lim e sto n e ) at its
base (fig. 13.1). T h e re a re a few o rg a n ic a lly
form ed m o u n d s p ro je c tin g a b o v e th e w a ter
surface o f la g o o n . T h e se m o u n d s o r k n o lls are
called p a t c h ree fs.
T h e s e m o rp h o lo g ic a l fe a tu re s p ro v id e d if­
feren t s u ite s o f h a b ita ts fo r c o ra l g ro w th . S in c e the
e n v iro n m e n ta l c o n d itio n s o f v a rio u s m o rp h o lo g i­
cal fe a tu re s o f r e e f v a ry m a in ly in term s o f w ave
e n e rg y , w e fin d d iffe re n t g ro w th fo rm s o f
h e rm a ty p ic o r c o lo n iz in g c o ra ls in d iffe re n t
e c o lo g ic a l c o n d itio n s o f d iffe re n t m o rp h o lo g ic a l
fe a tu re s as g iv e n b e lo w :
b e c a u se th e y can w ith s ta n d th e fu ry o f
s tro n g p o u n d in g w a v e s. It m a y b e re m e m ­
b e re d th a t e n c ru s tin g c o ra ls w ith e m b e d e d
a lg a e b u ild c ru s ts o f c a lc iu m c a rb o n a te
w h ic h h e lp th e m to fa c e s tro n g w a v e
e n erg y .
B u ttre s s z o n e is c o lo n iz e d b y b r a i n c o ra l*
a n d b r a n c h i n g c o ra ls w h ic h c a n e a s ily
w ith s ta n d w a v e a tta c k .
D e e p e r p a rts o f r e e f fa c e a re c o lo n iz e d b y
fan c o ra ls , b r a n c h i n g c o r a l s , p l a t y c o r a l s e t c .
>■ S in ce th e la g o o n s, w h ic h a re b e h in d th e
r e e f te rra c e , a re w e ll p r o te c te d fr o m w a v e
a ttra c k , d iff e r e n t v a rie tie s o f c o ra ls f lo u r ­
ish in s u c h la g o o n s.
1 3 .5 DISTRIBUTION OF CORAL REEFS
C o ra ls a re fo u n d in c e r ta in p o c k e ts a n d
p a tc h e s in th e tro p ic a l s e a s a n d o c e a n s b e c a u s e

------------------- !-----------------1— ---------- r—

E 180 150°W 120° W 90°W60°W30°W
30°E0° 60 ^ ) 9 0 ^ /^ T B 0 °E
Green A
Arctic Circle Alaska A rcticC ird e-

60 N -

North
America
Atlantic
^ ?°'N --------- — —
- Tropic or C a n c er 9 *
Africa
V - L ndia
Pacific
Ocean
jO*Equator1-~ -i -~ ir Equator
Ocean South
Indian
-America
T ropJco?^^ Ocean
papncom ^ # Tropic of Capricorn
20°C-— __2$2^S;

Australia

60*S \Coral reefs

60°S-

'Antarctic Circle
Circteo
Antarctica
.
i2o*e is < r -e>
y i« r iso *w i2p*w r 9 o * w / sA3 e o M
' 30*E 60°E 90°E 120*E
■J—------- — 1~. i ______ i . i r_______

Fig. 1 3 .2 : Distribution o f coral reefs. Based on M. Lerman, 1986, in P.R. Pinet, 2000.
 330
c o ra l a n im a ls (p o ly p s) can thrive in certain
c o n d itio n s determ in ed by tem perature o f seaw ater,
w a te r d e p th , salin ity o f ocean w ater, tu rb id ity o f
s e a w a te r, flu x o f fresh w ater by big c o n tin en tal
riv e rs, a v a ila b ility o f extensive sub m arin e p la t­
fo rm s, lev el o f energy o f ocean curren ts and
w av es etc. F ig. 13.2 depicts c o n cen tratio n o f
c o ra ls in the tropical seas and ocean s, the
p o le w ard boundary o f w hich is d eterm in ed by
20°C iso th erm o f tem p eratu re o f su rface w a ter o f
th e oceans.
The coral reefs are ab u n d an tly foun d in the
tro p ical Indo- P acific O ceans betw een 30°S
latitu d es and 20°N latitudes. T he la rg e st c o n c e n ­
tration o f coral reefs is found in the tro p ica l
w estern P acific O cean. In all, the P a c ific O cean
accounts fo r m ore than 55 p e rc e n t o f w o rld co rals,
w hereas there are m o re th an 30 p e rc e n t o f w o rld
corals in the Indian O cean. It is in te re stin g to n o te
th at corals a b o u n d in the w estern tro p ica l reg io n s
o f the oceans, i.e. along th e east coasts o f the
co n tinents b ecau se w arm eq u ato rial cu rren ts
b ring high en erg y and su ffic ie n t n u trien ts n eed ed
by sy m biotic z o o x an th ellae algae.
T he m a jo r co n ce n tra tio n o f co ral re e fs are
found in the fo llo w in g lo ca tio n s in the In d ia n
Ocean :
Indian Ocean
E a stern co asts of-K enya, a ro u n d M a d a g a s ­
car, eastern c o asts o f S o u th A frica , w e ste rn c o asts
o f A u stra lia, R e d Sea, M a ld iv e s, L a k sh a d w e e p ,
A n dm an a n d N ic o b a r etc..
Pacific Ocean
A ro u n d P h ilip p in e s, o f f th e so u th e rn c o a sts
o f Japan, P o ly n e sia a n d M ic ro n e s ia , o f f th e c o a s ts
o fth e N o rth ern T e rrito ry o f A u s tra lia , e a s t c o a s ts
o f Q u eensland o f A u stra lia (G re a t B a rrie r R e e f)
etc.
Atlantic Ocean
Continental coasts bordering the Caribbean
sea, around islands o f the Caribbean Sea,
coast o f B razil etc. east
Local C orals
L o c a l c o ra ls m e a n s m a ll c o lo n ie s o f corajj
in lim ite d a re a s su c h a s , B a ja ( C a lifo rn ia ), o f f ^
c o asts o f C e n tra l A m e ric a (C o c o s Is la n d 0ff
C o sta ric a , n o rth -e a s te rn c o a s ts o f P e a rl Islands
( G u lf o f P a n a m a ), a ro u n d th e is le s o f G u lf 0f
G u in e a (A n o o b o n ), e q u a to r ia l G u in e a , o f f the
c o a sts o f G h a n a , a ro u n d C a p e V e rd e I s la n d s , west
an d s o u th o f th e P e rs ia n G u lf, Q u a ta r , G u lf of
A q a b a, H a w a ii is la n d s etc.
1 3 .5 TYPES OF CORAL REEFS
T h e s u b m a rin e c o ra l re e fs a re c la s s if ie d in
tw o w ay s as fo llo w s :
1. O n th e b a sis o f g e o lo g y , n a tu r e , s h a p e and
m o d e o f o c c u rre n c e a s r e c o g n iz e d by
C h a rle s D a rw in d u rin g h is s tu d ie s o f coral
re e fs in th e P a c ific O c e a n .
>* frin g in g r e e f
b a rrie r r e e f
>■ a to ll
2. O n th e b a sis o f lo c a tio n
^ tro p ic a l c o ra l re e fs in e x te n s iv e b e lts
>• m a rg in a l b e lts o f c o ra l re e fs
1. Fringing R eef
C o ra l re e fs d e v e lo p e d a lo n g th e c o n tin e n ta l
m a rg in s o r a lo n g th e is la n d s a re c a lle d frin g in g
re e fs (fig . 13. 3). T h e s e a w a r d s lo p e is s te e p and
v e rtic a l w h ile th e la n d w a r d s lo p e is g e n tle . The
u p p e r s u rfa c e is u n e v e n a n d c o r r u g a te d . T h o u g h
frin g in g re e fs a re u s u a lly a tta c h e d to th e co asta l
la n d b u t s o m e tim e s th e r e is g a p b e tw e e n th e m and
la n d a n d th u s la g o o n is f o r m e d b e tw e e n the
frin g in g r e e f a n d th e la n d . S u c h la g o o n is called
boat channel. C o ra l r e e f s a re g e n e r a lly lo n g but
n a rro w in w id th . T h e c o n tin u ity o f c o ra l re e fs is
b ro k e n w h e r e v e r r iv e r s d r a in in to th e s e a s and
o c e a n s . C o ra l re e f s a re b a s ic a lly o f tw o ty p e s e.g-
(i) c o ra l r e e fs f a c in g o p e n o c e a n , a n d (ii) coral
re e fs p r o te c te d b y a b a r r ie r . S u c h f r in g in g reefs
a re fo u n d a lo n g S a k a u is la n d , s o u th e r n F lo rid a ,
M e h e tia is la n d ( o f S o c ie ty G r o u p o f I s la n d s ) etc.
 CORAL REEFS
Fig. 13.3 : Example o f fringing reef.
2 . B arrier R eef
T h e la rg e s t c o ra l re e fs o f f th e c o asta l
p la tfo rm s b u t p a ra lle l to th e m are c a lle d b a rrie r
re e fs (fig . 1 3 .4 ). B a rrie r re e fs are th e la rg e st, m o st
e x te n s iv e , h ig h e s t a n d w id e s t re e fs o f all ty p es o f
c o ra l re e fs . T h e a v e ra g e slo p e is a b o u t 45° b u t
s o m e b a r r ie r re e fs are c h a ra c te riz e d b y 1 5 °-2 5 °
s lo p e . T h e re is e x te n s iv e b u t sh allo w lagoon
b e tw e e n th e c o a s ta l la n d an d b a rrie r reef. B arrie r
re e fs a re s e ld o m fo u n d as c o n tin u o u s chains
r a th e r th e y a re b ro k e n a t m a n y p la c e s an d th u s the
la g o o n s h a v e c o n ta c t w ith th e o p en seas and
o c e a n s th ro u g h tid a l in le ts. S om e tim es, tid al
in le ts a re so w id e th a t sh ip s e n te r th e lag o o n s
th ro u g h th e m . S o m e tim e s , th e b a se o f b a rrie r
re e fs e x c e e d s th e re q u ire d d e p th fo r th e d e v e lo p ­
m e n t o f c o ra l p o ly p s i.e. 3 0 0 fe e t (9 1 m ). T h u s, the
e x is te n c e o f b a r r ie r re e fs a t s u c h g re a te r d ep th
(b e y o n d th e p e rm is s ib le d e p th o f 6 0 -7 7 m ) p o ses
th e p ro b le m o f th e ir fo rm a tio n . It m a y b e a rg u e d
th a t b a r r ie r re e fs m ig h t h a v e b e e n fo rm e d at
s u ita b le d e p th b u t a t m u c h la te r d a te th e re m ig h t
h av e b e e n s u b s id e n c e .
G r e a t B a r r i e r R e e f, lo c a te d p a ra lle l to th e
east c o a s t o f A u s tr a lia , is th e la rg e s t o f all th e
b a rrie r re e fs o f th e w o rld . T h is r e e f is lo c a te d
b e tw ee n 9°S to 2 2 °S la titu d e s a n d s tre tc h e s fo r a
len g th o f 1 2 0 0 m ils (1 9 2 0 k m ) a n d th u s co v ers
ab o u t tw o -th ird o f th e c o a s ta l le n g th o f Q u e e n s ­
land p ro v in c e o f A u s tra lia . T h e n o rth e rn a n d th e
so u th ern p a r ts o f th is r e e f a re 80 m ile s (1 2 8 k m )
and 7 m ile s (11 k m ) a w a y fro m th e c o a st
re s p e c tiv e ly . T h u s , th e a v e ra g e d is ta n c e o f th e
re e f fro m th e c o a s t ra n g e s b e tw e e n 2 0 to 30 m ile s
(32 to 4 8 k m ). T h e d e p th o f la g o o n b e tw e e n th e
co ast a n d th e re e fs is 4 0 fa th o m s (2 4 0 feet)
w h ereas th e w id th ra n g e s b e tw e e n 7 to 80 m ile s
(11 k m to 128 k m ). T h e r e e f is b ro k e n a t p la c e s
an d h e n ce th e re a re fre q u e n t o p e n in g s in th e fo rm
o f tid a l in le ts w h ic h e n a b le th e la g o o n to m a in ta in
c o n ta c ts w ith th e o p e n o c ea n .
Fig. 13.4 : Example o f barrier reef.
3. Atoll
A rin g o f n a rro w g ro w in g c o ra ls o f h o r s e ­
shoe sh ap e an d c ro w n ed w ith p a lm tre e s is c a lle d
ato ll (fig. 13.5). It is g e n e ra lly fo u n d a ro u n d a n
islan d o r in e llip tic a l fo rm o n a s u b m a r in e
p latfo rm . T h ere is a la g o o n in th e m id d le o f c o ra l
rin g . T he d ep th o f la g o o n ra n g e s b e tw e e n 4 0 to 7 0
fath o m s (240 to 4 2 0 fe e t). A to lls a re d iv id e d in to
3 ty p es, e.g. (i) tru e a to ll c h a ra c te riz e d b y c ir c u la r
r e e f e n clo sin g a sh a llo w la g o o n b u t w ith o u t
islan d , (ii) island atoll h a v in g a n is la n d in th e
c e n tra l p art o f th e la g o o n e n c lo s e d b y c irc u la r
re e f, a n d (iii) coral island o r atoll island d o e s n o t
h a v e is la n d in th e b e g in n in g b u t la te r o n is la n d is
fo rm e d d u e to e ro s io n a n d d e p o s itio n b y m a rin e
w a v es. A to lls a re fo u n d in A n tille s S e a , R e d S e a ,
C h in a S ea, A u s tra lia n S e a , In d o n e s ia n Sea.
F u n fu tti A to ll o f E llic e Is la n d is a fa m o u s a to ll.
T h e e n c lo s e d la g o o n is 12.8 k m w id e a n d 19.2
k m lo n g .
S h allow la g o o n reefs a re m in o r r e e f fe a tu re s
w h ic h are a n n u la r in s h a p e a n d a re fo u n d in
e p ic o n tin e n ta l sea s lik e In d o n e s ia n S e a , S o u th
C h in a S ea etc. T h e la g o o n is a s m a ll p o o l. F a r o s
are c h a in s o f sm a ll a to lls h a v in g s h a llo w s m a ll
la g o o n s. C o r a l b a n k s a re is o la te d s h a p e le s s re e fs.
C o r a l p in n a c le s a re sm a ll rid g e s w h ic h ris e w ith in
th e la g o o n s.
 332
Fig. 13.5 : Example o f atoll.
1 3 .6 ORIGIN OF CORAL REEFS AND ATOLLS
T he p ro b lem o f the o rigin o f c o ra l re e fs in
g en eral and atoll in p a rtic u la r is h ig h ly co m p lex .
S everal co n trastin g th eo ries have b een ad v an c e d
to ex p lain the m ode o f o rigin o f d iffe re n t ty p e s o f
coral reefs. I f the salien t fe a tu re s o f all th e
theories are c o n sid ered c arefu lly th en it b e co m e s
obvious th at these th e o rie s have b een b a se d on 3
co n sid eratio n s as fo llo w s :
>■ stab le or stationary land or islan d
subsiding land o r islan d
>■ emerging land o r isla n d
T he o rig in o f c o ra l re e fs is q u ite sim p le an d
easy to e x p lain b u t th e o rig in o f ato ll an d b a rrie r
re e fs is h ig h ly c o m p le x an d h e n ce d iffic u lt to
ex p lain . T h e th e o rie s o f o rig in a n d e v o lu tio n o f
co ral re e fs a n d a to lls are g ro u p e d in to th e
fo llo w in g tw o c ate g o rie s :
1. subsidence theory
2. non-subsidence theory
1. S u b sid e n c e T heory of Darwin
C h a rle s D a rw in p o s tu la te d h is s u b sid e n c e
th eo ry first in 1837 an d m o d ifie d it in th e y e a r
1842 d u rin g h is V o y a g e o n th e ‘Beagle’. A fte r
close o b s e rv a tio n o f d iffe re n t ty p e s o f re e fs in th e
oceans D a rw in w as c o n v in c e d th a t c o ra l p o ly p s
could g ro w o n ly in s h a llo w o c e a n ic w a te rs th o u g h
coral re e fs w e re fo u n d a t g re e te r d e p th s w h e re
coral p o ly p s c o u ld n o t s u rv iv e a t a n y c o s t. D a rw in
p o stu la ted h is th e o ry in o rd e r to so lv e th e r id d le o f
th is c o n tra d ic tio n i.e. c o n fin e m e n t o f c o ra l p o ly p s
Lo i P According to him the land or
reefs u ™ ! ? 1116 ori8in and growth of coral
reefs is seldom stationary rather it undergoes
gradual subsidence. According to h.m fringmg
re e fs, barrier re e fs a n d a to lls a re s u c c e s s iv e s t
o f th e d ev elo p m en t o f c o ra l re e fs .
F irs t o f a ll c o ra l p o ly p s flo c k to g e th e r alo n g
a s u ita b le s u b m a rin e p la tfo rm (fig . 1 3 .6 , A r A p
a n d 13.7 B ) a n d g ro w u p w a rd a n d u ltim a te ly
re a ch s e a le v e l a n d frin g in g r e e f is fo rm e d . T h u s,
frin g in g r e e f is fo rm e d in s ta b le c o n d itio n o f the
land. A fte r th is, th e la n d is s u b je c te d to su b sid e n c e
b e ca u se o f te c to n ic fo rc e s a n d th u s c o ra l p o ly p s
also re a c h g re a te r d e p th w h e re th e y m a y n o t
su rv iv e. C o n se q u e n tly , th e y g ro w u p w a rd and
o u tw a rd a t m u c h fa s te r ra te so th a t th e y c a n g e t fo o d
fo r th e ir su rv iv a l. T h e g ro w th o f p o ly p s is re ta rd e d
n e a r th e sh o re o f th e la n d b u t it is v e r y p h e n o m e n a l
an d v ig o ro u s a t th e o u te r e d g e o f th e la n d .
C o n se q u e n tly , a la g o o n is fo rm e d b e tw e e n th e
c o ast an d frin g in g r e e f a n d b a rrie r r e e f is f o r m e d
(fig. 13.6, A 2-A 2 a n d 13.7 C ). T h e re is f u r th e r
su b sid e n c e o f th e la n d a n d th e is la n d is c o m p le te ly
su b m erg ed u n d e r w a te r a n d a r in g o f c o r a l r e e f in
th e fo rm o f a to ll is fo rm e d (fig . 1 3 .7 D ). I t m a y b e
p o in te d o u t th a t D a rw in d id n o t in v o k e s u d d e n an d
ra p id s u b sid e n c e o f la n d r a th e r h e c o n c e iv e d
g ra d u a l a n d s lo w e r ra te o f la n d s u b s id e n c e th a n the
ra te o f u p w a rd g ro w th o f c o ra ls s o th a t t h e y c o u ld
n e v e r fin d th e m s e lv e s in d e e p e r w a te r s .
Aj
A«
On 8 ln o f coral reefs according to Charles
Darwin, A r A t = Sea-level and the formation
°J fringing reefs, A2-A2 = sea level after sub*
sidence and the form ation o f barrier reef and
A 3-A .1 = sea level after complete submergence
o f the island and the form ation o f atoll reef-
It may be noted that the depth o f laj,--
oes not increase inspite o f gradual subsidence*
e and because there is continuous s e c t o r ^
non in the lagoon.
Evidences in Support of Theory
>- T he sh allo w n ess o f lag o o n s in d ic a te s
g radual su b sid en ce o f land. I f th e la n d is
Hie following evidences and points strongly
tak en to be stab le, the lag o o n s w o u ld b e
support the validity o f Darwin’s subsidence theory:
filled d ue to d e p o sitio n o f sed im en ts.
>* The ab sen ce o f cliffs along th e c o ra l
islands v alid a tes the id ea o f su b sid e n c e o f
land b ecau se cliffs are fo u n d alo n g o n ly
th o se co ral islan d s w h ich are statio n ary .
The co asts and th e islan d s o f th e P a c ific
O cean h av in g raised b e ac h e s, w h ic h are
in d icativ e o f em erg en ce o f lan d , a re d e v o id
o f b a rrie r reefs and ato lls.
>• The islands h av in g ato lls are c h a ra c te riz e d
by very steep slopes. It m ay b e m e n tio n e d
that very steep slopes are fo u n d o n ly a lo n g
the u p p er parts o f the islan d s. T h is fa c t also
denotes subsidence o f the land.
>■ The thickness o f co ral re e fs in c re a se s
dow nw ard. This featu re re v e als th e fa c t
that coral reefs are fo rm ed alo n g th e
subsiding base o f su b m arin e p la tfo rm s.

Evaluation of the Theory

I f fringing reefs, b a rrie r reefs an d a to ll

reefs, as m ain tain ed by D arw in , are o n ly th re e
stages o f the ev o lu tio n ary g ro w th o f a re e f, th e n
fringing re e f and b a rrie r re e f sh o u ld n o t b e fo u n d
on eith er side o f the sam e islan d at th e sam e le v e l
b u t observ atio n s and new d isco v e rie s h av e
rev ealed the existence o f su ch situ a tio n s. I f th e
subsidence th eo ry is accep ted th e n m o st o f the
islan d s o f the P acific O cean w o u ld b e su b m erg ed .
T here are also som e evidences o f th e e x isten c e o f
c o ra l re e fs a ss o c ia te d w ith th e e m e rg in g
islands.
T he critics o f the su b sid en ce th e o ry o f the
o rig in o f co ral reefs as p ro p o u n d ed by C h arles
D arw in have ra ised the fo llo w in g p o in ts a g ain st
the th eo ry :
>■ T he frin g in g reefs, b a rrie r re e fs and ato lls
are n o t 3 su ccessiv e stag es o f the d e v elo p ­
m en t o f coral reefs b ecau se th ere are such
ex am p les also w h ich show th a t frin g in g
and b a rrie r reefs grow to g e th e r s im u lta n e ­
o u sly alo n g th e sam e islan d s, ex am p le :
Fig. 13 , 7 ; Stages ofthe development o f coral reefs and
atolls on the basis o f subsidence theory. N arai Isla n d o f Fiji.
334 o c e a n o g r a ph y

^ I f th e su b sid e n c e th eo ry is accep ted , m o st fo rm ed a ro u n d the so lu tio n la g o o n (fig.

o f th e isla n d s o f th e P acific O cean w ould
b e su b m e rg e d . T h ere are no g eo lo g ical
e v id e n c e s to su p p o rt su b m erg en ce o f P a ­
c ific isla n d s.
^ T h e g e o lo g ic a l e v id en c e s show th at the
a to lls w ere fo rm ed on su b m arin e platfo rm s
o f sh a llo w w a te r depth.
A cco rd in g to M u rray th e la g o o n -w a rd side o f
a to ll is c h ara c te riz e d b y d ead c o ra ls w hile the
seaw ard sid e h as liv in g c o ra ls w h ich continuously
grow o u tw ard . T h e d e ad co rals are gradually
d isso lv e d and th u s th e lag o o n is continuously
w id en ed . T h e lag o o n s also b eco m e shallow er
b e ca u se o f d ep o sitio n o f d isso lv e d d e ad corals.

2 . S tan d Still T heory of Murray

T h e o rie s b a se d on th e c o n cep t o f n o n ­
su b sid e n c e o r sta n d -still situ a tio n o f land fall in
tw o c a te g o rie s. A c co rd in g to first group corals
g ro w u p o n su ita b le stab le su b m arin e p latfo rm s
w ith u n c h a n g in g sea lev el w h ile a cco rd in g to the
se c o n d g ro u p n e c e ssa ry su ita b le su b m arin e p la t­
fo rm s b e c o m e a v a ila b le due to lo w erin g o f sea
le v e l a n d c o n se q u e n t e ro sio n o f lan d by sea w aves
b u t th e la n d a lw ay s re m a in stable. T he th eo ry o f
M u rra y b e lo n g s to the first group.
M u rra y p ro p o u n d e d his th eo ry o f form ation Fig. 13.8 : Formation o f coral reefs according to Murray.
o f c o ra l re e fs in the y e a r 1880 on the basis o f the
in fo rm a tio n re c e iv e d d u rin g th e C h allen g er E x p e­ Evaluation of the Theory
d itio n (1 8 7 2 .7 6 ). A c c o rd in g to him coral polyps
c an liv e u p to th e d e p th o f 30 fathom s (180 feet or The n o n -su b sid en ce th e o ry o f M urray
55 m e te rs ). S e a le v e l an d su b m arin e p latfo rm s are acclaim ed w ide p o p u la rity in th e b e g in n in g but
sta b le . S e v e ra l su b m a rin e p la tfo rm s, vo lcan ic later on it w as sev erely c ritic ise d on th e follow ing
p e a k s , is la n d s a re p re s e n t b e lo w sea level. I f the g rounds :
s u b m a rin e la n d p la tfo rm s are ab o v e th e p e rm issi­
M u rra y ’s th e o ry re q u ire s th e ex isten ce o f
b le d e p th fo r th e s u rv iv a l o f c o ra l p o ly p s (180 feet
n u m ero u s su ita b le su b m arin e p latfo rm s at
o r 55 m e te rs ) th e y are s u b je c te d to w ave ero sio n
the d ep th o f 180 fe e t (55 m eters) b u t the
so th a t th e ir h e ig h ts are lo w e re d dow n . O n the
ex isten ce o f su ch fe a tu re is n o t possible.
o th e r h a n d , i f th e su b m a rin e p la tfo rm s are b elo w
th e re q u ire d d ep th o f sea o f 180 feet, th e ir h eig h t >■ M u rra y has d e sc rib e d tw o contradictory
is in creased due to d e p o sitio n o f m arin e sedim en ts. v iew s o f m a rin e ero sio n an d dep o sitio n at
A fter g e ttin g s u ita b le fo u n d a tio n at re q u ire d the d ep th o f 30 fath o m s (1 8 0 feet or 55
depth o f 180 fe e t (55 m e te rs) c o ra l p o ly p s b e g in to m e te rs) at th e sam e tim e o v e r different
grow u p w a rd a lo n g th e c o a sts a n d frin g in g re e f is su b m arin e p eak s. Such p ro p o s itio n is not
form ed. T h e c o ra l p o ly p s a fte r so m e tim e also p o ssib le.
grow o u tw ard on th e fo u n d a tio n o f th e ir ow n >■ A lim it o f 30 fath o m s (55 m eters) for
d eb ris. T h u s, th e c o n tin u o u sly o u tw a rd g ro w in g d e p o sitio n a nd e ro sio n can n o t be a c c e p t e d .
frin g in g re e f is tra n sfo rm e d in to b a rrie r r e e f in
>* A c co rd in g to M u rray , th e lag o o n is formed
due co urse o f tim e. T he la g o o n is fo rm ed b etw een
d ue to so lu tio n o f dead corals. This
the land and b a rrie r re e f b e ca u se o f d isso lu tio n o f
m e ch a n ism is also d o u b tfu l b e c a u s e if the
d ead corals. A to lls are fo rm ed due to o u tw ard
grow th o f co rals in all d ire c tio n s at the to p o f lag o o n m ay b e fo rm ed due to solution o
su b m arin e p latfo rm s. T hus, a rin g o f coral re e f is c o ra ls, the p e lag ic d ep o sits laid dow n on
 CORAL REEFS

the su b m arin e p la tfo rm s o r peaks w ould

also b e d isso lv ed .
»- I f th e lan d o r su b m arin e p latfo rm s and
p e ak s are stab le th en the lagoons w o u ld be
c o m p le te ly fille d up w ith the m arine
sed im en ts an d thus the lagoons w ould
d isap p e a r.
A c c o rd in g to M u rray coral reefs can n o t be
fo u n d b e y o n d the depth o f 30 fathom s (55
m e te rs) b u t th e se have also been found at
g re a te r d ep th s.

3. Glacial Control Theory of Daly

Fig. 13.9: Origin o f coral reefs according to R.A. D aly.

D a ly p ro p o u n d e d his th eo ry o f coral fo rm a­
tio n in th e y e a r 1915 a fter he w as convin ced that
co ral re e fs w ere fo rm ed a fter P leisto cen e Ice Age.
A c co rd in g to h im sea level fell by 33 to 38
fath o m s (60 to 69 m eters) (198 feet to 228 feet)
due to g la c ia tio n (co n fin em en t o f sea w ater in the
fo rm o f ice on the co n tin en ts) during P leistocene
Ice A ge. T he e x istin g corals died due to low ering
o f te m p e ra tu re o f m arine w ater. W ave-cut p la t­
fo rm s w e re fo rm ed along continental coasts and
isla n d s d u e to a b ra sio n by sea w aves. A fter the end
o f ic e a g e the se a lev el again rose by 33 to 38
fa th o m s (6 0 to 69 m e te rs) due to return o f sea
w a te r w h ic h w as im p riso n e d on the contin en ts in
th e fo rm o f ice d u rin g the ice age. In o th er w ords,
the ice m e lte d d u e to rise o f tem p eratu re and the
m e lt-w a te r a fte r re a c h in g the oceans raised th eir
levels to p re v io u s stag e. T hus, the w av e-cu t
p la tfo rm s w e re su b m e rg e d u n d e r sea w a ter upto
the d ep th o f 33 to 38 fath o m s (60 to 69 m eters)
The c o ra ls w h ic h c o u ld su rv iv e d u rin g the g lacial
perio d a n d n e w c o ra l p o ly p s began to grow and
estab lish th e ir c o lo n ie s on the seaw ard edges o f
su b m erg ed p la tfo rm s. T h u s, frin g in g re e fs w ere
form ed o n n a rro w w a v e -c u t p la tfo rm s w hile
b arrier re e fs w e re fo rm e d on b ro a d w av e-ero d ed
platform s. A to lls w e re fo rm ed aro u n d iso lated
w ave e ro d e d is la n d p e ak s. L ag o o n s o f u n ifo rm
depth w e re fo rm e d b e tw ee n th e re e fs and the
land b e c a u se o f u n ifo rm lo w e rin g o f sea level due
to g la c ia tio n d u r in g P le is to c e n e Ic e A ge
(fig. 13.9).
Evaluation of the Theory
The g lacial co n tro l th e o ry o f D a ly is
criticised on the fo llo w in g g ro u n d s :
>■ A ccording to th is th e o ry th e d e p th o f a ll th e
lagoons o f ato lls and b a rrie r re e fs s h o u ld
be u n ifo rm b u t actu al o b s e rv a tio n s d o n o t
validate th is co n cep t. A c c o rd in g to W .M .
D avis the depth o f d iffe re n t la g o o n s v a rie s
considerably. N o t o n ly th is, e v e n th e d e p th
at d ifferen t p arts o f th e sam e la g o o n s
ranges b etw een 120 to 300 fe e t (36 to 91
m eters). In som e la g o o n s th e d e p th v a rie s
betw een 20 feet to 600 fe e t (7 m e te rs to 183
m eters).
»■ The coasts m ig h t hav e b e en c liffe d d u e to
w ave ero sio n d u rin g th e p h a se o f th e
low ering o f the sea lev el d u rin g P le is to c e n e
Ice A ge. T hus, th e c liffs fo rm e d d u rin g
glacial p erio d sh o u ld also b e p re s e n t n o w
bu t they are seld o m fo u n d . In fa c t, th e
corals m ig h t have p ro moted th e c o a sts
from b ein g cliffed .
I f all the m arin e islan d s w ere e ro d e d upto
33 to 38 fath o m s (60 to 69 m e te rs ) th en
there sh o u ld n o t be isla n d s b e tw e e n th e
coasts and co ral reefs b u t n u m e ro u s su ch
islan d s are found.
4. C oncept of W.M. Davis
T he fam o u s A m e ric an g e o m o rp h o lo g ist
W .M . D avis p o stu la te d h is c o n ce p t o f th e o rig in o f
336
c o ra l re e fs in 1 9 1 4 -1 8 a n d re v iv e d the su b sid e n c e
th e o ry a s p o s tu la te d b y D a rw in and o th ers. He
p re s e n te d s e v e ra l p h y sio g ra p h ic e v id en c e s in
s u p p o rt o f s u b s id e n c e th e o ry and to e x p lain h ith e r
to u n s o lv e d s e v e ra l p ro b le m s re la te d to the
f o rm a tio n o f c o ra l re e fs. A c co rd in g to him co rals
g ro w a lo n g th e su b sid in g land. T h e p re sen c e o f
in d e n te d a n d e m b e d e d co ast lines fo u n d in the
c o ra l s e a s v a lid a te s th e su b sid e n c e and c o n se ­
q u e n t su b m e rg e n c e o f land. A cco rd in g to h im the
fla tn e s s o f th e b o tto m s o f lagoons and th e ir
u n ifo rm d e p th a re n o t due to u n ifo rm lo w erin g o f
s e a le v e l a n d th e se (b o tto m s) are no t tru e b o tto m s
b u t th e y are due to d e p o sitio n o f m arine sedim ents.
T h e sh a llo w n e ss o f lagoons is b e ca u se o f d e p o si­
tio n o f d eb ris. I f the su b m arin e p la tfo rm s are
ta k e n to b e stab le th en the d e p o sitio n o f m arin e
sed im en ts w o u ld fill up the lagoons and the
o v e rflo w in g o f w a te r w o u ld k ill the liv in g corals
on th e sea w ard sid e o f the reefs. O n the o th er
h an d , an y am o u n t o f d eb ris m ay be acco m m o ­
d ated in th e la g o o n s on the b a sis o f su b sid en ce
th e o ry b e c a u se th e b o tto m is su b jec te d to c o n tin u ­
o u s su b sid e n c e . D a v is has p re sen te d m any m ore
e v id en c e s in su p p o rt o f su b sid e n c e theory.
1 3 .7 CORAL BLEACHING
C o ra l b le a c h in g m ean s d e co lo u ra tio n o f
c o ra l a n im a ls (c o ra l p o ly p s) due to a h o st o f
fa c to rs a n d th e ir d eath . A s a lre a d y stated e a rlie r in
th is c h a p te r z o o x a n th e lla e a lg ae are the sy m b io tic
p a rtn e rs o f c o ra l o rg a n ism w h ich are e m b ed ed in
the tissu e s o f o u te r b o d ie s o f c o rals. T h ese alg ae
are p h o to sy n th e tic p h y to p la n k to n s w h ich p re p a re
food th ro u g h p h o to sy n th e sis and p ro v id e a tle a st
60 p e rc en t o f fo o d re q u ire m e n t o f c o ra l o rg a n ­
ism s. T h u s, c o ra l o rg a n ism s d e p e n d on th e ir
sy m b io tic p a rtn e r z o o x a n th e lla e a lg ae fo r th e ir
survival. It m ay be m entioned that these zooxanthellae
algae give d iffe re n t c o lo u rs to co ra l o rg a n ism s till
they (alg ae) re m a in in th e b o d ie s o f c o ra ls b u t the
m om ent th ey are re m o v e d o r e x p e lle d fro m
c o ra l's b o d ie s, co ral o rg an ism s b e c o m e c o lo u r­
less and tu rn w h ite. T his p ro c e ss is called co ral
b leach in g .
T h u s, c o ra l b le a ch in g is a p r o c e s s w hich
ca u ses loss o f d iffe re n t c o lo u rs fr o m c o ra l
OCEANOGRAPHY
o rg a n ism s a n d tu r n s th em w h ite. T he b le a c h e d
c o ra l o rg a n ism s lo se th e ir f o o d s u p p lie s d u e to
r e m o v a l o r e x p u lsio n o f th e ir s y m b io tic p a r tn e rs
z o o x a n th e lla e a lg a e fr o m th e ir b o d ie s a n d u lti­
m a te ly th e y d ie o f s ta rv a tio n . T h e s o lita ry cases o f
co ral b le a c h in g d o e s n o t h a rm c o ra l p o p u la tio n
b u t m ass c o ra l b le a c h in g c a u s e s m a ss d e a th s and
d e stru c tio n o f liv in g c o ra ls.
T h e re h a v e b e en d iffe re n t w o rld -w id e
ep iso d e s o f m ass c o ra l b le a c h in g in th e p a st but
the tw o e p iso d e s o f su ch m a ss d e s tru c tio n o f m ass
co ral b le a c h in g , w h ic h o c c u rre d in th e last
c en tu ry (2 0 th c e n tu ry ) a re w e ll re c o rd e d and
d o cu m en ted .
(1 ) 1 9 8 2 - 8 3 episode o f m a ss c o ra l d e stru ctio n
due to m a ssiv e c o ra l b le a c h in g .
(2) 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 e p iso d e o f m a ss c o ra l b le ac h in g .
T h e ab o v e m e n tio n e d tw o e p iso d e s o f coral
b leac h in g h av e b e en re la te d to ris e in n o rm a l sea
te m p e ratu re c au se d b y s tro n g El-N ino— S outhern
O scillation (E N S O ) e v e n ts w h ic h o c c u rre d during
1982-83 and 1997-98.
1. 1 9 8 2 -8 3 Coral B leaching
T h e stro n g E l N in o -S o u th e rn O scillatio n
(E N S O ) e v en t d u rin g 1 982-83 c a u s e d m ass coral
b le ac h in g re s u ltin g in to d e a th o f 70 p e rc e n t o f
co ral o rg a n ism s o f f th e c o a sts o f C e n tra l A m erica
in th e P a c ific O cean . T h e c o ra l o rg a n ism s in the
e aste rn P a c ific O c e a n th riv e in th e tem p eratu re
ra n g in g b e tw e e n ab o v e 18°C a n d 27°C . I f the
te m p e ra tu re o f se a w a te r a ro u n d G a lap a g o s Is­
lan d s rise s ev en b y o n e o r tw o c e n tig ra d e the
sy m b io tic z o o x an th e lla e a lg ae , w h ic h are em beded
in th e tissu e s o f c o ra l o rg a n ism s, are ex p elled by
c o ra ls an d h e n c e liv in g c o ra ls lo se c o lo u r an d are
b le a c h e d b e c a u se th e y tu rn w h ite in th e ab sen ce o f
c o lo u rfu l z o o x a n th e lla e a lg ae . T h e stro n g EN SO
e v en t o f 1982-83 ra is e d sea te m p e ra tu re above
n o rm a l an d th is ra is e d te m p e ra tu re o f seaw ater
c o n tin u e d fo r lo n g e r d u ra tio n re s u ltin g in to m ass
c o ra l b le a c h in g . It m ay b e m e n tio n e d th at the
c o ra l b le a c h in g w as so in te n se th a t tw o sp ecies o f
c o ra ls o f f the P a c ific c o a st o f P a n a m a w ere so
b le a c h e d th a t th e y b e ca m e e x tin ct.
 CORAL r e e f s
2 .1 9 9 7 - 9 8 Coral B leaching
T h e co ral b le a c h in g d u rin g 1997-98 has
been re c o rd e d as the m o st cata stro p h ic ev en t as it
acco unted fo r la rg e -sc ale d eath o f co rals in the
tro p ical o c e a n s o f 60 c o u n trie s and islan d nations.
T hough c o ra l b le a c h in g w as o b serv ed by A lfred
M ay er as b a c k as 1919 b u t it w as the y e ar 1998
w hen la rg e -s c a le c o ra l b le a c h in g acco u n tin g for
70 p e r c e n t d e a th o f c o ra ls o f f the co asts o f K enya,
M ald iv es, A n d a m a n s and L a k sh w ad w eep islands
in th e In d ia n O c e a n a n d 75 p e r cen t death in the
S e y c h e lle s M a rin e P a rk S y stem and th e M afia
M arin e P a rk o f f T a n z a n ia w as re p o rte d by C live
W ilk in so n o f th e G lo b a l C o ral R e e f M o n ito rin g
N e tw o rk (G C R M N ) o f T o w n sv ille (A ustralia).
H e id e n tifie d fo u r o v e rla p p in g levels o f coral
b le a c h in g .
(1) C a t a s t r o p h i c b le a c h in g ad v ersely a ffe ct­
ing 95 p e r c e n t o f sh a llo w w a ter corals in
B ah a ra in , th e M a ld iv e s , Sri L anka, S ingap o re and
T a n z an ia ;
(2 ) Severe b le a c h in g a cc o u n tin g fo r 50-70
p e rc e n t d e a th o f c o ra ls in K enya, S ey ch elles,
J a p a n , T h a ila n d an d V ietn am .
(3 ) M o d e r a t e b le a c h in g re su ltin g into 20-50
p e rc e n t c o ra l m o rta lity b u t w ith q u ick reco v ery .
(4 ) I n s i g n i f i c a n t b le a c h in g o r no b le ac h in g . I f
b le a c h e d , p e rc e n ta g e re m a in e d b e lo w 20 p ercen t
o f c o ra l d e a th .
T h e c a s e s o f la rg e -s c a le c o ra l b le ac h in g
h av e b e e n re p o rte d in th e A n d a m a n a n d N ic o b ar
islan d s o f In d ia . It m a y b e p o in te d o u t th a t th e real
c o v e ra g e o f c o ra l re e fs in In d ia h as b e e n estim ate d
to be 1 8 ,0 0 0 k m 2. T h e c o ra ls h a v e m ain ly
c o lo n iz e d a ro u n d th e L a k s h w a d w e e p and the
A n d am an a n d N ic o b a r is la n d s. B e s id e s, sm all
p atch es o f c o ra l re e fs a re fo u n d in th e G u lf o f
K utch a n d th e G u l f o f M a n a r. A c c o rd in g to the
study c o n d u c te d b y th e S o c ie ty fo r A n d a m a n and
N ic o b ar E c o lo g y (S A N E ) b a se d a t P o rt B la ir th ere
has b e e n m a s s c o ra l b le a c h in g (in 1998) aro u n
the A n d a m a n re e fs a n d 3 0 -7 0 p e r c e n t b le ac h in g
around th e N ic o b a r re e fs . T h is b le a c h in g is
re la ted to 2 °C ris e in te m p e ra tu re fro m th e n<jn™U
te m p e ra tu re in th e A n d a m a n S e a in 199 - •
A c c o rd in g to th e s tu d y b y N a tio n a l In stitu te o f
O ceanography (N IO ) b ased at G oa th e co ral re e fs
o f th e K a v a ra tti an d K a d a m a t isla n d s in
L akshw adw eep have su ffered g reat dam age fro m
coral b leaching due to b acterial d iseases an d
w arm er sea tem p eratu re. T he co rals in th e G u lf o f
K utch have been bleach ed due to siltatio n .
Causes of Coral Bleaching
A host o f factors are re sp o n sib le fo r co ral
bleaching from local to reg io n al an d g lo b al lev els.
It is to rem em ber th at co ral b le ac h in g o ccu rs w h en
coral anim als and th eir sy m b io tic z o o x an th e lla e
alga are separated from each o ther. T h u s, th e
scientists are still trying to a scertain th e fa c to r o r
factors w hich force the coral o rg an ism s to ex p el
sym biotic alga from th eir b o d ies. M o st o f the
m arine scientists are o f the o p in io n th a t th e rise in
sea tem perature above norm al te m p e ra tu re re ­
q u ire d fo r th e s u rv iv a l of c o ra l
organism s (polyps) is the m ajor cau se fo r c o ra l
bleaching. The follow ing factors are h e ld re s p o n ­
sible for coral bleaching at d ifferen t le v e ls a n d
scales :
>■ The rise in norm al tem p eratu re o f se a w a te r
due to anthropogenic facto rs i.e. g lo b a l
w arm ing,
>■ The rise in norm al tem p eratu re o f s e a w a te r
due to strong El N in o -S o u th ern O sc illa tio n
(E N SO ) events,
O u tbreak o f diseases and ep id em ics,
>• M arine p o llu tio n ,
>■ E lev ated u ltrav io le t ra d ia tio n lev el,
L ocal facto rs like in crease in silta tio n ,
salin ity , m in in g a ctiv itie s etc.
(1) Global Warming
M ost o f scie n tists h av e ack n o w led g ed
g lo b al w arm in g as the m o st sig n ific a n t fa c to r o f
co ral b le ac h in g cau sin g la rg e-scale co ral d eath .
‘A cco rd in g to th e G lo b al C o ral R e e f A llia n c e
(G C R A ) ev ery k n ow n m ass b le ac h in g o ccu rred
w h en te m p e ratu res w ere ju s t 1°C h ig h e r th an
n o rm al d u rin g th e w a rm e st su m m er m o n th s ’
(D o w n to E arth , 1999).

338
(2) El Nino»Southern Oscillation
E l N in o -S o u th e rn O sc illatio n (E N S O ) p h e ­
n o m e n o n h a s a lso b e e n re la te d to coral b leach in g .
I t m a y b e m e n tio n e d th a t th e w a rm e st y e a r o f 1998
w a s a lso a ss o c ia te d w ith the stro n g e st E l N in o
p h e n o m e n o n c au sin g fu rth e r w arm in g o f the
P a c ific O c e a n w aters. It m ay be p o in ted out th at El
N in o a c c o u n ts fo r coral b le ac h in g in certain
lo c a litie s o n ly b u t th e ph en o m en al in crease in
c o ra l b le a c h in g in the years 1982-83, 1987 and
19 9 7 -9 8 w as also asso ciated w ith stro n g El N in o
w e a th e r p h en o m en o n .
(3) Outbreak of Diseases
T h e fo llo w in g d iseases have b een id e n ti­
fied to cau se co ral b le ac h in g and m ass coral death
in d ifferen t re g io n s o f seas and oceans :
>■ b la c k b a n d d isease,
>• co ral p lag u es such as w hite plague,
w h ite band d isease, d isco v ered in 1996,
>- w h ite pox, d isco v e re d in 1996,
>• y ello w ban d d isease (y e llo w -b lo tch d is­
ease),
>- p a tch y n ecro sis,
>* ra p id w astin g d isease,
>• a sp e rg illo sis, etc.
(4) Local Factors
L ocal fa c to rs lik e in c re ase in silta tio n o f sea
w aters due to m ass flu x o f sed im en ts an d n u trien ts
brought by th e steam s fro m th e ero sio n o f h ig h
islands c o n seq u en t u p o n lan d use chan g es;
pollution o f sea w aters c au se d b y in d u stria l
effluents, u rb an sew ag e and o il slic k s; d e stru c tiv e
fishing p ractices, o v e r-fish in g ; c le a rin g o f m arin e
forests around co ral reefs; fillin g o f w e tlan d s
(m arine forests and w etlan d s trap sed im en ts and
filter p o llutants and thus save c o ra ls fro m
degradation); m ining o f co ral ro c k s fo r b u ild in g
m aterials, co llectio n o f rare co ral sp ec ie s etc. are
also resp o n sib le fo r coral d e g ra d atio n a t lo c al a n d
regional lev els.
O CEA N O G RA PH Y
Coral R ecovery
It m ay b e m e n tio n e d th a t c o ra ls a lso h ave
re c o v e ry c h a ra c te ristic s. In th e p a s t in sp ite o f
la rg e -sc a le c lim a tic c h a n g e s sin c e M e so z o ic era
(200 m illio n y e ars a g o ) lik e Ic e A g e (P le isto c e n e
Ice A g e), flu c tu a tio n s in s o la r a c tiv itie s and
sev e ra l e n v iro n m e n ta l s tre ss e s c o ra ls h a v e m an ­
ag ed to su rv iv e an d re c o v e r. ‘R e e fs w ill not
b e co m e e x tin c t in th e lo n g te rm , b u t a sin g le
b le a c h in g e v e n t w ill ta k e re e fs b e tw e e n 3 0 to 100
y ears to re c o v e r’ (D o w n to E a rth , A u g u st 15,
1999). It is su g g e ste d th a t p ro p e r in v e stig a tio n s
and stu d ie s o f c o ra l e c o sy ste m s a re n e c e s s a ry to
u n d e rstan d th e h o lis tic v ie w o f a ss o c ia tio n
b e tw ee n c o ra l e c o sy ste m s, g lo b a l w a rm in g and
co ral b le a c h in g so th a t th e c o ra ls m a y be
reju v en ated .
1 3 .8 IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
A h e rm a ty p ic c o r a l s : S o lita ry c o ra ls , liv in g in
all en v iro n m e n ta l c o n d itio n s o f th e o c e a n s i.e.
fro m w arm o cean w a te r o f tro p ic a l re g io n s to c o ld
o cean w a ter o f p o la r re g io n s a n d fro m s h a llo w
sea w ater to d eep sea, are c a lle d a h e rm a ty p e o f
co rals w ho do n o t b u ild c o lo n ie s.
Algae ridge : T h e fro n ta l ra is e d p a rt o f c o ra l
reefs, co m p o sed m o stly o f a lg ae , are c a lle d a lg a e
rid g e w h ich faces th e fu ry o f p o u n d in g o f sea
w av es and sav e th e c o ra ls fro m d e s tru c tio n b y th e
w aves.
Atoll : A rin g o f n a rro w g ro w in g co ral
a n im als o f h o rse sh o e sh ap e a n d c ro w n e d w ith
p a lm tre e s is c a lle d ato ll.
B arrier r e e f : T h e la rg e st c o ra l re e fs o f f the
c o a sta l p la tfo rm s o f th e c o n tin e n ts b u t p a ra lle l to
th e m are c a lle d b a rrie r re e fs s u c h as th e G reat
B a rrie r R e e f o f f th e e a s te rn c o a s t o f A u stra lia .
Boat channel : T h e la g o o n fo rm e d b etw een
th e frin g in g r e e f a n d th e la n d is c a lle d b o at
c h a n n e l, w h ic h is lo n g b u t n a rro w in w id th .
B uttress z o n e : T h e m o rp h o lo g ic a l fe a tu re o f
a c o ra l r e e f c o n s is tin g o f n u m e ro u s alte rn atin g
rid g e s an d fu rro w s is c a lle d b u ttre s s zo n e. Tw o
r e e f rid g e s a re s e p a ra te d b y a n a rro w fu rro w o f

CORAL REEFS
CetoBfeer corals : T h e co rals w hich live in
groups and b u ild c o lo n ie s are c alled c o lo n izer
corals, such as h e rm a ty p ic c o rals o f tro p ical seas
and o c e a n s .
C orats : T he liv in g o rganism s o f the
category o f m a rin e a n im als and re la ted to
jelly fish , w h ich are re sp o n sib le fo r b u ild in g coral
reefs, are c a lle d c o ra ls o r simply polyps.
C o r a l b a n k s : T h e iso la ted sh apeless reefs
are c alled c o ra l b an k s.
C o r a l b lea c h in g : C o ral b le ac h in g is a
process w h ic h c au se s loss o f v iv id colou rs from
coral o rg a n ism s an d tu rn s them w h ite due to
ex p u lsio n o f sy m b io tic zo o x ath e lla e algae w hich
are e m b ed e d in th e tissu e s o f o u te r b odies o f living
co rals (p o ly p s). M ass co ral b le ac h in g causes m ass
co ral d e ath s an d d e stru c tio n o f living corals.
C o r a l p i n n a c l e : S m all rid g es o f corals rising
ab o v e th e w a te r o f lag o o n are called coral
p in n a c le s.
C o r a l reefs : T he reefs o f cem ented and
c o m p a c te d rig id m a ssiv e stru ctu res o f num berless
c o ro llite s (s k e le to n s ) o f dead coral anim als are
c a lle d c o ra l reefs.
C o r a l sy m biotic p a r t n e r : Z o o x an th ellae alga
o f d iffe re n t c o lo u rs and em b ed ed in the tissu es o f
the o u te r b o d ie s o f co ral a n im als are called coral
sy m b io tic p a rtn e rs b e c a u se they p ro v id e m ore
than 60 p e rc e n t o f to ta l fo o d re q u ire m e n t o f liv in g
co rals a n d re c y c le th e e x c re ta and w astes o f
corals, in tu rn c o ra l o rg a n ism s p ro v id e them
sh elter in th e ir b o d ie s.
Corallites : T h e e x te rio r sk e le to n s o f co ral
anim als (p o ly p s ) a re c a lle d c o ra llite s o r h o u ses o f
polyps. In fa c t, c o ra l a n im a ls b u ild th e ir ow n
houses (s h e lls) o f c a lc iu m c arb o n a te in w h ich
they are p ro te c te d fro m p re y d a to rs .
Encrusting algae : T h e a lg a e w h ic h e ith e r
build th e m se lv e s o r h e lp in b u ild in g sh ells o f
calcium c a rb o n a te a re c a lle d e n c ru stin g alg ae.
Exoskeletons : T h e sh e lls o f liv in g c o ral
organism s i.e . th e c o ra llite s o f c o ra l a n im a ls are
called e x o sk e le to n s, w h ic h a re c o m p o se d o f rig id
calcium c a rb o n a te (lim e s to n e ).
339
F a ro s : F aro s a re c h a in s o f sm a ll a to lls
hav in g sh allo w sm all lag o o n s.
F rin g in g reefs i C o ral re e fs d e v e lo p e d a lo n g
the co n tin e n tal m a rg in s o r alo n g th e isla n d s are
called frin g in g reefs.
H e rm a ty p ic corals : T h e c o lo n iz e r c o ra l
anim als, w h ich liv e in g ro u p s a n d b u ild th e ir
co lo n ies in tro p ica l sea s an d o c e a n s a re c a lle d
h erm aty p ic corals.
P a tch r e e f s : T h e o rg a n ic a lly fo rm e d m o u n d s
p ro je c tin g above th e w a te r su rfa c e o f la g o o n s are
called p atch reefs.
Photic z o n e : T he zo n e o f u p p e r p a rt o f o c e a n
from sea level to 200 m e te rs d e p th , w h e re s u n lig h t
can reach, is called p h o tic zo n e.
R ainforests of o c e a n s : T h e c o lo n ie s o f c o ra ls
in tro p ical o cean s are c alled ra in fo re s ts o f o c e a n s
because they are m o re d iv e rse in te rm s o f s p e c ie s
(about, 1,000,000 sp ec ie s) th a n tro p ic a l ra in
forests o f the co n tin en ts.
R eef face : T h e zo n e o f c o ra l re e fs th a t
extends do w n w ard to g re a te r d e p th is c a lle d r e e f
face w hich is d ev o id o f liv in g c o ra l o rg a n is m s
becau se coral p o ly p s c an n o t s u rv iv e b e y o n d 8 5 m
depth.
R eef f l a t : T he p la tfo rm o f c o ra l r e e f fa c in g
the lagoon and c o m p o se d o f c o ra l fra g m e n ts a n d
sand is called re e f flat.
R eef f r o n t : U p p e r se a w a rd p o rtio n o f r e e f
u pto the d ep th o f 16 to 30 m e te rs is c a lle d r e e f
front.
R e e f t e r r a c e : T h e la n d w a rd sid e o f c o ra l r e e f
from alg ae rid g e to th e la g o o n is c a lle d r e e f
te rrace or re e f p la tfo rm w h ic h is c h a ra c te riz e d b y
flat and b ro a d su rfa ce s o f re e f, c a lle d as r e e f fla t,
and are at o r slig h tly a b o v e lo w tid e w a te r.
S e p ta : T h e v e rtic a lly d iv id e d c o m p a rtm e n ts
o f b o tto m p o rtio n o f c o ra llite a re c a lle d sep ta .
Z o o x a n th e lla e algae : T h e ^ )h o to sy n th etic
u n ic e llu la r p la n t a lg a, w h ic h a re e m b e d e d in th e
tissu e s o f o u te r b o d ie s o f c o ra l a n im a ls (p o ly p s )
are c a lle d z o o x a n th e lla e a lg a. T h e se a lg a a re a lso
c a lle d sy m b io tic p a rte n e rs o f c o ra l a n im a ls.
CHAPTER 14: OCEAN HABITATS 340-368
ocean habitats : characteristic features, 340
classification o f ocean habitats, 341
pelagic habitats and environment, 343
benthic habitats and environment, 346
co astal habitats, 348
estu aries, ,- 5
H ug li estuary, 357
lagoons,
 V X ii;

coastal wetlands,
mangrove swamps,
mangrove swamps in India,
salt marshes,
Indian salt marshes,

O c e a n h ab itats are u sed here in broad se n se
so as to in c lu d e both co a sta l habitats and o cean
habitats. A g a in o c e a n habitats in clu d e all the
a s p e c ts o f m a r in e b io m es and or o r g a n is m s as w e ll
as m a r in e e c o lo g y v is - a - v is in teraction s b e tw e e n
p h y sic a l e n v ir o n m e n t o f the o cea n habitats and
m arin e o r g a n is m s , and a m o n g m arine o rg a n ism s
o f d iffe r e n t h ab itats. It is d esira b le to d is c u s s
sa lie n t fe a tu r e s o f d iffe r e n t co a sta l and o c e a n ic
hab itats w ith their e n v ir o n m e n t b efo re w e d is c u s s
m arin e o r g a n is m s .
14.1 OCEAN H A B IT A T S : C H A R A C T E R IS T IC
FEA TU R ES
O cean habitats and m arine b io m es account
for about tw o third o f the total areas o f all the
terrestrial and o c ea n ic habitats and b io m es o f the
w orld b eca u se o cea n w ater co v ers about 71
percent o f th e total geo g ra p h ica l area o f the g lo b e .
The m arine habitats have certain such typ ical
characteristics, w h ich are g en era lly not p o s s e s se d
by terrestrial (lan d ) habitats, w h ich a ffe c t the
b io lo g ica l co m m u n ities o f d ifferen t m arine h ab i­
tats and b io m es as fo llo w s :
OCEAN HABITATS
>■ The o cea n s p ro v id e a w id e range o f
habitats for the marine plants (phytoplanktons)
and anim als (z o o p la n k to n s, sw im m e r ani­
m als like fish e s and b o tto m liv in g anim als)
as m arine o rg a n ism s liv e on or near ocean
w ater surface as flo a ters, sh a llo w and deep
and deep seaw ater as sw im m e rs, and even
at the d eep est b o tto m s. T h ey can liv e in
c o ld e st w ater near polar z o n e s and in the
w arm est w ater o f the trop ical o c e a n s but
terrestrial o rg a n ism s ca n n o t liv e beyond
certain h eig h t and near the p o le s ex cep t a
fe w sp e c ie s o f p e n g u in s and oth er anim als.
The sea w a ter is ch a ra cterized b y m ore or
le ss u n ifo rm ity in the distrib u tion o f
tem perature and th erefo re m arine organ­
ism s h a v e n ot to adapt to ex trem e tem pera­
ture c o n d itio n s. B ut th is is not a lw a y s true.
For e x a m p le , coral a n im a ls can n ot survive
in co ld w ater e n v iro n m en t and in fluctuat­
ing tem perature reg im e.
V a rio u s form s o f o c ea n m o v e m e n ts such as
sea w a v e s, tid al w a v e s , o cea n currents,
u p w e llin g and d o w n w e llin g (s u b sid e n c e o f
d en ser w ater) o f w ater h elp in even
d istrib u tion o f tem perature both, horizon­
QCBAN HABITATS
tally and vertically. These ocean m ove­
m ents also bring nutrients for marine
organism s.
Seaw ater contains m ost o f nutrients in
solution form w hich are easily taken by
marine organism s.
>*■ 1 he life-form s, and food chains and food
w ebs are controlled by the availability o f
sunlight, water, carbon dioxide, oxygen
etc. A ll o f these elem ents are mostly
con fin ed to the upper zone o f seawater and
therefore m ost plant life is also confined to
200m thick zon e o f upper seawater because
su n ligh t decreases w ith increasing depths
and it practically becom es absent beyond
the depth o f 200 m from the water surface.
T his upper illum inated zone is called
p h otic zone w hich is full o f primary
producer green plants called as phyto­
p la n k to n s because marine plants prepare
their food through the process o f photo­
sy n th esis with the help o f sunlight, and
z o o p la n k to n s w hich are primary consumers
herbivorous heterotrophic animals depending
on phytoplanktons which float in this
upper layer o f seawater.
>* S in ce sunlight becom es totally absent at
greater depth, say beyond 200m depth in
the seas and oceans and hence photosyn­
th esis is not p ossib le at greater depths,
con seq u en tly the deep sea organisms de­
pend on detritus (m arine sedim ents) and
dead organism s and are called detrivores.
> Seaw ater provides m axim um m obility to
the sw im m in g marine animals. Nutrients
are circulated more quickly and effi­
cien tly , and marine organism s are more
rapidly d ispersed than terrestrial organ­
ism s. T his is the reason that the distribution
o f m arine plants and anim als are more
w idespread and cosm opolitan than the
distributions o f terrestrial organism s.
S in kin g (d o w n w eliin g ) o f cold water from
w ater surface in the high latitudes trans­
ports o x y g e n a t e d w ater to the sea bottoms
w h ich m akes anim al life p ossib le even in
the deep ocean trenches whereas animal
life is not p o ssib le beyond a critical height
341
over high mountains due to lack o f o x y g en
at much higher altitude.
>• U pw elling o f seawater m ostly along the
western coastal margins o f oceans in
tropical region brings nutrients from below
to ocean surface. Such nutrients support
rich fish com m unities, such as along the
coasts o f Peru and Equador. It may be
remembered that Peru is one o f the largest
fish catching nations in the world. This
upwelling o f nutrient rich cold water is
stopped when the El N ino event becom es
strong. Consequently there is significant
dip in fish catching in Peru because fishes
die o f starvation due to lack o f phytoplanktons
and zooplanktons which thrive on nutrients
brought by upwelling water.
Surface warm ocean currents transport
heat and nutrients to high latitude areas
whereas cold surface currents bring cold
water to tropical areas in order to balance
the heat budget o f the oceans. The
thermohaline deep sea currents distribute
oxygenated surface water in different
depth zones o f deep seawater.
14.2 C L A S S IF IC A T IO N O F O C E A N H A B I T A T S
If we include coastal habitats and environ­
ment such as lagoons, wetlands, estuaries etc. into
the broader category o f ocean habitats and
biom es, then ocean habitats and biom es can be
classified into the follow ing two categories and a
few subcategories :
1. Coastal habitats
2. Ocean habitats
Coastal habitats include lagoons, wetlands,
estuaries etc. w hile ocean habitats include pelagic
and benthic habitats as follow s :
Different types o f habitats are formed in the
oceanic environment on the basis o f various
combinations o f presence or absence o f sunlight,
temperature o f seawater at different depths and
from tropical to polar regions, salinity and density
o f ocean water, availability o f nutrients, surface
and deep ocean currents, upwelling and downweliing
o f seawater, concentration o f carbon dioxide and
 342
OCEANOGMn^

O cein
h a b ita t*

neritic habitats (continental sh elv es)

ep ip elagic habitat
P e la g ic
h a b ita ts
m eso p ela g ic habitat

ocean ic province bathypelagic habitat

a b yssalp elagic habitat

hadalpelagic habitat

sublittoral habitat

Benthic
habitats
deep sea bottom habitat

o x y g e n etc. T h ese variou s ocean habitats having p ela g ic habitats

va ry in g en viron m en tal con d itio n s h ou se different
ca teg o ries o f m arine organism s (both marine
plants and a n im als). B a se d on salien t en v iro n ­
m ental con d itio n s o f sea s and ocean s and locational
a sp ects, o c ea n habitats (and m arine b io m es) are
c la ssifie d into the fo llo w in g tw o m ain typ es :
benthic habitats
The tw o m ajor ocean habitats are further
subd ivided into subtypes on the basis o f depth of
seaw ater and life form s o f m arine organisms as
fo llo w s :

neritic habitats o f contin en tal sh e lv es

average depth o f o cea n w ater upto
200 m eters

OCEAN HABITATS
sublittoral habitats
(o f the bottom o f continental shelves)
Benthic
habitats
deep sea bottom habitats
On the basis o f availability o f sunlight
ocean habitats are divided into the follow ing
categories :
1. P h o tic or eu p h otic zone.
(upto 200m depth from sea level)
2. D isp h o tic zon e
(from 200m to 1000m depth from sea level)
3. A p h o tic zon e
(from 1000m to the ocean bottoms)
P e la g ic H a b ita ts and E n v iro n m e n t
It m ay be m entioned at the very outset that
here habitats and environment are used as
synonym s. P elagic habitats and biom e include the
entire w aterm ass o f the oceans from sea surface to
the ocean bottom s. Out o f 2 3 5 ,0 0 0 known species
o f marine plants and anim als only 2 percent
(4700) sp e cie s inhabit in this m ost extensive
ocean habitat and environm ent. The pelagic
habitats are divided into different zones on the
basis o f the dom inance o f particular species o f
marine organism s. Such zones o f organism s are
called b io z o n e s. On the basis o f depth o f seawater
and distance from sea shore pelagic habitats and
environment are divid ed into the follow in g two
provinces :
(1) Neritic habitat or province
It covers the water m ass o f the continental
shelves to the point o f s h e lf break or head o f
continental slo p e w here the water depth does not
exceed 200 m eters. T hus, neritic province extends
from sea shore to the s h e lf break. In fact, neritic
word m eans, o f the coasts (neritos = o f the coasts)
343
i.e. the oceanic environm ent in the coastal areas,
that is environment o f the w aterm ass o f con tin en ­
tal sh elf above sea bottom. E co lo g ica lly , neritic
zone is most productive because this zon e h ou ses
several energy rich coastal habitats such as
lagoons, w etland s and estu aries; sunlight reaches
200m depth i.e. the entire neritic zo n e is also
photic (euphotic) zone. This is w h y neritic habitat
and environment is dom inated by p h y to p la n k to n s
wherein most dominant plant sp ecies are diatom s
and dinoflagellates. There are m ore sp e c ie s o f
neritic zooplanktons than phytoplanktons. T he
dominant species o f zooplanktons are arthopods
o f different varieties.
(2) Open sea habitats or provinces
Ocean province extends from the s h e lf
break and covers the entire ocean, and varies in
depths from sea surface (sea lev el) to the greatest
depth i.e. to the bottom s o f the oceans. T his open
sea habitat or ocean province is subd ivided into 4
biozones on the basis o f depth o f ocean w ater as
follow s (fig. 14.1) :
(i) E p ip elagic b io zo n e : extends from the
ocean surface (epi = top, p ela g ic = o f ocean
water) to the depth o f 200 m eters. T his ep ip ela g ic
zone is equivalent to photic (eup hotic) zone.
Though the entire epipelagic zon e is illum inated
but the amount o f sunlight decreases w ith
increasing depth. This b iozon e is dom inated by
floater species o f planktons (both phyto and
zooplanktons).
(ii) M eso p ela g ic b io z o n e : extends from b e lo w
epipelagic b iozone i.e. from 200m depth to 1000m
depth and covers 28 percent volum e o f entire
pelagic habitats. This b iozon e is equivalen t to
d isp h o tic zon e.

Supra littoral I4
PH O TIC
Littoral
Neritic
Sub-littoral i 200m
H igh tide
water llll ,ow tide water C o ntin en ta S helf
Continenta
lljllj s l°pe
Benthic
Fig. 14.1: Types of ocean habitats and marine biomes. Based on J.W. Hedgepeth (1957).
(iii) B a th y p e la g ic bio zo n e : extends from 1000
m eters to 4 0 0 0 m eters depth. This biozone is
equivalent to a p h o tic zo n e, and is characterized by
low temperature, high hydrostatic pressure and
com plete darkness. The only source o f light is
b io lu m in e sc e n c e (em issio n o f light by livin g organ­
ism s such as certain in sects, m arine anim als,
bacteria etc.). This zon e represents 15 percent o f
p elagic habitats.
(iv) A b y sso p ela gic bio zon e : extends from
4000m depth to 6000m depth and represents 54
percent o f total pelagic habitats by volum e. This
zone is characterized by total darkness and dom i­
nance o f fish com m unities o f which m any species
are blind and bizarre looking sp ecies o f fishes.
(v) H a d a lp ela g ic b io z o n e : exten d s from
6000m depth to the deep sea bottom s. T his zo n e is
particularly found in the ocean trenches. T his is
why hadalpelagic zon e represents le ss than on e
percent o f total volum e o f p ela g ic habitats.
On the basis o f su n lig h t p ela g ic habitats and
environm ent are divided into the fo llo w in g lig h t
z o n e s or b io z o n e s :
S f e ’- ^Ssiw ’j
OCEANOGRAPHY
P E L A G IC P H O T IC
rz
i ZONE
Oceanic
APHOTIC ZONE
Epipelagic 200m
M esopelagic ________
Bathypelagic __ 4000rn
A byssopelagic ___ 6000m
(1) E u p th o tic z o n e : e x te n d s from ocean
surface to the depth o f 2 0 0 m eters. T h ou gh the
entire euphotic or p h o tic z o n e is illu m in a ted but
the intensity o f su n ligh t d ecrea ses w ith in crea sin g
depth. The su fficien t am ount o f su n lig h t e n co u r­
a g e s e f f ic ie n t p h o t o s y n t h e s is b y flo a t in g
phytoplanktons. T he su rface w ater up to a few
m eters depth is fu lly illu m in a ted and has m axi­
mum concen tration o f o x y g e n b e c a u se th is zo n e is
in constant in teraction s w ith the atm ospheric
p ro cesses, and there is co n sta n t produ ction o f
o x y g e n through co n tin u o u s p h o to sy n th esis by
p h ytop lan k ton s. N u trien ts ( P 0 4) are m inim um in
eu p h otic zo n e. T hus, it is ev id e n t that the euphotic
zo n e o f p le d a g ic hab itats and en viron m en t has
m axim um o x y g e n but m in im u m nutrients. This
eu p h otic zo n e is d o m in a ted by phytoplanktons
and zo o p la n k ta n s. T h is zone c o in c id e s with
e p ip e la g ic zo n e .
( 2) D is p h o tic z o n e : ex te n d s from 2 0 0 m depth
to 1000 m depth and it c o in c id e s w ith m csopelag»c
zo n e . T his z o n e is a lso c a lle d tw ilig h t z o n e because
o f very low in ten sity o f su n lig h t. It may be
m en tio n ed that about 95 p ercen t o f sunlight is
alread y absorbed by o v e r ly in g
This is w h y p h otosyn th esis is not p ossib le in this
disphotic zone. O xygen continues to decrease
with increasing depth, and there is a layer o f
minimum o x y g e n at the depth o f 1000 meters
which is the lo w e st lim it o f m e so p e la g ic zon e but
nutrients (P O 4) continue to increase w ith increas­
ing depth and there is m axim um nutrients
concentration at the depth o f 1000 m eters. It is,
thus, interesting to note that the low est lim it o f
disphotic and m e so p e la g ic zon e at the depth o f
1000 m eters is characterized by opposite, say
contrasting situ ation o f m inim um oxygen and
m axim um nutrients. It m ay be rem bered that this
zone from 200 m eters to 1000 m eters is also a zone
o f rapid ch an ge o f sa lin ity (h a lo clin e la y er), density
r * . 14.2; Pelagic habims. biomes a n d e n — en,
(p y cn o clin e la y er) and temperature (th e r m o c fin e
layer).
(3) A p h o tic zo n e : is, in fact, dark zo n e
pelagic environm ent (habitat) and extends from
1000m depth to the deepest part o f the ocean s.
This zone includes b a th y p e la g ic z o n e (1 0 0 0 to 4 0 0 0
meters depth), a b y sso p e la g ic z o n e (4 0 0 0 to 6 0 0 0
meters depth), and h a d a lp ela g ic z o n e (from 6 0 0 0
meters to the bottom o f ocean trenches). T here is
com plete darkness in this aphotic zone. M any o f
the species o f marine anim als are b lind w h ile
som e species o f anim als produce their ow n light.
This is characterized by m axim um oxygen (brought
by thermohaline deep sea currents) and m axim um
nutrients (fig. 14.2)
and d i s , ^ i o n ofnu,nen,s and oxygen in d m ™ '
 Table 14.1 : Distribution of different ocean habitats
mm
W ater D epth in M eters V olum e o f
Biozone
waterm ass in
percentage

P elagic H abitats

0-200 3
E pipelagic zone
200-1000 28
M esopelagic zone
1000-4000 15
B athypelagic zone CA
4000-6000 54
A b yssop elagic zone
> 6000 < 1
H adalpelagic zone
B enthic H abitats

0-200 8
Sublittoral zone
200-2000 16
Bathyl zone
2000-6000 75
A byssal zone
Hadal zone > 6000 1

B e n th ic Habitats and E n viro n m e n t
B enthic habitats and their environmental
conditions com prise extensive bottom areas o f the
oceans ranging from shallow depth o f neritic or
continental sh elves bottoms to abyssal and hadal
zones bottom s. Though the biom ass o f benthic
(ocean floor) habitats is far less than those o f the
p ela g ic habitats and environm ent but surprisingly
there is very high biodiversity, w hich accounts for
about’ 98 percent o f total species o f all ocean
habitats. In spite o f sm all number o f bottom living
benthos organism s and very low biom ass their
diversity is very high. It m ay be m entioned that
water depth is the m ost important factor w hich
controls marine biom ass. The biom ass in the
oceans rapidly decreases dow nward w ith increas­
ing depths and it b ecom es m inim um at the ocean
floors (b ottom s) due to fo llo w in g reasons :
There is com plete absence o f sunlight and
perpetual darkness and hence there is no
p h otosyn th esis.
>■ In the absence o f p h otosyn th esis in the
aphotic zo n e there is no plant production
on deep sea floor. C onseq uently the number
o f anim als depending on plants is very
sm all.
>■ Thus, b iom ass d ecrea ses aw ay from the
land and deeper from the sea surface.
The benthic anim als la rg ely depend on
food supp lies co m in g from the euphotic
(photic) zon e o f p e la g ic habitats and
environm ent.
>■ The bottom liv in g b en th ic com m u n ities get
food from the fo llo w in g so u rces :
• fallou t o f fe c a l m atter o f anim als o f
photic zo n e,
• slo w fa llo u t o f fin e organic detritus
from plan kton s o f p h o tic zon e,
• fa llo u t o f coarse organic detritus from
zoop lan k ton s o f p h otic zo n e,
• dead b o d ies and carcasses o f large
n ecton (sw im in g ) anim als such as
sharks, w h a les and other b ig fishes,
• organic m atter brought b y the turbidity ]
currents,
 OCEAN HABITATS
• som e detritus from buried sedim ents
etc.
Deep sea benthos animals reproduce through­
out the year due to lack o f seasons and
hence their number m arginally increases.
>• Interbreeding o f deep sea fauna increases
the number o f sp ecies.
Types of Benthic Habitats
The benthic habitats and environm ent sim ­
ply m ean the habitats and environm ent o f
seafloors under neritic and pelagic habitats.
B ased on location and depth benthic habitats are
divided into the fo llo w in g tw o main types :
subneritic benthic habitats
B enthic
habitats
suboceanic benthic habitats
(2) L itto r a l z o n e is also called m eso litto ra l
zone which is located between high tide water and
low tide water. This zone is characterized by
landward movement o f seawater i.e. transgres­
sion o f seawater each day. Thus, the benthic and
pelagic marine organisms have to adapt to such
environmental conditions o f immersion and expo­
sure.
(3) S u b litto r a l z o n e extends from the shore­
line o f low tide water to the depth o f 200 meters
from sea surface. Thus, sublittoral zone repre­
sents most parts o f the floors o f continental
shelves upto s h e lf b rea k . Sublittoral zone is
divided into two subzones on the basis o f water
depth.
1. Subneritic Benthic Habitats
The subneritic habitats m ean habitats and
environm ent o f the seafloor b elo w the o cea n
water o f neritic habitats o f continental sh e lv es.
This benthic habitat extends from the sh orelin e o f
high spring tide i.e. from high tide w ater (H T W )
seaward upto the depth o f 200 m eters from sea
surface. This subneritic benthic habitat zo n e
represents the seafloor o f continental sh e lv e s upto
s h e lf break. The benthic habitats o f contin en tal
shelves are divided into 3 typ es as fo llo w s :
(1) S u p ra litto ra l zo n e is located a b o v e h i
tide water as the word supralittoral d en o tes the
m eaning itse lf (supra = above, littoralis = shore
line). This zone is inundated by seaw ater o n ly
when, (i) very high tide occurs and in v a d es the
coastal land, or (ii) w hen tsunam i w a v es trans­
gress the coastal lands and con seq u en tly th ey are
flooded, and (iii) w hen severe storm surges attack
the coasts. This is w hy this zo n e is a lso c a lle d
spray zone.
• inner sublittoral zone
• outer sublittoral zon e
(i) In ner su b litto ra l zo n e com prises the lan
ward portion o f the floors o f continental s h e lf upto
water depth o f 50 m eters. In fact, extent o f this
subzone is determ ined by the p resence o f such
photosynthetic alga w hich are attached to the
floors o f continental sh elves. S in ce p h otosyn th e­
sis depends on sunlight and hence it is the
penetration o f su fficien t am ount o f sunlight that
determ ines the seaward lim it o f inner sublittoral
zone. W herever photosynthesis by bottom -at­
tached m icroscopic alga stops, and floatin g
photosynthetic alga predom inate, the seaw ard
lim it o f inner sublittoral zon e ends.
(II) O u ter su b litto r a l zo n e extends from th
seaward m argin o f inner sublittoral zo n e upto

348
50m o f depth to the point o f sh e lf break or 200m
depth o t seaw ater from sea level.
2. Suboceanic Benthic Habitats
T he su b ocean ic benthic habitats o f ocean
floors extend from 200 m depth to the floors ot
deep trenches ex ceed in g 7000m depth. Thus, deep
ocean floor habitats have varied environm ental
co n d itio n s at varying depths. The characteristic
features o f biom ass and sp ecies diversity and
sou rces o f food supp lies o f benthic organism s
have already been elaborated. The suboceanic
benthic habitats are divided into follow ing subtypes
(1 ) B ath yl su b o c ea n ic b en th ic h a b ita ts
(bathyl = bathus = deep), depth zone from
2 0 0 m eters to 4 0 0 0 m eters, represent the
floors o f continental slope.
(2) A b y ssa l su b o c e a n ic b en th ic h ab itats
depth zone from 4 0 0 0 m eters to 6000
m eters, represents 80 percent o f subneritic
and suboceanic benthic habitats, fine and
soft clay covers the ocean floors.
(3 ) H ad a l su b o c e a n ic b en th ic h ab itats
(hadal = hades = h ell), depth b elow 6000
m eters, very high hydrostatic pressure,
m o stly found on the deep floors o f deep
trenches, life con d ition s o f marine organ­
ism s very d ifficu lt, the inhospitable e n v i­
ronm ental con d ition s o f these very deep
benthic habitats m ake the conditions o f sea
anim als hell and hence these habitats are
nam ed h a d a l zo n e .
The su b o cea n ic benthic habitats exhibit the
fo llo w in g characteristic features :
> There is co m p lete ab sen ce o f sunlight and
hence there is perpetual darkness.
>* The seaw ater at th ese great depths is
ex cep tio n a lly very cold.
>■ There is very high hydrostatic pressure o f
overlyin g water m ass.
>■ The environm ental con d ition s at these
great depths are in h osp itab le to marine
organism s and their population is very low .
OCEANOGRAPHY
>■ Inspite o f in h osp itab le sev ere environm en­
tal c o n d itio n s, m icrob es m a in ly bacteria
are found at all depths on the ocean floors.
The food su p p lies to th ese d eep benthos
organ ism s depend on the fa llo u t o f fine to
coarse organ ic m atter, ca rca sses, fecal
matter, detritus o f p h y to and zooplanktons
from the ph otic and d isp h o tic zon es o f
p ela g ic habitats.
>■ The deep b en th os m icro b es sa y bacteria
break dow n the o rg a n ic m atter o f dead
organism s and co n v ert th em into usable
inorganic m atter.
S in ce there is v ery lo w tem perature, very
high hyd rostatic p ressu re and few mi­
crob es, the p ro cess o f d e c o m p o sitio n o f
dead organic m atter by b acteria is ex ceed ­
in g ly slo w . T h is is w h y dead organic
matters w h ich h ave a ccu m u la ted on deep
sea floors as fa llo u t from a b o v e stay
u n d eco m p o sed for lo n g e r duration and
thus there is co n sta n t a v a ila b ility o f food to
deep benthos m icro b es.
14.3 C O A S T A L H A B I T A T S
C oastal habitats in c lu d e th e habitats o f
coastal w aters or territorial w a ters o f sea border­
ing a nation. In fact, c o a sta l h ab itats are attached
to the lands o f a cou n try or an island. The
seaw aters o f co a sta l hab itats su ch as lagoons,
w etland s, estu aries etc. are c a lle d coastal waters,
w hich are in fact sh a llo w w ater areas and occupy
narrow band a d jo in in g c o n tin e n ts and islands.
The coastal habitats and c o a sta l w a ters are largely
in flu en ced by both land p r o c e s s e s such as
discharge o f rivers, d elta form ation , eolian
p rocess e tc ., and m arine p r o c e s s e s such as tidal
currents, littoral currents, storm su rg es, tsunami
w a v es etc.
T he fo llo w in g are th e characteristic fea­
tures o f co a sta l habitats and co a sta l w aters .*
The co a sta l habitats h ave sh a llo w water
zon e.
^ The co a sta l habitats and co a sta l waters are
in flu en ced by terrigen ou s as w e ll as marifl®
p ro cesses.

OCEAN HABITATS
The tem p era tu re regim e o f coastal waters
is region ally controlled by the spatial
distributional patterns o f insolation as
fo llo w s :
• The temperature o f surface water o f
coastal habitats in tropical region is
uniform ly high throughout the year i.e.
about 45°C . It m ay be m entioned that
there is no free and efficien t m ixing o f
coastal waters and open seawaters and
hence temperature remains above 40°C.
V ertically, there is little difference in
tem perature and hence there is near
absence o f th e r m o d in e and hence iso­
th er m a l co n d itio n predom inates in the
coastal waters.
• T he high latitude coastal waters record
very lo w temperature usually below
freezing point throughout the year.
T his is w hy th erm od ine is not d evel­
oped in polar areas because cold dense
w ater sinks and brings uniformity in
vertical distribution o f temperature.
T his is w hy there is isoth erm al condition
in the coastal waters o f high latitude
areas. It m ay be remembered that high
latitude polar regions record least
am ount o f insolation from the sun.
• T he m id-latitudes regions o f coastal
w aters sh o w seasonal regim e o f tem ­
perature o f seaw ater i.e. winter season
is m arked by cold est water w hile
summer season records warmest seawater.
S a lin ity c h a r a c te r is tic s o f coastal waters are
largely a ffected by river discharge, evapo­
ration and offsh ore w ind s as fo llo w s :
• Es t uari es ,
Estuaries
<
n / mmangroves
angroves
C o a s ta l . .W e t l a n d s /
h a b ita ts \ „ . t ______.
salt marsh
• L agoons
mum
• W herever big rivers discharge larg*
volum e o f water into coastal w aters »
sa lin ity o f sea w a te r is r ed u ced .
This results in the form ation o f lo w
salinity thin layer o f surface w ater
w hich overlies com paratively high
salinity dense water. T his situation
causes the d evelop m en t o f halocline
layer (zone o f rapid change o f sa lin ity )
below less salin e surface layer o f
seawater.
• W herever m ixing o f freshwater brought
by river discharge and sa lin e seaw ater
occurs, the vertical distribution o f
salinity o f coastal w aters b e c o m e s
alm ost uniform and hence there is no
h aloclin e, rather there d ev elo p s is o h a lin e
con d ition .
• On an average, coastal w aters h a v in g
large volum e o f fresh w ater through
river discharge are less sa lin e than
open ocean.
• In relatively dry coastal region s h a v in g
no s ig n ific a n t v o lu m e o f fr e sh
water through river discharge, hot
offshore w inds accelerate the p ro cess
o f evaporation o f surface co a sta l w a ­
ters and thus salinity o f seaw ater is
increased.
T y p e s of C o a sta l H abitats
Coastal habitats are the adm ixture o f
coastal lands and coastal waters and h en ce they
are attached w ith the lands. There are 3 m ain kinds
o f coastal habitats as follow * :
coastal plain estuary
fjord estuary
,
bar-built estuary
tectonic estuary
350
14.4 ESTUARIES
‘A n estuary (aestu s = tid e) is defined as a
partially enclosed body o f water in which salty
ocean water is significantly diluted by fresh water
from land ru n o ff (H.V. Thurman and A.P.
Trujillo, 1999). River runoff is m ost common
agent o f dilution o f salty water. Thus, long and
narrow m ouths o f rivers are the best exam ples o f
estuaries such as estuaries o f H oogly river, Tapi
river, Narmada river etc. The river runoff is
confronted with incom ing tidal w ave. This is why
estuaries are closely associated with tide phenom ­
ena. In fact, the word estuary itse lf has been
derived from Latin word ‘a estu a riu m ’ meaning
thereby tid al. Thus, estuary represents such
coastal environment where there is regular m ixing
o f fresh water o f lands brought by the rivers and
saline coastal waters. The follow ing are the
characteristic features o f estuary habitats and
>■ Estuarine coastal w ater zo n e is a zone o f
en viron m en t:
C h a ra cte ris tics of E stu a rie s
>■ Estuaries are c lo se ly a sso cia ted w ith tides
>* ‘Estuaries are sem i-enclosed water bodies
connected to the sea, within which seawater
is m easurably diluted by freshwater’ (W.M.
Cameron and D.W . Pritchard, 1963).
Though lagoons are also sem i-en closed
w aterb odies o f coastal waters but estuaries
differ from lagoons on tw o counts i.e. ( 1)
lagoons do not receive significan t freshw a­
ter through river runoff w h ile estuaries do
receive large volum e o f freshwater. Thus,
unlike estuaries, there is no m ixing o f
lagoon water w ith freshwater, and ( 2 ) the
water circulation in estuaries is com p lex
but in lagoon it is very sim ple.
>■ Estuaries are flanked by w etlands m ainly
salt marshes on their banks. T hese w etlands
are vegetated and thus exhibit natural
ecosystem s but now many estuarine wetlands
have been reclaim ed and are inhabited in
different types o f settlem ents such as
fisherm en v illa g es, urban settlem en ts, sea
ports etc.
>■ Estuaries have become busy commercial
environment in terms o f fishing, trade and
OCEANOGRAPHY
com m erce, export and import but these
human econ om ic activities have intro­
duced irreversible changes in natural eco­
system s o f estuaries.
Estuaries are o f m any forms and types
such as river m outh estuaries (such as
H ugli estuary), narrow bays estuaries,
inlets, gu lfs, narrow w ater channel be­
tw een coastal islands etc. but river estuar­
ies are more sign ifican t than other types o f
estuaries.
R iver estuaries are sed im ent and freshwa­
ter input areas as terrigenous sedim ents
brought by rivers are transferred to marine
ecosystem o f coastal w aters. T hus, rivers
not only bring large v o lu m e o f freshwater
and sedim ents into coastal w aters but they
also bring large quantity o f nutrients from
lands.
m ixing o f freshw ater o f the land and saline
seawater.
and there is confrontation b etw een river
runoff and in co m in g tidal w a v e s. Thus
estuaries are also characterized by tidal
b ores.
Estuaries are m ost p rod u ctive natural
eco sy stem s o f w orld m ajor ecosystem s
because natural p r o c esses lik e tid es, w aves,
surface ru n o ff o f fresh w ater, w ind etc.
supplem ent solar en ergy input because
th ese p r o c esses bring ad d ition al organic
matter and b io g e o c h e m ic a l c y c le s help in
recy clin g o f nutrients in estuary eco sy s­
tem s and thus solar en erg y is augm ented to
produce organ ic m atter through primary
producers (p hototroph s m arine plants and
land plants o f salt m arshes w h ich border
the estu a ries) so m u ch so that th ese estuary
e c o sy ste m s b e c o m e m o st productive natu­
ral e c o sy ste m s. T he annual energy flow in
such e c o sy ste m s ranges b etw een 10,000 -
5 0 ,0 0 0 K ca l/m 2/ year and average esti­
m ated en erg y flo w is 2 0 ,0 0 0 K c a l/n ^ /y e a r.
T he prim ary p ro d u ctiv ity o f estuary eco ­
sy ste m is 10 - 2 5 g /m 2/d ay.
 OCEAN HABITATS 351
T y p •• of E s tu a rie s
two major bases i.e. ( 1) m ode o f origin, and
( 2) mode o f m ixing o f water in estuaries as
Estuaries are divided into different types on follow s :

• co a sta l plain estu aries

(exam ple : H ugli estuary, W est Bengal)

• fjord estu aries

(exam ples : along the coasts o f Norway, Alaska, N ew Zealand etc.)

• b a r-b u ilt estuaries

(exam ples : coastal areas o f W est Bengal and Orissa)

• tecto n ic estuaries
(ex a m p le : San Fransisco Bay)

• vertically m ixed estuaries

(exam ple : river mouth estuary)

O n th e b a sis o f • slightly stratified estuary

m ix in g o f w a te r
• highly stratified estuary

• salt w ed g e estuary

Origin and Types of Estuaries
A s m en tio n ed ab ove, estuaries are prima­
rily form ed du e to drow nin g o f river valleys at the
sea co a sts, d eep and steep sided seaward valleys
o f glaciers, and te c to n ic a lly form ed faults along
the d estru ctive p late boundaries o f the continents
facing o cea n s. B e s id e s , estuaries are also formed
due to e n c lo sin g o f coastal w aters by o f f shore
bars and sp its w h ich are parallel to the shorelines.
On the other hand, the characteristics o f estuaries
are determ ined b y the m od e o f m ixing o f
freshwater and sa lin e coastal w aters. On the basis
o f these tw o cau sal factors i.e. m ode o f origin and
mode o f m ix in g o f w ater estuaries arc cla ssified
into various ty p es, w h ich have been given above.
The drow nin g o f m ou ths o f river v a lley s and
glaciers is caused due to flooding o f g ^ j g y j g d s
consequent upon rise in sea level. M ost o f the
present-day estuaries have been form ed due to
rise o f sea level in the H olocene period w hen sea
level rose upto 100 meters due to deglaciation and
melting o f Pleistocene ice sheets.
(1) Coastal Plain Estuaries
M ost o f estuaries in tropical and temperate
regions have been formed by drowning o f
mouths o f river valleys due, to sea lev el rise
during H olocene period. Thus, coastal plain
estuaries are, in fact, drowned mouths o f those
rivers w hich drain through coastal plains before
debouching in the seas (fig. 14.4A). H ugli estuary
is a typical exam ple from the east coast o f India
( f ig . 1 4 .3 ).
C H A N N E L C O N F IG U R A T IO N
O F HUGLI E ST U A R Y

Harwood Pont

Danapur

Sagar Island

Kankraz
=Man ^

rMtzen Sard ^Chemaguri

Dublai

Fig. M i ; Configuration o f the Hugli estuary. Source : A.K. Paul, 2002.

 353
o c e a n h a b it a t s

Coastal Plain River Valley Estuary

Coastal
Sea

Coastal
Sea

Fjord Estuary (B)

Bar-built Estuary (C)

Sand
spit
Bar
Tidal
Estuary Inlet

Spit
Bar
(Sand)

Fig 14.4 : A ; Drowned river valley estuary, B : Fjord estuary, and C : Bar-built estuary.
 354
(2) PJord Eatuarlaa
Fjord estuaries are formed due to drowning
o f glacial valleys by seawater in higher latitudes.
T hese glacial estuaries were formed due to
flood in g o f glacial valleys during Holocene
period w hen there was substantial rise in sea level
(by 100 to 150 meters) consequent upon melting
o f P leistocen e ice sheet. The fundamental differ­
ence betw een coastal plain river valley estuaries
and glacial estuaries is the shape o f their valleys as
the former has V-shaped valleys w hile the latter
has U -shaped valleys with very steep valley-side
slo p es,. G lacially formed fjord estuaries are found
in large number along the coasts o f Norway,
Canada, A laska o f the USA and N ew Zealand,
(fig. 14.4B).
(3) Bar-built Estuaries
The bar-built estuaries are formed mostly
along coastal plains due to nairowing o f coastal
seas by bars o f varying dim ensions. Such estuar­
ies are form ed when bars are oriented parallel to
the shorelines. Thus, narrow strip o f coastal water
is jagged betw een the coast and the bars. Some
tim es, narrow and long lagoons parallel to the
coasts are also included in the category o f bar-
built estuaries. Num erous bar-built estuaries have
d eveloped along the coasts o f W est Bengal o f
India. Such estuaries are not long enduring
because they lose their existence whenever bars
are destroyed (fig . 14.4C ).
(4) Tectonically formed Estuaries
The faults created by tectonic activities
such as c o llisio n o f continental-oceanic plates or
folding activities, when occupied by rivers
becom e fault estuaries. Such estuaries are not o f
com m on occurrence and hence are not w id e­
spread. The fault estuaries have developed in San
Fransisco B ay and along San Andreas Fault along
the w est coasts o f the U SA .
Estuaries are also classified into 4 types on
the basis o f m ode o f m ixing o f freshwater and
saline seaw aters and circulation patterns o f
seawater. It may be m entioned that these 4 types
o f estuaries are, in fact, subtypes o f river valley
estuaries o f coastal plains.
• salt-w edge estuary
• vertically m ixed estuary
• partially m ixed estuary
• highly m ixed estuary
(1) Salt Wedge Estuary
The salt w edge estuary refers to the
developm ent o f highly stratified water m asses i.e.
the upper water m ass o f low density and less
saline water and low er water m ass o f high density
and high saline water. Thus less dense upper water
mass floats over denser low er water m ass. This
situation develops when estuaries are deep and
there is input o f large volum e o f runoff by the
rivers and tidal currents are w eak i.e. there is low
tidal range. In such estuaries river discharge
dominates over tidal input. Thus, w eak tidal
currents are unable to m ix tw o water m asses
which are separated by stable h a lo c lin e (a zone or
layer o f water characterized by sharp change o f
salinity). This is w hy salt w edge estuaries are also
called least m ixed estu aries. There is alm ost
uniformity o f salinity in upper water m ass h avin g
freshwater brought by the river. W hy is it called
salt w edge estuary?, because more saline seaw ater
intrudes the estuary from b elo w (b elo w the
surface water m ass) in a w ed g e shape. The salt
w edge estuary is characterized by strong seaward
surface currents propelled by high discharge by
the river, w hile bottom currents from the sea
toward the head o f estuary is w eak b ecause o f low
tidal range.
(2) Vertically Mixed Estuary
V ertically m ixed estuaries are those which
have shallow depth, and receiv e lo w discharge o f
runoff o f freshw ater from the rivers. There is
alm ost vertical uniform ity o f salin ity from surface
water to the bottom because there is easy m ixing
o f freshwater o f rivers and salty seaw ater both
horizontally and vertically. Thus, there is n o
h a lo c lin e la y e r b e lo w upper w aterm ass. There is

S t e r n s * m M ik ity t>om the mouth* o f the
tow*tvl the heads o f t h t estuaries but this
$$*qMe ot' K om ontal distribution o f
sateMtv does wot cause any tonal pattern o f
(&} **rttatty M t\+d C a tu ary
lvarttalt\ m ixed estuaries are more or less
$&&itar to the salt w cd^e estuaries as both are
characterised by slight increase o f salinity from
e$tuar\ heads toward estuary mouths and seaward
flow o f surtace water m ass and landward flow o f
bottom current but in the partially m ixed estuaries
the outward flow o f less saline freshwater o f the
rivers and inward flow ot more saline subsurface
water is stronger than in the salt w edge estuary.
The m ixin g o f surface and bottom waters is
e ffected by strong w idespread turbulence which is
caused by the friction o f tidal inflow and ebb
ou tflow o f water from the estuaries with the
bottom s and sides o f estuaries. This vertically
m ix in g does not allow the stratification o f water
m a sses and developm ent o f halocline. The strong
landw ard bottom flow o f seawater brings large
quantity o f sedim ents from offshore region and
d e p o r ts them on the floors o f estuaries. This type
o f estuary is also called sligh tly stratified estuary.
(4 ) H ig h ly M ix e d E s tu a ry
H ig h ly m ixed estuaries are, in fact, wide
estuaries havin g asym m etrical distribution o f
salinity along its tw o banks. Such estuaries
exhibit high degree ot lateral m ixing o f freshwater
o f the rivers and salin e seaw ater due to strong tidal
currents. B e sid e s, lateral m ixing o f w?atermasses,
there is a lso strong vertical m ixing o f upper and
bottom w aterm asses and hence there is no
halocline b etw een these tw o water m asses.
B ecause o f greater width o f estuaries coriolis force
controls the circulation pattern in the wide
estuaries. C onseq uently, one side o f the estuary
gets m ore salin e water than the other side. The
inward strong tidal currents bring large quantity
o f s e d im e n t s from offshore region into the
estuaries w h ich are settled at their floors.
355
Hugli latuary
The Hugli estuary is one o f most significant
estuaries o f coastal plains o f India. This fam ous
estuary is located in the coastal plain o f W est
Hengal and is an exam ple o f river valley estuary or
coastal plain estuary (fig. 14.3). The H ugli estuary
belongs to macro-tidal group o f estuaries wherein
tidal range exceeds 4 meters, strong tidal currents
confront the strong river discharge, and hence
residual currents arc produced due to m ixing o f
freshwater o f the Hugli and salty seawater.
Though the tidal section o f the H ugli estuary
runs for a distance o f 300 km from Sagar Island
upstream to Nabadwip but the true estu a r ia e sectio n
runs for 70 kilometer-length, from D iam ond
Harbour downstream to Sagar Island. The fo llo w ­
ing are the characteristic features o f the H ugli
estuaries :
>■ The bars deposited in the estuary are either
linear or degited in shape. They are either
parallel to the banks, or aligned to the tidal
currents.
There are numerous sand rid ges in the
estuary which have divided the tidal flo w s
into several low tidal channels.
>* The Hugli estuary records very high
discharge o f freshwater by the H ugli river.
It may be mentioned that total discharge o f
runoff o f the Ganga river, o f w hich the
Hugli is a major branch in W7est B engal, is
493km 3per year. The river annually dumps
616 x 106 tons o f suspended solids, and 94
x 106 tons o f dissolved solids into the
estuary.
>- There is efficient m ixing o f freshwater
brought by the H ugli and saline seawater.
>■ The tidal section o f the Hugli estuary
gradually w idens downstream from Hugli
point as the width o f the estuary is 2.3 km
at Hugli point, 4.5 km at Diam ond Har­
bour, 11.5 km at the mouth.
The H ugli estuary is called tidal estuary
because it is dominated by tidal currents.
The tidal range decreases from the mouth
o f the estuary upstream, as the tidal range
is 5.5 meters at the mouth o f estuary, then
 it in c re a se s to 6 m eters at D iam ond
H a rb o u r, then d ecreases to 5.2 m eters at
G a rd e n R each and 1.0 m eter at 60 km
u p s tre a m from K olkata.
>* A .K . P aul (2002) has divided the tidal
s e c tio n o f the H ugli riv e r into 6 segm ents
on th e b asis o f saltw ater intrusion and
d iv e rse tidal ranges as given below :
(1) river section, above H ugli Point
(2) estu ary h ead s, betw een H ugli Point and
D iam ond H arbour
(3) u pp er reaches, from D iam ond H arbour
to H ald ia port
(4) m iddle reach es, from H aldia Port to
K aukhali
(5) low er reach es, from K aukhali to L ow er
L ong Sand
(6) estu ary m outh, from L ow er L ong Sands
to Sand heads
( 1 ) T he estuary head o f the H ugli river is
c h aracterized by the dom inance o f fresh ­
w ater, very low salinity, hardly 1.5%o,
stro n g channel currents, fine (1.63 m m ) to
m ed iu m (1.93 m m ) size sedim ents.
to w h ich sa lin ity in c re ase s to 15
T id al ra n g e s a re 5 .2 to 5.5
T his w id e seg m e n t o f th e H u g li estuary
h o u ses sev eral islan d s su ch as Sagar
Islan d , Jam b u Islan d , C h u sk a r Islan d etc.
S an d flats, sea b e ac h e s, c o asta l san d dunes,
tid al flats etc. are sig n ific a n t m o rp h o lo g i­
cal featu res.
(5) E stu ary m ou th : T h e w a te r is ch aracterized
by m ore salin e w a te r (m o re th a n 32%o)
w hich is m o re o r less s im in la r to the
salin ity o f the o p en o cean .
>■ T he m orp h ology o f in te rtid a l an d subaqueous
seg m en ts o f the H u g li e stu a ry co m p rises
the fo llo w in g la n d fo rm s as e n u m e ra te d by
A .K . Paul (2 0 0 2 ) :
sh e lte re d fla ts
tid alflats
o p e n -se a fla ts
sh o re lin e b e a c h e s
seabeaches

(2) T h e u p p e r r e a c h e s o f th e H u g li d etach ed b e a c h e s
e stu a ry : T his section is characterized by
stro n g m ix in g o f fresh w ater and saline
p o in t b a rs
sea w ater, still low salinity ranging b e ­
tw een 2.5%o and 9.1 %o, hig h est tid al range m id -c h a n n e l b a rs
e x ce e d in g 6 m eters, sig n ifican t m ud d ep o ­ isla n d a tta c h e d b a rs
s itio n etc.
o ffsh o re b a rs
(3) m id d le reach : The m ain m orpholog ical
featu res o f th e m id d le re a ch /se g m en t o f the c h an n e l sid e b a rs
H ugli e stu a ry are ex ten siv e tidal flats,
lin ear san d b ars, islan d s, sh o als, deep s h o a lin g fla ts
ch annels etc. T he m id d le reach is d o m i­ channel
n ated b y tid a l cu rren ts. T he c o n cen tratio n
b o tto m san d b a n k s
o f salt ranges b e tw ee n 10.5 an d 14.7%o and
tidal range is 5.5 m eters. featu res
(4) Lower reach w idens to 50 km w id th and is lo w tid e ch an n els
dom inated by fast flow ing tid a l cu rren ts.
Sands are d ep o sited alo n g d iffe re n t lo c a ­
tions such as in the estu ary floor, alo n g the T h e m a jo r is la n d s o f th e H u g li estuary
estuary b an k s and aro u n d islan d s. T h is co m p rise th e fo llo w in g :
segm ent rep resen ts the zone w here salin e • S ag ar Isla n d (211 k m 2)
seaw ater finds its w ay into the estu ary , due • G h o rm a ra Isla n d (4.5 km 2)

OCEAN HABITATS
• L o h ach ara Islan d (1.943 k m 2, b u t the
e ntire isla n d w as w ashed o ut in 1986)
• N ay ach ara Islan d (17.9 km 2, b u t area
in creased to 40 k m 2 d u ring 1991)
• B elfo rd Isla n d (4.2 k m 2 in 1971, but
co m p le tely e ro d ed and w ash ed out
d u rin g 1995-2000 A .D .)
B io lo g ica l A c tiv itie s in E s tu a rie s
In te rm s o f liv in g c o n d itio n s o f m arine
o rg an ism s, b o th p la n ts and anim als, the e n v iro n ­
m ent o f e stu a rie s is n o t v ery m uch condu civ e to
large n u m b e r o f sp ec ie s in spite o f high rate o f
b io lo g ic a l p ro d u c tiv itie s b ecau se large quantities
o f n u trie n ts are b ro u g h t by the rivers and deep
c u rre n ts an d tid a l cu rren ts brin g oxygenated
w a ter. In fact, riv e r d isch arg e and tidal currents
an d m ix in g o f salin e w ater and freshw ater
d e term in e th e b io lo g ic a l activ ities in the estu ar­
ies. T he h ig h tid al range, rap id riv er discharge,
la rg e a m o u n t o f su sp en d ed sedim ents by the
riv e rs ,-s a n d s b ro u g h t from offshore regio n s by
tid a l c u rre n ts m ak e e stu a rin e en v iro n m en t in h o s­
p ita b le to flo a tin g p la n ts (p h y to p lan k to n s) and
a n im als (z o o p la n k to n s) b u t b enthos anim als
flo u rish in th e b o tto m sed im en ts o f estuaries.
T hus, e stu a rie s are c h a ra c te riz e d by low species
d iv e rsity , h ig h p ro d u c tiv ity and large biom ass.
P h y to p la n k to n s flo u rish in o n ly th o se areas o f
e stu aries w h e re tu rb id ity o f w a te r is low and
su n lig h t c a n p e n e tra te so th a t p h o to sy n th e sis can
take p la c e e ffic ie n tly . T h e p h y to p la n k to n s avoid
areas o f m u d d y w a te r. T h e re is sp atial v a ria tio n in
p h y to p la n k to n g ro w th .
D iffe re n t s p e c ie s o f z o o p la n k to n s flo u rish
in 3 d iffe re n t e c o s y s te m s o f e stu a rie s, n am ely (1)
fresh w ater s p e c ie s in th e h e a d w a te r areas, (2)
b rackish w a te r s p e c ie s in the m id d le seg m e n t o f
estuaries, an d (3) m a rin e sp e c ie s a ro u n d the
m outh o f e stu a rie s . B e n th o s c o m m u n itie s o f
m arine a n im a ls a re m o re a b u n d a n tly fo u n d on the
floors o f e stu a rie s b e c a u s e p la n t d e b ris is b ro u g h t
by re tu rn in g e b b c u rre n ts fro m sa lt m a rsh es and
sw am ps lo c a te d on e ith e r sid e s o f e stu a rie s. T h ese
suspended p la n t d e b ris is d e p o site d on e stu a ry
357
flo o rs and b en th o s c o m m u n itie s g e t a m p le fo o d
from p lan t d etritu s.
14.5 L A G O O N S
‘U n lik e e stu a rie s, w h ic h are g re a tly a f ­
fected by riv e r in flo w , la g o o n s are is o la te d o r
sem i-iso lated b o d ies o f sh a llo w c o a s ta l w a te r th a t
do not receiv e any a p p re c ia b le in p u t o f fre s h w a ­
ter. In o th e r w o rd s, d ilu tio n o f s a lt w a te r in a
lagoon is n e g lig ib le ’ (P .R . P in e t, 2 0 0 0 ). T h e
fo llo w in g are the c h a ra c te ris tic fe a tu re s o f la ­
goons :
>■ L agoons are g e n e ra lly a s s o c ia te d w ith b a r-
b u ilt type o f e stu a rie s b u t th e y a re a lso
found in fro n t o f d ro w n e d v a lle y e s tu a rie s
w here bars are co m m o n m o rp h o lo g ic a l
features.
Lagoons are c o m p le te ly is o la te d o r s e m i­
en clo sed salin e w a te r b o d ie s o f c o a s ta l
w ater. G en erally , th ey are c o n n e c te d w ith
the sea by an o u tlet, c a lle d tidal inlet.
>■ L agoons are, in fact, calm a n d s h a llo w
w ater bo d ies b e tw ee n c o a sts a n d e n c lo s in g
bars.
T here is no sig n ific a n t in p u t o f fre s h w a te r
b ro u g h t by the riv e r ru n o ff. T h e la g o o n s
m ay be or m ay n o t b e a ss o c ia te d w ith riv e r
m ouths. I f th ey re c e iv e an y riv e r, th a t is
o b v io u sly sm all riv er.
T here is in flo w an d o u tflo w o f w a te r
th ro u g h tid a l in lets. T h e s e a w a te r e n te rs
the lag o o n th ro u g h in le ts w ith tid a l c u r­
ren ts and goes o u t o f th e la g o o n w ith eb b
cu rren ts.
Since lag o o n s are c a lm a n d s h a llo w b o d ie s
o f c o asta l w a ter, th e w a te r c irc u la tio n
p a tte rn is v e ry sim p le i.e. in flo w o f
sea w ater at th e s u rfa c e a n d o u tflo w o f
lag o o n w a ter at th e b o tto m . S in ce th e sa lin e
d en se w a te r o f lag o o n s sin k s a n d h e n c e
su rfa ce se a w a te r flo w s in to th e la g o o n s in
o rd e r to c o m p en sa te th e lo ss o f su rfa c e
w a te r in th e lag o o n s. T h e d e n se s u rfa c e
w a te r th a t sin k s an d re a c h e s th e b o tto m o f
lag o o n flo w s o u tw a rd as b o tto m c u rre n t.
W hy lag o o n w a te r is s a ltie r th a n n e a r b y :

358
s e a w a te r? T h is situ a tio n o ccu rs in sub
tro p ic a l re g io n s w here ev ap o ratio n ex
c e e d s ra in fa ll. D ue to ex cessiv e ev ap o ra
tio n an d low rain fall in the enc ose
la g o o n s, the salin ity increases an u m
su rfa c e w a ter becom es saltier an e n se r
an d sinks.
*■ In th e su b tro p ical region, th e lag o o n al
w a te r ran g es from brackish to h y p ersa m e
c ate g o rie s. O n the basis o f salin ity is tn
b u tio n th ree zones are identified, nam ely
( 1 ) fresh w ater zone near the m ouths o f the
riv ers w hich debouch in the lagoons, ( )
b rackish w ater zone, in m iddle p o rtio n o f the
lagoons, and (3) salt w ater zon e at the tid al
inlet, w hich is also called lagoon en tran ce.
The arid regions h aving dry clim ate h av e
hvpersaline lagoons. The salinity also changes
w ith seasons i.e. the lagoon becom es less
saline during w et season due to m ore
precipitation, but becom es h y p ersalin e
during dry sum m er season due to ex cessiv e
evaporation.
Lagoons are u niversally distrib u ted co astal
habitats i.e. they are found from tro p ical
through subtropical and tem perate to p o lar
reg io n s but salin ity greatly varies sp atially
and seaso n ally (tem porally).
>• The tid al ran g e determ ines the degree o f
exchange o f w ater betw een lagoon and
open sea. In fact, tidal range is p o sitiv e ly
c o rrelated w ith exchange o f lagoon and
open sea w aters, i.e. la rg e r the tid al ran g e,
g reater the ex ch an g e and vice versa.
L agoons o c cu r on ly alo n g irre g u la r c o a s t­
lines w here lagoon is sep a ra te d from open
sea by bars and spits w hich e n clo se co astal
w ater.
>■ Lagoons are g en erally v e g eta te d by p la n ts
o f sea w eeds, and o f w e tlan d s su ch as
m angroves, salt m arsh, tidal flats etc. b u t it
is not necessary that lagoons are a lw ay s
vegetated. 7 g ro v e s. S u c h w e tla n d s a re e x te n s iv e ly fo u n d in
OCEANOGRAPHY
A T id a l la g o o n s o f K a n th i c o a s ta l p l a i n t s extend
from Digha to Junput. Lagoons are semi-
e n c lo s e d by coastal barriers The Kanthi
tidal lagoons are used for salt making and
fish catching.
T id a l la g o o n o f T a ls a r i is s itu a te d in the
d e lta ic r e g io n o f th e S u b a m a r e k h a . T h e
la g o o n is c o n n e c te d to th e o p e n s e a th ro u g h
tw o T a ls a ri tid a l p a s s e s .
# T id a l la g o o n of Sagar is lo c a te d
I s la n d
b e tw e e n th e b e a c h r id g e b a r r ie r s a n d th e
sh o re s a t B e g u a k h a li a n d G a n g a S a g a r
a re a s o f S a g a r I s la n d a t th e m o u th o f th e
H u g li e s tu a ry . T h e la g o o n is c o n n e c te d to
th e o p e n s e a a t th r e e p la c e s b y tid a l in le ts
e.g. B e n g u a k h a li tid a l c h a n n e l, B u r i r K h a l
tid a l c h a n n e l, a n d G a n g a S a g a r tid a l
c h a n n e l. T h e w h o le la g o o n is f lo o d e d o n ly
at th e tim e o f o c c a s io n a l h ig h tid e s .
• T id a l la g o o n o f C h u s k a r I s la n d is lo c a te d to
th e s o u th -w e s t o f S a g a r I s la n d in th e m o u th
re g io n o f th e H u g li e s tu a r y . A b o u t h a l f o f
th e la g o o n is c o v e r e d .w ith m a n g r o v e a n d
sa ltm a rsh e s.
M o st o f th e la g o o n a l b a s in s a re c h a r a c te r ­
ised by se d im e n ta tio n , e x te n s iv e m u d f la ts , m a rs h e s
and m a n g ro v e s w a m p s w h ic h a re tr a v e r s e d a n d
d iv id e d b y in tric a te n e tw o r k o f c r e e k s w h ic h
allo w in flo w a n d o u tflo w o f tid a l w a te r in to th e
sw am p s a n d m a rs h e s .
14.6 COASTAL WETLANDS
F la t a n d ro llin g m a r s h y la n d s d e v e lo p e d in
the c o a sta l a re a s o f tr o p ic a l a n d s u b tro p ic a l
re g io n s, m a in ly in h u m id tr o p ic s , a r e c a lle d
c o a sta l w e tla n d s w h ic h a re g e n e r a lly fo rm e d
b e h in d b a rs o r s p its. T h e re is a b s e n c e o f re lie fs
an d s e a w a te r re m a in s s ta g n a n t in s u c h c o a sta l
w e tla n d s. S e d im e n ts a re fin e a n d w a te r is salin e.
T h e flo ra l e n v iro n m e n t is d o m in a te d b y m a n ­
th e c o a s ta l z o n e s o f W e s t B e n g a l w h e re th e
w e tla n d s o f m a n g ro v e s a re k n o w n a s Sun d arb an s.
W e tla n d s a re g e n e r a lly fo u n d a lo n g th e
b a n k s o f e s tu a rie s a n d s h o re s w h ic h a re s h e lte re d
a re as a n d a re is o la te d fro m o p e n s e a . I n fa c t,
 OCEAN HABITATS 359

1. m angrove sw am ps, and

“yNN\VV\\\SVNV\VVS\S\\\\\\VS\\\\S\\\SV\\\\w> v\WV
^NNWVVW\WWWWWWWWWWWWWW\\\\v
2. salt m arshes.
sSN.V\NVNN\\\VVNV»VVWvNNV V \ \ \ V \ \ \ \ \ \ V \ \ \ v s «i
|VVV X\\V\XWWWWWWW^\\WWWWWW\W'J
x\ \ \ \ \ nv\ \ v\ v**\\Xv ‘ 'V sW n w w w \V n v \ \ \ \ \ ' r
V \\\\\W > W | , \\\S \\\\s \\\s v \\\\v 4
W W W S W W V L 3 ( l 0 ' ‘N^NNNWSW ' 'NW VV'I
\\\\\\\\\\N V ----- V*AWWWWWWWW\4
1. M an gro ve sw a m p s
nVA\\WS\\V\NV\NVWWVV\\' WWWWWW*\ xy*
W W W W W NW'NW
WSVWWVWWW WW
WWWxH
S\\\V\V\\VV\WVWV\WWWWN\WWWWWW>
WWWWWWWWWW\ WXVi^NWv\ \ ' \ \ \ V ^
\\\\\\\\\\VV\V\\VV\VS>r
^NV'AVISW\WWWW\W\S\W\\W\ M angrove Sw am ps and fo rests are sig n ifi­
Lagoon
A SV N W 'J
cant natural ecosystem s co m p risin g both m arin e
and land environm ents, and are lo cated in th e
intertidal areas o f estuarine and d eltaic reg io n s
w ithin the latitudinal zone o f 30° N an d 30° S.
Thus, m angrove sw am ps and fo rests re p re se n t
tropical and subtropical co astal e n v iro n m e n t an d
\ V \ N \ W » \ S \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ v \ \ \ v \ v v \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ v \ \ \ x v^
^^^^^^N >^\V\\\\W.WWWWWWWWWWWW act as front-line buffer zone ag ain st m arin e d isaste rs
VVW
\VN such as surging tidal cu rren ts, sto rm w av es
IV\\XnW
W
H W W W WW WWWW
WWWWWWWW
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ L a i IU *WWWWWWWWWNVVNU,, . . . . . . AVW W VW M
iW W W S W V and killer tsunam i w aves b ecau se th ey a b so rb
m ost o f energy o f these oceanic su rg es and sav e
the coastal inhabitants bo th flo ra and fa u n a
Lagoon including m an from destruction. The m ain c h a ra c ­
teristic feature o f m angrove w etlan d s is th e
dom inance o f num erous species o f m a n g ro v e
trees and shrubs.
‘The m angrove is a large w oody, m a n g ro v e
is treelike plant w ith a thick, p a rtia lly e x p o se d
netw ork o f intertw ined roots th at g ro w do w n fro m
kWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWV |
kVWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW L a l l U
^ 'WWWWSWWWWWWWWWWWWWWSWWWWW
sWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
the branches into the w ater and s e d im e n t’ (P. R .
,WWWWVWV\VW\\V\\\VWW\\\WVWW\\W'V v\»vxvxv.,\\WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWXWWN
lWWWWWWW\WVWW\s\\V\WV\\WW\\WWwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwww
kW\WXWWWWWWWWWWSWWWWWWWWWW\\W\WWWWWW\WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
Pinet, 2000).
LxNXW.WVWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWnWWWWWx WWWWVWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
lwWWWWWWWVVW\V\VWW\SWWWW\WV VW \\ WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
I x w n w w v w s w w w w n w w w w v w w w w n ^ ’^
k w w w w w w v w \w \w w w \ w w \ w w w ) r
'* > ^ w w \ \ w w \ w \ \ \ w w \ \ w \ \ w w w w w w w \
> ^ \w \\w v w w w w w w w w w w \w w \\\ A ccording to W eb ste r’s D ic tio n a ry m a n ­
y w w w w v x y ' V w w w \\w w w \
\\w w w \y V \w w \w \\\w \
Lagoon \w w \ w y
AWWWY
VwWVWWWN
V sw w w w w
grove is ‘any tro p ical tree or shrub o f the g en u s,
A \w \w y W wwwv
^
Vwwww
Vwww
R hizophora, the species o f w h ich are m o stly lo w
trees grow ing in m arshes or tid al sh o res, n o te d fo r
th eir interlacing above ground ad v en titio u s ro o ts .’
A bout 100 years ago 75 p e rc en t c o a sta l
areas o f tropical and su b tro p ical re g io n s w e re
occupied by m an g ro v e sw am ps an d fo rests b u t
p resen tly only 50 p ercen t o f th e ir areas are in ta c t
w hile 25 p ercen t areas have b een c lea re d b y m an
for d ifferen t p u rp o ses. T he eastern co astal reg io n
Fig. 14.5: (A) lagoon with river discharge, (B) com­
has vast m an g ro v e fo rests and sw am p s in the
pletely isolated lagoon, (C) semi-enclosed la­
d eltaic reg io n s o f the G an g a an d th e S u b arn arek h a
goon.
rivers. In fact, th e d eltaic and estu arin e a re as o f
the co astal p la in s o f W est B en g al and O rissa h av e
large and rich tracts o f m angrove forests. Sundarbans
wetlands represent land areas in shore regions and
(W e st B e n g a l), B h ita rk a n ik a (O ris s a ), an d
are vegetated w ith sp e c ific plant sp e cie s and are
P ich ch av aram (T am il N ad u ) are sig n ific a n t m a n ­
protected from op en sea. T he w etland ecosy stem
g ro v e fo rests on th e eastern co asta l p la in s o f
has very h ig h b io lo g ic a l produ ctivity. There are
two major ty p es o f co a sta l w etland s as fo llo w s : India.
 360
T h e s p a tia l d istribution, types, density and
s p e c ie s o f m an g ro v es in tropical and subtropical
c o a s ta l e n v iro n m e n ts depend on the follow ing
fa c to rs :
• T e m p e ra tu re o f air and w ater during w in ter
seaso n . M angroves cannot survive in low
tem p eratu re.
• C h em istry o f tidal w ater, m ain ly salt
c o n ten t.
• E x p o su re o f m angroves to stron g tidal
c u r r e n ts a n d s e v e re sto rm w a v e s.
M an g ro v es have w ell adapted to tidal
c u rre n ts and w ave attack bu t o ccasio n al
sto rm surges uproot and destroy m angrove
trees.
• T id al range, com p o sitio n o f su b strata and
tid al flats.
It m ay be m en tio n ed th at gen erally m an­
groves ab so rb the energy o f tid al currents and sea
w aves, sto rm surges o f ord in ary cyclonic storm s
b u t stro n g cy clo n es o f hu rrican e grade in flict
g re a t d am ag e to m an g ro v es by defo liatin g and
b re a k in g them . M an g ro v es derive food energy
th ro u g h th e ir ro o ts from the d etritus w hich have
ric h m in e ra l an d o rg an ic nu trien ts. S ince there is
c o n tin u o u s le a f fa ll th ro u g h o u t the year, the
o rg a n ic m a tte r co m in g from the deco m p o sitio n o f
fa lle n le a v e s , tw ig s an d b ranches o f m angro v es is
re g u la rly s to re d in th e d e tritu s, w hich is u sed by
m a n g ro v e s. T h u s, it is th e detritus food chain w hich
m a k es th e flo w o f m a tte r and energy effectiv e
th ro u g h d iffe re n t tro p h ic lev els o f m an g ro v e
e co sy ste m . T h e d e triv o ro u s o rg an ism s consum e
a b o u t 60 p e rc e n t o f o rg a n ic m a tte r o f fa lle n leaves
an d p a rts o f m a n g ro v e s an d c o n v e rt th em in
o rg a n ic n u trie n ts to be u sed b y m a n g ro v e s. The
re m a in in g 4 0 p e rc e n t o f o rg a n ic m a tte r is w ash ed
o u t b y e b b c u rre n ts an d is tra n s p o rte d to the
lag o o n s, e stu a rie s a n d o th e r fo rm s o f co astal
w ater.
Mangroves Swamps in India
T h e e stu a rin e p a rts o f th e S u b a m a re k h a
d e lta a n d in te rtid a l re g io n s o f S u n d a rb a n s o f th e
c o a s ta l p la in s o f W e st B e n g a l an d B h ita rk a n ik a
m a n g ro v e s o f O rissa , a n d P ic h h a v a ra m o f T a m il
N adu co astal p la in hav e ex ten siv e areas o f
m angrove sw am ps an d fo rests.
T he m an g ro v es hav e d e v elo p e d in an area
o f 11.5 k m 2 in the in te rtid a l p arts o f the
S u b am arek h a D e lta o f O rissa in lag o o n al and
estu arin e en v iro n m en t. D iffe re n t sp ecies o f m an­
groves have d e v elo p e d in th is re g io n b y adapting
to vary in g c o n d itio n s o f te m p e ra tu re o f air and
w ater, salin ity , w a te r d ep th , m u d d y o r sandy
sed im en ts, tid al ra n g e s, tid a l a n d eb b currents,
org an ic m a tte r in th e d e tritu s, sea w a v e, sedim ent
discharge by the S u b am arek h a an d its distributaries.
As the d istan ce fro m the riv e r m o u th in creases,
the m an g ro v es g iv e w ay to sa ltm a rsh e s to th e east
o f the S u b a m a re k h a e stu a ry . F u rth e r eastw ard
from the S u b a m a re k h a e stu a ry tw o p a tc h e s o f
m an g ro v es hav e d e v e lo p e d a lo n g th e tid a l banks
o f the T alsari estu ary . T h e so il te x tu re ran g es
from clay to san d y clay. T h e sa lin ity ran g es
b etw een 5%o an d 30%o. T h e m a n g ro v e s o f this
reg io n in clu d e th e fo llo w in g s p e c ie s :
• A can th u s ilic ifo liu m —►H a rk a c h K a n ta
• S uaeda m a ritim a —►G iria sak
• A v icen n ia o ffic in a llis —►S a d a b a in
• A v icen n ia a lb a B lu m e —►K a lo b a in
• A eg ialitis ro tu n d ifo lia R o x b —►S a ta ri
• S eriop to g a l —►G o ra n
• S erio p s R o x b B a ra G o ra n
• E xcoecaria agallocha -► G neoa
• P h o e n ix p a lu d o sa —►H e n ta l
D ifferent sp ecies have adapted to varying
conditions according to their to le r a n c cto salinity,
sedim ents, changes in w ater le v e l w ith tidal and
ebb phases, nutrients a v a ila b ility etc. M ost o fth e
vegetations o f coastal m an groves are w o o d y and
range from tree m angroves h a v in g h eig h t upto 10
m eters to shrub m an groves. M an groves have
intricate sy stem o f fin g er-lik e aerial roots grow ­
ing dow nw ard but ab ove w ater. Such system s o f
roots help in breathing.
A large tract o f m an grove sw am p measur­
ing about 8 km 2 in area has d ev elo p ed around
Digha Mohana. S a lin ity o f w ater varies from 20%o
to 32%o w h ich is the result o f h igh rate o f
evaporation. , v ,.-r
 L a rg e a re a s o f m a n g ro v e s h a v e d e v e lo p e d
in th e c o a sta l m a rg in o f th e G a n g a D e lta , the
S undarbans, in W e s t B e n g a l. T h e sh e lte re d
m uddy g ro u n d s u p p o rts lu x u rio u s m a n g ro v e
sw am ps. T h e m a n g ro v e sw a m p s, ly in g a b o v e b are
m u d flats, tra p h u g e v o lu m e o f se d im e n ts a t the
tim e o f th e ir flo o d in g b y tid a l c u rre n ts fro m
m u d flats. T h e re is w e ll m a rk e d in te ra c tio n s
b e tw ee n m a n g ro v e s w a m p s a n d b a re m u d flats.
M u d fla ts g ro w s e a w a rd b y th e a c c re tio n o f
se d im e n ts b r o u g h t b y th e r iv e r c h a n n e ls an d th ese
se d im e n ts a re re w o rk e d b y s h o re b o u n d tid a l
c u rre n ts a n d a re d e p o s ite d in m a n g ro v e sw am p s.
T h e re is c o n tin u o u s a c c u m u la tio n o f sed im en ts,
w h ic h a re tr a p p e d b y th e a e ria l ro o ts a n d cro w n s
o f m a n g ro v e s a n d a re re g u la ry d e p o site d in the
m a n g ro v e s w a m p s . R ic h m a n g ro v e s h av e d e v e l­
o p e d o n b o th th e s id e s m a in ly alo n g th e eastern
b a n k s o f th e H u g li, S a p ta m u k h i (fig. 14.6),
T h a k u ra n , M a tla , G o sa b a , an d R a im an g a l c h an ­
n e ls in S u n d a rb a n s .
T h re e ty p es o f g ro w th p attern o f m angrove
s w a m p s in S u n d a rb a n areas o f coastal W est B engal,
s a y G a n g a D e lta , h a v e b e en id en tified as follow s :
>■ m a n g ro v e s u n d e r e stu a rin e e n v iro n m e n t
>* m a n g ro v e s u n d e r d e lta i e n v iro n m e n t
>* m a n g ro v e s u n d e r la g o o n a l e n v iro n m e n t
( 1 ) E stu a rin e m a n g ro v es h a v e d e v e lo p e d in
the estuaries o f the H ugli-Ichham ati an d H ariab h an g a
w h e rein th e s a lin ity flu c tu a te s w ith th e c h a n g e s in
m ix in g o f sa lin e s e a w a te r an d riv e r fre sh w a te r;
sed im en ts are o f h ig h m o b ility d u e to riv e r flo w
and h ig h tid a l ran g e.
(2) D e lta ic m a n g ro v e sw a m p s h a v e g ro w n
and d ev elo p ed in th e d e lta s o f th e S a p ta m u k h i—
T h ak u rm an — M atla — G o sa b a sy ste m s o f c h a n ­
nels on e x ten siv e tid a l flo o d p la in s o f in te r-
d istrib u ta ry areas. T h is re g io n is c h a r a c te riz e d b y
v ery slow flo w o f w a te r in th e tid a l c re e k s , lo w
m o b ility o f sed im en ts d u e to s lu g g ish c h a n n e l
flow , and h ig h sa lin ity v a ria tio n . T h e a re a h a s
m atu red m an g ro v e sw am p s.
(3) L a g o o n a l m a n g ro v e sw a m p s h a v e d e v e l­
oped in the in filled la g o o n a l b a sin s h a v in g h y p e r
saline en v iro n m en t. S u ch sw a m p s a re s h e lte re d
from w ave ero sio n b y e n c lo sin g b a rrie rs .

Table 14.2 : D is trib u tio n o f m a ngrove fore sts in the Sundarban coastal zones o f the G anga D elta in W est
Bengal

Police Station Mangrove Total geographical Percent o f

(regional unit) forest area (km2) area of the Police mangrove

Station (km2) forest cover

2.66 277.0 0.96

Sagar
87.80 252.7 34.74
Kakdwip
250.03 389.0 64.28
Namkhana
233.46 542.3 43.04
Pathar Proatima
908.20 1269.3 71.55
Kultali
161.20 424.1 38.01
Basanti
2909.5 87.24
Gosaba 2538.12
230.4 18.12
Hingalganij 41.75
Total 4,223.22
Source: District Gazetteers o f 24 Pargana North and South, in A. K. Paul, 2002.

r >%|
 362

Mangrove W etlands of
Saptamukhi River Estuary

Kilometer

Patharpratima
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0 * \ \ \ \ V s \ \ \ \\ \ V s S \N \\ \ \ \ \\ \ \ \ \\ \ \ \\ \ \ \ \V s \\ \ S \ > ]
kw w vw w svsvsw w w w w w vsw w w w sw w w v
L \\\\\V . . A N SV A W W SW SS N S V
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BAY
OF
Henry's
Island
BENGAL

Fig. 14.6: Mangrove forests and swamps in the Saptamukhi estuarine environment ofSundarbans ofthe Ganga
West Bengal. Adapted from A. K. Paul, 2002.

ocEAN HABITATS
Fig. 14.7 : Deltaic mangrove swamps o f the inter-distributary tidal flood basins of the Sundarban. After A. K. Paul, 2002.
It is e v id e n t fro m tab le 14.2 th at Sundarban
m angrove sw a m p s have d ev elo p ed over an
areas o f 4 ,2 2 3 sq u are k ilo m e te rs. The extensive
u n d iv id e d S u n d a rb a n m a n g ro v e sw am p s o f
G anga a n d B ra h m a p u tra D e lta o f W est B engal o f
India an d B a n g la d e sh are th e m o st ex ten siv e in
areal e x te n t c o v e rin g la rg e area o f d eltaic
environm ent.
T h e m a n g ro v e e c o sy ste m s c o n sist o f n u ­
m erous k in d s o f p rim a ry p ro d u c e r p h o to tro p h ic
plants o f d iffe re n t s p e c ie s, c o n su m e r a n im als and
d eco m poser m ic ro -o rg a n is m s . T he a n im a l co m ­
m unities in c lu d e m a n y m a c ro b e n th o s an im als
such as m o llu scs, cru stacea, actim irian, polychaete,
m any sp e c ie s o f fis h e s, sh e llfish , b a rra n c le s etc.
Several la n d o rg a n ism s a re a lso a sso c ia te d w ith
m angrove sw a m p s su ch as in sec ts, b ird s, tree
crabs as h e rb iv o re s , a n d la rg e a n im als like R o y al
363
B engal T iger, w h ich are carn iv o re s. M a n g ro v e
sw am ps besid es p ro v id in g n u trie n ts to m a n y
types o f m arine o rg an ism s, also p ro v id e s h e lte re d
habitats for fish co m m u n ities. T h e fis h e rm e n
c o llect seeds o f d ifferen t sp ec ie s o f fis h e s an d
p raw ns from m an g ro v e creek s an d th u s d e v e lo p
and m ain tain a q u acu ltu re in p o n d s. T h u s, m a n ­
grove sw am ps b e sid e s su p p o rtin g la rg e a n im a l
c o m m u n ities fro m m ic ro -o rg a n ism s to m a c ro ­
o rg an ism s (lik e R o y al B en g a l T ig e rs), also
p ro v id e liv e lih o o d to fish e rm e n c o m m u n itie s o f
S u n d arb an areas. E c o lo g ic a lly 5 m a n g ro v e z o n e s
h av e b een id e n tifie d in th e S u n d a rb a n m a n g ro v e
sw am p s as fo llo w s :
>• sw am p y m a n g ro v e s o r in te rtid a l m a n g ro v e
zo n e d e v e lo p e d o v e r riv e r fla t a n d riv e rin e
slo p es,

1 a l m a n g ro v e s o r rid g e fo rests, d e v el­
o p e d in th e tid a l z o n es w ith in the h eig h t
z o n e o f 5 to 8 m eters,
^ tru e m a n g ro v e zone, d ev elo p ed o v e r the
d e lta ic a n d e stu a rin e su rface above 8
m e te rs ,
^ z o n e o f n o n -litto ra l sp ecies o f v eg etatio n ,
s a y m e so p h y tic v e g eta tio n , and
^ x e ro p h y tic n o n -m an g ro v e and dry e v er­
g re e n fo re sts above 9 m h e ig h t d evelo p ed
o v e r c o a sta l san d dunes.
It m a y be m en tio n e d th a t th ere are 50 know n
s p e c ie s o f tru e m an g ro v es in the w orld, o u t o f
w h ic h S u n d a rb a n m angrove fo rests account fo r 35
sp e c ie s o f tru e m angroves. B esid es, there are 28
m a n g ro v e asso c iate s in S u ndarban m angrove
fo rests.
2. S a lt M a rsh e s
S a ltm a rsh m ay be d e fin e d as w et tract o f
v e g e ta te d in te rtid a l m u d flats o r san d flats w ith salt
a n d flo o d e d w ith saline sea w ater by tid a l currents.
S a ltm a rsh e s are o ften d o m in ated by salt-to le ra n t
sp e c ie s o f S p a r tin a grasses w h ich are n o t n e c e ssa r­
ily sa lt lo v in g h a lo p h y tic gen era. S altm arsh es,
c h a ra c te riz e d b y h ig h tid a l range, am ple fine
se d im e n ts, lo w e n erg y o f seaw av es, salty soils
a n d w a te r, fre q u e n t flo o d in g by sea w ater th rough
in c o m in g tid e s a n d d e w a te rin g by seaw ard m o v ­
in g eb b c u rre n ts , a re ty p ic a l w et co astal features
a n d h a b ita ts o f m a rin e o rg a n ism s (both p la n ts and
a n im a ls) o f tro p ic a l an d s u b tro p ic a l h u m id coasts.
T h e fo llo w in g a re th e c h a ra c te ris tic featu res o f
s a ltm a rsh e s :
S a ltm a rs h e s re p re se n t in te rtid a l m u d flats
o r s a n d fla ts c o lo n iz e d b y sp ec ie s o f tall
g ra sse s su c h as S p a rtin a , w h ic h are salt
to le ra n t a n d n o t sa lt lo v in g g rasses.
>■ S a ltm a rsh e s d e v e lo p th ro u g h v e g e ta tio n
g ro w th on in te rtid a l fla ts h a v in g salty
sed im en ts an d salin e w ater.
S a ltm a rsh e s are d a ily flo o d e d by se a w a te r
d u rin g tid e s an d d e w a te re d d u rin g ebbs.
T h e w av e e n erg y is lo w b u t tid a l ra n g e is
h ig h .
OCEANOGRAPHY
>■ T he saltm arsh co asta l h a b ita ts h ave harsh
in h o sp ita b le e n v iro n m e n ta l co n d itio n s for
m arin e o rg an ism s b u t still th ere is enor­
m ous v e g eta tiv e g ro w th b e ca u se g rasses in
the saltm arsh e s h av e d e v e lo p e d such char­
a cte ristic s, such as d e n se ro o tm ass and
v a s c u la r s y s te m , w h ic h m a y allow
in tern al c irc u la tio n o f flu id s in plant
b o d ies.
>■ L ow en erg y seaw av es a llo w d ep o sitio n o f
silt and m u d on m a rsh y in te rtid a l flats,
w ith th e re su lt g rasses su c c e ssfu lly estab­
lish th e ir ro o ts in th e m u d . T h u s, grasses
can develop on ly on su ch in te rtid a l m udflats
o r san d flats w h ich are s h e lte re d b y barrier
islands. S altm arsh es also g ro w alo n g the
low w ave en erg y m a rg in s o f estu aries.
>* T he saltm arsh e s are tra v e rs e d b y m eander­
ing tid a l c h an n e ls w h ic h are, in fact,
a rteries o f salt m a rsh es b e c a u se th e y allow
in flo w and o u tflo w o f se d im e n ts, flushing
o f a d d itio n a l sed im en ts, in p u t o f dissolved
n u trien ts, p la n k to n s, s m a ll-s iz e fish es and
o th er m ic ro -o rg a n ism s, p la n t d e tritu s etc.
into th e m arsh es, as w e ll as th e y flu sh them
o u t o f th e m arsh es. T h u s, m e a n d e rin g tidal
c h an n els m ak e s a ltm a rsh e s biologically
v ery p ro d u c tiv e n a tu ra l e co sy stem .
>■ O n the b a sis o f h e ig h t o f saltm arsh e s in
term s o f th e ir im m e rsio n u n d e r tid a l w ater
d u rin g tid e s, and e x p o su re to a ir during
ebbs, th e y are d e v id e d in to tw o broad
c ate g o rie s :
• low sa ltm a rsh e s, an d
• h ig h sa ltm a rsh e s
Low sa ltm a r sh e s re p re se n t se a w a rd portion
o f sh o re a re as a n d a re lo c a te d b e tw ee n low
m ean tid e w a te r a n d h ig h n e ap tid e water.
S u ch lo w s a ltm a rsh e s a re co lo n ized by
s a lt-to le ra n t ta ll g ra sse s o f th e species of
S p a r tin a a lte r n iflo r a . T h e se saltm arsh es are
im m e rse d d a ily b y tid a l w av es. T he big*1
sa ltm a r sh e s re p re se n t la n d w a rd portions of
in te rtid a l fla ts o r sh o re s a n d are lo c a te d
b e tw e e n h ig h n e ep tid e w a te r a n d the
h ig h e st tid e w ater. T h u s, th e v e g e t a t io n s of
h ig h sa ltm a rsh e s h a v e d e v e lo p e d th e chaf'
 q OSAN h a b it a t s
acteristics o f lan d veg etatio n i.e. dense
rootm ass an d v a sc u la r system o f internal
flow o f flu id s in the bo d ies o f plants. They
are flo o d ed w ith saline seaw ater only
d uring o cca sio n al v ery high tides. The high
saltm arsh e s have d e v elo p e d m ore div ersi­
fied plant com m unities than low saltm arshes,
such as S p a rtin a p a ten ts, saltw ort grass!
S a lic o m ia sp. and the spike grass, D istichlis
sp ic a ta (P. R. P in et, 2000).
L ow sa ltm a r sh e s have m uch m ore eco lo g i­
cal p ro d u c tiv ity than high saltm arshes. For
e x a m p le , the p rim ary production o f S.
a lte r n iflo r a ran g es b etw een 800 and 2000
dry g ram s o f organic matter per square
m e te r o f area p er year. It may be mentioned
th a t p la n ts o f low saltmarshes are not
g ra z ed by herbivorous animals and hence
th e y are not con su m ed. They are consumed
o n ly w hen they die o f their natural death,
by d e triv o re s w ho can easily digest the
d e co m p o se d organic matter. The dead
o rg a n ic m a tter is partly deposited and is
p a rtly flushed out o f saltmarshes by ebb
tid a l c u rre n ts.
T h e a n im a l sp e c ie s o f saltmarshes include
the fid d le r crabs, snails, m u ssels, different
s p e c ie s o f b ird s, filter-feeding shellfish
a n d m a n y k in d s o f zoop lanktons, small
fish e s etc. It m ay be mentioned that
s a ltm a rs h e s are natu ral ‘nursery grounds
fo r m a n y sp e c ie s o f fish that live in the
w a te rs o f th e c o n tin e n ta l s h e lf as a d u lt’ (P.
R . P in e t, 2 0 0 0 ).
Indian Saltmarshes
E x te n s iv e tra c ts o f saltm arsh e s, both low
and h ig h s a ltm a rs h e s h av e d ev elo p ed along
Indian c o a s ta l p la in s. A .K . P au l h a s exten siv ely
studied d iffe re n t a sp e c ts o f th e c o asta l p lain s o f
West B e n g a l a n d O rissa . H is fin d in g s have been
p u b lish e d in th e m o s t c o m p re h en siv e volum e,
en titled , ‘C o a s ta l G e o m o rp h o lo g y an d E n v iro n ­
ment’ (a c b P u b lic a tio n s , K o lk a ta , 2002). T he
present d e s c rip tio n is b a s e d o n h is re sea rc h es and
above m e n tio n e d b o o k .
Saltm arshes have d ev elo p ed on th e in te r­
tidal m ud and san d flats o f S u ndarban co asta l
plain, K anthi co astal plain, and S u b am arek h a
delta coastal plain. The developm ent o f saltm arshes
in Indian m arine env iro n m en t has tak en p lace in 3
such physical sites w here the con d itio n s o f w av e
energy, tidal range, fine sedim ents, flo o d in g and
exposure o f tid al flats, n u trien t su p p lies etc.
prom ote rich grow th o f grasses, h erb s (on h ig h
saltm arshes) and sedge plants w hich in turn help
in the grow th and outw ard extension o f saltm arshes
by traping fine sedim ents and veg etatio n p ro p a g a ­
tion.
• D evelopm ent o f saltm arshes b eh in d fro n ­
tal m angroves in case o f high saltm arsh es
o f higher m udflats and su p ratid al fats,
w hich is occasionally flooded by sea w ater
during very high tides.
• D evelopm ent o f saltm arshes in the tid al
basins sheltered by beach ridges.
• D evelopm ent o f saltm arshes on in n er
estuarine island flats and gently slo p in g
banks o f creeks.
(1) Mangrove-sheltered Saltmarshes
The high wave energy areas o f shore fronts
having strong tidal currents do not fav o u r the
developm ent o f saltm arshes in shore fro n tal areas
because sedim ents, instead o f being trap p ed , are
flushed out o f the shore fronts by strong seaw av es
and tidal currents. Thus, in such p h y sical set-u p
saltm arshes alw ays develop b eh in d the fro n tal
m angroves because they absorb w ave energy an d
strong tidal currents and save saltm arsh es from
the onslaught o f strong w ave attacks. S altm arshes
in such environm ental conditions have developed
in the follow ing locations;
>- Jam bu Island
>• C huskar Island
>-• H e n ry ’s Island
>* O ther d elta front islands o f Sundarban
The shore fro n tal m angroves p ro v id e sta­
b ility to saltm arshes and hence there is u n in te r­
ru p ted v eg etativ e grow th on m an grove sh eltered
saltm arshes.
 366
(2) Beach Ridge-sheltered Saltmarshes
Saltm arshes grow in tidal basins behind the
b each ridges as these ridges protect the saltmarshes
from strong w a v e attack and strong tidal currents.
T he e x te n siv e tidal basins provide ideal places for
the trapping and accretion o f fine sedim ents
w h ich form w id e stable areas for the growth r f
grasses and extension o f saltm arshes. The tidal
basin s o f Kanthi coastal plain and linear tidal
basins behind the beach ridges in the Subamarekha
C henier delta plains are typical exam ples o f beach
ridge-sheltered saltm arshes.
(3) Inner Estuarine Saltmarshes
E xtensive linear saltm arshes have d ev el­
oped along the estuaries and gently sloping
OCEANOGRAPHY
sheltered banks o f creeks. The entuarine »aHmar*hc#
grow by trapping fine sedim ent* and vegetative
propagation. Estuarine saltm arshes have devel­
oped in the fo llo w in g location s :
>* on N ayachara Island o f H ugli estuary
>* on Rajnagar Island o f Ichham ati estuary
>■ along the banks o f Haldi estuary, Rupnarayan
estu a r y , M a tla c h a n n e l and a lo n g
m any o th er tid a l creeks o f the
Sundarban.
The linear and areal ex ten ts o f som e
saltm arshes and sw am ps o f the Sundarban o f
W est B engal and the Subarnarekha coastal
plains o f Orissa have been presented in table
14.3 :

Table 1 4 .3 : S altm arshes a n d sw am ps along the shorelines o f sund arbans a n d S u b a rn a re kh a delta

Saltm arshes and Length A rea

sw am ps tracts (km) (k m 2)

1. R am nagar-D igha 6.5 15.5

m arshy tract
2. Alam pur-Jaldah 15.0 2 6 .0
m arshy tract
3. Pichabani-H aripur 11.0 10.0
m arshy tract
4. R asulpur-K aukhali 7.0 > 9 .0
m arshy tract
5. B en guakh ali-S agar 6.0 5 -6
m arshy tract
6 . Jambu island 7.0 > 7 .0
m arshy and sw am p y
tract
7. Saptam ukhi-M atla 4 0 .0 > 3 0 0 .0
com p lex
8 . M atla-H ariabhanga 3 3 .0 > 6 0 0 .0
com p lex
9. Subam arekha estuary 6.5 11.5
co m p lex and Talsari
m arshes and sw am p s
S o u rc e : A .K . Paul, 2 0 0 2
OCEAN HABITATS
Growth of Saltmarshes
T he g ro w th o f saltm arsh e s is a gradual
process w hich ta k es p la ce in th ree stages o f youth,
m aturity and old. O n the b asis o f these succes-
sional stag e s o f saltm arsh gro w th they are
classified in to (1) y o u th fu l m arsh , (2) m ature m arsh,
and (3) old m a rsh .
In y o u th fu l sta g e ra p id ra te o f siltatio n causes
rise o t tid a l flats in sh eltere d areas. A lgae grow th
pro v id es sta b ility o f th e su rface o f tid al flats. The
algae g ro w v e ry fa st on tid a l flats and extend on
sand fla t o r silt fla t and fo rm th ic k m ats w hich trap
m ore sed im e n ts. T h e low m arsh cord grass
S p artin a a lte m iflo ra co lo n ize the tidal flats. This
is fo llo w e d by th ic k lu x u rian t grow th o f grasses
g iv in g b irth to e x ten siv e areas o f low saltm arsh.
T h e n u trie n ts an d seeds o f grasses are brought by
tid a l floods. B o th u p w ard and outw ard (edgew ard)
g ro w th o f low saltm arsh occur sim ultaneously.
T h e c o n tin u ity o f saltm arsh developm ent is
b ro k e n by the ev o lu tio n and developm ent o f
m e a n d e rin g tid a l channels.
T h e m a tu re stage o f saltm arsh evolution and
d e v e lo p m e n t is h e ra ld ed by rapid vertical grow th
o f m arsh y su rface, e ncroachm ent o f high saltm arsh
and c o n se q u e n t decrease in areal extent o f low
saltm arsh re su ltin g into b alance betw een high and
low s a ltm a rsh e s, i.e. the am ount o f both categ o ­
ries b e co m e s equal. T he m ean d erin g tidal chan­
nels are w ell d e v elo p e d and divide the low
saltm arsh es in to sev e ra l patches. The sedim enta­
tion is red u ced . T h e v e rtic al accretion o f sedim ents
on m a rsh es d e p en d s on (1) the availability o f
sedim ents in te rm s o f th e ir am ount and type, (2)
the a v a ila b ility o f tid a l and w ave energy for the
resu sp en sio n , re d istrib u tio n and transport o f
sedim ents, an d (3) tra p p in g ability o f grasses and
other p lan ts.
In th e old sta g e o f the grow th o f saltm arshes
the e n cro ac h m e n t o f high saltm arsh upon low
saltm arsh c au se s m ore ex ten sio n o f the form er
and sh rin k in g o f the la tte r in areal extent. In other
w ords, the low saltm arsh is converted into high
saltm arsh due to co n tin u o u s sedim entation. Thus
old saltm arsh es are ch arac te riz ed by poor internal
drainage th ro u g h tid a l channel due to lateral
36 7
gro w th o f m arsh es; le v el m a rsh s u rfa c e ; h ig h
elev atio n o f m arsh y su rfa ce an d h e n c e le a s t
im pact o f tidal effect.
T he saltm arsh es, in sp ite o f h a rsh e n v iro n ­
m en tal co n d itio n s in term s o f th e ir d a ily im m e r­
sion u n d er tid al flo o d s an d th e ir e x p o su re to a ir,
are one o f the m o st p ro d u c tiv e n a tu ra l e co sy stem s
o f the w orld b ecau se in flo w o f w a te r in to m a rsh e s
p rovide am ple n u trien ts fo r lu x u ria n t v e g e ta tio n
grow th. Several v arieties o f fish e s, a n im a ls an d
birds have co lo n ized in the saltm arsh e s o f c o a sta l
W est B engal and O rissa. D iffe re n t sp e c ie s o f
crabs and m olluscus have flourished in saltm arsh es.
O yster catchers and w ild fo w ls are se a so n a l
v isitors o f saltm arshes.
1 4 .7 IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
A byssopelagic zone : The zone o f o p en o c ea n
w ater extending from 4000 m d ep th d o w n w ard to
the depth o f 6000 m is called a b y sso p e lag ic z o n e
w hich is equivalent to aphotic zone.
Aphotic z o n e : The dark p o rtio n o f th e o cean
below 1000 m depth ch aracterized b y a b se n c e o f
sunlight is called aphotic zone. T his is th e d a rk
zone o f pelagic h ab itat (e n v iro n m en t) w h ic h
extends from 1000 m depth to th e d e ep e st p a rt o f
the ocean.
B ar-built e s tu a r y : The estu ary fo rm ed a lo n g
the coastal plains due to n arro w in g o f c o asta l seas
by bars o f varying dim ensions is called b a r-b u ilt
or bar-sheltered estuary.
B athypelagic zone : T he deep o p en o c ea n
zone extending from 1000 m d ep th d o w n w ard to
4000 m depth is called b ath y p elag ic zo n e w h ich is
equivalent to aphotic zone and L ch arac te riz ed b y
low tem perature, high h y d ro static p re ssu re an d
com plete darkness.
Benthic habitats : T he ex ten siv e b o tto m
areas o f the oceans ranging from shallow d ep th o f
neritic or continental shelves b ottom s to abyssal
and hadal zones bottom s are called ben th ic
habitats and th eir environm ental co n d itio n s are
called benthic en vironm ent.
D etrivores : The organism s th riv in g on
detritus (debris) and dead organism s are called
d e triv o re s . In th e case o f detrivores o f deep sea
b o tto m s o f th e oceans, they are called m a rin e
d e tr iv o r e s.
Disphotic zo n e : The depth zone o f
o p e n o c ea n betw een 200 m depth and 1000 m
d e p th is called disphotic zone w here direct
su n lig h t cannot reach but som e scattered light is
p resen t. T his is w hy this m esopelagic zone is
c alled twilight zone.
E p ip elagic b io z o n e : The upper portion o f the
oceans extending from ocean surface (sea level)
to the depth o f 200 m eters is called epipelagic
biozone. Since this zone is illum inated by
sunlight, it is called photic biozone.
E stu a r y : The sem i-enclosed w ater bodies o f
seas and freshw ater o f rivers at their m ouths are
called estuaries. The long and narrow m ouths o f
the rivers, w hich open in the oceans, are typical
exam ples o f estuaries, e.g. H ugli estuary.
E up h otic zone : The illum inated upper p o r­
tion o f the oceans upto the depth o f 200 m eters
from sea level is called euphotic or photic zone.
H adal p elagic z o n e : The deepest pelagic zone
lying betw een 4000 m depth and 6000 m depth or
even m ore is called hadalpelagic zone (or
biozone).
H igh saltm arsh : The landw ard portio n o f
saltm arshes developed on relativ ely hig h er in te r­
tidal flats and located betw een high neep tide
w ater and the hig h est tide w ater is called high
saltm arshes. The plants o f high saltm arshes have
acquired the ch aracteristics o f land plants such as
rootm ass and vascu lar system o f internal flow o f
fluids.
Isoh alin e con d ition : The co n d itio n o f u n i­
form d istrib u tio n o f salin ity in the co astal w aters
due to m ixing o f fresh w ater o f riv e r estu ary and
saline seaw ater is called isohaline condition.
L a g o o n s : The isolated or sem i-en clo sed or
sem i-isolated bodies o f shallow co astal w aters
having no sign ifican t input o f fresh w ater and
connected w ith the open sea by tid al inlets are
called lagoons.
L ittoral zon e : T he su bneritic ben th ic zone
b etw een high and low tide w aters is c alled litto ral
o r m eso litto ral zone.
L ow s a ltm a rs h : is th e seaw ard p o rtio n o f
saltm arsh es lo cated b etw een low m ean tid e w ater
and h ig h neap tid e w ater. L ow saltm arsh es are
daily co v ered w ith seaw ater (d u rin g tid e) and
u n co v ered (d u rin g ebb).
M a n g ro v e s : ‘M an g ro v e is a larg e w oody,
treelik e p la n t w ith a th ic k , p a rtia lly exposed
n etw o rk o f in te rw in e d ro o ts th a t g ro w dow n from
the b ran ch es in to th e w a te r an d se d im e n t’ (P. R.
Pinet).
M an grove sw am p s : M an g ro v e fo rests and
sw am ps are sig n ific a n t n a tu ra l e co sy stem s com*
p risin g bo th m arin e an d la n d en v iro n m en ts,
m angrove p lan ts and tre e s, an d are lo c a te d in the
in tertid al areas o f e stu a rin e an d d e lta ic reg io n s of
tropical and su b tro p ic al zo n es.
M arin e ecology : T h e stu d y o f in teractio n s
betw een m arin e o rg a n ism s an d m a rin e e n v iro n ­
m ent, and am ong m arin e o rg a n ism s th e m se lv e s is
called m arin e eco lo g y .
M esop elagic zo n e : T h e z o n e o f o p e n ocean
w ater b etw een 200 m d e p th a n d 1000 m d e p th is
called m eso p elag ic or d isp h o tic zo n e.
N eritic h ab itat : T h e z o n e o f w a te rm a ss
above the flo o r o f c o n tin e n ta l s h e lf e x te n d in g
from shoreline to th e p o in t o f c o n tin e n ta l s h e lf
break is called n e ritic h ab ita t.
P e la g ic : P e la g ic h a b i t a t an d
h a b ita t
b io m e in clu d e the en tire w a te rm a s s o f the
o ceans fro m sea su rfa ce (se a le v e l) to th e ocean
botto m s.
P h y to p la n k to n s : T h e flo a tin g au totrophic
p h o to sy n th e tic p rim a ry p ro d u c e r g re e n p lan ts in
the p h o tic z o n e o f p e la g ic h a b ita t o f th e o cean s are
called p h y to p la n k to n s.
S a ltm a r s h e s : S a ltm a rs h e s a re d e fin e d as wet
tra c t o f v e g e ta te d in te rtid a l m u d fla ts o r sandflats
w ith salt an d flo o d e d w ith s a lin e se a w a te r by tidal
cu rren ts.
S a ltw ed g e e s t u a r y : S a ltw e d g e e stu ary refers
to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f h ig h ly stra tifie d water
m a sse s i.e. th e u p p e r w a te rm a s s o f low density
an d s a lin ity a n d lo w e r w a te rm a s s o f h ig h d esd V ;
an d sa lin ity . jit
S u b n e r itic b e n th ic h a b ita t : T h e s u b n e l^ f J
h a b ita t m e a n s h a b ita t a n d e n v iro n m e n t o f
 OCEAN HABITATS
sea flo o r b e lo w the ocea n w ater o f continental
sh elv es.
S u b litto ra l zone : exten d s from the shoreline
o f lo w tid e w ater to the depth o f 200 m eters from
sea le v e l. S u b littoral z o n e represents m ost parts o f
the flo o rs o f co n tin en ta l sh e lv e s upto s e lf break.
S u p r a lit t o r a l z o n e : is located above high tide
w ater and is in u n d ated by seaw ater only when
very h ig h tid e o c cu rs, or strong tsunam i w aves
flo o d th e c o a sta l land or severe storm surges
attack th e c o a sts.
369
T id a l b o r e : The
steep high wall o f seawater
m o v in g upstream in the river estuary caused by
the interactions b etw een river flo w and incoming
tides is called tidal bore or sim p ly bore.
T id al in le ts : The outlets o f la g o o n s in the
open sea are called tidal inlets b ecau se tidal w ater
enters and com es out through these outlets.
Zooplanktons: The floatin g grazin g anim als
in the photic zone o f the o cea n s d ep en d in g on
phytoplanktons are called zoop lan k ton s.
CHAPTER 15: M A RIN E BIOM ES (BIOZONES) AND SEA O R G A N IS M S
m arin e biom es ( b io z o n e s ): m ean in g an d c h a ra c te ris tic fe a tu re s ,
types o f m arin e b iom es,
classificatio n o f m arine org an ism s, 373
p lan k to n co m m u n ity , m arine b io lo g ical c o m m u n itie s , 377
p h y to p lan k to n s, zooplankto n s, 378
nekton com m unity, 380
sea m am m als, 380
benthos com m unity, 382
 MARINE BIOMES (BIOZONES) AND
SEA ORGANISMS

15.1 M E A N IN G AND C H A R A C T E R IS T IC FEA­ the b io ta h av e m in im u m c o m m o n c h a ra c te ris tic s

TU R ES
A n e co sy stem becom es biom e w hen all the
p lan ts, a n im als an d p h y sical environm ents i.e.
su n lig h t, h u m id ity , soils etc. are studied c o lle c ­
tiv ely . In o th e r w ords, a biom e includes all plan ts,
an im als and so ils and d etritu s o f all those areas o f
the w o rld , w h e th e r te rre stria l or m arine, w here all
and all th e a re as o f b io m e a re c h a ra c te riz e d by
m o re o r less u n ifo rm e n v iro n m e n ta l c o n d itio n s.
W o rld b io m e s are d iv id e d in to tw o m ajo r
g ro u p s i.e. te rre s tria l b io m e s a n d a q u a tic b io m es.
A q u atic b io m e s a re fu r th e r s u b d iv id e d in to two
s u b c a te g o rie s, n a m e ly , fr e s h w a te r a q u a tic bio m e,
an d salin e m a rin e b io m e as fo llo w s :

te rre stria l
b io m e

f r e s h w a te r
b io m e
a q u atic
b io m e
m a rin e
biome
 jIARINE BIOMES (BIOZONES) AND SEA ORGANISMS
w a rm w a te r
b io m e
Marine
biome
c o ld w a te r
b io m e
T h e fo llo w in g are th e c h ara c te ristic fe a ­
tu res o f m a rin e b io m e s :
M a rin e b io m e s a cc o u n t fo r ab o u t tw o th ird
o f th e to ta l a re a s o f a ll th e b io m e s o f the globe as
s e a w a te r c o v e rs a b o u t 71 p e rc e n t o f the total
g e o g ra p h ic a l a re a o f th e w orld. T h e m arine
b io m e s h a v e c e rta in su ch ty p ic a l c h arac te ristic s
(w h ic h a re g e n e ra lly n o t p o sse sse d by te rre stria l
b io m e s ) w h ic h a ffe c t th e b io lo g ic a l co m m u n ities
o f th e m a r in e b io m e s as fo llo w s :
(i) T h e m a rin e b io m e s p ro v id e a w id e ran g e
o f h a b ita ts fo r th e m a rin e p la n ts an d a n im a ls as the
m arin e o rg a n is m s c a n liv e in th e sh a llo w seaw ater,
deep s e a w a te r a n d e v e n a t th e d e e p e s t b o tto m s;
they c a n liv e in c o ld e s t w a te r n e a r the p o la r zones
but th e te r r e s tr ia l o rg a n is m s c a n n o t liv e b ey o n d
certain h e ig h t a n d n e a r th e p o le s e x c e p t a few
species o f p e n g u in s a n d o th e r a n im a ls.
(ii) T h e s e a w a te r is c h a ra c te riz e d by m o re
or less u n if o r m ity in th e d is trib u tio n o f te m p e ra ­
ture an d th e r e f o r e m a rin e o rg a n is m s h a v e n o t to
adapt to e x tre m e te m p e ra tu re c o n d itio n s . V a rio u s
forms o f se a m o v e m e n ts s u c h as se a w a v e s, tid a l
waves, o c e a n ic c u rre n ts , u p w e llin g a n d s u b s id ­
ence (v e rtic a l m o v e m e n ts o f w a te rs ) a n d h o riz o n ­
tal m o v e m e n t o f s u rfa c e w a te r h e lp in ev en
horizontal a n d v e rtic a l d is trib u tio n o f te m p e ra ­
ture.
(iii) S e a w ater co n ta in s all the nutrients in
solution form w h ic h are e a sily taken by sea
0rganism s (p la n ts).
co n tin e n tal s h e lf b io m e
. . . I , ■ .- & V
open sea b io m e
u p w e llin g w a te r b io m e
c o n tin e n tal s h e lf b io m e
deep o pen o cean b io m e
(iv) The life -fo rm an d fo o d c h a in s a n d fo o d
w ebs in the m a rin e b io m e d e p e n d o n th e
a v ailab ility o f su n lig h t, w a ter, c a rb o n d io x id e ,
oxygen etc. A ll o f th e se e le m e n ts a re m o s tly
co n fin ed to the u p p e r z o n e o f s e a w a te r a n d
th erefo re m o st p la n t life is a lso c o n fin e d to 2 0 0 m
th ick zone o f u p p e r sea w a te r b e c a u s e s u n lig h t
d ecreases w ith in c re asin g d e p th s a n d it p ra c tic a lly
becom es a b sen t b e y o n d th e d e p th o f 2 0 0 m fro m
the w ater su rface. T h is u p p e r z o n e is c a lle d p h o tic
zon e w h ich is fu ll o f p rim a ry p ro d u c e r g re e n p la n ts
called as p h y to p la n k to n s b e c a u se th e se p la n ts
p rep are th e ir fo o d th ro u g h th e p ro c e ss o f p h o to ­
synthesis w ith the help o f su n lig h t an d z o o p lan k to n s
w h ich are p rim ary c o n su m e r h e rb iv o ro u s h e te r o -
tro p h ic an im als d e p en d in g on p h y to p la n k to n s fo r
th e ir food.
(v) S ince su n lig h t b e c o m e s to ta lly a b s e n t a t
g re a te r d ep th s in th e seas an d th e o c e a n s an d
h en ce p h o to sy n th e sis is n o t p o s sib le a t g re a te r
d ep th s, c o n se q u e n tly th e o rg a n ism s d e p e n d on
detritus (m arine sedim ents) and are called deterivores.
(vi) S«a w a te r p ro v id e s m a x im u m m o b ility
to th e manue o rg a n ism s. N u trie n ts are c irc u la te d
m o re quickly a n d e ffic ie n tly an d m a rin e o rg a n ­
ism s are m o re ra p id ly d is p e rse d th a n th e te rre s ­
trial o rg a n ism s. T h is is th e re a so n th a t th e
d is trib u tio n s o f m a rin e p la n ts an d a n im a ls are
m o re w id e sp re a d an d c o sm o p o lita n th a n th e
d is trib u tio n s o f te rre s tria l o rg a n ism s.
(v ii) S in k in g o f c o ld w a te r fro m th e w a te r
su rfa c e tra n s p o rts o x y g e n a te d w a te rs to th e se a
b o tto m s w h ic h m a k e a n im a l life p o s s ib le e v e n in
 th e d e e p o c e a n ic tre n c h es w h ereas anim al life is
n o t p o s s ib le b e y o n d a critic a l lim it ov er high
m o u n ta in s b e c a u s e o f lack o f oxygen at m uch
h ig h e r a ltitu d e .
15.2 TYPES OF MARINE BIOMES
2. Pelagic marine biom e is further divided
into tw o types on the basis o f depths o f ocean
water and plant life as fo llo w s :
1. n e ritic p e la g ic b io m e

<
(w ater o f continental shelves
w ith average depth o f 200 meters)
1. D iffe re n t ty p e s o f h ab itats, w hich have
b e e n d is c u s s e d in m u ch d etails in the preced in g
c h a p te r 14, a re fo rm ed in the o ceanic en v iro n m en t
o n th e b a sis o f v a rio u s co m b in atio n s o f sunlig h t,
a v a ila b ility o f n u trien ts, carbon dio x id e and
o x y g e n a n d th e rm a l co n d itio n s o f sea w ater.
T h e se v a rio u s h a b ita ts house d ifferen t types o f
m a rin e o rg an ism s (both, p lan ts and anim als). 2. o p e n se a p e la g ic b io m e
B a s e d o n sa lie n t e n v iro n m e n ta l co n d itio n s o f the (fro m sea s u rfa c e to sea
m a rin e e n v iro n m e n t, m arin e b io m es are c lassified b o tto m s)
in to th e fo llo w in g tw o m a jo r ty p es :
3. B a se d on a v a ila b ility o f s u n lig h t m arine
p e lag ic m arin e b io m e b io m e s are d iv id e d in to 3 m a jo r d iv isio n s as
Marine fo llo w s :
B iom e
b e n th ic m arin e biom e

P h o tic o r eu p h o tic zon e b iom e

(illu m in a te d zo n e upto 2 00 m d e p th fro m se a s u rfa c e )

M a rin e X d isp h o tic zo n e or tw ilig h t zo n e b io m e

b io m e s (h a v in g th in lig h t as tw ilig h t, fro m 2 0 0 m d e p th to 1 0 0 0 m d e p th )

a p h o tic zo n e o r d a rk zo n e b io m e

(d a rk z o n e fro m 1000 m d e p th to th e d e e p e s t o c e a n b o tto m )

I f a ll th e c h a r a c te ris tic fe a tu re s a re c o n s id ­ (2 ) Aphotic or dark zone biome

e re d to g e th e r, p e la g ic b io m e m a y be c la s s ifie d
w a te r d e p th = fro m 2 0 0 m e te rs to the
in to th e fo llo w in g s u b -ty p e s :
d e e p e s t o c e a n b o tto m

1. Pelagic Biomes (i) disphotic or twilight mesopelagic bionic

w a te r d e p th = 2 0 0 m e te rs to 1000
(1) Photic or euphotic pelagic biome or epipelagic m e te rs
biome (ii) bathypelagic biome
(illum inated zone biom e) water depth = water depth = 1000 meters to 44
from sea surface to 200 meters meters .■& m m
 MARINEBIOMES (BIOZONES) AND SEA ORGANISMS 373

(iii) a b y ssa l p e la g ic zo n e ocean flo o rs. T h e y are d iv id e d in to 2 m a in ty p e s a s

w a te r d e p th = 4 0 0 0 m e te rs to 6000 fo llo w s :
m e te rs su b n eritic b e n th ic b io m e
(iv ) h a d a lp e la g ic b io m e
B en th ic
w a te r d e p th = fro m 6 000 m e te rs to the
b iom e
d e e p e s t sea b o tto m s
sub o c ea n ic b e n th ic b io m e
2. B e n th ic B io m e s T he su b n eritic b en th ic b io m e re p re se n ts m a ­
rine e n v iro n m en tal c o n d itio n s o f se a flo o rs o f
B e n th ic m a rin e b io m e s are a lso called co n tin en tal sh elv e s an d are su b d iv id e d in to 3
sea flo o r o r se a b o tto m b io m e s b e c a u se th ey re p re se n t b io m es as fo llo w s :

1. su p ra litto ral biom e

(lo c a ted above tide w ater but flo o d ed d u rin g e x c e p tio n a lly v e ry
hig h tide)

S u b n e ritic . ^ 1 --------------------------------- 2. litto ral biom e or m eso litto ral biom e

b e n th ic (lo cated betw een high and low tid e w aters)
b io m e
3. su b litto ral biom e
(lo c a ted b etw een shoreline o f low tid e w a te r an d 2 0 0 m d e p th )

S u b litto ra l b io m e s a re fu rth e r d iv id e d into (4 ) hadal su b ocean ic b en th ic b io m e

tw o s u b -ty p e s as g iv e n b e lo w :
in n e r s u b - litto r a l b io m e (u p to 50 m depth)
>- o u te r s u b -litto r a l b io m e (50 m to 200 m
w a te r d e p th )
T h e s u b - o c e a n ic b e n th ic b io m es re p re se n t the
o cean flo o rs o f o p e n s e a b e tw e e n th e d ep th zo n e o f
(from 6000 m d ep th to th e d e e p e st o c e a n
floors o f ocean tre n c h es) .
B ased on tem p eratu re an d n u trien ts o f o c e ­
anic w ater m arin e b io m es are c la s s ifie d in to th e
fo llo w in g ty p es :
1. W arm w a ter co n tin en ta l sh elv es b io m e

200 m e te rs to th e d e e p e s t o c e a n flo o rs. T hus (su rface te m p e ratu re o v e r 20°C , it re p re ­

su b o c e a n ic b e n th ic b io m e s in c lu d e th e m arin e
e n v iro n m e n ta l c o n d itio n s o f o c e a n flo o rs o f
c o n tin e n ta l s lo p e s , d e e p sea p la in s an d o cean
tren ch es. T h e s e b io m e s a re s u b d iv id e d in to the
fo llo w in g 4 ty p e s :
( 1 ) a r c h ib e n th a l b io m e
(fro m 2 0 0 m d e p th to 1000 m d e p th )
( 2 ) b a th y l s u b o c e a n ic b e n th ic b io m e
(b e tw e e n 100 0 m a n d 4 0 0 0 m d e p th )
( 3 ) a b y s s a l s u b o c e a n ic b e n th ic b io m e
(b e tw e e n 4 0 0 0 m a n d 6 0 0 0 m d e p th )
sen ts p h o tic zo n e an d ric h e st b io m e in
term s o f larg e v a rie ty o f o rg a n ism s liv in g
in the w a rm w aters o f c o n tin e n ta l sh elv e s)
2 . C old w a ter co n tin en ta l sh elv es b io m e
(su rface tem p eratu re u su ally less th an 20°C)
3 . O cea n ic b io m e w ith u p w ellin g n u trien ts
(sufficient nutrients are brought by upw elling
o f w a ter)
4. C old op en sea b iom e
(less n u m b e r an d v a rie ty o f sea o rg a n ism s
due to p o o r su p p ly o f n u trie n ts)
 Warm open sea biome
(u p p e r 2 0 0 m is fu lly illum inated th ro u g h ­
o u t th e y e ar b u t th ere is general lack o f
n u trie n ts and hence less p o p u latio n o f
m a rin e o rg an ism s)
Coastal Marine Biomes
C o astal b io m es are th e a d m ix tu re o f coastal
lands and co asta l w aters and h en ce th ey are
attach ed w ith th e lands. T h ere are 3 m ain kinds o f
co astal b io m es as given b elo w :

co astal p lain e stu ary b io m e

fjord estu ary b io m e
1. estu a rin e biom e b ar-b u ilt estu ary b io m e
tecto n ic estu ary b io m e

C o a s ta l m angrove b io m e
b io m e 2 . w etlan d biom e
saltm arsh biom e

sem i-en clo sed or se m i-iso la te d la g o o n a l b io m e

3 . lagoon al biom e
en clo sed or iso lated lag o o n al b io m e

F o r d e ta ile d d escrip tio n and ch aracteristic 3. S eco n d ary c o n su m e r c a r n iv o r o u s m arin e

fe a tu re s o f v a rio u s kin d s o f m arine biom es as a n im als, an d
lis te d a b o v e re a d e rs are ad v ised to go th rou g h the 4. te rtia ry c o n su m e r o m n iv o ro u s m a r in e an im al
p re c e d in g 14th c h a p te r on ‘ocean habitats’. It m ay com m u n ities.
b e m e n tio n e d th a t b io m es an d h abitats are alm ost
2. C la s s ific a tio n o n the B a s is o f T a x o n o m ic
sim ila r b e c a u s e b o th c o m p rise p h y sica l or abiotic H ie ra rc h ie s
an d b io tic (b io lo g ic a l) co m p o n en ts and e n v iro n ­
m e n ta l c o n d itio n s . A lso se a fig u res 14.1 (ch ap ter L ik e te rre s tria l o rg a n ism s m a rin e o rg a n ­
14) fo r m a rin e b io m e s (o c e an h ab itats). ism s are also c la s s ifie d fro m h ig h e r to low er
o rd ers in to th e fo llo w in g 5 h ie ra rc h ic a l o rd e rs :
K in g d o m
15.3 CLASSIFICATION OF MARINE
4
ORGANISMS
p h y lu m
i
1. Classification on the Basis of Trophic Levels
c lass
i
L ik e te rre s tria l b io lo g ic a l co m m u n itie s,
o rd e r
m a rin e o rg a n ism s a lso c o m p rise 4 h ie ra rc h ic a l
i
o rd e r p la n ts an d an im a ls as fo llo w s :
fam ily
1. P h o to sy n th e tic p rim ary p ro d u c e r g reen i
p la n ts o f p h y to p la o k to n co m m u n ities, g en u s
2. P rim a ry c o n su m e r h e rb iv o ro u s zo o p la n k to n i
c o m m u n itie s, sp e c ie s * f
 MARINE BIOMBS (BIOZONBS) AND SEA ORGANISMS
It is n o t a d v isa b le to d isc u ss all the
o rg a n ic 18 o f m a rin e e n v iro n m e n t o f th e a fo re sa id
categories b e c a u s e th e fo rm a t an d sco p e o f this
book on ‘introductory oceanography' do n o t allo w
such d e ta ile d m ic ro -le v e l d e sc rip tio n , and h en ce
only b ro a d c a te g o rie s o f m a jo r k in g d o m s o f
marine o rg a n ism s a re p re s e n te d b e lo w :
(1) Kingdom Monera
T h is c a te g o ry in c lu d e s m ic ro sc o p ic s in g le ­
celled m a rin e o rg a n is m s su ch as b a cte ria and
b lu e-g reen a lg a e . B a c te r ia b e lo n g to the categ o ry
o f d e c o m p o se rs. T h e y b re a k d o w n and decom p o se
dead p la n ts a n d a n im a ls and ch an g e them into
in o rg an ic m a tte rs w h ic h serv e as n u trien ts to large
m arine o rg a n is m s . T h e b lu e-g reen a lg a e ’s fu n c­
tio n s in c lu d e (1 ) p h o to sy n th e sis, (2) conversion
o f a m m o n ia a n d n itro g e n into n u trien ts to be taken
up b y m a rin e p la n ts, (3) c o lo n izatio n o f such
m a rin e h a b ita ts w h ic h h av e inh o sp itab le harsh
e n v iro n m e n ta l c o n d itio n s.
(2) Kingdom Protista
T h e o rg a n is m s o f b o th p la n ts and anim als o f
this c a te g o ry are u n ic e llu la r m ic ro sco p ic m arine
organism s such as rad io laria, diatom s, foram inifera,
co co lith o p h o re s, z o o x a n th e lla e c iliates, fla g e l­
lates, d in o fla g e lla te s etc. It m ay be m en tio n ed th at
m arine o rg a n is m s o f th is k in g d o m in clu d e plants,
anim als, a n d a d m ix tu re o f p la n ts and anim als and
hence th e se m ic ro s c o p ic m a rin e o rg an ism s co m ­
prise the fo llo w in g :
^ m ic ro s c o p ic p la n ts
^ m ic ro sc o p ic a n im a ls
interm ediate com m on organism s includ­
ing the fu nctions o f both plants and
375
(3) Kingdom Fungi
F u n g i are found in th e estu a rin e an d
intertidal m udflats and sandflats and in saltm arshes.
T he fungi p ro te c t alg ae w h en th e y are u n c o v ered
and ex p o sed to a tm o sp h eric e n v iro n m e n t d u rin g
low tide period. F u n g i d e co m p o se d ead o rg an ic
m atter and co n v ert them in to n u trien ts. L ich e n s
also b elong to the m y co p h y ta p h y lu m o f fu n g i
kingdom .
(4) Kingdom Metaphytae
M etaphytae are flo ral alg ae p la n ts a n d also
include grasses o f d ifferen t sp ecies in tro p ic a l and
subtropical coastal saltm arsh es, and d iffe re n t
species o f m angroves o f the e stu a rin e and
in tertid al environm ents. The m eta p h y tae p la n ts
are alw ays attached to the seaflo o rs o f sh allo w
w ater w here sunlight can easily reach , b ecau se
these are ph o to sy n th etic p lan ts. T he alg ae g ro u p
includes red algae, green algae, and b ro w n alg ae,
w hich are im m ersed u n d er saline seaw ater. O n the
other hand, grasses o f saltm arsh es and trees and
plants o f m angrove sw am ps are ex p o sed to air
during low tides but are flooded d u rin g h ig h tides.
The grasses and m angroves are flo w erin g seed
bearing benthic plants o f p hotic zone o f sh allo w
w ater.
(5) Kingdom Metazoa
M etazoa includes m arine anim als o f d iffe r­
ent varieties as follow s :
Phylum C tenophora co m b je llie s
Phylum C nidaria hydras, jellifish es, cor­
als, sea anem ones etc.
Phylum P orifera sponges

anim als Phylum B ryozoa m oss animals

The m ain functions o f protista include Phylum Platyhelm inthes- ►
flatw orm s
(i) intake and release o f ch em icals, (ii) sources o f Phylum C haetognatha - arrow worms
food o f large-size anim als, (iii) production o f
Phylum A nnelida polychaete worms
organic detritus w hich fall on the sea floors and .fft
P hylum B rachiopoda - lamb shells
embeded in sea floor deposits.
376
P h y lu m M u llsc a —♦ chitn os, snails, lim ­
pets, o y stes, clam s,
m u ssels, scallop s,
tooth sh ells, octopus,
squids etc.
P h y lu m A rthropoda ~ ►h orseshoe crabs, m a­
rine m ites, sea sp i­
ders, copepods,
barnacles, krill, shrimp,
crabs, lobsters, isopods,
am phipods etc.
P h y lu m E c h in o d e rm a ta —►sta rfish , sea u rc h in s,
san d d o lla rs, sea c u ­
c u m b ers, b rittle starts,
sealillies, acron worm s.
P h y lu m P ro to c h o rd a ta —►tu n ic a te rs, salp s etc.
P h y lu m C h o rd a ta —►la n c e le ts, b o n y and
ja w le s s fishes, sea tu r­
tles, sea snak es, sea
b ird s, seals, m an atees,
n eritic p e lag ic
o rg an ism s
open sea p e la g ic o rg a n ism s
M a r in e
o rg a n ism s
T h e d e p th z o n e o f d if f e r e n t m a rin e
hab itats h av e a lre a d y b e e n e la b o ra te d w ith d e p th s
o f o cean fro m se a s u rfa c e in se c tio n 15.2 o f th is
chapter.
OCEANOGRAPHY
w h a le s , p o rp o iss,
d o lp h in s, w alru ses etc.
3. Classification on the Basis of Lifestyle and
Habitats
T h e m a rin e b io ta o c c u p y th e e n tire ocean
re a lm s c o m p ris in g b a s ic a lly tw o m a jo r habitats
i.e. p e la g ic h a b ita ts a n d b e n th ic o r o c ea n floor
h a b ita ts. B a se d o n th is, m a rin e o rg a n ism s are
d iv id e d in to tw o m a jo r g ro u p s , n a m e ly ( 1 ) pelagic
m arin e o rg a n ism s (b o th p la n ts a n d a n im a ls), and
(2) b en th ic m a rin e o rg a n ism s o f o c e a n flo o rs (both
p la n ts an d a n im a ls). T h e m a rin e b io ta o f p elag ic
h a b ita ts are fu rth e r s u b d iv id e d in to (1 ) n eritic
p e lag ic m a rin e o rg a n ism s, a n d (2 ) o p e n o cean
p e lag ic o rg an ism s. S im ila rly , b e n th ic m a rin e
o rg an ism s are d iv id e d in to (1 ) s u b -n e ritic b e n th ic
o rg an ism s, an d (2) s u b o c e a n ic b e n th ic o rg a n ism s.
T h ese are fu rth e r su b d iv id e d in to s e v e ra l c a te g o ­
ries as fo llo w s :
supralittoral organisms
su b n eritic
b e n th ic littoral organism s
o rg a n ism s
s u b litto ra l organism s
a rc h ib e n th a l o rg an ism s
su b o ce a n ic
b e n th ic b e th y l b e n th ic organism s
o rg a n ism s a b y ss a l b e n th ic organism s
h a d a l b e n th ic organism s
T h e m a rin e o rg a n ism s in c lu d in g p lan ts and
a n im a ls ra n g in g fro m m ic ro sc o p ic size to large
m a m m a ls lik e w h a le s, se a ls etc. a re a lso c la s s if ie d
on th e b a sis o f th e ir life s ty le s in to 3 m a jo r groups,
 MARINE BIOMES (BIOZONES) a n d s e a o r g a n is m s 377

n a m e ly ( 1 ) flo a te r o r g a n ism s, ( 2 ) sw im m e r a n im a ls, d iv id e d in to 2 d iffe re n t c a te g o rie s e.g . (1 )

a n d (3) b en th o s o r g a n ism s (b o th p la n ts a n d a n i­ h o lo p la n k to n s (s u c h p la n k to n s w h ic h s p e n d th e ir
mals), P la n k to n s a re flo a te r o rg a n ism s w h ich en tire life sp an as flo a tin g o rg a n ism s o r p la n k to n s),
in c lu d e b o th p la n ts a n d a n im a ls o f m ic ro sc o p ic an d (2 ) m e r o p la n k to n s (s u c h p la n k to n s , w h ic h
size. P la n k to n s a re fu rth e r d iv id e d in to 2 m a jo r a fte r b e c o m in g a d u lt fro m p la n k to n s sta g e b e ­
categories e.g. ( 1) p hytoplan ktons, and (2) zooplanktons. c o m e sw im m e rs as n e k to n s o r s in k to th e b o tto m
It m ay b e m e n tio n e d th a t p la n k to n c o m m u n itie s, o f o c e a n s a n d b e c o m e b e n th o s , b o tto m d w e lle rs).
though o f v e ry s m a ll siz e (m ic ro s c o p ic size ), T h u s, b a se d on a b o v e d is c u s s io n , m a rin e o rg a n ­
m ake m o s t o f th e b io m a s s o f th e e n tire m a rin e
ism s are d iv id e d in d iffe re n t c a te g o rie s o n th e
biom e b u t th e ir s p e c ie s a re v e ry few , w h ile th e
b a sis o f th e ir life sty le s as fo llo w s :
bottom d w e lle r o rg a n is m s h a v e lo w b io m a ss b u t
c o n stitu te 75 p e rc e n t o f sp e c ie s o f o rg a n ism s o f
the e n tire m a rin e b io m e . P h y to p la n k to n s are
• flo a te rs o r p la n k to n s
p rim ary p ro d u c e r g re e n p la n ts w h ic h m a n u fa c tu re
th eir fo o d th ro u g h th e p ro c e s s o f p h o to s y n th e sis M a rin e
w ith th e h e lp o f s u n lig h t. T h u s, th ey c an n o t O rg a n ism s • s w im m e rs o r n e k to n s
su rv iv e in d e e p e r o c e a n w a te r e x c e e d in g 2 0 0 m
d ep th .
• b o tto m d w e lle rs o r
I f w e c o n s id e r b a c te ria o f u p p e r sea su rfa ce
b e n th o s
a s d iff e r e n t fro m p h y to a n d z o o p la n k to n s, b u t
w ith in th e c a te g o ry o f p la n k to n c o m m u n itie s,
th e n p la n k to n c o m m u n itie s m ay be d iv id e d in to 3 • p h y to p la n k to n s
c ateg o ries su ch as (1) p hytop lan k ton s, (2) zooplanktons,
an d (3 ) b a c te r io p la n k to n s .
P la n k to n s • z o o p la n k to n s
A s s ta te d a b o v e , p la n k to n s g re a tly v a ry in
size ra n g in g fro m la rg e flo a tin g a n im a ls su ch as
je llifis h , a n d p la n ts , s u c h as S a rg a ssu m a lg a e , to • b a c te rio p la n k to n s
m ic ro s c o p ic s iz e s u c h as b a c te rio p la n k to n s m e a s ­ O n th e b a s is o f siz e
u rin g 0 .2 to 2 .0 m ic ro n s in le n g th . T h u s, p la n k to n s
are d iv id e d o n th e b a s is o f th e ir size in to (1) m a c ro p la n k to n s (p h y to a n d
m a c r o p la n k to n s , a n d (2 ) p ic o p la n k to n s (p ic o = z o o p la n k to n s , 2 to 2 0 c m
m ean s s m a ll in s iz e ). in siz e )
It m a y b e m e n tio n e d th a t th o u g h m o s t o f P la n k to n s
p la n k to n s s p e n d th e ir e n tire life s p a n in th e 2 0 0 m p ic o p la n k to n s (b a c te r ia
zone o f u p p e r p o r tio n o f th e o c e a n s , b u t th e re are p la n k to n s ) (0 .2 to 2 m ic ro n s
som e s u c h p la n k to n s w h ic h s p e n d th e ir life sp a n s in siz e )
in d iffe re n t lif e fo r m s (y o u n g , a d u lt a n d o ld ) in
d iffe re n t p o r tio n s o f th e o c e a n s . S o m e o f th e O n th e b a sis o f tim e s p e n t in
p la n k to n c o m m u n itie s a f te r s p e n d in g th e ir tim e o f d iffe r e n t p o r tio n s o f o c e a n s
larv al a n d ju v e n ile s ta g e in p la n k to n fo rm b e c o m e
n ek to n s (s w im m e rs ) a n d m o v e to d e e p e r p o rtio n s • h o lo p la n k to n s (e n tire life
o f th e o c e a n s . T h e re a re c e r ta in s p e c ie s o f n e k to n sp a n in p la n k to n c o m m u n itie s)
and b e n th o s c o m m u n itie s o f m a rin e o rg a n is m s
P la n k to n s
w h ich s p e n d th e ir lif e s p a n o f la rv a l a n d ju v e n ile
• m e ro p la n k to n s (p a rtly as
stag es a s p la n k to n s , a n d a f te r b e c o m in g a d u lt
p la n k to n s , a n d p a rtly e ith e r
m ove to n e k to n a n d b e n th ic e n v iro n m e n ts . B a s e d a s n e k to n s o r as b e n th o s )
on th is c o n s id e r a tio n , m a r in e o rg a n is m s a re

378
T h e n e k to n i m m u n itie s b e lo n g to sw im ­
m in g a n im a l co m m u n itie s o f d iffe re n t sp e c ie s an d
h a v e d e v e lo p e d th e ir sk ill a n d m e ch a n ism s o f
sw im m in g a n d free ly m o v in g w ith o u t th e h e lp o f
o c e a n c u rre n ts. T he n ek to n s are e x c lu siv e ly
a n im a ls b e c a u se no p la n ts can su rv iv e in d e e p e r
o c e a n w a te r d u e to la ck o f su n lig h t. T h e n e k to n
co m m u n itie s in c lu d e m o st o f a d u lt fish e s, m a rin e
m am m a ls lik e w h ales, sh ark s, sea ls e tc., an d
m a rin e re p tile s. A few o f the n ek to n a n im als, su ch
as sa lm o n fish e s, h ave d e v e lo p e d the h a b it o f
m o v in g u p stre a m o f fre sh w a te r at the tim e o f
la y in g eg g s. O n the o th e r h and, som e o f the
m arin e a n im a ls, su ch as eels, a fte r b e co m in g a d u lt
in fre sh w a te r b o d ie s co m e to the o cean s to jo in
n e k to n co m m u n itie s.
T h e b o tto m d w e llers o r b e n th o s liv in g
e ith e r on o r in the o c ea n floors at d iffe re n t d ep th s
are c la s s ifie d into (1) ep tfau n a and e p iflo ra (the
a n im a ls-fa u n a , a n d the p la n ts -flo ra liv in g on the
o c e a n flo o rs), a n d (2) in flau n a and in flora (liv in g in
th e o c ea n flo o rs i.e. w ith in th e d e tritu s (d eb ris)
ly in g o n th e o c ea n flo o rs and w ith in the su b strate
o f the o c e a n flo o rs. S om e o f the b en th o s anim als
(fa u n a ) h a v e a lso d e v elo p e d the h a b it o f sw im ­
m in g an d th u s b e sid e s liv in g on the sea flo o rs, th ey
a lso m o v e to jo in n e k to n co m m u n ities. T hus, a
th ird c a te g o ry o f b e n th o s an im als is also re c o g ­
n iz e d v iz. (3 ) n ek to b en th o s.
ep ifau n a and flora
(a n im a ls and p la n ts liv in g
on the o cean flo o rs)
B en th ic y S
m arin e in fa u n a and flo ra
o rg a n ism s \ (a n im a ls an d p la n ts liv in g
n. in the o c e a n flo o rs)
n e k to b e n th o s
(a n im a ls liv in g b o th as
b e n th o s a n d n e k to n s)
15.4 MARINE BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES
M arin e o rg a n ism s in c lu d in g b o th p la n ts
a n d an im a ls a re d iv id e d in to 3 c a te g o rie s o n th e
b a sis o f th e ir h a b ita ts.
o ceanography
(1 ) Planktons a re flo a tin g a n d d riftin g plants
a n d a n im a ls o f th e e u p h o tic z o n e o f th e sea s and
th e o c e a n s. P la n k to n s a re fu r th e r d iv id e d in to two
s u b -c a te g o rie s v iz . (i) p h y to p la n k to n s (plant
p lanktons), an d (ii) zo o p lan k to n s (an im al planktons).
(2 ) N e k to n s in c lu d e la rg e , s tro n g a n d p o w e r­
fu l flo a tin g a n d s w im m in g m a rin e a n im a ls m ain ly
fish e s. T h e se m a rin e a n im a ls m o v e in a ll the
z o n e s o f th e o c e a n ic e n v iro n m e n ts . N e k to n s are
e x c lu s iv e ly a n im a ls.
(3 ) B e n th o s in c lu d e th o s e m a rin e p lan ts
(n o n -p h o to s y n th e tic o r n o n -p h o to tro p h s ) and
a n im a ls w h ic h liv e at th e b o tto m s o f th e se a s and
th e o cean s.
1. Plankton Community
P la n k to n s in c lu d e th e g ro u p s o f b u o y a n t
and flo a tin g m a rin e p la n ts a n d a n im a ls w h ic h liv e
in th e e u p h o tic z o n e o r e p ip e la g ic z o n e e x te n d in g
fro m sea w a te r s u rfa c e to th e d e p th o f 2 0 0 m . The
p la n t p la n k to n s a re c a lle d p h y t o p la n k t o n s b e c a u s e
th e se are th e p rim a ry p ro d u c e r g re e n p la n ts w h ic h
m a n u fa c tu re th e ir o w n fo o d th ro u g h th e p ro c e s s
o f p h o to s y n th e sis w ith th e h e lp o f s u n lig h t
w hereas the anim al p lan k to n s are c alled zo o p lan k to n s
w h ic h d e p e n d o n p h y to p la n k to n s fo r th e ir fo o d .
P h y to p la n k to n s a re m ic ro s c o p ic in s iz e b u t are
v ery im p o rta n t m e m b e rs o f m a rin e o rg a n is m s
b e c a u se a ll th e a n im a ls o f th e m a rin e e c o s y s te m
d e p e n d on th e se p rim a ry p r o d u c e r a u to tro p h ic
m ic ro s c o p ic g re e n p la n ts fo r th e ir s u rv iv a l and
e x isten c e. T h e se p h y to p la n k to n s re p re s e n t tro p h ic
le v el o n e o f th e m a rin e fo o d c h a in s a n d f o o d w ebs.
P la n k to n s a re d iv id e d in to 3 s u b c a te g o rie s
as g iv e n b e lo w :
(1 ) p h y to p la n k to n s o r p la n t p la n k to n s
(2 ) z o o p la n k to n s o r a n im a l p la n k to n s
(3 ) b a c te rio p la n k to n s
O n th e b a s is o f tim e s p e n t in d iffe re n t
m a rin e b io m e s o f v a ry in g e n v iro n m e n ta l c o n d i­
tio n s , p la n k to n c o m m u n itie s o f m a rin e o rg a n ism s
a re d iv id e d in to th e fo llo w in g c a te g o rie s ;
(1 ) holoplanktons, w h ic h s p e n d e n tire lif
tim e as plan k to n s. T h ese in clu d e b o th phytoplanktons
a n d z o o p la n k to n s .
 MARINE BIOMES (BIOZONES) AND SEA ORGANISMS
(2) m eroplanktons, w h ich sp e n d th e ir ju v em­ ic ro s c o p ic b u o y a n t a n d fre e ly flo a tin g g re e n
nile life as p la n k to n s b u t a fte r b e c o m in g a d u lt
they sink and b eco m e e ith e r n e k to n s o r b e n th o s.
These are e x clu siv e ly a n im a ls, a n d m ay b e
divided in to tw o su b ca te g o rie s.
(i) n ek to p la n k to n s, are th o se z o o p la n k to n s
w hich sp en d th e ir e arly life as la rv a an d ju v e n ile
zo oplanktons b u t a fte r b e c o m in g a d u lts b eco m e
sw im m ers an d jo in n e k to n co m m u n itie s.
(ii) b en th o p la n k to n s, are th o se z o o p lan k to n s, are a u to tro p h ic p la n ts b u t a fe w o f th e m d e p e n d o n
w hich a fte r b e c o m in g a d u lt in p la n k to n co m m u n i­
ties, sin k a n d liv e o n th e sea flo o rs as b e n th o s
anim als.
(1 ) P h y to p la n k to n s
P h y to p la n k to n s in c lu d in g d iato m s and
d in o fla g e lla te s p ro d u c e m o st o f the organic
c arb o n in th e seas and the oceans and m ost o f the
o x y g e n o f th e atm o sp h ere. G olden brow n algae
a n d fla g e lla te g reen alg ae are the o th e r im p o rtan t
m em bers o f phytoplanktons. Though phytoplanktons
are m ic ro s c o p ic in size bu t these have enorm ous
re p ro d u c tiv e a b ility as th e y are m u ltip lied several
tim es w ith in a s h o rt p e rio d o f tim e bu t these are
also c o n su m e d by m a rin e a n im als w ith the sam e
speed as th e y are re p ro d u c e d . It is o b v io u s th at the
m arine e c o s y s te m is th e re fo re m o re e ffic ie n t and
is m a in ta in e d in e q u ilib riu m state b e ca u se o f
balance b e tw e e n re p ro d u c tio n o f p h y to p la n k to n s
and th e ir s im u lta n e o u s c o n su m p tio n by m arin e
anim als.
P h y to p la n k to n s are a lso c o n sid e re d as
grazing g r o u n d s fo r z o o p la n k to n s an d m an y h e r­
bivorous n e k to n s o f sw im m in g c a te g o ry . T h is is
why h e rb iv o ro u s z o o p la n k to n s an d n e k to n s are
called g ra z ers. P h y to p la n k to n s flo a t on th e sea
surface an d d rift h o riz o n ta lly w ith o c e a n cu rren ts.
The m ain p h y to p la n k to n s in c lu d e th e fo llo w in g :
^ alg a
^ d ia to m s
^ fla g e lla te s (d in o fla g e lla te s )
^ n u m e ro u s ty p e s o f b a c te ria
A lga an d d ia to m s are m o st im p o rta n t m e m ­
bers o f th e p h y to p la n k to n c o m m u n ity . T h e se are
p la n ts a t th e w a te r su rfa c e . A lg a e a n d d ia to m s a re
m o stly p ro d u c e d a n d d e v e lo p e d in th e c o ld w a te r
b io m e b u t th e s e a re w id e ly d is trib u te d b y th e
o c e a n ic c u rre n ts in o th e r p a rts o f d iffe re n t m a rin e
b io m e s. T h e re p ro d u c tio n o f d ia to m s is so ra p id
th a t th e se c o v e r la rg e a re a s o f se a su rfa c e w ith in
v e ry sh o rt p e rio d o f tim e.
F la g e lla te is th e s e c o n d im p o rta n t s e a p la n t
o f th e m ic ro -a lg a e g ro u p . M o st o f th e fla g e lla te s
o rg an ic m a tte r fo r th e ir fo o d . D in o fla g e lla te is th e
m o st im p o rta n t sp e c ie s o f fla g e lla te s . G o n y a u la x
and g ym n od iu m g e n era o f fla g e lla te s a re c h a ra c ­
te riz ed by re p ro d u c tio n e x p lo sio n w h ic h re s u lts in
the d e v elo p m en t o f e n o rm o u s m a ss o f th e s e re d -
b row n p lan ts w ith in sh o rt p e rio d o f tim e . T h e
sw arm s o f th e se red b ro w n p la n ts a re c a lle d red
tides w h ich g ro w m o stly in th e tro p ic a l w a rm
m arin e bio m e. C o c o lith o p h o r es are th e im p o rta n t
m em bers o f th e g ro u p o f m in o r p h y to p la n k to n s .
T hough th ese g ro w m o stly in th e tro p ic a l m a rin e
b iom es b u t som e tim es th e y g ro w in la rg e s w a rm s
in the N o rth Sea.
P lan t p la n k to n s (p h y to p la n k to n s ) a ls o in ­
clude n u m ero u s ty p es o f b a cte ria w h ic h a re fo u n d
in b o th co ld an d w arm m a rin e e c o sy ste m s b u t th e y
m o stly grow in th e litto ra l b io m e s an d th e p h o tic
zo n es o f the seas an d th e o c ea n s b e c a u s e th e se
b a cte ria l p la n ts d ep en d on o rg a n ic m a tte r f o r th e ir
fo o d and th e o rg a n ic m a te ria ls a re a b u n d a n tly
fo u n d in th e litto ra l b io m e s a n d in th e p h o tic
(e u p h o tic ) zo n es.
2. Z o o p la n k to n s
Z o o p la n k to n s o r a n im a l p la n k to n s in c lu d e
v a rio u s life -fo rm s o f m a rin e a n im a ls. T h e s iz e o f
th e se m a rin e an im a ls ra n g e s fro m a fra c tio n o f a
m illim e tre to se v e ra l m e tre s. T h e se z o o p la n k to n s
are d iv id e d in to 3 ty p e s as fo llo w s :
(1 ) h e rb iv o ro u s z o o p la n k to n s
(2 ) c a rn iv o ro u s z o o p la n k to n s
(3 ) d e triv o ro u s z o o p la n k to n s
Z o o p la n k to n s are a lso d iv id e d in to 2
c a te g o rie s an d tw o s u b c a te g o rie s o n th e
 380
tim e o f th e ir life cycle spent in different portions
(b io m es) o f the oceans as follow s :
(1) h o lo zo o p la n k to n s, w hich spend their entire
life span in plankton com m unities o f up p er
p elag ic biom e upto 200 m depth from sea
surface.
(2 ) m erozoop lan k ton s, after becom ing ad u lt in
p lan k to n com m unities either becom e as
nektons (sw im m ers) or benthos (bottom
dw eller) anim als. These are divided into
tw o sub-categories.
(i) n ek tozoop lank ton s, becom e nektons after
spending their early stages o f larva and
ju v e n ile phase, jo in neckton com m unities
after becom ing adults.
(ii) benth ozoop lan k ton s, after becom ing adults
in plankton com m unities becom e benthos
anim als.
It is im portant to note that this com m unity is
o f key im portance as its herbivorous forms
(herbivorous anim als o f zooplankton com m unity)
are essential in the conversion o f organic m atter
into anim al protein; it is the fundam ental bridge
betw een the m icroscop ic pastures o f the sea (great
sw arm s o f p lan t planktons spread over larger area
o f the sea surface) and the largest m arine anim als ’
(P.A . F u rley and W .W . N ew ey, 1983) because
zo o p lan k to n s eat phytoplanktons and carnivorous
m arin e anim als feed on zooplanktons.
It m ay be p o in ted out that m ost o f the
zo o p lanktons rem ain perm anently as zooplanktons
bu t so m e zo o p lan k to n s spend only a part o f their
life-c y c le in the form o f planktons such as eggs,
larv ae and im m atu re and undeveloped form s as
these b eco m e n ek ton s (such as fishes) and benthos
(such as crab s) soon after they assum e m ature
form s.
T he cop ep od belo n g in g to the group o f sm all
cru stacean s and feeding on phytoplankton s is
very im p o rtan t zo o p lan k to n w hich produces
p ro tein and is found in large num ber in m any
oceanic biom es. T housands o f copepods o f a
single species are found even in one cubic m etre
o f sea w ater. A bout 67 p e rc en t o f the total w eight
o f z o o p lan k to n s o f the N orth Sea is accounted for
by copepods. C opepods have high rate o f re p ro ­
d u ctio n . F o r exam ple, one single p a ir o f C alanus
OCEANOGRAPHY
fin m arch icu s sp ecies o f co p ep o d s p ro d u c e its three
g e n eratio n s in a sin g le year. C o p ep o d s are easy
prey to sev eral sp ecies o f fish es su ch as herring,
sprat, p ie ch a rd etc.
E u p h au siid is a n o th e r im p o rta n t sp ecies o f
h erb iv o ro u s z o o p lan k to n . T h ese an im als grow in
large sw arm s in th e A n ta rc tic e n v iro n m e n t and
becom e food o f the larg e b aleen w h a les. It is
believ ed th at th ese e u p h a u siid s m a y becom e
im p o rtan t source o f an im al p ro te in s fo r hum an
food in co m in g future.
A rrow w orm is an im p o rta n t c arn iv o ro u s
zoo p lan k to n b u t it is also eaten by h e rrin g and
other fishes. T hese w o rm s b e co m e la rg e sw arm s
in the shallow w aters o f th e A tla n tic O cean o f f the
coast o f N o rth -W est E u ro p e. F o ra m in ife ra and
radiolaria are im p o rtan t p ro to z o a n s w h ich are
abundantly found in th e w arm w a te r b io m e.
P leuston and n eu ston are also v e ry im p o rtan t
groups o f zo o p lan k to n s. P le u sto n is a v e ry u nique
and typical m arine z o o p lan k to n in th e sen se that
its body is p artly in the air ab o v e th e w a te r su rface
and p artly in the w ater. S ip h o n o p h o res (h av in g
floating b lad d er and long te n ta c le s), sa lp s and
com b jellies are o th er im p o rtan t sp e c ie s o f the
p leuston group o f zo o p lan k to n . N eu sto n g ro u p o f
anim als includes those m icro sco p ic z o o p la n k to n s
w hich live in large n u m b er in one m illim e tre -
thick thin film o f su rface sea w a te r b e c a u se th is
thin lay er co n tain s rich n u trie n ts, n u m ero u s
b acteria and o th er m ic ro sco p ic o rg a n ism s.
Z o o p lan k to n s are also d iv id e d on th e basis
o f th eir size into the fo llo w in g 2 c ate g o rie s :
1. m icro sco p ic z o o p lan k to n s
2. m acro sco p ic z o o p lan k to n s
The m icroscop ic zo o p la n k to n s are prim ary
consum ers and graze p h y to p la n k to n s to b u ild and
expand the su rface area o f th e ir b o d ie s so th at they
cannot sin k but can flo at an d re m a in n e a r the
source area o f th e ir food o f p h y to p la n k to n s in the
illu m in ated p h o tic zone u p to 2 0 0 m d ep th from
the sea su rface. T he h e rb iv o ro u s m icro sco p ic
z o o p la n k to n s g ra z e m o s tly o n d ia to m s ,
d ia n o f la g e lla te s , w h ic h a re s ig n ific a n t
p h y to p lan k to n s. M any z o o p lan k to n s are om ni­
vores i.e. th ey graze on p h y to p la n k to n s as w ell as
 MARINE BIOMES (BIOZONES) AND SEA ORGANISMS
eat m icroscopic z o o p lan k to n s. T he sig n ific a n t
groups o f m ic ro sco p ic z o o p lan k to n s include the
follow ing :
>■ ra d io la ria n s, sin g le -c e lle d z o o p lan k to n s
>■ fo ram in ifera, sin g le -c e lle d anim als
>■ copepods, shrim p-like anim als o f subphylum
c ru sta c e a
The m acroscop ic zoop lank ton s are large enough
to be se e n b y n a k e d ey es w ith o u t the help o f
m icro sco p e. T h e s ig n ific a n t m em b ers o f this
group are k r ill an d co p ep o d s. T h ere are abo u t 1500
species o f k rills and th ey are p le n ty in the
A n tarctic O c ea n an d are m a jo r so u rce o f food o f
d iffe re n t sp e c ie s o f b ird s and n eck to n s m ainly
larg e fish e s in c lu d in g w h ales. T he m acro sco p ic
z o o p la n k to n s in c lu d e th e fo llo w in g :
C o le n te ra te s o f the fo llo w in g tw o types :
(i) S ip h o n o P h o re, exam ple : “ P ortu-
guese-m an-of-w ar” ; “by-the-w ind sailor”
(ii) S c y p h o z o a n s such as je llifish
tu n ic a te s
>■ g e n u s P y ro so m a , is lu m in escen t anim al
C te n o p h o re s su ch as sea g o o seb erries and
p in k , e lo n g a te d B ero re
C h a e to g n a th s
2. N e k to n C o m m u n it y
N e k to n c o m m u n ity o f sea o rg an ism s, say
m arine a n im a ls b e c a u s e n e k to n s are only anim als,
p rim arily c o n s is ts o f sw im m in g an im als o f
v ario u s d e p th s o f th e sea s a n d th e o cean s. M o st o f
the a n im a ls o f th e n e k to n g ro u p are v e rte b ra tes.
The m o st im p o rta n t a n d o m n ip re s e n t co m p o n en t
o f th e n e k to n g ro u p o f a n im a ls is fo rm ed by
nu m erous s p e c ie s o f fis h e s. T h e se are fo u n d in all
types o f m a rin e b io m e s a n d in all o c e a n ic depths.
The m a rin e fish e s are d iv id e d in to tw o m a jo r
groups as fo llo w s :
(1) p e la g ic fish e s
(2) d e m e rsa l fish e s
T h e p e la g ic g ro u p o f fish e s su ch as h e rrin g s or
anchovy liv e in th e u p p e r z o n e o f th e seas and the
oceans w h e re a s th e d e m a r sa l g ro u p o f fish es su ch as
381
p laice, cod, h ad d o ck etc. liv e in g re a t d e p th s
m ainly on the bottom s o f the seas and th e o cean s.
S quids are the fast sw im m in g in v e rte b ra te a n i­
m als o f the nekton group. S m aller sq u id s m o v e in
groups and are th u s easily trap p ed by fish erm en
because o f th e ir slow sp eed o f m o v e m e n t b u t the
larg er squids g en erally escap e from th e tra w le r
b ecau se o f th eir sh eer fast speed. T he sq u id s are
carn iv o res but they are th em selv es th e fo o d o f
large fishes like sperm w hales.
T he sw im m er m arin e m am m als o f n e k to n
com m unity are d iv id ed into tw o g ro u p s as
follow s :
>■ T hose m arine m am m als w h ich liv e in
w ater as w ell as on the land su ch as sea ls.
Such anim als get th e ir fo o d fro m the
m arine biom e but b reed on th e lands. T h ey
spend p art o f the y e ar in sea w a te r an d p a rt
o f the year on the land.
>■ The second categ o ry o f sw im m in g m a rin e
m am m als includes th o se an im a ls w h ic h
spend th eir entire life span in se a w a te r su ch
as whales, w hich are d iv id e d in to tw o
fam ilies :
(i) toothed w h ales, and
(ii) w halebone w hales
The toothed w h ales are p re d a to rs an d ran g e
in size from sm all size (such as sp erm w h a les) to
gian t size (sich as k iller w h ales). D o lp h in s and
p orp oises are also in clu d ed in the to o th e d w h ale
fam ily. T he w h aleb one w h ale fa m ily o f fish es
includes blue w hales and h um p b ack ed w h a les. S ea
cow such as m anatees is also im p o rtan t sp ec ie s o f
sw im m in g m am m als o f the n ek to n co m m u n ity .
G uan o, m ain ly b oobies and c o rm o ra n ts are im p o r­
ta n t sw im m ing birds.
Sea M a m m a ls
L ike o th er m am m als, m arin e m am m als
h av e also d e v elo p ed co m m o n c h arac te ristic s o f
w a rm -b lo o d e d an im als, m ech an ism o f b reath in g
air, rep ro d u c tio n by p ro d u cin g live y o u n g , h a ir o r
fu r on th e ir b o d ies etc. A few m arin e m am m als
also lay eggs su ch as d u c k -b ille d p la ty p u s and
sp in y a n te a te r etc. T h ere are 116 sp ecies o f sea
 382 oceanography

manatees
(in c o a s ta l w a te rs o f tropical
A tla n tic O c e a n )

dugongs
(in c o a s ta l w a te rs o f
tro p ic a l In d ia n O c ea n
a n d tro p ic a l P a c ific
O c ea n )

fin b ack w h ale

b a lee n w hale rig h t w h ale
(to o th less w hale) g ray w h ale
h u m p b a ck w h ale
b lu e w h ale
Whales
b o ttle n o se d o lp h in
to o th e d k ille r w h ale
w h ale n a rw h ale
sp erm w h ale

m am m ls o f 3 o rd e rs e.g. (1) o rd e r Pinnipedia, (2) te m p e rate seas. It m a y b e as la rg e as 18 in in

o rd e r Sirenia, an d (3 ) o rd e r Cetacea. T he fo llo w in g le n g th w ith a v e ra g e w e ig h t o f 35 to n n es. Killer
are th e e x am p les o f p rin c ip a l sea m am m als o f whale is th e m o s t d a n g e ro u s sp e c ie s o f toothed
th ese 3 o rd e rs : w h ales an d fe e d s on se a ls , p o rp o is e s, penguins
(1) Toothed whales : m o stly feed on fish es, an d o th e r sm a ll w h a le s. T h e o th e r sp ecies o f
sq u id s an d c ru sta c e a n s. Sperm whale is the m a jo r to o th e d w h a le s in c lu d e n a rw h a le a n d bottlenose
sp e c ie s o f th is fa m ily and is fo u n d in tro p ic a l an d d o lp h in .
 MARINE BIOMES (BIOZONES) AND SEA ORGANISMS
(2) B aleen w h a les o r to o th le ss w h a les : g en er­
ally co m p rise th e sp ecies o f blu e w h ales, finback
w hales, h u m p b a ck w h ales, gray w hales, sei,
m inke etc. B lu e w h ales are the larg est o f all the
species o f to o th le ss w h ales and are on verge o f
ex tin ctio n . It m ay b e p o in te d out th at blue w hales
breed in su b tro p ic a l sea w ater during w in ter and
then m ig ra te to p o la r areas during sum m er for
feeding. F ish e rm e n fin d this perio d as the m ost
c o n v e n ie n t fo r th e ir catching. B lue w hales now
n e ed p ro te c tio n and conservation.
G r a y w h a le s o f the fam ily o f baleen w hales,
h a v in g av erag e len g th o f 15 m eters and w eight o f
30 m e tric tons are m ost sign ifican t m igratory
w h ales as th ey c o v er longest annual jo u rn e y o f
2 2 ,0 0 0 k ilo m e te rs (round jo u rn e y ) from cold
w a te r o f o cean s to rela tiv e ly w arm oceans and
b ack to c o ld oceans.
S in ce b e g in n in g m an u sed to hu n t w hales to
get d iffe re n t m a te ria ls from w hales for various
p u rp o se s e.g. m e at and b lu b b e r for hum an food,
o il fo r lig h tin g and am b erg ris. The oil from sperm
w h ales is u sed as lu b ric a n ts in the factories and to
p rep are so ap s and c o sm etics. M eat o f w hales is
also u se d as feed fo r o th e r anim als w hile w hale
bones a re u se d to m a n u fa c tu re fertilizers.
S h a rk s are v e ry im p o rtan t m em bers o f
n ek to n fish c o m m u n itie s. T here are m ore than 350
sp ecies o f sh ark s. W h a le s h a r k is the larg est shark
and is a lso th e la rg e st fish is the w orld. It m easures
15 m e te rs in le n g th an d is p la n k to n eater. M any
v a rie tie s o f la rg e r sh ark s are v ig o ro u s carnivores
as th ey e a t se a ls and sea lions. G r e a t w h ite s h a rk s
are u n c o m m o n sp e c ie s o f sh ark s and are m ostly
found in c o ld se a w a te r. B u ll s h a rk s are able to
ad just w ith su d d e n c h an g e s in seaw ater such as
changes in te m p e ra tu re and salin ity o f seaw ater.
Deep W a te r N e k to n C o m m u n itie s
T he sw im m e r m a rin e a n im als o f deep
pelagic w a te r are m o stly fish es o f deep ocean
w ater, w h ic h live ab o v e o cean flo o rs w here the
m ovem ent o f w a te r is a lm o st n eg lig ib le and there
is p itch d a rk n e ss. A t such g reat dep th the n ekton
anim als g et fo o d fro m tw o so u rc es i.e. (1) from the
dead o rg an ic m a tte rs o f p la n ts and an im als w hich
3$3
fall dow n from u p p er o cean la y er h a v in g ric h
biotic com m unities, and (2) by catch in g an d
eating o th er deep w ater n ek to n anim als. S in ce
there is com plete darkness, m any d eep -sea fish es
have d eveloped such m ech an ism in th eir ow n
bodies w hich can p ro d u ce lig h t so th at they can
see and catch th eir prey. T hey hav e d ev elo p ed
bio lu m in esce cells called p h o to p h o re s w hich p ro ­
duce light. The follow ing are the sig n ific a n t deep
sea fishes :
>■ hatchet fish
lantern fish
>■ stom iatoid
galper eel
>■ fem ale deep-sea angler fish w ith attach ed
parasites
3. Benthos C o m m u n ity
The benthos com m unity o f m arin e o rg a n ­
isms includes all those plants and anim als w h ich
live on the sea bottom s right from the litto ral
m arine biom e to the open sea biom e. T he b en th o s
com m unity o f m arine organism s is ch aracterized
by large species diversity.
The benthos biological com m unities are
studied according to environm ental con d itio n s o f
different benthic habitats. In other w ords, the
ocean floors are so extensive form rocky shores
and sea beaches to the deepest bottom s o f trenches
that environm ental conditions greatly vary and
hence species o f benthic biological com m unities
also vary accordingly.
The total know n species o f the benthos
anim als com m unity represents 16 percent o f the
total species o f all the m arine anim als. M ost o f the
benthos anim als live on the bottom w here the
depth o f sea w ater is about 200 m. In other w ords,
m ost o f benthos anim als live on the sea bottom o f
the photic zone having average depth o f 200 m o f
sea w ater.
B enthos organism s (both plants and ani­
m als) either live on the ocean floors o r in the
detritus o f ocean floors and hence they are divided
into tw o groups :
 384
(1 ) e p iflo ra (p la n ts) an d e p ifau n a (an im als)
(2 ) in flo ra an d in fa u n a
E p iflo r a a n d ep ifa u n a live on the su rfa ce s o f
th e s e a b o tto m s w h e rea s in flora and in fau n a live in
th e d e tritu s a n d are g en erally b u ried w h e th er
c o m p le te ly o r p a rtia lly in the o cean ic b o tto m
d e p o sits. It m ay b e p o in te d ou t th at the natu re,
c h a ra c te ris tic s a n d types o f life o f the b en th o s
p la n ts an d a n im a ls are a ffe cted and c o n tro lle d by
s e v e ra l fa c to rs su ch as the n a tu re and c o m p o sitio n
o f s e a b o tto m (it m ay be o f ro ck y , o r san d y or
m u d d y su rfa c e ), p h y sica l c h arac te ristic s o f sea
w a te r in c lu d in g te m p e ratu re o f sea w ater, am o u n t
o f sa lin ity , p re ssu re , am o u n t o f su n lig h t etc. and
th e n a tu re an d th ic k n e ss o f o cean ic dep o sits
re s tin g o n th e o c ea n ic b o ttom s.
Benthos Flora (Plants)
T h e im p o rta n t p la n ts o f sea b o tto m s o f the
litto ra l and c o n tin e n ta l s h e lf b iom es are seaw eeds,
la rg e a lg ae , e elg rass (z o ste ra ) and tu rtle grass
(T h a la ssia ). It m ay b e p o in te d ou t th a t m ax im u m
g ro w th o f th e b e n th o s p la n ts tak es p lace in the
b o tto m z o n e s o f th e litto ra l bio m e o r litto ral zone
u p to th e d e p th o f 200 m e te rs, w h ich is the photic
zone w h ic h is illu m in a te d by su n lig h t. It m ay be
re m e m b e re d th a t p la n ts can n o t g ro w w ith o u t
s u n lig h t. T h e re is w ell d e v e lo p e d g ra d a tio n in the
p la n ts c o lo u r fro m the sea c o ast to w ard s the sea.
F o r e x a m p le , th e c o lo u r o f the litto ra l b en th o s
p la n ts g ra d u a lly c h a n g e s from the sea co ast
to w a rd s th e s e a in th e fo llo w in g seq u e n c e : g reen
w e e d , b ro w n w e ed , an d re d w eed. S im ilarly , the
b e n th o s p la n ts d e v e lo p e d on ro c k y b o tto m s o f
litto ra l z o n e s ra n g e g ra d u a lly from the co ast
to w a rd s th e s e a in th e fo llo w in g seq u e n c e :
c h a n n e l w ra c k z o n e o f fa c u s (w ra c k ) alg ae, flat
w ra c k z o n e , k n o tte d w ra c k z o n e and o a r w eed
zone.
Benthos Fauna (Animals)
Benthos anim als m o s tly in c lu d e se v e ra l s p e ­
c ie s o f m o llu s c a w h ic h a re fo u n d in la rg e n u m b e r.
T h e im p o r ta n t s p e c ie s a re b iv a lv e m u sse ls,
o y s te r s a n d c o c k le s . T h e s e a n im a ls liv e in h a rd
oceanography
o u te r sh ells o r m a n tle a n d filte r o rg a n ic m atter and
m ic ro -o rg an ism s fro m s e a w ater. T h ese filtered
o rg a n ic m a tte r an d m ic ro -o rg a n ism s b eco m e food
o f m o llu sc u s. E c h in o d e rm s a n d sp in y skinned
an im als are c arn iv o ro u s b e n th o s an im als. Starfish
an d b rittle stars a re im p o rta n t sp ec ie s o f such
sp in y sk in n ed a n im a ls. N u m e ro u s ev id en ces o f
the e x iste n c e o f b e n th o s a n im a ls a t g re a te r depths
h av e b een g ath ered . S e v e ra l sp e c ie s o f m olluscus,
w o rm s, je lly fis h an d c o m b je llie s h a v e b een found
at the d ep th o f 1650 m . S c a rle t p ra w n s have
u n iq u e c h a ra c te ris tic fe a tu re in th a t th e y have
d aily m ig ra tio n fro m th e se a b o tto m to th e upper
su rfa ce o f sea w a te r d u rin g n ig h t to g et food
(b e c au se th e u p p e r su rfa c e o f s e a w a te r is the
ric h e st zo n e in te rm s o f a b u n d a n c e o f m arine
p la n ts an d a n im a ls) a n d fro m th e su rfa c e to th e sea
b o tto m b e fo re su n rise.
T h e life o f m a rin e b e n th ic a n im a ls liv in g on
the 1000 to 4 0 0 0 m d e ep se a b o tto m largely
d ep en d s on the o rg a n ic m a tte r o f th e u p p e r surface
o f sea w a te r an d th e re m a in s o f n e k to n anim als.
S uch d eep b e n th o s a n im a ls a re g e n e ra lly scaven­
gers su ch as sh ark s, s u b le f is h , h a g fis h , octopus
etc. T h ere are su ch sp e c ie s o f fis h , sq u id s and
c ru sta c e a n s liv in g o n d e e p s e a b o tto m s th e bodies
o f w h ich e m it o r th ro w lig h t w h ic h e n ab le s them
to see in th e o th e rw is e d a rk e n v iro n m e n t. H atchet
fish is th e m o st im p o rta n t e x a m p le o f su ch self­
illu m in a te d a n im a ls. S o m e d e e p b e n th o s anim als
are e n d o w ed w ith illu m in a te lu re s (in other
w o rd s, th e b o d ie s o f s u c h a n im a ls a re covered
w ith s e lf-illu m in a te d sk in ) w h ic h a lso produce
lig h t in th e p itc h d a rk e n v iro n m e n t. O cto p u s is
v e ry u n iq u e a n d c o n s p ic u o u s d e e p b e n th o s anim al
b e c a u se it fre q u e n tly c h a n g e s its c o lo u r according
to th e c o lo u r o f its s u rro u n d in g s as a m ean s of
c a m o u fla g e . T h e d e e p e s t p a rts o f th e oceans
re p re se n tin g h a d a l z o n e ra n g in g in d e p th s from
6 0 0 0 m to 7 0 0 0 m a re c h a r a c te riz e d b y very few
a n im a ls b e c a u s e o f v e ry lo w te m p e ra tu re , total
a b se n c e o f s u n lig h t, n e a r a b s e n c e o f n u trien ts etc.
A m o n g th e d e e p b e n th o s a n im a ls im p o r t a n t are
so m e d e triv o ro u s a n im a ls (fe e d in g o n d etritu s or
se d im e n ts ) su c h as s e a c u c u m b e r ( h o lo t h u r ia n s ) ,
sea a n e m o n e s , c ru s ta c e a n s a n d w o rm s. Several
b a c te ria , se a c u c u m b e rs , b rittle s ta rs, p o ly chaete,
sea sp id e rs a re fo u n d o n th e b o tto m s o f deep sea
tre n c h e s.
 MARINE BIOMES (BIOZONES) AND SEA ORGANISMS
B e n th ic H y d ro th e rm a l V e n t B io lo g ic a l C o m m u n i­
ties
H y d ro th e rm a l v e n ts re fe r to th e sp o u tin g o f
w arm w a te r th ro u g h v e n ts in th e d e ep o c e a n flo o rs
below th e d e p th o f 2 5 0 0 m e te rs fro m se a su rfa ce .
This d e ep s e a h y d ro th e rm a l p h e n o m e n o n w as first
d isc o v e re d in th e y e a r 1977 in th e G a la p a g o s R ift
lo cated n e a r th e e q u a to r i.e. at 21° N o rth la titu d e
so u th o f B a ja C a lifo rn ia in th e E a st P a c ific O cean .
A few v e n ts w e re lo c a te d a t th e sea b o tto m s.
T h ese s u b m a rin e d e e p se a b o tto m v e n ts w ere
fo u n d e m ittin g b la c k c lo u d s o f h o t w a te r c o m p ris­
ing s u lp h id e s o f c o p p e r, z in k an d silv e r. T h ese
u n d e rw a te r c h im n e y s w e re n a m e d b la c k sm ok ers.
S u rp ris in g ly , th e te m p e ra tu re o f s e a w a te r co m in g
o u t th ro u g h th e s e s u b o c e a n ic v en ts (u n d e r w a te r
c h im n e y s ) w a s m e a s u re d to b e 350°C . B ec a u se o f
d o m in a n c e o f m e ta l s u lp h id e s the w a te r aro u n d
su ch v e n ts b e c o m e b la c k . T h e se d eep o c ea n v en ts
are n o w c a lle d h y d ro th e rm a l v en ts b e c a u se th ey
e m it w a rm (th e rm a l) w a te r (h y d ro ). B ec a u se o f
v e ry h ig h te m p e ra tu re (3 5 0 °C ) o f s e a w a te r
c o m in g o u t o f su c h v e n ts, the te m p e ra tu re o f
o c e a n w a te r a ro u n d su c h v e n ts a lso in c re ase s.
T h is is w h y te m p e ra tu re o f su rro u n d in g s e a w a te r
is m e a s u re d a t 8° to 12°C w h e re a s n o rm a l
te m p e ra tu re o f s e a w a te r in o th e r a re a s o f o cean
b o tto m s at s u c h d e p th is a ro u n d 2°C o n ly . Such
w arm p o c k e ts o f s e a w a te r a t 2 5 0 0 m d e p th o r e v en at
g re a te r d e p th h a v e b e e n re s p o n s ib le fo r the
e x iste n c e o f la rg e s p e c ie s o f b e n th ic b io lo g ic a l
c o m m u n itie s, o f w h ic h im p o rta n t o rg a n ism s are
as fo llo w s :
tu b e w o rm s (1 0 0 c e n tim e te rs lo n g )
la rg e m u s s e ls
>■ w h ite c ra b s
^ m ic ro b ia l m a ts
^ g ia n t c la m s (25 c e n tim e te rs lo n g )
>■ m ic ro s c o p ic a rc h a e a (c h e m o s y n th e tic o r­
g a n ism s h a v in g b a c te ria -lik e life fo rm s)
It m a y b e m e n tio n e d th a t a rc h a e a are
em beded in th e tis s u e s o f tu b e w o rm s an d g ia n t
clam s, an d h e n c e th e se h y d ro th e rm a l v e n t o rg a n ­
ism s are sy m b io tic in c h a ra c te r, i.e. th e y d ep en d
on each o th e r fo r th e ir su rv iv a l.
T h e fu r th e r s e a rc h e s fo r d e e p s e a hydro-
th e rm a l v e n ts d is c o v e re d s u c h v e n ts in G u a y m a s
B asin o f th e G u lf o f C a lifo rn ia in 1 9 8 2 , a c tiv e
h y d ro th e rm a l v e n ts h a v in g b io lo g ic a l c o m m u n i­
ties in th e A tla n tic O c e a n a t th e d e p th of
3 6 0 0 m e te rs in 1985 a t th e M id - A tla n tic
R id g e (b e tw e e n 2 3 °N a n d 2 6 °N la titu d e s ) ,
a n o th e r h y d r o th e r m a l v e n t a n d a s s o c i a te d
b io c o m m u n itie s a b o v e th e M id -A tla n tic R id g e
R ift V a lley at th e d e p th o f 1525 m e te rs in th e y e a r
1993 etc.
T h e life sp an o f o rg a n is m s o f hydrothermal
ven t field s is c lo se ly a s s o c ia te d w ith te c to n ic
a ctiv itie s a lo n g m id -o c e a n ic rid g e s w h e re p la n ts
d iv e rg e in o p p o site d ire c tio n s g iv in g b ir th to
activ e v o lc an ic a c tiv itie s in th e o c e a n flo o rs .
W h en e v e r th e h y d ro th e rm a l v e n ts c e a s e to s p e w
h y d ro g e n su lp h id e s, w h ic h a re s o u rc e s o f fo o d
e n erg y to th e b io c o m m u n itie s a s s o c ia te d w ith
su ch v e n t field s, the o rg a n ism s d ie o r th e y m a y
m o v e to o th e r p la c e s o f o c e a n flo o rs. T h u s ,
b io c o m m u n itie s are a liv e as lo n g as th e h y d ro -
th e rm a l v en ts re m a in a ctiv e. It m a y b e m e n tio n e d
th a t h y d ro th e rm a l v en ts c a n n o t re m a in a c tiv e fo r
lo n g e r d u ra tio n b e ca u se th e y g ra d u a lly m o v e
aw ay fro m m id -o c e a n ic rid g e s d u e to s e a flo o r
sp re ad in g . T h u s, th e life sp an o f h y d ro th e rm a l
v en t b io c o m m u n itie s ra n g e s fro m fe w y e a rs to
sev e ra l d ecad es.
S u b m a rin e S e e p B e n th o s B io c o m m u n itie s
B esid e s h y d ro th e rm a l v e n ts, th e re a re c e r­
ta in frac tu re zo n es o n th e s e a flo o rs, fro m w h e re
w a te r w ith v a ry in g c h e m ic a l p ro p e rtie s , tric k le s
u p w a rd w ith h y d ro g e n su lp h id e s a n d th u s fo rm
d iffe re n t su b o c e a n ic b e n th ic e n v iro n m e n ts fo r th e
c o lo n iz a tio n o f c e rta in sp e c ie s o f a n im a ls m o re o r
less s im ila r to h y d ro th e rm a l v e n t b io c o m m u n itie s
as d isc u sse d ab o v e. T h e b io c o m m u n itie s a s s o c i­
a ted w ith su ch su b m arin e se e p in g a re a s are
te rm e d seep biocommunitles. It m ay b e m e n tio n e d
th a t th e te m p e ra tu re o f se a w a te r see p in g fro m
frac tu re zo n es is, on an a v e ra g e , n o rm a l to th a t
d ep th i.e. te m p e ra tu re o f se a w a te r a t p a rtic u la r
d ep th an d te m p e ra tu re o f see p in g w a te r a t th a t
d ep th is m o re o r less sam e. T h is is w h y , su ch
b io c o m m u n itie s a re c a lle d low temperature seep
386
biocommunities w hich fall in the follow ings cat­
e g o ries :
1. h y p er saline seep biocom m unities
2. hydrocarbon seep biocom m unities
3. su bduction zone seep biocom m unities
(1) T he h y p e r salin e seep b io com niunities have
d ev elo p ed in those deep ocean areas w here the
w ater seep in g from ocean bottom s is highly saline
w ith n orm al tem perature. The saline w ater seeps
from the fractures o f lim estones which form the
o cean floors at the depths o f m ore than 3000
m eters. The seeping hypersaline w ater (salinity
b ein g m ore than 46%o) contains hydrogen sul­
p h id es w hich nourish chem osynthetic mats w hich
in turn support diverse anim al com m unities
co m prising a few species o f fish, tube worms,
m ussels, snails, shrim p, crabs, clam s, sea stars,
b rittle stars etc. Such hypersaline seep biological
com m unities were discovered first in the year
1984 at the depth o f 3000 m eters in the G u lf o f
M exico.
(2) The hydrocarbon seep biocom m unities green plants thriving on the ocean floors of
m ainly anim als thrive on hydrogen sulphide
consum ing chem osynthetic organism s in those
areas o f sea floors w here there is seepage o f
m in eral oils and natural gas from bottom rocks o f
sea flo ors. The biocom m unities o f such areas are
a lso sim ila r to biocom m unities o f hydrotherm al
v e n ts and h y p ersalin e seeps, such as tube w orm s,
c r a b s , c la m s e tc . T he h y d ro c a rb o n seep
b io c o m m u n itie s w ere first discovered at the
d e p th s o f 600 to 700 m eters, and later on at the
d e p th o f 2 2 0 0 m eters in the G u lf o f M exico.
(3 ) S u b d u c tio n z o n e seep biocommunities com ­
p ris in g m ic ro b ia l ch em o sy n th etic organism s and
o th e r o rg a n ism s d ep en d in g on them have been
d is c o v e re d on the lan d w ard m argins o f deep sea
tre n c h e s a lo n g the su b d u ctio n zone o f converging
p la te s at th e d e p th s o f 1300 m to 5640 m eters.
S u c h s ite s w ere lo c ated in the subduction zones o f
J u a n d e F u c a P la te o f f the co ast o f O regon (U SA )
a t th e d e p th o f 2 03 6 m eters, Japan T rench, Peru-
C h ile T re n c h etc. T he seep in g w ater from the
fo ld e d s e d im e n ta ry stra ta o f the ocean bottom s
c o n ta in m e th a n e (th e re su lt o f d ecom positio n o f
o rg a n ic m a tte r) w h ic h su p p o rts chem osyn th etic
o rg a n is m s , w h ic h in tu rn su p p o rt d iv erse anim al
OCEANOGRAPHY
communities, more or less similar to biocommunities
o f hydrotherm al vents, hypersaline seep areas and
hydrocarbon seep areas.
T he areas o f p atch y d istrib u tio n o f
biocom m unities associated w ith specific locali­
ties o f sea floors, such as hydrotherm al vents
hypersaline seeps, hydrocarbon seeps and sub­
duction zone seeps are called m arine oases.
1 5 .5 IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
Benthic hydrotherm al v e n t : The vents on the
floors o f the oceans, through w hich hot water
trickles out, are called suboceanic or benthic
hydrotherm al vents.
Benthos com m unities : The bio- com m unities
com prising both plants and anim als living at the
ocean floors at different depths ranging from
shore bottom to deep oceanic trench bottom , are
called benthos biocom m unities or sim ply benthos.
B enthophytoplanktons : The photo synthetic
shallow w ater or o f photic zone upto the depth of
200 m w here sunlight can penetrate, are called
benthophytoplanktons.
B en tho-zooplanktons : T he m icroscopic ani­
m al com m unities depending on phytoplanktons
and thriving on sea floors o f shallow depth, say
upto 200 m eters, are called benthozooplanktons.
B lack sm o k e r s : The u n d erw ater chim neys or
vents on seafloors w hich em it b lack clouds o f hot
seaw ater com prising sulphides o f copper, zink
and silver, are called b lack sm okers.
D em ersal fish es : T he fishes living in deep
pelagic seaw ater such as cod, haddock, plaice etc.
are called dem ersal fishes.
Epifauna : T he anim als th riv in g on the
d etritus o f ocean floors at d ifferen t depths are
called epifauna.
E p iflo ra: The p lan ts living on the surface of
ocean floors are called epiflora.
H oloplan ktons : The organism s o f such
flo atin g p lankton co m m u n ities, w hich s p e n d their
entire life span as p lan k to n s or floaters, a r e called
holoplanktons.
 ^ riNB bjcjMBS (BIOZONES) AND SEA ORGANISMS
Hydrocarbon seep biocommunities : The biotic
ommunities o f diverse organisms living on such
floors of sea where there is seepage o f mineral oil
and natural gas with sulphides from fractures of
bottom rocks are called hydrocarbon seep
biocommunities.
H y d r o th e r m a l vent b i o c o m m u n i t i e s : The b i o ­
lo g ic a l communities mainly comprised of chem-
o s y n th e tic microbial growth (mats), and animals
o f diverse species living in such localities of sea
floor where hot seawater comprising sulphides of
c o p p e r, zink and silver trickles through vents.
: The animals living in the detritus
In fa u n a
on sea floors at different depths are called infauna.
M a r in e o a s i s : The
patchy area o f distribution
of biocommunities associated with specific local­
ity of sea floor, such as hydrothermal vents,
hypersaline seeps, hydrocarbon seeps and sub­
duction zone seeps, is called marine oasis.
: The planktons, which after
M e ro p la n k to n
becoming adults from plankton stage i.e. larva
stage spend their lives as nekton or benthos
communities, are called meroplanktons. The
meroplanktons o f nekton communities as swim­
mers or benthos animal communities are called
m e ro zo o p la n k to n s.
Nektons : The swimming animals, such as
fishes, in the nekton zone o f pelagic ocean water
are called nektons. They are exclusively animals
in seawaters.
N ektobenthos : are such sea animals which
live in both nekton (pelagic) habitats as well as in
benthic (ocean floor) habitats.
Nektoplanktons : are those zooplanktons
which spend their early life as larva and juvenile
zooplanktons in the upper water surface of the
387
oceans but after becoming adults become swim­
mers and join nekton communities of marine
animals.
Pelagic fis h e s : The fishes living in the upper
zone of the oceans, such as herring or anchovy are
called pelagic fishes.
Phytoplankton : The photosynthetic green
plants floating in the surface water of the oceans
are called phytoplanktons. They are the primary
producers in the oceans. They are also called plant
planktons.
Seep biocom m unities : The biocommunities
mainly chemosynthetic bacteria and diverse
species of benthos animals associated with such
localities of ocean floors where water seeps from
the rocks of ocean bottoms mainly through
fractures and subduction zone are called seep
biocommunities.
/
Subduction zone seep bio-com m unities : The
microbial chemosynthetic organisms and other
animals depending on them and living on the
landward margins of deep sea trenches along the
subduction zone of converging plates at deeper
depths where water seeps from the rocks of the
sides of trenches are called subduction zone seep
biocommunities.
U nderw ater chimneys : The vents on the sea
floor through which black clouds of hot water
trickles out are called underwater chimneys or
black smokers.
: Animal planktons, living in
Z o o p la n k to n s
the upper water surface of the oceans and
depending mainly on plant planktons
(phytoplanktons) but also on microscopic floating
animals, are called zooplanktons. They are also
called flo a tin g a n im a ls and belong to the floater
biocommunities of marine environment.
 CHAPTER 1 6 : M ARINE ECOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY 387-412
: m arine e c o lo g y , m ean in g and co n cep t, 387
factors o f m arine e c o lo g y , 389
fv adap tation o f m arine organ ism s, 393
e c o lo g ic a l p rod u ctivity and b io lo g ica l production, 398
lim itin g factors o f prim ary production, 399
prim ary produ cer m arine organ ism s, 401
r e g io n a l pattern o f net m arine primary p rodu ctivity, 401
g lo b a l pattern o f prim ary production, V 404
trop h ic le v e ls and fo o d ch ain s, , 40£
e n e r g y flo w in m arine e c o sy ste m , 408
m arin e b io g e o c h e m ic a l c y c le s , 40S
m
16.1 M A R IN E E C O L O G Y : M E A N IN G A N D
CONCEPT
Ecology, in a v e ry sim p le term , is a science
th a t s tu d ie s th e in d e p e n d e n t, m u tu a lly reactiv e
a n d in te rc o n n e c te d re la tio n sh ip s b etw een the
o rg a n is m s a n d th e ir p h y sic a l e n v iro n m e n t on the
o n e h a n d , a n d a m o n g th e o rg an ism s on the o th er
h a n d in a n a tu ra l eco sy stem . R ecen tly , the
c o n c e p t o f e c o lo g y h as b e en e x ten d e d to the
c o rre s p o n d in g ra n g e o f p h e n o m e n a , re sea rc h and
p ro b le m s . In th a t c o n n e c tio n ‘e c o lo g y ’ has been
q u ite lo g ic a lly e x te n d e d as w e ll to the fie ld o f the
in te ra c tio n o f s o c ie ty a n d its p h y sic a l e n v iro n ­
m e n t (Y .P . T ru s o v , 1983). T h e c o n c e p t o f eco lo g y
n o w h a s b e e n e x te n d e d fro m s in g le p h e n o m en o n
( a u te c o lo g y , e .g . p la n t e c o lo g y , a n im a l eco lo g y )
to s e t o f p h e n o m e n a o c c u p y in g a d e fin ite sp ace in
th e b io s p h e r e (in c lu d in g b o th te rre s tria l and
m a rin e b io m e s ) a t a d e fin ite t i m e . in te rv a l
(s y n e c o lo g y ) s u c h a s fo re s t e c o lo g y , a g ric u ltu ra l
e c o lo g y , r u r a l a n d u rb a n e c o lo g y , p o p u la tio n
e c o lo g y , p la n k to n e co lo g y , n e k to n ecology, benthos
e c o lo g y e tc . T h e h ab itat ecology h as g a in e d
c u r r e n c y in th e re c e n t tim e su c h as (in te rm s o f
m a rin e e c o lo g y ) e s tu a rin e e c o lo g y , m a n g ro v e
16
MARINE ECOLOGY AND
BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY
ecology, saltm arsh e co lo g y , la g o o n e co lo g y ,
p elag ic sea w ater e co lo g y , b e n th ic o c e a n b o tto m
ecology etc.
The fo llo w in g are th e b a sic p rin c ip le s o f
ecology, w h e th er te rre stria l e co lo g y o r m a rin e
ecology, w h ich g o v e rn th e in te ra c tio n s an d
in te rre la tio n sh ip s b e tw e e n o rg a n ism s a n d c o m p o ­
nents o f p h y sica l e n v iro n m e n t a n d a m o n g the
org an ism s in an y n a tu ra l e c o sy ste m o f e ith e r land
h a b ita t o r m a rin e h ab ita t.
>■ n a tu ra l e c o sy ste m is a fu n d a m e n ta l u n it o f
e c o lo g ica l stu d y .
at th e la rg e st sca le th e w h o le o f b io sp h e re
b e co m e s an e c o sy ste m , th e a b io tic a n d a
b io tic c o m p o n e n ts o f w h ic h a re in tim a te ly
related .
‘ su sta in e d life o n th e e a rth is a c h a ra c te ris­
tic o f ecosystem *.
>■ ‘n o th in g a ctu a lly d is a p p e a rs w h en we
th ro w it away* b e c a u se all th e m a te ria ls are
re a rra n g e d an d c y c le d a n d re c y c le d through
a series o f cy clic p ath w ay s (g eo b io ch em ical
cy cle s) in th e n a tu ra l eco sy stem .
>• th e n a tu ra l re so u rc e s a re fin ite an d are
p u b lic p ro p e rty .
flg ECOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY
, ‘nature h a s s p e n t m illio n s o f y e a rs to re fin e
a stable e c o s y s te m . *
. the p h y s ic a l, c h e m ic a l a n d b io lo g ic a l
p ro c e sse s fo llo w th e p r i n c i p l e o f
u n ifo rm ita ria n ism .
all liv in g o rg a n is m s a n d p h y s ic a l e n v iro n ­
m ents a re in te r d e p e n d e n t a n d m u tu a lly
in teractiv e.
e co sy stem fu n c tio n s th ro u g h th e in p u t o f
m ain ly s o la r e n e r g y .
there is u n id ir e c tio n a l flo w o f e n e rg y
th ro u g h v a rio u s tr o p h ic le v e ls in n a tu ra l
e co sy stem .
as the d is ta n c e b e tw e e n th e o rg a n is m s o f a
given tro p h ic le v e l in a n a tu ra l e c o s y s te m
and th e in itia l s o u r c e o f e n e rg y (tro p h ic
level o n e o f th e g r e e n p la n ts ) in c re a s e s th e
p ro b a b ility o f th e o rg a n is m s to d e p e n d
e x c lu s iv e ly o n th e p r e c e d in g tro p h ic le v e l
for e n e rg y d e c r e a s e s .
the re la tiv e lo s s o f e n e r g y d u e to re s p ira ­
tion in c re a s e s w ith h ig h e r tro p h ic le v e ls.
the c h e m ic a l ( in o r g a n ic ) a n d o rg a n ic s u b ­
stances a re c ir c u la te d a m o n g th e v a rio u s
c o m p o n e n ts o f th e b io s p h e r e th ro u g h a
series o f c lo s e d s y s te m o f c y c le s c o lle c ­
tiv ely k n o w n a s g e o b io c h e m ic a l c y c le s .
the e c o s y s te m p r o d u c tiv ity a n d e c o lo g ic a l
p ro d u c tio n d e p e n d o n (i) th e a v a ila b ility o f
the a m o u n t o f s o la r e n e r g y to th e p rim a ry
p ro d u c e rs ( a u to tr o p h ic g re e n p la n ts ) at
tro p h ic le v e l o n e , a n d (ii) th e e f f ic ie n c y o f
p la n ts to c o n v e r t s o la r e n e r g y in to c h e m i­
cal (fo o d ) e n e rg y .
th ere is m a r k e d p o s itiv e c o r r e la tio n b e ­
tw een s o la r r a d ia tio n a n d p r im a r y e c o lo g i­
cal p ro d u c tiv ity .
the natural ecosystem attains its stability
through homeostatic mechanism,
increase in the diversity o f food webs
promotes ecosystem stability and ecologi­
cal balance.
ecosystem instability and ecological im­
balance result when an ecosystem becomes
unable to adjust with environmental changes,
whether natural or anthropogenic.
>■ e v o lu tio n o f sp e c ie s re p re se n ts th e in h e r­
e n tly d y n a m ic n a tu re o f eco sy stem , w h e re in
th e re is g ra d u a l s p e c ia tio n b y th e p ro c e ss
o f ‘n a tu ra l s e le c tio n ’ a n d ‘adaptation*
(D a rw in ) b u t th e re is a lso sp o n ta n e o u s an d
a b ru p t e v o lu tio n o f sp e c ie s th ro u g h th e
p ro c e ss o f ‘m u ta tio n ’ (D e V rie s).
>■ ‘re p ro d u c tiv e is o la tio n ’ is a n o th e r a sp e c t
o f e v o lu tio n o f m o rp h o lo g ic a lly d iffe re n ti­
a te d p o p u la tio n s o f sp e c ie s.
th e re is su c c e ss io n a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f v e g ­
e ta tio n c o m m u n ity th ro u g h th e p h a se s o f
n u d a tio n , m ig ra tio n , e c e s is, re a c tio n a n d
sta b iliz a tio n .
>■ th e v e g e ta tio n c o m m u n ity d e v e lo p e d a t th e
en d o f su c c e ss io n b e c o m e s ‘c lim a x v e g e ta ­
tio n 1 o r ‘d im a x c o m m u n ity ’ o r ‘c lim a tic
c lim a x ’.
b e sid e s c o m m u n ity s u c c e ss io n , th e e c o ­
sy ste m also u n d e rg o e s th e p ro c e s s o f
su c c e ss io n a l c h an g e s.
th e u ltim a te g o a l o f e c o lo g ic a l s tu d y is to
c o n se rv e an d p re s e rv e e c o lo g ic a l re s o u rc e s
b y m a in ta in in g th e e c o lo g ic a l d iv e rs ity
(b io d iv e rs ity ) an d ric h n e ss , a n d e c o s y s te m
sta b ility .
M a r in e e c o lo g y sim p ly m e a n s in te ra c tio n s o f
m a rin e o rg a n ism s, b o th p la n ts a n d a n im a ls, w ith
m a rin e e n v iro n m e n ts o f b o th p e la g ic (s e a w a te r at
d iffe re n t d e p th s) a n d b e n th ic (s e a flo o r) h a b ita ts ,
a n d m u tu a l in te rd e p e n d e n c e a n d in te ra c tio n s
a m o n g m a rin e o rg a n is m s o f sa m e h a b ita t o r
d iffe re n t h a b ita ts. In m a rin e e c o lo g y w e stu d y th e
fo llo w in g a sp e c ts :
>■ p h y s ic a l p ro p e rtie s o f th e o c e a n s su c h as
te m p e ra tu re , tra n s p a re n c y o r tu rb id ity ,
d e n s ity o f s e a w a te r, s a lin ity , h y d ro s ta tic
p re s s u re , p re s e n c e a n d a m o u n t o f n u tri­
e n ts, s u n lig h t e tc.
m o v e m e n t o f s e a w a te r su c h as se a w a v e s,
tid a l w a v e s , s u rfa c e a n d d e e p o c e a n c u r­
re n ts (e .g . tu rb id ity c u rre n ts ), s to rm su rg e s
a n d w a v e s , in flo w o f r iv e r w a te r e tc ;
>■ composition o f floors of the oceans at
different depths and nature o f sediments
(detritus) resting on sea floors from contf-
• 1 ■:C j"/ ■A vJ
 390
n e n ta l sh elv es to deep sea plains and
tren ch es.
>• im p acts (co n tro ls) o f the above factors on
m a rin e organism s.
>■ a d ap ta tio n o f m arine organism s o f d iffer­
en t m arin e h abitats (as discussed in the
p re c ed in g chapter, 15 o f this book) to the
p re v a ilin g environm ental conditions.
in te ra ctio n s am ong different groups o f
m a rin e organism s at d ifferent depth zones
o f p elag ic and benthic biom es.
>* m a rin e food chains and w ebs, circulation
o f m a tte r and energy through interlinked
tro p h ic levels in m arine ecosystem s.
>* fu n ctio n in g o f m arine ecosystem s and
b io g eo ch em ical cycles.
>- eco lo g ical pro d u ctiv ity etc.
16.2 F A C T O R S O F M A R IN E E C O L O G Y
T here is a v ast difference betw een the
en v iro n m en tal co n ditions o f land habitats and
m arine h abitats. The land habitats ranging from
eq u ato rial region to p o lar region in h o rizo n tal
p e rsp e c tiv e and from sea level to high snow -
p e a k e d m o u n tain s in v ertical persp ectiv e are
c h a ra c te riz e d by varying clim atic condition s and
h e n c e la n d p la n ts and anim als have developed
c e rta in a b ilitie s to ad ju st w ith m ajor changes in
e n v iro n m e n ta l c o n d itio n s.'O n the other hand, the
m a rin e h a b ita ts do n o t have such diverse e n v iro n ­
m e n ta l c o n d itio n s a t le a st in term s o f tem peratu re
d is trib u tio n . W ith re sp e c t to tem p eratu re oceans
h a v e m o re o r le ss sta b le en v iro n m en tal cond itio n s
an d h e n c e m a rin e o rg a n ism s co u ld n o t develop
- su ch a b ilitie s w h ic h can a llo w th em to a d ju st w ith
su d d e n c h a n g e s in e n v iro n m e n ta l co n d itio n s
m a in ly te m p e ra tu re an d s a lin ity ch an g es. F o r
e x a m p le , a s lig h t in c re a s e o f te m p e ra tu re o f
s e a w a te r e v e n b y 2 °C in tro p ic a l an d su b tro p ic al
o c e a n s c a u s e s co r a l b le a c h in g an d m a ss d e stru c tio n
o f c o ra l re e fs.
U n lik e la n d p la n ts , m a rin e p la n ts , e x ce p t
c o a s ta l w e tla n d s (s u c h as sa ltm a rsh e s a n d m a n ­
g ro v e s d e v e lo p e d o n tid a l fla ts ) a n d p h o tic zo n e o f
s e a flo o rs o f c o n tin e n ta l s h e lv e s u p to th e d e p th o f
o c e a n o g r; ay :p; ”h y
' -3 ••
200 m eters, do n o t have firm g rounds to establish
th eir root system s, and h en ce th ey have developed
floating m echanism s so th a t th ey (phytoplanktons
such as diatom s and alg ae) do n o t sin k b u t remain
in the u p p er zone o f oceans. T he nektons have
developed sw im m in g h ab its so th a t nekton ani­
m als can co v er larg e d ista n ce s in th e oceans
h o rizo n tally an d v e rtic a lly to catc h th eir preys.
Som e o fth e b en th ic an im als also h av e sw im m ing
m echanism s an d com e to d iffe re n t d ep th zones o f
open oceans d u rin g n ig h ts to c a tc h th e ir preys
from z o o p lan k to n s an d n e k to n a n im als. Since
there is co m p lete d a rk n e ss in d eep o cean s, some
o f the m arin e an im als h av e d e v e lo p e d such
devices w h ich g en erate lig h ts. S o m e o f th e m arine
anim als are e ffic ie n t in c h a n g in g th e c o lo u r of
th e ir b o d ies su ch as o c to p u s. S o m e m arine
o rganism s have sy m b io tic life sty le su c h as coral
anim als. T here are m an y m o re e x a m p le s which
d em o n strate the a d a p ta tio n o f m a rin e organism s
to v a ry in g e n v ir o n m e n ta l c o n d itio n s . L et
us exam ine a few im p o rta n t p h y s ic a l fa c to rs, such
as tem p eratu re, sa lin ity a n d d e n sity o f seaw ater,
hydrostatic p ressu re, tu r b id ity an d tr a n sp a re n c y o f
seaw ater etc., w h ic h a ffe c t a n d c o n tro l m arine
organism s.
T e m p e ra tu re of S e a w a te r
T he te m p e ra tu re o f s e a w a te r a ffe c ts and
co n tro ls th e fo llo w in g a sp e c ts o f m a rin e life :
^ D istr ib u tio n , b o th h o riz o n ta l an d v ertical,
o f m a rin e o rg a n ism s in c lu d in g b o th plants
an d a n im a ls in v a ry in g en v iro n m e n ta l
c o n d itio n s o f d iffe re n t h a b ita ts ranging
fro m p e la g ic to b e n th ic , c o n tin e n ta l sh elf
b o tto m to d e ep sea o c e a n flo o rs, photic
zo n e to a p h o tic z o n e , c o a s ta l w etlands
(m a n g ro v e s sw a m p s a n d sa ltm a rsh e s) to
o p en o c ea n , tro p ic a l o c e a n s to polar
re g io n s o f o c ea n s.
A c tiv itie s o f o rg a n is m s, lik e flo a tin g , sw im ­
m in g , c a tc h in g th e ir p re y s , ra te o f b io lo g i­
cal a c tiv itie s su ch as g ro w th ra te , re p ro ­
d u c tio n ra te a n d s u c c e ss etc.
>• L ife sty le , h a tc h in g o f e g g s, m ig ra tio n o f
n e k to n s etc.
 MARINE ECOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY
> • T o le ra n c e lim it o f o rg a n ism s a g a in s t v a ry ­
ing te m p e ra tu re c o n d itio n s etc.
T he to le ra n c e le v e l an d su rv iv a l o f m a rin e
organism s a re d ire c tly re g u la te d b y te m p e ra tu re
variation. It m a y b e m e n tio n e d th a t c o m p a re d to
lands (c o n tin e n ts ) th e re is v e ry lo w ra n g e o f
annual, m o n th ly a n d s e a s o n a l a v e ra g e s o f te m ­
perature o f s e a w a te r a n d h e n c e m a rin e o rg a n ism s
are very s e n s itiv e to su d d e n c h a n g e s in te m p e ra ­
ture, say a n n u a l a n d s e a s o n a l e x tre m e s o f sea
tem p eratu re. F o r e x a m p le , a v e ra g e m in im u m and
m axim um te m p e ra tu re s o f o c e a n su rfa c e w a te r
are -2 ° C a n d 32°C re s p e c tiv e ly w h e re a s c o n ti­
nents re c o rd lo w e s t te m p e ra tu re at -8 8 ° C and
highest te m p e ra tu re at 58°C . T h u s, a n n u al ran g e
o f te m p e ra tu re e x tre m e s fo r lan d and o cean
su rfaces b e c o m e s 34°C an d 146°C re sp ec tiv e ly .
The m a rin e o rg a n is m s re a c t sh arp ly to even m in o r
c h a n g e in a v e ra g e sea te m p e ra tu re . F o r ex am p le,
c o ra l a n im a ls e x p el sy m b io tic zo o x an th e lla e
a lg a e w h ic h are e m b e d e d in th e ir o u te r tissu es,
fro m th e ir b o d ie s w h en th ere is rise o f even 2°C
fro m th e n o rm a l s e a te m p e ra tu re in the tro p ical
an d s u b tro p ic a l o c e a n s. T h is re su lts in d e c o lo u ra ­
tio n o f c o ra l p o ly p s le a d in g to coral bleaching
w h ich c a u s e s m a ss d e a th s o f c o ra ls b e ca u se they
die o f s ta rv a tio n . It sh o u ld be re m e m b ered th at
p h o to s y n th e tic a lg a e , w h ic h are e m b ed ed in the
bodies o f c o ra ls , a re th e m ain so u rc e o f su p p ly o f
food to c o ra l a n im a ls.
T h e c h a n g e s in sea te m p e ra tu re are very
slow. A n n u a l, s e a s o n a l, m o n th ly and d a ily v a ria ­
tions in s e a w a te r te m p e ra tu re are a lso v ery sm all.
All th e se le a d to m o re o r le ss sta b le c o n d itio n o f
ocean w a te r te m p e ra tu re a n d h e n c e m a rin e
organism s a re w e ll a d a p te d to su c h c o n d itio n s.
Any s u d d e n c h a n g e in th e th e rm a l c o n d itio n s o f
the o cean s a d v e rs e ly a ffe c ts d iffe re n t a sp e c ts o f
m arine life b e c a u s e m a rin e o rg a n is m s h a v e n o t
been able to d e v e lo p s u c h d e v ic e s w h ic h can
enable th e m to w ith s ta n d th e rm a l e x tre m e s .
Sea te m p e ra tu re a lso c o n tro ls d is trib u tio n a l
pattern o f m a rin e o rg a n is m s . F o r e x a m p le , m a rin e
organism s o f tro p ic a l w a rm e r o c e a n s a re q u ite
different fro m c o o le r w a te r o f th e p o la r a re a s.
K iller w h a le s a re g e n e ra lly c o n fin e d to c o ld e r
ocean w a ters. T h e re a re c e rta in s p e c ie s o f m a rin e
organism s w h o liv e in o p e a n o c e a n w ith v e ry lo w
ra n g e o f te m p e ra tu re v a ria tio n . S u c h organisms,
w h o c a n n o t to le ra te h ig h th e rm a l variations b u t
a d ju st to lo w ra n g e o f te m p e ra tu re c h a n g e , a re
called stenothermal, such as Parathem isto gaudichaudi,
w h ic h is a sp ec ie s o f a m p h ip o d b e lo n g in g to sm a ll
c ru stac e an fa m ily , c a n n o t liv e in th e A tla n tic
O cean w a te r o f m o re th a n 10°C te m p e ra tu re . On
th e o th e r h an d , th e re are c e rta in m a rin e o rg a n ism s
w ho can w ith sta n d la rg e ra n g e o f te m p e ra tu re
change. Such m arine organism s are called eurythermal,
w ho g e n e ra lly liv e in sh a llo w c o a s ta l w a te r w h ic h
is c h a ra c te riz e d by la rg e ra n g e o f te m p e ra tu re
ch an g e. G ray w h a les, im p o rta n t la rg e s e a m a m ­
m al, are a d a p te d to la rg e ra n g e o f te m p e ra tu re
v a ria tio n . T h ey feed on la rg e p o p u la tio n o f
c ru stac e an s an d m an y b e n th ic o rg a n is m s in th e
cold w a ter o f th e A rctic O cean d u rin g s u m m e r
seaso n and m ig rate to w arm la g o o n w a te rs o f f th e
co ast o f C a lifo rn ia and M ex ico in th e e a s t P a c ific
O cean d u rin g w in te r sea so n fo r b re e d in g an d
calv in g and th ey re tu rn b a ck to th e A rc tic O c e a n
d u rin g n ex t su m m e r sea so n . T h u s, g ra y w h a le s
co v er a ro u n d trip m ig ra tio n jo u rn e y o f a b o u t
2200 k ilo m e te rs each year.
T he ste n o th er m a l o rg a n ism s b e c o m e s lu g g is h
and dull w h en ran g e o f te m p e ra tu re c h a n g e
b eco m es h igh. T h is s itu a tio n slo w s d o w n th e
activ itie s o f su ch o rg a n ism s, re ta rd s th e ir g ro w th
and re p ro d u c tio n .
T he sea te m p e ra tu re d e te rm in e s th e siz e
(p h y sic a l size or b od y s iz e ) o f flo a tin g (p la n k to n s )
o rg an ism s. T h e flo a te r o rg a n is m s in th e u p p e r
p h o tic zo n e o f w a rm e r w a te r o f tro p ic a l an d
su b tro p ic a l o c ea n s h av e sm a ll b o d y s iz e so th a t
th ey can e a sily flo a t on th e w a te r o f lo w d e n s ity
(d u e to lo w s a lin ity ) a n d lo w v is c o s ity . O n th e
o th e r h a n d , flo a tin g o rg a n is m s o f c o ld o c e a n
w a te r o f h ig h e r la titu d e s are p h y s ic a lly la rg e r a n d
can e a sily flo a t o n re la tiv e ly d e n s e r w a te r o f h ig h
v is c o s ity . T h e flo a tin g o rg a n is m s o f w a rm e r
se a w a te r h a v e a lso d e v e lo p e d to in c re a s e th e
su rfa c e a re a o f th e ir b o d ie s w h ic h c a n e n a b le th e m
to flo a t on le ss d e n se r se a w a te r.
T h e s e a te m p e ra tu re re g u la te s th e b io lo g i­
c a l a c tiv itie s s u c h as growth rate, reproduction rate
a n d success a n d general activities o f m a rin e o rg a n ­
ism s. F o r e x a m p le , i f th e te m p e ra tu re o f s e a w a te r
in c re a s e s b y 10°C , th e b io lo g ic a l a c tiv itie s
 m o cea nography
in c re ase tw o -fo ld i.e. are doubled. T his is w hy
m a rin e o rg a n ism s o f tropical w arm ocean w ater
h a v e m u c h fa ster grow th rate than the organism s
o f h ig h latitu d e cold ocean w ater. Sim ilarly, the
rep ro d u c tio n rate and life span o f m arine o rg an ­
ism s o f w arm ocean w ater is m uch higher and
lo n g er (life span) than the organism s o f cold
ocean w ater. In o ther w ords, organism s o f low
la titu d e s (tro p ica l and subtropical) w arm oceans
rep ro d u ce and m ultiply faster, and live longer
th an the org an ism s o f cold ocean w ater o f polar
reg io n s.
T heseaw ater tem perature also affects
abundance of nutrients w hich in turn determ ine the
number of marine organisms. The cold sea w ater o f
p o lar areas has m ore nutrients than w arm er
tropical oceans, and hence the p hytoplankto n s are
abu n d antly found in po lar areas than in the
tropical oceans. T hough the w arm er tropical
ocean w ater supports m ore diverse species o f
planktons but the total biom ass o f plankton
com m unities o f the po lar region is larger than the
tropical oceans.
Salinity
S a lin ity is a very significant ecological
fa c to r th a t a ffe c ts and controls m arine organism s
in d iffe re n t w ay s as follow s :
S a lin ity v a ria tio n d eterm ines species diver­
sity o f m a rin e biota.
>• S a lin ity to le ra n c e lev el p a rtly determ ines
d istribu tio n o f m a rin e org an ism s o f d iffe r­
e n t h a b ita ts an d e n v iro n m e n t.
>• S a lin ity o f s e a w a te r d e term in e s body func­
tions o f m a rin e o rg a n ism s th ro u g h the
p ro c e s s e s o f diffusion, osmosis, osmoregula­
tion e tc .
>- S a lin ity o f s e a w a te r d e te rm in e s chemistry
o f body fluids o f m a rin e o rg a n ism s.
>■ S a lin ity v a ria tio n a lso d e te rm in e s ty p e s o f
ad ap tatio n o f m a rin e o rg a n is m s to s a lin ity
v a ria tio n s .
Marine organisms use silica and calcium
carbonate to form their outer protective shells
such as members o f crustacean family like oyster,
crabs, sn ails etc. form stro n g p ro te c tiv e sh ells by
using calciu m carb o n ate fro m sea w ater. The
phytoplanktons like diatom s and nonphotosynthetic
m icro sco p ic p ro to zo an s su ch as ra d io la ria n and
silico flag ellates use s ilic a to fo rm th e o u te r hard er
part o f th eir b o d ies to p ro te c t th e m fro m o u tsid ers.
M arine o rg a n ism s sh o w d iffe re n t le v els o f
sen siv ity and to le ra n c e to s a lin ity o f seaw ater.
B ased on sa lin ity to le ra n c e m a rin e o rg a n ism s are
d ivided into the fo llo w in g tw o m a jo r g ro u p s :
>■ e u ry h a lin e o rg a n ism s
>■ sten o h a lin e o rg a n ism s
T he to le ra n c e le v els to s a lin ity v a ria tio n or
the a b ilities o f m a rin e o rg a n ism s to w ith sta n d
salin ity v a ria tio n d iffe r fro m o rg a n is m s to o rg an ­
ism s o f d iffe re n t h a b ita ts a n d e n v iro n m e n t. F o r
exam ple, the m a rin e o rg a n is m s liv in g in the
estu arin e e n v iro n m e n t o f c o a s ta l w a te r, w here
th ere are d aily , se a so n a l a n d a n n u a l v a ria tio n s in
the in p u t o f fre sh w a te r d is c h a rg e d b y riv e rs , h av e
high d eg ree o f to le ra n c e to w ith s ta n d s a lin ity
v ariatio n s w ith v a ria tio n s o f v o lu m e o f fre s h w a te r
w hich cau ses m ix in g o f fre sh a n d s e a w a te r. T h e
flux o f im m ense v o lu m e o f fre s h w a te r d u rin g h ig h
floods in the riv e rs lo w e rs th e s a lin ity o f c o a s ta l
w ater w h ile d u rin g d ry se a so n , le a n d is c h a rg e b y
riv er raises sa lin ity le v el o f c o a s ta l w a te r. T h e re
are daily ch an g es in s a lin ity o f e s tu a rin e h a b ita ts
w ith in flo w o f sa lin e s e a w a te r d u rin g tid e s a n d
w ith raw al o f w a te r d u rin g e b b s. T h u s , m a rin e
o rg an ism s, su ch as o y s te rs, h a v e a d ju s te d th e m ­
selv es to sa lin ity flu c tu a tio n s in th e e stu a rin e
e n v iro n m en t. S u c h o rg a n is m s, w h ic h h a v e d e v e l­
o ped h ig h d e g re e o f to le ra n c e to s a lin ity v a ria ­
tio n s, are c a lle d euryhaline organism s. S u c h o rg a n ­
ism s hav e also h ig h ra te o f m o b ility a n d m ig ra te to
o th e r p la ce s w h e n s a lin ity e x c e e d s th e ir to le ra n c e
level d u rin g lo w e st d is c h a rg e o f fre s h w a te r by
rivers.
O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e m a rin e o rg a n ism s
liv in g in th e o p e n o c e a n o r o n th e o c e a n flo o rs,
h av e le a st to le ra n c e to s a lin ity v a ria tio n s b e c a u se
th ey are a d a p te d to th o se h a b ita ts o f o c e a n s w h ere
th e re is le a st v a ria tio n in s a lin ity . S u c h o rg a n ism s,
w h ic h h a v e le a s t to le ra n c e to s a lin ity c h a n g e s an d
a re a d a p te d to a lm o s t u n ifo rm s a lin ity c o n d itio n
a re c a lle d stenohaline organism s.
j^ARlNE ECOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY
T hose iparine organ ism s o f nearshore habi­
tats and enyironm ent (c o a sta l w aters), w hich are
intolerarlf to sa lin ity variation s, m o v e to other
places, i f sa lin ity in th eir habitats increases or
decreases b ey o n d th eir toleran ce le v el. On the
other hand, m an y b en th ic an im als h ave d evelop ed
high degree o f to lera n ce to sa lin ity ch an ges, and
hence they rem ain at th eir p la c e s o f ocean floors
even if sa lin ity c h a n g e s. In su ch circum stances
certain anim als, su ch as sev era l sp ecies o f
crustaceans, c lo s e th e m se lv e s in their protective
shells but i f su ch harsh co n d itio n contin ues for
longer period, th ere m a y b e m ass deaths o f certain
species such as s h e llfis h .
M arine o r g a n ism s, both vertebrates and
invertebrates, reg u la te the ch em istry o f their body
fluids in term s o f sa lt con ten ts through the
processes o f diffusion and osmosis.
Diffusion process refers to transfer o f m ol­
ecules (in the c a se o f m arine organism s and
seawater, m o le c u le s o f w ater and salts) from the
high concentration area to lo w concentration area
o f m olecu les. T h u s, m arine organism s take
nutrient m o le c u le s and d isp o se o f unwanted
wastes through d iffu s io n . It m ay be m entioned
that diffu sion o c cu rs o n ly w h en there is unequal
concentration o f m o le c u le s in sid e the c ells o f the
body or ou tsid e th e c e ll (sea w a ter).
Osmosis is a p r o c e ss o f d iffu sio n o f water
m olecules through th e sem ip erm ea b le mem brane
(skin) o f the o r g a n ism s. T he skin o f marine
organisms is sem ip e rm ea b le m em brane w hich
separates the flu id s o f the b o d ie s o f m arine
organisms from sea w a ter. T here are three situa­
tions in term s o f r ela tiv e p rop ortion s o f salt in the
body flu ids o f m arin e o r g a n ism s and salin ity o f
seawater as fo llo w s :
(1) Isotonic organisms are th ose marine
organisms w h erein the sa lt o f their bod y fluids
equals the salt co n te n t o f surrou ndin g seaw ater. In
such situation there is n o transfer o f w ater
M olecules either from the b o d ie s o f organism s to
seawater or from sea w a ter to the organ ism s.
(2) Hypertonic organism s are those in which
Salt in the fluids is m ore than the salt content in
seawater. In such situation molecules o f seawater
of lower salinity passes through sem ip erm eab le
m
membrane into cells o f bod ies o f marine organ­
ism s having relatively higher salinity.
(3) Hyptotonic organisms are those in w hic
salt in the body fluids is less than the salinity o f
seawater. In such situation water m olecules o f the
c ells o f the bodies o f marine organism s passes
through sem iperm eable membrane into surround­
ing seawater.
A ll these denote mutual interactions, a
significant aspect o f marine e co lo g y , betw een
salinity o f seawater and fluids o f the bodies o f
marine organisms. Marine invertebrate animals
such as worm s, m ussels etc. are iso to n ic because
there is no difference in salt contents in the fluids
o f their body cells and salinity o f ocean water.
This is w hy these animals could not develop the
m echanism s, as other marine organism have
developed, to regulate the chem istry o f fluids o f
their body cells with respect to salt content in
ocean water.
Hydrostatic Pressure
U nlike air, water is not com pressible. The
marine organisms do not have large com pressible
air organs like air-filled lungs, w hich are com m on
to livin g animals including man o f land biom e, in
their bodies, rather they have w ater-filled bodies.
Since water is not com pressible, marine organ­
ism s even living on ocean floors at greater depth
do not feel pressure o f enormous colum ns o f
seawater. It may be m entioned that pressure o f
seawater increases at the rate o f 1000 grams per 10
m eter-depth per square centim eter. It is thus,
evident that water pressure becom es thousands o f
grams, say hundreds o f kilogram s per square
centim eter at great depth o f ocean floor but
marine anim als do not fe e l such high pressure
because their w ater-filled bodies allow them to
w ithstand such enorm ous water pressure. The
w ater pressure also increases horizontally but
w ith increasing depth o f seawater on ocean floor
the benthic anim als are w ell adapted to such
spatial variations in water pressure. For exam ple,
the water pressure on subneritic ocean floor
(ocean floors o f continental sh elv es) is ifa r to w
than the w ater pressure on seafloor o f deep sea
:

p la in s an d tren ch es. T he benthic m arine anim als
liv in g at v ary in g depths o f ocean floors have
d e v e lo p e d th e ir body m echanism s accord in g to
v a ria tio n s in p ressu re conditions.
S om e o f the fishes living in m eso p elag ic
b io m e o f open ocean in the depth zone o f 200m to
1000 m eters, have developed gas filled sw im
b lad d ers w hich enable them to sw im through
ocean w a ter and to cope w ith the hyd ro static
p re ssu re p re v a ilin g in that biom e. Such fishes
im m e d iately die w hen they are caught and
b ro u g h t to the surface o f ocean w ater and hence
are ex p o sed to air o f free atm osphere due to
su d d en decrease, or say absence o f p ressu re o f
seaw ater.
D isso lv ed G a se s
F ro m the stan d p o in t o f b reath in g m arine
an im als are d iv id ed in tw o b ro ad categories,
n am ely (1) air b rea th in g organ ism s, such as m arine
m am m als (ex am p les, w h ales, sea cow s, seals
etc.), and (2) w a ter b reath in g organ ism s, such as
fish es. E x c e p t m arin e m am m als, m ost o f m arine
o rg an ism s are w a ter b reath in g i.e. they take
o x y g en from sea w ater th ro u g h th e ir gills. T here is
in v e rse re la tio n sh ip betw een d isso lu tio n o f gases
in w a te r and tem p eratu re, i.e. lo w er the te m p e ra ­
tu re , h ig h e r the d isso lu tio n o f gases in w a ter and
v ic e v e rsa . It is, thus, e v id en t th a t c o ld er seaw ater
o f h ig h la titu d e s co n tain s m ore d isso lv e d gases,
m a in ly o x y g e n and carb o n dio x id e, th an w arm er
w a te r o f tro p ic a l o cean s. T his is w hy th ere are
m o re p la n k to n c o m m u n itie s, p a rtic u la rly d u rin g
su m m e r, in th e o c e a n s o f h ig h la titu d e s th an in
tro p ic a l o c e a n s . T h e a b u n d an c e o f d isso lv ed
c a rb o n d io x id e an d s u n lig h t d u rin g su m m ers
fa v o u r m o re e ffic ie n t p h o to sy n th e sis re su ltin g
in to ric h p h y to p la n k to n ic g ro w th .
16.3 A D A P T A T I O N O F M A R IN E O R G A N IS M S
1. Adaptation of Phytoplanktons to Marine
Environment
The photosynthetic microscopic
phytoplanktons are unicellular sea plants which
o cea nography
rem ain aflo at in th e u p p e r zo n e o f se a w a te r w hich
is called euphotic (photic) zone w ith w a te r d epth o f
100-200 m eters fro m sea su rfa ce . T h e se m arine
p h y to p la n k to n s d iffe r c o n sid e ra b ly fro m land
p lan ts and h a v e w e ll a d ap te d to m a rin e en viron­
m ents. T he fo llo w in g are c h a ra c te ris tic features
o f p h y to p la n k to n s :
>- T h ey are m ic ro sc o p ic u n ic e llu la r p la n ts in
size b u t th e s u rfa c e a re a o f th e ir b o d ie s is
m u ch la rg e r th a n th e ir b o d y m a ss.
>■ P h y to p la n k to n s are w ith o u t ro o ts , stem s,
leav es, flo w e rs, fru its a n d se e d s b u t land
p la n ts p o sse ss all th e s e p ro p e rtie s .
>■ P h y to p la n k to n s are e a s ily flo a tin g and
in v isib le p la n ts w h e re a s la n d p la n ts range
from sm all p la n ts to la rg e tre e s a n d are
firm ly a tta c h e d to th e g ro u n d th ro u g h w ell
d e v elo p e d ro o t sy ste m s.
Q u e stio n a rises, as to w h y p h y to p la n k to n s
flo at in sea w ater? T h e a n sw e r is v e ry s im p le , th a t
m arin e p lan ts h a v e d e v e lo p e d s u c h d e v ic e s w h ic h
enable th em to re m a in a flo a t in s e a w a te r so th a t
they can p re p a re fo o d th ro u g h p h o to s y n th e s is . It
m ay be m e n tio n e d th a t p h o to s y n th e s is re q u ire s
the a v ailab ility o f th e fo llo w in g :
• su n sh in e,
• carb o n d io x id e ,
• w ater, an d
• n u trie n ts.
T he la n d p la n ts ta k e su n sh in e fro m th e sun,
carb o n d io x id e fro m th e a tm o s p h e re , w a te r from
th e so ils an d su b su rfa c e m a te ria ls a n d n u trie n ts
fro m th e so ils in s o lu tio n fo rm th ro u g h th e p ro cess
o f ro o to sm o sis. T h e m a rin e p la n ts (p h y to p la n k to n s)
tak e c arb o n d io x id e in d is s o lv e d fo rm from
sea w ater, n u trie n ts fro m s e a w a te r, th ro u g h th eir
bo d y c ells, w a te r fro m o c e a n w a te r th ro u g h th eir
cells an d s u n sh in e fro m s o la r ra d ia tio n .
S in ce m a rin e p la n ts a re p h o to s y n th e tic and
su n lig h t can p e n e tra te in o c e a n w a te r o n ly upto
200 m e te rs o f u p p e r z o n e , c a lle d e u p h o tic zone,
an d h e n c e th e y h a v e to re m a in in 2 0 0 m e te r u p p er
zo n e o f m a rin e b io m e so th a t th e y c an p e rfo rm
p h o to s y n th e sis e ffic ie n tly . T h is is th e re a so n that
p h y to p la n k to n s h a v e d e v e lo p e d su c h b o d y size
th a t can e n a b le th e m to flo a t fre e ly in seaw ater.
 m a r in e e c o l o g y a n d b io l o g ic a l p r o d u c t iv it y
This clearly sh o w s in terd e p en d e n c e o f m arin e
plants and m arin e en v ironm ent.
N ow let us solve the rid d le o f flo a ta tio n o f
p h y to planktons. A ny o b je ct can flo at in w ater
only w hen its su rface area is m uch la rg e r th an its
body m ass b e ca u se la rg e r su rface area creates
g re a te r fric tio n a l r r stan ce w ith w ater and th is
frictio n al re s ista n c e k e ep s the o b je ct a flo a t in
w ater.
T h e p h y to p la n k to n s h av e also such b o d ies,
the su rfa c e a re a o f w h ich are m uch la rg e r than
th e ir b o d y m a ss. T h e fo llo w in g aspects o f flo atin g
p h y to p la n k to n s d e n o te th e ir a d ap ta tio n to m arin e
e n v iro n m e n ts :
• M a rin e p la n ts m u st re m a in susp en d ed
in th e e u p h o tic zone (200 m e te r zone o f
u p p e r la y e r o f th e o c e a n s ) so th a t
th e y c a n p e rfo rm p h o to sy n th e sis e ffi­
c ie n tly .
• S in c e n u trie n ts are d isso lv e d in seaw ater
a n d h e n c e no ro o t sy stem s are req u ired
b e c a u s e th e y g e t n u trie n ts from seaw ater
th ro u g h th e ir cell w alls.
• T h e y in c re a s e su rfa c e a re a o f th e ir bodies
to m a x im u m e x te n t so th a t th ey do not sink
in s e a w a te r.
• P h y to p la n k to n s flo a t in s e a w a te r becau se
(1 ) th e y h a v e sm a ll b o d y m ass b u t large
b o d y s u rfa c e a re a, (2) th ey h av e h ig h
f r ic tio n a l d ra g o n se a w a te r, (3) n u m ero u s
p h y to p la n k to n s are a tta c h e d to each other,
a n d (4 ) w a te r m o tio n s an d w in d s k eep th em
m o v in g .
T he sign ifican t p lan t species o f phytoplanktons
a re a lg a e , d ia to m s , d in o fla g e lla te s etc. w h ich have
a d a p te d to m a rin e e n v iro n m e n t o f e u p h o tic zone.
T h e y a re n o t o n ly a ffe c te d b y m a rin e e n v iro n ­
m e n ts b u t th e y a lso e q u a lly a ffe c t o c ea n e n v iro n ­
m e n t, a n d o th e r m a rin e o rg a n is m s m a in ly
z o o p la n k to n s o f e u p h o tic z o n e. P h y to p la n k to n s
are th e m o s t im p o rta n t m e m b e rs o f m a rin e tro p h ic
le v els a n d m a rin e fo o d c h a in s a n d w e b s b e ca u se
th e y a re p rim a ry p ro d u c e r g re e n p la n ts w h ich
support large population to m icroscopic zooplanktons,
w h ic h in tu r n s u p p o rt n e k to n a n im a ls m a in ly
fish e s.
C o p e p o d s a n d m ic ro s c o p ic c r u s ta c e a n * b e ­
lo n g in g to z o o p la n k t o n s f a m i ly f e e d o n
p h y to p la n k to n s. It m a y be m e n tio n e d th a t th e s e
z o o p la n k to n s h a v e filte rin g d e v ic e s in s id e th e ir
m o u th s. P h y to p la n k to n s a lo n g w ith w a te r e n te r
the m o u th s o f z o o p la n k to n s. T h e y filte r th e w a te r
and take up phytoplanktons as th eir food. Foraminifera,
b rie fly c a lle d fo r a m s , a re a n o th e r im p o r ta n t
sp ecies o f z o o p la n k to n s o f th e p h y lu m P ro tis ta .
T h ey are u n ic e llu la r sp e c ie s o f z o o p la n k to n s .
2. A d a p ta tio n of N e k to n s to M a rin e E n v ir o n m e n t
N ek to n c o m m u n itie s o f m a rin e o rg a n is m s
are m o stly sw im m e r sp e c ie s o f a n im a ls o f w h ic h
fishes are th e m o st d o m in a n t a n im a ls . S in c e
n ek to n fish es h av e to liv e in n e ritic a n d o p e n
ocean b io m es o f p e la g ic e n v iro n m e n t a t v a r y in g
depths o f w ater, th ey h a v e d e v e lo p e d s w im m in g
m ech an ism s fo r v a rio u s p u rp o s e s s u c h as to c a tc h
preys and to esc a p e fro m p re d a to rs . T h u s , fis h e s
have the g re a te st m o b ility o f a ll th e m a rin e
anim als. M an y sp ec ie s o f fis h e s c o v e r lo n g
h o rizo n tal an d v e rtic a l d is ta n c e s in th e o c e a n
w ater. F o r e x am p le, g ra y w hales c o v e r a to ta l
d istan ce o f 2 200 k ilo m e te rs fro m A rc tic r e g io n to
M ex ican co asts in th e P a c ific O c e a n a n d b a c k to
A rctic O cean each y e a r (th o u g h w h a le s a re n o t
fish ra th e r th e y are sea m a m m a ls b u t h a v e
sw im m in g m e ch a n ism s an d h e n c e s w im fo r
larg est d istan ces). M an y fish e s m o v e to u p p e r
eu p h o tic zone an d d iv e to g re a te r d e p th s. T h u s,
fish es re q u ire e ffic ie n t m e c h a n ism s o f s w im m in g
to circ u m v en t re sista n c e o f fric tio n a l d ra g s o f
seaw ater. T he fish e s h a v e to o v e rc o m e th e
fo llo w in g 3 ty p e s o f fric tio n a l d ra g s b y a d o p tin g
su ita b le m e ch a n ism s :
>■ su rfa ce d rag
>■ fo rm d ra g
tu rb u le n t d rag
T h e sw im m in g a n im a ls, say fis h e s, o v e r­
co m e th e a fo re sa id d ra g s in th e fo llo w in g
m anner :
• F ish e s o v e rc o m e s u rfa c e d r a g c a u se d b y th e
fric tio n b e tw e e n th e ir b o d y m o v e m e n t an d
se a w a te r b y re d u c in g th e s u rfa c e a re a o f
th e ir b o d ie s. ' MA
 • T h e y o vercom e form drag, w hich is the
fu n c tio n o f volum e o f seaw ater displaced
by m o v in g fishes, by having such body
sh ap e w hich is cylindrical but w ith tap er­
in g ends, ju s t like the body o f tuna fish. It
m ay be m entioned that the volum e o f
sea w ater displaced by fishes is pro p o r­
tio n a l to the cross-sectional area o f the fish
body.
• T h e y overcom e tu rb u lent drag, w hich re­
ta rd s the speed o f m ovem ent o f fishes, by
hav in g such body shape w hich is charac­
te riz ed by b lu n t leading frontal part and
tap erin g trailin g end. Such body shape o f
fish es resem bles a torpedo, tuna fish is a
ty p ical exam ple.
T h e sw im m ing speed o f fishes depends on
th e fo llo w in g factors :
(1) b o d y length o f a fish
(2) b eat frequency, w hich is the num ber o f
sw eeps o f tail fins both forw ard and
b a ck w a rd p e r unit tim e
(3) th e asp ect ratio o f the tail fin (caudal fin),
w h ich is the ratio betw een the square o f tail
fin an d area o f tail fin.
T h e ab o v e facto rs are d irectly proportional
to s w im m in g s p e e d o f fishes i.e. the fishes having
lo n g e r b o d y le n g th , h ig h e r b eat frequen cy and
h ig h e r a s p e c t ra tio sw im w ith h ig h est speed. This
is w h y tu n a a n d sw o rd fish are the fastest sw im m ing
m a rin e fish e s.
T h e n e k to n c o m m u n itie s o f fish es have to
d e v e lo p tw o s k ills fo r th e ir su rv iv a l in the m arin e
e n v i r o n m e n t:
>• s k ill to c a p tu re p re y s as food
>• s k ill to e s c a p e fro m p re d a to rs
T h e fo llo w in g s k ills a re re q u ire d to p e rfo rm
th e a fo re s a id tw o fu n c tio n s b y fish e s :
• s p e e d o f s w im m in g , c ru is in g m e c h a n ism
a n d s u s ta in e d s w im m in g w ith ra p id sp ee d ,
• m a n e u v e rin g s k ill to tu rn sh a rp ly , an d
• lu n g e r s k ill i.e. w a itin g fo r p re y s a n d ra p id
a tta c k .
T h u s , th e re a re 3 ty p e s o f lo c o m o tio n s
w h ic h d e te r m in e th e m o d e a n d s w im m in g s p e e d
o f fishes, predation and escape from predators a«
fo llo w s :
1. efficient cru isin g m echanism ,
2. rapid acceleratio n m echanism , and
3. high m an eu v er ability.
(1) T una fishes Y 'v e efficien t cruising
ability but success o f p re o a tio n by them ranges
betw een 10-15 p ercen t, i.e. out o f to ta l attem pts to
capture preys o f fishes h av in g e ffic ie n t cruising
ability only 10-15 p e r c e ^ attack s are successful.
(2) The fishes like t. ■vin g lu n g e ability,
rapid acceleration, are iru. .,'ficient p red ato rs
because the success p ercen tag e o f p re d a tio n is the
highest, e.g. betw een 70-80 p e rc en t. In this
category fishes w ait for preys and w h en th e y com e
closer they attack w ith rap id sp eed an d catch
them . This m ech an ism m ay be te rm e d as w a it and
attack m echanism w ith full fo rce and stre n g th .
(3) The th ird ty p e o f lo c o m o tio n is
m an eu verability w h ich allo w s the fish e s to tu rn
sw iftly either to cap tu re p rey s o r to escap e fro m
predators. The fishes h a v in g a b ility o f h ig h
m aneuverability, such as b u tterfly fish, tu rn sw iftly
to catch preys and h en ce th ere is 4 0 -5 0 p e rc e n t
success o f p redation.
(4) The afo resaid 3 c ate g o rie s o f fish e s are
sp ecialists as th ey h av e d e v e lo p e d s p e c ia l sk ills
and m ech an ism s o f eith e r c ap tu rin g th e ir p re y s or
escaping from p re d a to rs. B e sid e s th e m , th e re is
4th categ o ry o f fish es w h ic h h a v e m a n y o f the
devices and m e ch a n ism s o f c a p tu rin g p re y s or
escap in g fro m p re d a to rs o f th e s p e c ia lis t c a te g o ­
ries o f fish es, as m e n tio n e d ab o v e. S u c h fish e s are
called gen er a lists, su ch as b lu e g ill fis h , sa lm o n fish ,
su rfp erch fish , flo u n d e r fish etc.
have acquired spe­
D eep -sea n ek to n a n im a ls
cial skills and devices in order to see in complete
darkness, to follow their preys, to attack preys, to
send signals, to seek mate through lights, to
escape from predators etc. The deep sea fishes are
well adapted to deep sea environment having
complete darkness. Certain species of fishes have
developed efficient sensory devices which allow
them to track their preys. Some species have
developed large vision and powerful eyes so that
they can sea their preys upto long distances. Some
 MARINE e c o l o g y a n d b io l o g ic a l p r o d u c t iv it y
o f the fish es h a v e g o t d a r k c o lo u re d bodies so that
they can esc a p e from predators. T h e b lin d s p e c ie s
o f fish es h a v e d e v e lo p e d s tr o n g sm elling sensing
d evice w h ich a llo w s th em to attack their p reys b y
tracking their sm e ll. M a n y o f the d eep fish e s h a v e
the d e v ic e s o f p ro d u cin g d iffere n t colours w h ich
enable su ch fis h e s to attract their p rey s, to seek
their m ates b y se n d in g lig h t and c o lo u r sig n a ls, to
escap e from p red ators eith er b y b lin d in g them
through d a z z lin g c o lo u r or b y c o n fu sin g them by
ch an gin g c o lo u r s etc.
3. A d a p t a t i o n of B e n t h ic B i o c o m m u n it ie s
M a rin e E n v i r o n m e n t
T h e m arin e o rg a n ism s o f d ifferen t habitats
o f o c e a n b o tto m s at v a ry in g dep th s ranging from
litto ra l to d eep sea b o tto m h ab itats and from rocky
sh o re to sa n d y and m u d d y flo o rs h a v in g d iverse
en v ir o n m en ta l c o n d itio n s sh o w v aryin g d egree o f
a d a p ta tio n b y d e v e lo p in g d ifferen t life style. The
lif e s t y le s o f p e la g ic and b en th ic o rg a n ism s, both
p la n ts an d a n im a ls, h a v e b een d iscu sse d in the
p r e c e d in g ch ap ter (1 5 ). T h e d escrip tio n o f adapta­
tio n o f a ll m arin e o r g a n ism s o f a ll habitats m ay
n o t b e p o s s ib le and h e n c e d escrip tio n o f se le c tiv e
a d a p tiv e str a te g ie s and s e le c tiv e in teraction s
b e tw e e n b e n th ic m a rin e o r g a n ism s and m arine
e n v ir o n m e n ts are a ttem p ted here.
L et u s d is c u s s th e in tera c tio n s b etw een
m arin e b e n th ic o r g a n is m s and m arin e en v ir o n ­
m en t o f r o c k y s h o r e h a b i t a t s . T h e stu d ies o f m arine
o r g a n ism s a lo n g r o c k y sh o re in th e m id -la titu d es
h a v e r e v e a le d v e r t i c a l z o n a ti o n o f m arine org a n ­
ism s fro m th e s h o r e a b o v e h ig h tid e w ater to the
sh ore b e lo w lo w tid e w a ter. T h ere are 3 v ertica l
ban ds o f m a rin e o r g a n is m s a lo n g ro ck y sh ore as
fo llo w s :
( 1 ) t o p m o s t b a n d at h ig h tid e w ater,
(2 ) i n t e r - t i d a l m id d l e b a n d or z o n e b e tw e e n
h ig h an d lo w tid e w a ter, and
( 3 ) b o t to m or lo w e st b a n d b e lo w lo w tid e w ater.
(1 ) Upper z o n e , a ls o c a lle d to p m o st b and,
m arin e h a b ita t is lo c a te d a b o v e h ig h tid e w a ter
and is g e n e r a lly e x p o s e d to air. T h is z o n e is
flo o d e d b y se a w a te r o n ly d u rin g v e r y h ig h tid e s or
stron g storm su r g e s . It is , th u s, e v id e n t that the
o rg a n ism s o f th is z o n e w o u ld b e n e ith e r tru e
m arine nor true terrestrial b u t w o u ld h a v e th e
co m m o n ch a ra cteristics o f b o th land an d m a rin e
en v iro n m en t. T h is u p per z o n e is g e n e r a lly e x ­
p o sed to air for the m o st part o f th e y e a r an d is
co v ered w ith sea w a ter o n ly d u rin g v e r y h ig h tid e s
and stron g storm su rg es and h e n c e th ere is a lw a y s
the danger o f d eh yd ration . T h u s, th e m a rin e p la n ts
and an im als o f th is to p m o st b an d h a v e a d ap ted to
the en v iro n m en ta l c o n d itio n o f th is z o n e th rou gh
su ita b le ad ap tive m e c h a n ism s so that th e y can
tolerate and w ith sta n d the p r o b le m o f d eh y d ra tio n
to due to p ro lo n g ed ex p o su re to the air.
T he sig n ific a n t p la n ts are lic h e n s , b lu e -
green a lg a e and d o m in a n t a n im a ls are s n a ils
(p eriw in k le s). T h ese o rg a n ism s h a v e d e v e lo p e d
d ifferen t m ech a n ism s and h a b its to w ith sta n d
p ro lo n g ed ex p o su re to th e air an d d eh y d ra tio n
arising out o f this. T h e a n im a ls d u rin g th e p erio d
o f their exp o su re co v er th em w ith a irtig h t s e a l o f
rocks and thus th ey e sc a p e fro m s u n s h in e and
d esicca tio n .
(2 ) M iddle zone or b a n d is lo c a te d b e tw e e n
h igh and lo w tid e w aters, the u p p er lim it o f w h ic h
is d eterm ined by the to ler a n c e an d a b ility o f
organ ism s to w ith sta n d d eh y d ra tio n . T h e lo w e r
lim it o f m id d le band is d eterm in e d b y tw o fa c to r s ,
n a m ely (1 ) in ten se c o m p e titio n a m o n g o r g a n ism s
for g ettin g liv in g sp a c e , and (2 ) th e d a n g e r o f
predation b y the a n im a ls liv in g in th e 3rd b a n d i.e .
lo w e st band, su ch as s n a ils an d sta r fis h e s .
B a rn a cles, b lu e m u ss e ls, lim p e ts, s n a ils , fu c u s,
u lv a , ch iton etc. are im p ortan t o r g a n is m s o f
m id d le band o f ro ck y sh o re.
(3 ) T h i r d b a n d or lowest b a n d of r o c k y shore is
d o m in a ted b y sea u rch in s, la m in a r ia s e a w e e d s ,
red a lg a e , k elp s, fu c u s, g e iid iu m , p orp h yra,
leath er star, sea a n e m o n e , o y s te r e tc . S e a w e e d s
are im portant p lan t c o m m u n itie s , the s p e c ie s
c o m p o s itio n o f w h ic h c h a n g e s d o w n w a rd w ith
d e c r e a sin g su n lig h t w ith in c r e a sin g d ep th and th e
g ra zin g b y b en th ic h erb iv o r o u s a n im a ls.
ot T h e sandy and m uddy shore habitats denote
different types o f adaptation and interactions
between marine organisms and ocean environ­
ments. The benthic communities o f marine
organisms o f sandy and muddy shore habitat are
 q u ite d iffe r e n t from ro ck y shore habitats b eca u se
o f th e fo llo w in g factors :
^ S a n d y and m u d dy flo o rs are le ss stable,
T h ey are e a sily eroded b y norm al sea
w a v e s and tid al currents.
T h ey p rovid e ea sy grounds for burrow ing
and m ak in g liv in g sp a ce for sea an im als,
T h ere is gen eral a b sen ce o f sea w eed s, etc.
T h e san d y and m u d dy shores are pop ulated
b y in f a u n a i.e . the an im als liv in g in the sands and
m u d s. T h e an im als e a s ily d ig out burrow s in the
u n c o n so lid a te d san ds and m uds for m ak in g liv in g
sp a ce for th em . Su ch b en th ic anim als are w e ll
ad ap ted to th e co n d itio n s o f their habitats. T hey
co m fo rta b ly h id e them in the burrow s and tunnels,
g e t s u ffic ie n t fo o d and nutrition from sed im en ts
and p ro tect th em from preydators w h ile liv in g
in sid e the sed im en ts. T h ese burrow s also protect
th em from w a v e attack.
T h e im portant infauna sp e c ie s o f sandy and
m u d d y sh ore habitat in clu d e razor clam s, b iv a lv es,
p o ly c h a e te w o rm s, sand d ollars etc. T he ra z o r
clam is a ty p ic a l m em b er o f infauna co m m u n ities
and h as d e v e lo p e d sp e c ia l m ech a n ism o f rapid
b u rrow in g in san d flat and sw ift m o v em en t w ith
its lo n g s h e ll e x c e e d in g 2 0 cen tim eters in length
in and o u t o f b u rrow s. T h e poly ch a e te w o rm s have
d e v e lo p e d lo n g n arrow and tabular b o d y w ith
n e e d le -lik e h ea d so that th ey can en ter the
se d im e n ts e a s ily . T h e s a n d d o lla rs h a v e d e v e lo p e d
su ch m e c h a n is m w h ic h e n a b le s th em to separate
o rg a n ic m a tter from sa n d s for th eir fo o d .
C o r a ls d e n o te a fin e e x a m p le o f e c o lo g ic a l
ad ap tation to m a rin e en v ir o n m e n t o f eu p h o tic
z o n e , and o f c o e x isten c e o f a n im a ls and p lan ts
to g eth er. It m a y b e r e c a lle d that co ra l a n im a ls
have symbiotic green m icro sco p ic plants, zooxanthellae
alg ae, w h ic h are e m b e d d e d in th e tis s u e s o f ou ter
b o d y o f co ra l p o ly p s . C o ra ls p r o v id e sh e lte r s to
su ch s y m b io tic a lg a e and in turn z o o x a n th e lla e
a lg a e s u p p ly 6 0 p e r c e n t o f to ta l fo o d req u irem en t
o f co ra ls. T h is a s p e c t h a s b e e n d ea lt w ith at len g th
in th e 13th ch ap ter ( c o r a l re e fs ) o f th is b o o k . T h is
c le a r ly d e m o n str a te s m u tu a l in tera c tio n s and
in te r d e p e n d e n c e b e tw e e n p la n ts and a n im a ls and
th eir a d ju stm en t w ith p h y s ic a l en v ir o n m e n ta l
c o n d itio n s o f m a rin e h a b ita ts. T h e c o r a ls are
intolerant o f h ig h range o f flu ctu a tio n s in the
tem perature o f seaw ater. I f the tem perature
in crea ses ev en b y 2°C from the norm al tem pera­
ture o f the trop ical and su b trop ical o c e a n s, corals
ex p e l their sy m b io tic a lg a e from their b o d ies,
w ith the resu lt co ra ls are b lea c h e d and d ie o f
starvation. It m ay be rem em bered that zooxanthellae
algae n ot o n ly p ro v id e fo o d to co ra ls but also
adorn th em w ith co lo u rs o f d ifferen t sh ad es.
T he e c o lo g y o f a fe w s p e c ific b en th ic
b io co m m u n ities o f certain ty p ic a l lo c a litie s o f sea
flo o r habitats has b een d isc u sse d in the p reced in g
15th chapter ( m a r in e biom e a n d sea o r g a n is m s ) , as
fo llo w s :
>• benthic h y d r o th e r m a l v e n t b io c o m m u n itie s
im portant o rgan ism s in clu d e tu b e w o rm s
(1 0 0 cen tim eters lo n g ), large m u s s e ls ,
w h ite crabs, m icro b ia l m ats, g ia n t c la m s
(25 cen tim eters lo n g ), m ic r o sc o p ic arch aea
etc.
>- s u b m a r in e seep b e n th o s b io c o m m u n itie s
(1 ) h y p e rs a lin e seep b io c o m m u n itie s
ex a m p les : c h e m o sy n th e tic m a ts, a fe w
s p e c ie s o f fis h e s , tube w o rm s, m u s s e ls ,
brittle stars etc.
(2 ) h y d r o c a r b o n seep b io c o m m u n itie s
ex a m p les : a n im a l s p e c ie s are sim ila r
to the hydrotherm al ven t b iocom m u n ities
and h y p ersa lin e se e p b io c o m m u n itie s.
(3 ) s u b d u c tio n zone seep b io c o m m u n itie s
T h e b io c o m m u n itie s are m ore or le ss
sim ilar to the b io co m m u n itie s o fb en th ic
hyd roth erm al v en t b io c o m m u n itie s and
su b m a rin e se e p b io c o m m u n itie s.
S u ch p a tch es o f b io c o m m u n itie s o f deep
se a b en th ic h a b ita ts, as referred to a b o v e , are
c a lle d m a r i n e oases.
R ich n u trien ts, m a in ly su lp h id es o f zinc,
co p p er and s ilv e r , c o m e o u t th rou gh hydrotherm al
ven ts (ca lled b lac k sm okers or ch im n eys), hypersaline
s e e p , h y d ro ca rb o n s e e p and su b d u ctio n zo n e seep,
su p p ort certa in s p e c ie s o f m arin e organ ism s,
m a in ly a n im a ls, at s p e c ific lo c a tio n s on d eep sea
flo o r s , w h ic h are o th e r w ise large m a r in e biologic*!
d e s e rts . .. • v!
 1&4 ECOLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY AND BIO­
LOGICAL PRODUCTION
E c o lo g ic a l p ro d u ctiv ity , a lso ca lled b io -
lo g ic a l p rod u ctivity, refers to th e rate o f grow th o f
energy or organ ic m atter per unit tim e by
autotrophic prim ary producers through the proc­
esses o f p h o to sy n th esis and ch em o sy n th esis w ith
the h elp o f su n lig h t, n u trients, w ater and carbon
dioxide- T h u s, the total accu m u lated (fix ed )
am ount o f en erg y stored b y the autotrophic
primary p rod u cers per unit tim e and per unit area
is called ecological p ro d u ctiv ity . T his is also called
primary p r o d u c tiv ity b eca u se o f e c o lo g ic a l produc­
tion m o s tly b y prim ary producers.
T h e green p lan ts and algae o f marine
aq u atic b io m e are ca lle d p r im a ry pro d u ce rs b e ­
c a u se th ey m an u facture fo o d energy through the
p r o c e ss o f p h o to sy n th e sis w ith the help o f
su n lig h t, carb on d io x id e and water (m ix ed with
n e c e ssa r y n u trien ts). T he m arine prim ary produc­
ers fall in tw o broad ca teg o r ies :
( 1 ) g r e e n p la n ts , m a in ly grasses and seaweeds o f
s a lt m a rsh es, tid al flats and estu aries, and
(2) m a r i n e algae.
M arin e p rim ary p rod u cers are a lso d ivided
into 2 c la s s e s on th e b a sis o f p ro cess o f preparing
food e n e r g y :
>- P h o to s y n th e tic p r i m a r y p r o d u c e r s , such as
g ree n s e a g r a sse s and sea w eed s ( o f the
c a te g o r y o f p la n ts), and a lgae. G rasses and
w e e d s are firm ly fix e d to substrata by root
s y s te m s , w h ile a lg a e and diatom s are
flo a tin g p h y to p la n k to n s.
>■ Chem oiyntbetlc p rim a ry p rod u cers are benthic
b a cteria o f th e h ab itats o f hydrotherm al
v en ts and d eep s e a s e e p s o f the o cea n floor
w h ere certain s p e c ie s o f bacteria sy n th e­
s iz e o rg a n ic m atter through ch em ic a l p ro c­
e s s e s b y u sin g su lp h id e s o f zin c , copper,
and s ilv e r and oth er n u trients co m in g from
b e lo w o c e a n flo o r s through subm arine
v o lc a n ic v en ts, c a lle d b lack sm o k ers, and
su b m arin e h y d ro sa lin e se e p s, h ydrocarbon
seeps and su b d u ctio n z o n e seep s.
A lg aare b y far th e m o st sig n ific a n t p rim ary
producers o f m arine habitats b eca u se th ey are a b le
to capture m ost o f solar en ergy (su n lig h t) in th e
eu p h otic zo n e and p rovid e fo o d en ergy to m o st o f
m arine b io co m m u n ities d irectly and in d irectly .
The large s iz e a lgae p lay m inor role in s y n th e s is ­
in g organic m atter into fo o d en ergy through
p h otosyn th esis. T he m icr o sc o p ic a lg a e p la y m a­
jor role in m anufacturing fo o d for th e m se lv e s and
for other m arine anim als o f varyin g siz e s . T h is is
w hy plankton m icro sco p ic a lg a e represent largest
biomass o f m arine b io co m m u n ities.
Biomass refers to the quantity o f w e ig h t o f
liv in g matter o f all organism s per unit area or per
unit v o lu m e (in the case o f flu id s, su ch as o cea n
water) per unit tim e. B io m a ss is co m p rised o f b oth
plants (in the ca se o f o cea n s, p h y to p la n k to n s,
grasses and sea w eed s) and an im als and th erefore
it is also referred to as p la n t biom ass, and a n im a l
biomass.
It is n ecessary to draw d istin ctio n b e tw e e n
productivity and pro d u ctio n . Ecological p r o d u c tiv ity
refers to the rate o f in crease o f b io m a ss w h ere as
ecological (biological) p ro d u ctio n is an am ou n t or
quantity o f total b iom ass o f a g iv e n unit area or
unit volu m e at a g iv en tim e.
P rim a ry m arin e
ecological p ro d u c tio n by
phytoplanktons, grasses and se a w e e d s fa lls in 2
broad categories as fo llo w s :
(1) Grass prim ary production (G P P ), and
(2) N et prim ary production (N P P );
Gross p r im a ry ecological p r o d u c tio n is t h e
total am ount o f fo o d en ergy (c h e m ic a l en erg y )
produced by the autotrophic prim ary p rod u cers
(m arine plants) at the base o f m arine fo o d ch ain ,
say at trophic le v e l one. In other w ord s, g ro ss
prim ary production refers to total am ount o f
energy a ssim ilated by autotrophic m arine prim ary
producers i.e. p h ytoplank ton s, and g ra sses and
sea w eed s.
Net p rim ary ecological p rod u ction (N P P ) rep­
resents the am ount o f en ergy or organ ic m atter
fix ed or stored at trophic le v e l on e. T h e n et
prim ary p rod u ction ex clu d e s the am ount o f
en ergy w h ich is lo st through respiration b y
autotrophic prim ary producers. N e t prim ary p ro­
d u ction is thus g ro ss prim ary p roduction m in u s

e n e r g y lo s t through respiration (N P P = GPP -
o s s o f e n e r g y through respiration). N et prim ary
p ro d u c tio n rep resents the usable am ount o f
e n e r g y at trop h ic le v e l on e o f m arine fo o d
c h a in , w h ic h is m ad e a v a ila b le to h igh er
tro p h ic le v e ls . T he m arine e c o sy ste m p rod u ctiv­
ity , w h e th e r gross or net, is gen erally m easured in
gram per u n it area or per unit v o lu m e per day or
p er year.
O n th e b a sis o f p rocess o f eco lo g ic a l
p ro d u ctiv ity , it is d iv id ed into tw o categories :
p h o to sy n th etic productivity, and
ch em o sy n th e tic productivity.
G ross prim ary production is also d ivided
in to tw o ty p es as fo llo w s :
(1 ) n ew prim ary production, and
(2 ) regenerated prim ary production.
New p r im a r y p ro d u ctio n o f the ocean s refers
to the ad d ition o f nutrients brought from other
sou rces i.e. from ou tsid e the concerned m arine
e c o sy ste m . U p w e llin g o f co ld ocean water from
b e lo w is the m ajor source o f n ew primary
p rod u ction .
R eg en era ted prim ary production represents
th o se n u trien ts w h ich are the results o f recy cles
th rou gh m a r i n e biogeochemical cycles w hithin a
s p e c ific m arin e e c o sy ste m .
16.5 L I M I T I N G F A C T O R S O F P R IM A R Y
P R O D U C TIO N
T h e m a rin e prim ary p roduction by p h oto­
sy n th e tic p h y to p la n k to n s d ep en d s on a few
fa c to r s, w h ic h are ca lled lim itin g factors. In fact,
th ere are s p a tia l varia tio n s in prim ary production
fro m c o a s ta l w a ters tow ard s o p en ocean . It is also
im p o r ta n t to n o t e th a t p rim a ry p ro d u cer
p h y to p la n k to n s req u ire certain su ita b le co n d i­
tio n s fo r e ff ic ie n t p h o to sy n th e sis. S uch co n d i­
tio n s and fa c to r s w h ic h co n tro l p h o to sy n th esis
a n d p rim a ry b io lo g ic a l p ro d u ctio n in clu d e the
f o llo w in g :
( 1 ) m a jo r o r p r im a r y fa c to rs
>■ s u n lig h t (so la r rad iation )
n u trien ts c o n cen tra tio n (a v a ila b ility )
OCEANOGRAPHY
( 2 ) m in or factors
>■ u p w ellin g and tu rb u len ce
>■ grazin g in ten sity
>* w ater turbidity
1. S u n lig h t
Solar radiation or sa y su n lig h t is a major
input factor for e ffic ie n t p h o to sy n th esis and
prim ary b io lo g ic a l p rod u ction . W ith ou t sunlight,
there w ou ld be no p h o to sy n th e sis, and in the
ab sen ce o f p h o to sy n th esis and co n seq u en t pri­
mary production there w o u ld b e n o m arine life.
T hus, availa b ility o f su n lig h t d eterm in es the
degree o f p h o to sy n th esis w h ich in turn deter­
m ines prim ary p roduction. It is im portant to note
that phytoplanktons u tiliz e v ery m eagre am ount
o f solar radiation i.e. o n ly 0.1 to 0 .2 p ercen t o f
total solar radiation reach in g the o cea n surface,
the rem aining solar radiation is sp en t in h eating
seaw ater.
The su nligh t d ecrea ses w ith in creasin g
depth from seaw ater su rface. It can p en etrate to
the m axim um depth o f 1000 m eters but su n lig h t at
such depth is not su fficien t to p rop el p h o to sy n th e­
sis. The upper layer o f o cean upto a depth o f 2 0 0
m eters is called euphotic zone but the upper p ortion
o f euphotic zon e upto the depth o f 100 m eters is
m ost suitable for p h o to sy n th esis. T h e co m p en sa ­
tion depth for photosynthesis, w h ich is th e lo w est
lim it o f p h o to sy n th esis and d en o tes zero p h oto­
s y n th e s is , d e te r m in e s th e lo w e s t v e r tic a l
lim it b eyon d w h ich no p h o to sy n th esis can take
place. The depth o f e ffe c tiv e p en etration o f
su nlight in seaw ater is d eterm in ed b y transpar­
en cy or say turbidity o f w ater, w h ich is the
function o f p resen ce o f su sp en d ed sed im en ts in
seaw ater. T his is w h y the co m p en sa tio n depth for
p h otosyn th esis or depth o f eu p h o tic zo n e in­
creases from con tin en tal m argin s and coastal
w aters toward open o cea n b eca u se turbidity
decreases from co a sta l w ater tow ard op en ocean.
The com p en sation depth for p h o to syn th esis is
on ly 2 0 m eters in co a sta l w ater due to m ore
concentration o f su sp en d ed sed im en ts, whereas
this depth ranges from 100 to 2 0 0 m eters in open
ocean.
 MARINE e c o l o g y a n d b io l o g ic a l pr o d u c t iv it y
B a se d o n a v a ila b ility o f s u n lig h t, w e m a y
infer that p h o to s y n th e s is an d p rim a ry p ro d u ctio n
must in c r e a se fro m c o a s ta l w a ters to o p e n o c e a n
but o p p o site is tru e. In fa ct, c o a s ta l w a ters are
m ore p r o d u c tiv e th an o p e n o c e a n . T h is m ea n s,
there is a n o th er fa c to r th at u n d e rm in es su n lig h t
factor. T h is fa c to r is nutrient concentration.
S in c e m o r e th an 9 9 p erce n t o f so la r
radiation is sp e n t in h e a tin g se a w a te r , th e su rfa ce
w ater o f th e o c e a n s r e c o r d s h ig h e r tem p eratu re
w h ich d e c r e a s e s p o le w a r d . In th e c a s e o f land
p lan ts s o la r in s o la t io n , tem p era tu re and p lan t
g ro w th are p o s it iv e ly c o rr ela ted . T h is is w h y
p rim ary p r o d u c tiv ity an d e c o lo g ic a l p rod u ctio n ,
o n an a v e r a g e , d e c r e a s e s fro m tro p ics tow ard
h ig h e r la titu d e s b u t th is is n o t true in the c a se o f
m a rin e p r im a r y p r o d u c tiv ity and m arin e e c o lo g i­
c a l p r o d u c tio n b e c a u s e th e y are m u ch h igh er in
h ig h la titu d e s (p o la r ) a rea s o f o c e a n s than trop ical
o c e a n s d u e to m o r e c o n c e n tr a tio n o f nutrien ts in
c o ld w a te r o f p o la r a rea s. T h is a g a in p ro v es the
f a c t th a t b e s id e s s u n lig h t (s o la r ra d ia tio n ), a v a il­
a b ilit y o f n u tr ie n ts is a ls o an im p ortan t lim itin g
fa c to r o f m a r in e e c o lo g ic a l p r o d u c tiv ity and
p r o d u c tio n .
2. N u t r i e n t C o n c e n t r a t i o n
T h e r e s h o u ld b e s te a d y s u p p ly o f n u trien ts
fo r e n s u r e d r ic h p la n t g r o w th . T h e n u trien ts
n e e d e d b y p la n ts fa ll in tw o c a te g o r ie s e .g . (1 )
m acronutrients, s u c h a s p h o sp h o r o u s , n itro g en
,s ilic o n e tc . an d ( 2 ) m icronutrients, su c h as co p p er,
z in c , c o b a lt , ir o n , m a n g a n e s e e tc . M a cro n u trien ts
are r e q u ir e d b y p la n ts in la r g e q u a n titie s w h ile
m ic r o n u tr ie n ts a re n e e d e d in le s s q u a n tity . B e ­
sides, c a r b o n is r e q u ir e d in la rg e q u a n tity .
Nitrogen and p h o s p h o r o u s o f th e c a te g o r y o f
macronutrients are limiting fa c to r o f m a rin e
primary productivity. It may b e mentioned that
carbon is needed by plants in large quantity for
photosynthesis but it is not a limiting factor fo r
marine primary productivity because carbon is
abundantly found in the oceans. On the other
hand, though iron is needed by marine plants in
very small quantity but it is a limiting factor for
marine primary productivity because it a scarce
dem ent in the oceans.
It is now e a s ie r to h y p o th e s is e that marine
prim ary p ro d u c tiv ity would be h ig h e r in the areas
o f h ig h n u trien t c o n cen tra tio n , while it would be
lo w in th e areas o f lo w co n c e n tr a tio n o f n u trien ts.
S in c e the fresh w a te r r u n o ff is th e m ajor so u r c e o f
nu trien t su p p ly to m a rin e p h y to p la n k to n s, the
p la n t n u trien ts w o u ld b e m o re c o n c e n tr a te d in the
co n tin en ta l m a rg in s an d c o a s ta l w a te r s because
rivers ero d e c o n tin e n ta l r o c k s, o b ta in m in e r a ls
and c h e m ic a l su b sta n c e s and b rin g th em in to the
o c e a n s, and h e n c e n eritic z o n e o f c o n tin e n ta l
s h e lv e s a cco u n t for h ig h e r p rim a ry p r o d u c tiv ity
and prim ary p ro d u ctio n than th e o p e n se a . T h is is
w h y w e fin d g rea test c o n c e n tr a tio n o f m a rin e
o rg a n ism s in th e co n tin en ta l m a rg in s and c o a s ta l
w aters.
3. U p w e llin g of S e a w a te r a n d N u t r ie n t s
U p w e llin g o f sea w a ter m e a n s c o m in g o u t o f
r ela tiv e ly c o ld and n u trien t rich o c e a n w a te r from
b e lo w , g en era lly from th e d ep th b e lo w p h o tic
zo n e. It m ay b e m e n tio n e d that d ea d b o d ie s o f
p lants and a n im a ls o f p h o tic z o n e s in k an d m o v e
d ow n w ard . U ltim e ly th ey are d e c o m p o s e d b y
bacteria (d e c o m p o se r s) and are d is s o lv e d in
sea w a ter. T h e se o rg a n ic m atters b e c o m e n u trien ts
and m o v e v e r tic a lly u p w a rd w ith u p w e llin g w a ter
and thus rep len ish n u trien ts in th e p h o tic z o n e .
T h is p r o c e ss is c a lle d r e n e w a l an d re g e n e r a tio n o f
n u trien ts in th e upper p h o tic z o n e .
N o w q u estio n a r ise s, as to w h y s e a w a te r
u p w e lls from b e lo w ? T h e u p w e llin g o c c u r s to f ill
the w a ter lo s s crea ted b y th e m o v e m e n t o f su r fa c e
w a ter b y o c e a n cu rren ts. T h ere are tw o area s o f
u p w e llin g e .g . (1 ) equatorial upwelling, an d (2 )
coastal upwelling. T h e u p w e llin g o f o c e a n w a ter
o c c u r s arou n d eq u a to r d u e to tran sp ort o f su r fa c e
w a ter a w a y fro m th e eq u a to r b y E km an tra n sp o rt
u n d er th e in flu e n c e o f Coriolis deflection, w h ic h
m o v e s th e w a ter to th e rig h t in th e northern
h e m isp h e r e an d to th e le ft in th e sou th ern
h e m isp h e r e . T h is su r fa c e tran sp ort o f s e a w a te r
a w a y fro m th e eq u a to r c a u s e s w a ter d e fic it. In
o rd er to c o m p e n s a te th is su r fa c e w a ter d e fic it,
c o ld w a ter u p w e lls fro m b e lo w an d th is u p w e llin g
w a ter b r in g s n u trien ts in th e p h o tic zone. The
s e c o n d z o n e o f c o a s ta l u p w e llin g occurs along the
 402
w estern m a rig in s o f continent* in the tropical short su pp ly o f fo o d to zo o p lan k ton s. W ith the
reg io n in order to com p en sate the lo ss o f water result m any zoop lan k ton s d ie o f starvation and
c a u sed b y transport o f coastal w ater o ffsh o re i.e. their population is rem arkably red u ced and is
tow ard th e se a by Ekman transport. brought to norm al co n d itio n . In su ch situation
phytoplanktons again in crea se th eir b iom ass, and
It m ay b e m entioned that u p w ellin g water
norm al co n d itio n is restored.
b rin gs nutrients in d isso lv ed form s in the photic
z o n e w h ere p hytoplanktons use them during
16.6 PRIMARY PRODUCER MARINE
p h o to sy n th esis. The u p w ellin g zo n es represent
v ery fertile habitats and are characterized by rich ORGANISMS
b io co m m u n itie s.
Major prim ary producers are photosynthetic
S in ce the p h otosyn th esis is more effectiv e in
marine organism s o f p h otic z o n e o f the oceans.
the p h otic zon e and in the coastal waters, biom ass
T hese p h otosyn th etic prim ary producer marine
o f m arine b iocom m u n ities decreases from con ti­
organism s are d ivid ed into fo llo w in g categories :
nental m argins toward open sea, and from photic
zo n e dow nw ard, but increases from equatorial 1 . Plants, m a in ly seed bearing p lan ts w ith roots
region tow ard high latitudes. (i) e el g ra sses o f b a y s and estu a ries, upto
6m depth
4. T u r b i d i t y of O c e a n W ater
(ii) su rf g ra sses, in ro ck y c o a sts
(iii) g ra sses o f saltm arsh es
T urbidity o f w ater refers to the degree o f
concentration o f suspended sedim ents in seaw ater. (iv ) m a n g ro v es
Seaw ater turbidity in creases w ith increase o f flux 2. Algae
o f sed im en ts into sea s by the rivers. T hus, coastal (1 ) m ac roscopic o r la r g e algae
w aters accou n t for h ig h est d egree o f turbidity
(i) b row n a lg a e
w h ich d ecreases tow ard open ocean . Seaw ater
turbidity a d versely a ffects the availa b ility o f (ii) green a lg a e
su n lig h t in the p h otic zon e. Turbid water reduces (iii) red a lg a e
the a m o u n t o f su n ligh t that can penetrate through
(2 ) m icroscopic o r tin y algae
se a w a te r o f p h o tic zon e. Thus, m ore turbid water
d e c r e a se s p h o to sy n th e sis, prim ary p roductivity (i) g o ld e n a lg a e
and b io m a ss. (a ) d ia to m s
(b ) c o c o lith o p h o r e s
5. G r a z i n g b y Z o o p l a n k t o n s
(ii) d in o fla g e lla te s
A s s ta te d e a r lie r th a t m ic r o s c o p ic
T h is fa cto r in n ot related to eith er in crease
p h ytop lan k ton s i.e. a lg a e are, in fa ct, th e prim ary
or d e c r e a s e o f p h o to sy n th e s is but is related to
producers b eca u se th ey p erfo rm m o re than 99
b io m a s s . G e n e r a lly , it h ap p en s that m axim u m
p ercen t o f to ta l p h o t o s y n t h e s is b y m arine
g ro w th o fp h y to p la n k to n s , k n o w n as p h ytop lan k ton
p h yto p la n k to n s w h e rea s m a c r o s c o p ic a lg a e do
bloom, and m a x im u m reproduction o fzo o p la n k to n s,
o n ly about 1 p ercen t o f to ta l p h o to sy n th e s is . This
r e s u lts in ra p id rate o f g ra zin g o f p h y to p la n k to n s
is w h y m ic r o sc o p ic p h y to p la n k to n s h ave the
b y z o o p la n k to n s and th u s there is m arked largest b io m a ss o f m arin e b io m e .
r e d u c tio n in p la n k to n ic b io m a ss. T h is lo w b io m a ss
is r e g e n e r a te d b y fe e d b a c k m e ch a n ism . L et us
16.7 R E G I O N A L P A T T E R N O F NET M A R IN E
e x p la in fe e d b a c k m e c h a n is m and ren ew a l o f P R IM A R Y P R O D U C T IV IT Y
p la n k t o n ic b io m a s s . T h e rapid in c r e a se in the
p o p u la tio n o f z o o p la n k t o n s c a u s e s d e c r e a se in the
T h e pattern o f d istrib u tio n o f n et prim ary
b io m a s s o f p h y to p la n k to n s d u e to v ig o r o u s
p ro d u ctiv ity and p ro d u ctio n b y m arin e prim ary
g r a z i n g b y z o o p la n k t o n s . T h is s itu a tio n resu lts in
 MARINE ECOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY
producers is governed by the spatial patterns o f
availability of sunlight and nutrients. There is wide
range o f spatial variation in net primary productiv-
| ity* which varies from a minimum value o f lg /m 2/
year in som e o f the pockets o f open ocean to the
highest value o f4 0 0 0 g /m 2/year in a few estuaries.
The average net primary productivity o f
(jilloixni marine biom es (according to I.G. Simmons,
1074) is 3 5 0 gram s per square m etre per year for
Table 16. 1 : Gross primary productivity
Q uantity in g C /m :/yr
< 50
5 0 -1 5 0
1 5 0 -5 0 0
5 0 0 -1 2 5 0
S o u r ce : P. R P inet, 2 0 0 0 , C — carbon (organic matter).
Tat/e 16.2 : Net primary productivity
M a rin e e c o s y s te m s R ange
g C /m 2/year)
1. A lg a e b ed s and 1 0 0 0 -3 0 0 0
co ra l reefs
2. E stu a ries 5 0 0 -4 0 0 0
3. U p w e llin g z o n e 4 0 0 -1 0 0 0
4. C o n tin en ta l s h e lf 3 0 0 -6 0 0
5. O p en o c e a n 1 - 40 0
Source : H .P . T hurm an and A . P. T ru jillo, 1 9 9 9
T h e sp a tia l d istrib u tio n o f prim ary produc­
tivity m ay b e d is c u s s e d in 2 w a y s as fo llo w s .
> d istrib u tio n o f p rim ary p ro d u ctiv ity a c ­
c o r d in g to th erm al z o n e s o f o c e a n s , n a m ely
tro p ica l o c e a n s , tem p era te o c e a n s, and
p o la r o c e a n s .
^ o c e a n -w is e d istr ib u tio n o f prim ary pro­
d u c tiv ity su ch a s p rim ary p ro d u ctiv ity in
th e P a c ific O c e a n , A tla n tic O c ea n , Indian
O c e a n , A r c tic O c e a n s and A n ta rctic O cean .
P r im a r y P r o d u c t i v i t y In T r o p i c a l o c e a n s
A s d is c u s s e d ea r lie r , th ere are tw o m ajor
factors w h ic h c o n tr o l p rim ary p ro d u c tiv ity and
403
continental s h e lf biom e; 125 g/m 2 per year for
open sea biom e; 50 0 g /m 2/year for u p w ellin g zon e
biome; and 155 g/m 2/year for the w hole o f oceanic
environment. The total primary production is
9.3 x 109 tonnes per year for continental sh e lf
biome; 41.5 x 109 tonnes/year for open ocean
biome; 0.2 x 109 tonnes/year for upw elling zone
biom e and 55.0 x 109 tonnes/year for the w hole
oceanic areas.
Ocean areas
(marine ecosystem s)
open ocean
continental shelves
upw elling areas,
deep estuaries, shallow estuaries, coral reefs
A verage
(g c /m 2/yr)
2000
1800
500
360
125
production in the ocean s e.g. (i) availability o f
sunlight (solar radiation) and availability o f
nutrients in abundance. From the stand point o f
com bined effects o f these tw o factors, the tropical
ocean s represent the region o f m inim um prim ary
p rod uctivity, m ainly in the open ocean. T he sunlight
is available in abundance throughout the year in the
tropical region s o f the o cea n s and h ence the deep
com pensation d ep th is m uch deeper than in the polar
and tem perate o cea n s b eca u se solar radiation
penetrates o cea n w ater upto greatest depth o f
photic zo n e (u oto 2 0 0 m eters depth from sea
su r fa c e ) but still there is lo w prim ary productivity.
T hen q u estion a rises, w hy? T h is is b ecau se o f lo w
su pp ly o f nutrients for p h o to sy n th esis.
 The poor a v a ila b ility o f n u trien ts is b e c a u se
o f no m ixing o f w a ters o f upper la y er and nutrient
rich c o ld w a te r o f lo w e r la y er o f sea w a ter. T h is is
b e c a u s e o f th e fact that th ere is p erm an en t
th e r m o c li n e l a y e r b e tw e e n 10 0 m and 1 0 0 0 m depth
zone b e lo w sea su rfa ce w h e rea s m a x im u m c o n ­
cen tra tio n o f n u trien ts is in the d ep th z o n e o f 5 0 0
m - 1 0 0 0 m from sea su rfa ce. T h is perm anent
th e r m o c lin e sto p s any v ertica l m o v em en t o f w ater
and thus th e nutrient rich sea w a ter d o es not c o m e
upw ard to rep len ish n u trien ts in the p h o tic zo n e
for v ig o r o u s p h o to sy n th e sis. T h is is w h y o p en
o c e a n s o f trop ical and su b trop ical reg io n s are
c a lle d m a r i n e b io lo g ic a l d e s e r ts b eca u se o f lo w
p rim ary p ro d u ctiv ity .
In sp ite o f lo w prim ary p ro d u ctiv ity in the
tro p ica l and su b tro p ica l o c e a n s there are so m e
p o c k e ts o f h igh prim ary p ro d u ctiv ity in tropical
o c e a n s , w h ich m ay be c a lle d t r o p i c a l m a r i n e
b io lo g ic a l o a s e s . T here are 3 such p o ck ets o f high
prim ary p ro d u ctiv ity :
eq u atorial u p w e llin g areas,
c o a sta l u p w e llin g areas, and
coral reefs areas.
T he eq u atorial and co a sta l u p w ellin g s, the
m e ch a n ism s o f w h ich h ave already been e x ­
p la in ed under se c tio n 16.5 (lim itin g factors o f
p rim ary p r o d u ctiv ity ), bring su ffic ie n t nutrients
(p h o sp h a te s, n itrates, iron e tc .) in the p h otic zo n e,
c o n s e q u e n tly p h o to sy n th e s is is a u gm en ted . S y m ­
b io tic a lg a e , su ch as z o o x a n th e lla e a lg a e , w h ich
are em b e d d e d in the tis s u e s o f coral an im als
e n h a n c e primary' p r o d u c tiv ity in co a sta l w aters.
B e s id e s , e stu a r ie s o f tro p ica l and su b trop ical
o c e a n s a ls o rep resen t areas o f h igh prim ary
p r o d u c tiv ity b e c a u s e o f su p p ly o f n u trien ts from
terrig ren o u s so u r c e s b y riv ers.
2. P r i m a r y P r o d u c t i v i t y in T e m p e r a t e O c e a n s
T h ere is ab u nd an t su p p ly o f n u trien ts in
tem p erate o c e a n s but th e a m o u n t o f su n lig h t
v a r ie s s e a s o n a lly i.e. d u rin g w in te r and su m m er
s e a s o n s . T h o u g h p rim ary p r o d u c tiv ity is c o n tr o l­
le d b y th e c o m b in e d e f f e c t s o f availability' o f
s u n lig h t and n u trien ts but su n lig h t is r e la tiv e ly
m o r e im p ortan t lim itin g fa cto r o f p rim ary p ro d u c­
t iv it y in tem p era te o c e a n s .
D u rin g w i n t e r s e a s o n n utrient su pp ly
abundant but su n lig h t ca n n o t p en etrate to desired
depth o f o c e a n w a ter and h e n c e it is w ea k . W hy
th ere is abundant su p p ly o f nu trien ts during
w in ter se a so n in p h o tic z o n e ? T h e an sw er is, the
sea w a ter is iso th erm a l i.e . a lm o st u n iform tem ­
perature in p h o tic z o n e and w a ter layer b elow ,
w ith the resu lt th ere is u n ifo rm d istrib u tion o f
nutrients in the u p per la y er (p h o tic z o n e ) and
lo w er w ater layer. T h e p rim ary p rod u ctivity
during w in ter se a so n is lo w b e c a u se the d eep
c o m p e n s a tio n d e p th (d ep th o f p h o tic z o n e ) is very
lo w due to w ea k su n lig h t and h e n c e p h o to sy n th e­
sis is also lo w . B e s id e s , the p r e se n c e o f isoth erm al
co n d itio n , and a b se n c e o f th e r m o c lin e , so m e
portion o f plant c e lls sin k s and m o v e d ow n w ard
beyon d p h otic zo n e resu ltin g in to lo w con cen tra ­
tion o f p h y to p la n k to n s.
D uring s p r in g s e a s o n th ere is m axim u m
prim ary prod u ction by p h y to p la n k to n s b e c a u se o f
(1 ) a v a ila b ility o f s u ffic ie n t su n lig h t, (2 ) s u ffi­
cien t su pp ly o f n u trien ts, (3 ) d e v e lo p m e n t o f
season al th erm o clin e, and (4 ) greater d ep th o f
ph otic zo n e. T h is is w h y there is s p r i n g b lo o m or
d ia to m b lo o m .
D uring s u m m e r s e a s o n a g a in th ere is lo w
prim ary p ro d u ctiv ity b e c a u se o f p oor su p p ly o f
nutrients, though there is m a x im u m a v a ila b ility o f
su n ligh t. In fact, h igh tem p eratu re d u rin g sum m er
season resu lts in stro n g se a so n a l th erm oclin e
w h ich d o es not a llo w v ertica l m ix in g o f water o f
upper p h o tic z o n e and lo w e r a p h o tic zo n e, and
h en ce nutrient rich w a ter o f a p h o tic zo n e cannot
bring nu trien ts to p h o tic z o n e .
D u rin g fa ll s e a s o n ( a u tu m n s e a s o n ) there is
seco n d m a x im u m prim ary p ro d u ction because o f
d isa p p ea ra n ce o f su m m er th erm o clin e and su ffi­
cien t su p p ly o f n u trien ts. T h is is ca lle d au tu m n a l
b lo o m o f p h y to p la n k to n but the prim ary produc­
tiv ity is n ot as h ig h as during spring s e a s o n
b e c a u se o f m arked d e c r e a se in su n ligh t.
3. P r im a r y P r o d u c t i v i t y in th e P o la r O c e a n s
The primary productivity by phytoplanktons
is very high during summer season in polar oceans
because of following factors :
MARINE BCOLOOY a n d b io l o g ic a l p r o d u c t iv it y
s u ff ic ie n t s u p p ly o f n u trien ts (p h o sp h a te s
and n itr a te s),
iso th e r m a l c o n d it io n o f w a te r c o lu m n s i.e .
in s ig n ific a n t c h a n g e in tem p era tu re w ith
in c r e a s in g d e p th ,
>» no t h e r m o c lin e la y e r an d hence free
m ix in g o f w a te r o f u p p er la y e r (p h o tic
z o n e ) a n d n u tr ie n t r ic h lo w e r la y e r,
s u f f ic ie n t s u n lig h t d u r in g sh o rt su m m er
sea so n .
It m a y b e m e n t io n e d th at n u trien ts are
plenty and h e n c e s u n lig h t is th e lim itin g factor.
There is lo w p r im a r y p r o d u c tiv ity d u rin g lo n g
winter s e a s o n d u e to a b s e n c e o f req u ir ed a m o u n t
o f su n lig h t. T h e r e is m a x im u m p rim a ry p ro d u c­
405
tio n b y p h y to p la n k to n s d u rin g th e m o n th o f M a y
(n orth ern h e m isp h e r e ) b e c a u s e o f s u ff ic ie n t s u n ­
lig h t. T h ere is diatom bloom d u rin g M a y . T h u s,
p h y to p la n k to n b lo o m r e su lts in zooplankton bloom
in June and th e b io m a s s o f z o o p la n k to n s c o n tin ­
u es to in c r e a se till th e e n d o f su m m e r i.e . till
O cto b er. T h e p h e n o m e n a l g ro w th in z o o p la n k to n s
is a lso rela ted to fa st g ro w th o f b lu e w h a le s
b e c a u se th ey th riv e o n z o o p la n k to n s.
16.8 G L O B A L P A T T E R N O F P R IM A R Y
P R O D U C TIO N
A cu rso ry g la n c e o v e r th e sp a tia l d istr ib u ­
tio n o f p rim ary p r o d u c tiv ity and p r o d u c tio n b y
p h y to p la n k to n s, and b io m a s s o f z o o p la n k to n s

Arctic Circle Arctic Cirde

Alaska

North
Am erica

30°N
Tropic ot
,Tropic ol1Cancer
Canary s. Cancer
Africa

Tropic of Capncorn Benguela

’Antarctic Cirde<&<
Antarctica
50 °W 120°W
120*E 150°E

Prim ary p ro d u ctio n (gC/m 2/yr)

• Important upwelling regions
I I < 100
E 3 1 0 0 -1 5 0

Atlas o f the Oceans, 1983. in P R . Pmet, 2000).

 OCEANOGRAPHY

©3SS
80O: i l l l 150°yy!||i20“w j g 90°w

Arctic Circle Arctic Circle

North
America
30°N
Tropic of Cancer
Africa

South
iffopfc 5ft kmerica
iCapricorn - tw y i; SSf^Tropic of Capricorn
30°S M \^ \:M 3 0 OS
tn&tkrf O&eaii: (ggggg
Pacific Ocean

Antarctic Circle Antarctic Circle

Antarctica ^ Antarctica
120°E 150°E 30°E 60°E 90°E 120°E

Zooplankton b iom ass (mg/m 3)

<50 [HI 50- 200 > 200

Fig. 16.2 : Distribution of biomass of zooplanktons in different oceans. Source: A. Couper (editor), The Times Atlas ofthe
Oceans, 1983, in P.R. Pinet, 2000.

r e v e a ls a z o n a l pattern in all the ocean s w herein < 1 0 g C /m 2/y ea r b eca u se o f lo w su p p ly o f nutri­

p rim ary p rod u ctio n and anim al b iom ass continue ents, e x iste n c e o f large ocean circulation gyres,
to in c r e a se from the w id e central areas o f open d o w n w e llin g (sin k in g ) o f sea w a ter, e x is te n c e o f
o c e a n s tow ard co n tin en ta l m argins (fig . 16.1 and perm anent th erm o clin e etc. T h is z o n e o f lo w est
1 6 .2 ). T h u s 3 z o n e s o f prim ary prod u ction and b io lo g ic a l a c tiv ity is c a lle d marine biological
a n im a l b io m a s s are id e n tifie d as fo llo w s : d e s e rt.

(2 ) T h e co n tin en ta l s h e lv e s 'z o n e s represent

(1 ) cen tra l b io lo g ic a l d eserts o f op en o cea n s o f
reg io n s o f m od erate p rim ary p ro d u ctiv ity and
lo w e s t p rim ary p ro d u ctio n ,
p ro d u ctio n , and a n im a l b io m a ss. T h e primary
(2 ) c o n tin e n ta l s h e lv e s o f m od erate prim ary
p ro d u ctiv ity ra n g es b e tw e e n 5 0 to 2 0 0 gC /m 2/
p r o d u c tio n , and year. In th is z o n e n u trien ts are su p p lem en ted from
(3 ) u p w e llin g r e g io n s o f m a x im u m prim ary terrigen ou s so u rces by rivers in th e deltaic
p r o d u c tio n . estu arin e h ab itats.
(1 ) T h e w id e o p e n o c e a n rep resen ts the (3) The continental margins and areas of
zon e o f least p rim a ry production o f le s s than coastal upwelling are the zones o f maximum
 i^ ^ rinb e c o lo g y a n d b io l o g ic a l pr o d u c tiv it y
„ Bfimary p ro d u ctiv ity and p ro d u ctio n , and m a x i-
1 L m b iom ass o f z o o p la n k to n s. T h e prim arv
- r o d u c t i o n is m ore than 2 5 0 g C /m V y ea r, and in
some p o ck ets it m a y b e m o re than 2 0 0 0 g C /m 2/
year. For e x a m p le , th e u p w e llin g area o f f the
coasts o f Peru is o n e o f the m o st p ro d u ctiv e areas
0f t h e oceans.
16.9 T R O P H IC L E V E L S A N D F O O D C H A IN S
IN M A R I N E E C O S Y S T E M S
T he fo o d c h a in s and fo o d w eb s o f the
marine b io m e are h ig h ly c o m p le x b e c a u se o f no
effective barriers in th e o c e a n s and sea s w h ich can
restrict m arin e a n im a ls to certa in fix e d lo c a litie s.
It m ay be rather c o n v e n ie n t to d is c u s s the feed in g
relationships a m o n g th e m a rin e o rg a n ism s o f the
upper p e la g ic b io m e . T h e phytoplanktons are the
primary producers in th e p h o tic z o n e (upto the
depth o f 2 0 0 m fr o m th e s e a su r fa c e ) and th ese
form the b a se o f tr o p h ic stru ctu re o f m arine food
chain b e c a u s e t h e s e g r e e n p la n ts (m a in ly algae
and d ia to m s) m a n u fa c tu r e fo o d through the
p rocess o f p h o t o s y n t h e s is w ith the h elp o f
su nligh t. T h u s th e a u to tr o p h ic p rim ary producer
p h y to p la n k to n s p r o v id e d ir e c tly and in d irectly
food to a ll o f th e m a r in e o r g a n is m s at d ifferen t
trophic le v e ls .
A s s ta te d e a r lie r , p h y to p la n k to n s are green
plants ( m ic r o s c o p ic in s iz e ) an d are v e r y im p or­
tant b io tic c o m p o n e n t o f th e m a rin e e c o s y s te m
b ecau se t h e s e m ic r o s c o p i c p h y to p la n k to n s m an u ­
facture th e ir o w n f o o d w h ic h b e c o m e s so u rce o f
food en erg y fo r a ll ty p e s o f a n im a ls and d ecom p osers
in m arin e e c o s y s t e m . P h y to p la n k to n s m a n u fa c­
ture th eir f o o d w it h th e h e lp o f d is s o lv e d carbon
d io x id e in s e a w a t e r , in o r g a n ic s a lts (n u trien ts,
such as p h o s p h o r o u s a n d n itr a te s ) fro m sea w a ter
and su n lig h t in th e p h o t ic z o n e . T h e ph yto p la n k to n s
trap s u n lig h t an d con vert w a te r an car on
d io x id e in to s ta r c h a n d s u g a r w ith t e e p o
su n ligh t th r o u g h th e p r o c e s s o f p h o to sy n th e s is .
The g r e e n p h y to p la n k t o n s are c a lle pr m a*y
producers a n d th e m a r in e a n im a ls d e p e n d in g o
a u to tro p h ic p r im a r y p r o d u c e r p h y to p an
called consumers (heterotrophs). . 0*nC| i-tons
animals exclusively depend on p y °P
for their fo o d , su ch as zo o p la n k to n s, w h i l e so m e
m arine an im als d ep en d on b oth phytopiank ton s,
zoo p la n k to n s and ev en n ek ton anim als. For
ex a m p le, m any fish es eat both plants and other
anim als m ain ly sm all fish es. T he m arine an im als
e x c lu siv e ly d ep en d in g on p h ytopiank ton s are
ca lled h erb ivores w h ile m arine anim als gettin g
their food from h erb ivores are ca lled ca rn iv o res.
On the other hand, om n ivores g et th eir fo o d from
all typ es o f m arine organ ism s.
Feeding or transfer and a ssim ila tio n o f fo o d
en ergy takes p la ce in hierarchical order in the
m arine eco sy stem s through v ariou s le v e ls . T hus,
the le v els through w h ich fo o d en ergy p a sse s from
one group o f m arine organ ism s to the other group
o f organism s in m arine e c o sy ste m are c a lle d
trophic levels.
The chain o f transform ation and transfer o f
fo o d (ch em ica l) en ergy in the m arine e c o s y s te m
from one group o f m arine organism s to the other
group through a series o f step s or le v e ls (trophic
le v e ls) is ca lled food chain and the p oin t w h ere
fo o d energy is transferred from one group o f
m arine organism s to the other group is ca lled
trophic level.
L ike fo o d ch ain s and trophic le v e ls in
terrestrial e co sy stem s, there are also 4 trophic
le v e ls in m arine eco sy stem s.
T r o p h i c Level 1
The b ase o f the m arine fo o d ch ain s is
form ed b y autotrophic p h o to sy n th etic prim ary
producers p h ytopiank ton s, such as alg a e, and
ch em o sy n th etic prim ary producers b acteria o f
hydrotherm al ven ts at sea flo o rs. P h ytop ian k tons
thrive in the p h otic zo n e (upto 2 0 0 m depth from
sea su rface). T h is base o f fo o d ch ain is ca lled
trop h ic level 1 w h ere p h ytop ian k ton s produce their
fo o d through the p ro cess o f p h o to sy n th esis w ith
the h elp o f su n lig h t, w ater, d isso lv e d carbon
d io x id e and in organ ic salts or nutrients, also
d is s o lv e d in seaw ater. U n lik e terrestrial green
plan ts th ey do n ot take nutrients through the
p ro cess o f root o s m o sis b eca u se th ey do not have
ro o ts, rather th ey float in the upper l a y e r o f
o cea n s. T h u s, th ey take d issolved o x y g e n carbon
d io x id e apd nutrients through th e c e lls o f their
 dies. Phytopianktons consume the produced The trophic level one is also the source of food for
chemical energy to build their tissues and bodies. all other marine organisms.

Primary Herbivores Carnivores Carnivores

producers (consumers) (consumers) (omnivores)

Trophic .... Trophic

Level 1 Level 2

algae cru sta cea n s kril blue whales

(phytopianktons) (zooplanktons) (n e k to n s) (nektons)
sm a ll large fishes
fis h e s and mammals

Fig 16.3 : A simple linear marine food chain and transfer o f energy.

Trophic Level 2 c a lle d p rim a ry c o n su m e r s s u c h a s z o o p la n k to n s .

T h e m arin e o r g a n ism s, w h o do n ot p rod u ce
th eir fo o d th e m s e lv e s but d ep en d on prim ary
p ro d u cers o f trop h ic le v e l 1 for th eir fo o d , are
in clu d ed in trop h ic le v e l 2. T h ese m arine organ ­
ism s are a n im a ls o f m ic r o sc o p ic s iz e and are
T he g ra zin g a n im a ls at tro p h ic le v e l o n e o f m a rin e
fo o d ch a in are c a lle d h e r b iv o r e s . T h e tr o p h ic le v e l,
w h ere c h e m ic a l fo o d e n e r g y is tra n sferred from
p rim ary p ro d u cers p h y to p ia n k to n s to p rim a ry
co n su m ers z o o p la n k to n s is c a lle d tr o p h ic le v e l 2
(fig . 1 6 .3 ).

Figs 16.4: Marinefood web wherein diatoms and flagellates, are phytopianktons and form the base o fmarinefood web L*
trophic level 1. This is the example o f complexfood chain called as food web. Adult herring is at the top o f marine
food chain. Source: based on J. Phillipson, 1966.
 ECOLOGYAND BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY
The grazing ofphytoplanktons b y zooplanktons
(herbivores) d u rin g d a y lig h t is m in im u m b eca u se
o f the fact that m o s t o f grazer h erb iv o res liv e
below the p h o tic z o n e d u rin g d a y tim e. T h ese
zooplanktons, su c h a s c o p e p o d s and cru sta cea n s
come u p w ard d u rin g n ig h t tim e to g ra ze
Trophic Level 3
T h e m a rin e a n im a ls, w h o d ep en d on a n i­
mals m a in ly h e r b iv o r e s (z o o p la n k to n s) for their
food, are in c lu d e d in th is trop h ic le v e l. T h ese
anim als are c a lle d carnivores and secondary con­
sumers b e c a u s e th e y d ep en d on h erb ivorou s
prim ary c o n s u m e r z o o p la n k to n s. T h e an im als o f
this tro p h ic le v e l b e lo n g to th e ca teg o ry o f nekton
communities. T h e tro p h ic le v e l, w h ere ch em ica l
en erg y is tran sferred from prim ary con su m er
z o o p la n k to n s o f tro p h ic le v e l 2 to secon d ary
c o n su m e r n ek to n a n im a ls, is ca lle d trophic le v e l
3. S o m e o f th e b en th o s ca rn iv o res a lso d ep en d on
z o o p la n k to n s.
It is in te r e stin g to n o te that m o st o f the
nekton f is h e s and m a n y b en th o s a n im a ls lik e
carn ivore cr u sta c e a n s a lso c o m e upw ard during
nights to c a tc h th eir p rey s. T h u s, carn ivorou s
nekton an d b en th o s a n im a ls h a v e ea sy catch o f the
h erbivore z o o p la n k to n s o f trop h ic le v e l tw o.
T hese c a r n iv o r o u s n ek to n and b en th o s an im als
again return to th eir r e s p e c tiv e p la c e s o f habitats
during d a y tim e .
T r o p h ic Level 4
T h o se m a rin e a n im a ls are in clu d ed in this
trophic le v e l ( 4 ) w h o ta k e th eir fo o d either
directly or in d ir e c tly fro m a ll th e 3 lo w e r trophic
levels. S u ch a n im a ls are c a lle d o m n iv o r e s, su ch as
blue w h ale. T h is is th e top tro p h ic le v e l (fig . 16.3).
Pood C h a in
A fo o d ch a in is in fa ct th e se q u e n c e o f
^ © rgy transfer from lo w e r tro p h ic le v e ls to upper
0r higher trop h ic le v e ls . A s im p le fo o d ch a in m ay
be illustrated b y th e fo llo w in g ex a m p le :
P h y to p la n k to n s (p rim ary p r o d u c e r s) are
eaten b y —» h erb iv o ro u s zo o p la n k to n s (p rim a ry
co n su m e rs), w h ic h are ea ten b y —» c a rn iv o ro u s
k rills (seco n d a ry c o n su m e r s) w h ic h are e a te n b y
—» ca rn iv o ro u s b lu e w h a le s (o m n iv o r e s ).
W h en the fe e d in g rela tio n sh ip s in a n atu ral
e c o s y s te m (h ere, m arin e e c o s y s te m ) b e c o m e
m ore c o m p lica ted , th e fo o d ch a in d o e s n o t rem a in
sim p le and lin ea r rather it is a ls o c o m p lic a te d b y
sev era l in ter-co n n ected o v e r la p p in g fo o d ch a in s.
T h is happens w h en greater n u m b er o f s p e c ie s fe e d
on m an y k in d s o f p rey. S u ch c o m p lic a te d fo o d
chain is ca lled food web.
For ex a m p le, there are v a r io u s p a th w a y s
(lin k s) o f transfer o f c h e m ic a l e n e r g y b e tw e e n
d iatom s (prim ary p rod u cer p h y to p la n k to n s o f
trophic le v e l o n e) and adult h errin g ( fis h ) (fig .
16.4).
(1 ) H erring feed s on arrow w o rm s —» w h ic h
feed on barnacle larvae —» w h ic h fe e d o n d ia to m s.
(2 ) H erring feed s on san d e e l w h ic h f e e d s
on p seu d o calanu s, acortia, tem ora, c a ln u e s e tc .
—» all o f w h ich fe e d on d ia to m s.
It m ay b e m en tio n ed that o r g a n ism s d e ­
p en d in g on m ore than o n e fe e d in g lin k s ( f o o d
sou rce) have greater ch a n ces o f su r v iv a l than
th ose organ ism s, w h o d ep en d on sim p le lin e a r
fo o d chain. T hus, co m p lica ted fo o d ch ain or f o o d
w eb supports larger b io d iv e r sity than s im p le
linear fo o d ch ain
16.10 E N E R G Y F L O W IN M A R I N E E C O S Y S T E M
Solar radiation (su n lig h t) is th e b a sic in p u t
o f en ergy w h ich en ters th e m arin e e c o s y s te m . It
m ay be m en tio n ed at the v ery o u tset that en erg y
flo w in either terrestrial or m arine e c o s y s te m is
u n id irection al and the en erg y o n c e lo st is n ot
again a v a ila b le to b io co m m u n itie s. T h e so la r
radiant en ergy p a sse s through the h ierarch y o f
trophic le v e ls in a m arine fo o d ch ain and fo o d
w eb , and u ltim a tely b e c o m e s output from the
m arine e c o s y s te m as en erg y is lo st th rough
respiration from each trophic le v e l.
Biosynthesis is the process o f the formation
of organic tissues which represent the transforma-
 B io m a s s : m ea n s q u an tity or w e ig h t (dry) o f
liv in g m a tter o f a ll o r g a n ism s per u n it area or per
u n it v o lu m e (in th e c a se o f flu id s, su ch as o cea n
w a te r ) p er u n it tim e.
B io s y n th e s is : is th e p r o c e ss o f the form ation
o f o r g a n ic tis s u e s w h ic h rep resen t the tran sform a­
tio n o f so la r or lig h t en erg y in to c h e m ic a l or fo o d
en ergy.
Black sm okers : refer to a ctiv e v o lc a n o e s on
d e e p s e a flo o r s w h ic h sp ew su lp h id es through
h y d ro th erm a l v e n ts. T h e se are a lso ca lle d deep
se a c h im n e y s w h ic h p ro v id e nutrients (su lp h id es
o f z in c , c o p p e r and silv e r ) to h ydrotherm al v en t
b io c o m m u n itie s .
C oral bleaching : refers to d eco lo u ra tio n o f
c o r a l p o ly p s d u e to ex p u lsio n o f sy m b io tic
z o o x a n th e lla e a lg a e from th eir b o d ie s and fin a lly
d eath o f c o r a ls d u e to starvation.
Deep compensation depth : refers to the depth
o f m a x im u m p en etra tio n o f su n lig h t in the upper
z o n e o f sea w a ter w h ic h is k n ow n as eu p h otic
(p h o tic ) z o n e .
diffusion process : m ea n s transfer o f m o l­
e c u le s (in th e c a se o f m arine o rg a n ism s and
sea w a ter, m o le c u le s o f w ater and sa lts) from the
h ig h co n cen tra tio n area to lo w co n cen tra tio n area
o f m o le c u le s .
Ecological productivity : refers to the rate o f
g r o w th o f o r g a n ic m atter per u n it tim e and per unit
area. T h is is e x p r e sse d in dry gram /m 2/d a y or
y ear.
Ecology : is th e s c ie n c e o f the stud y o f
m u tu a l in te r a c tio n s b e tw e e n b io tic and ab io tic
c o m p o n e n ts an d a m o n g th e b io tic c o m p o n en ts o f
a n atu ral e c o s y s te m .
E pifauna and flora : T h e a n im a ls and p lan ts
liv in g o n s e a f lo o r o r a b o v e th e d etritu s are c a lle d
e p ifa u n a an d e p iflo r a r e s p e c tiv e ly .
E uryhaline o rg a n ism s : T h e o r g a n ism s, w h ic h
h a v e d e v e lo p e d h ig h d e g r e e o f to ler a n c e to
s a lin ity v a r ia tio n s, are c a lle d eu ry h a lin e o rg a n ­
is m s .
: The marine organisms,
E u ry th e rm a l
which can tolerate large range o f temperature
change in shallow coastal waters, are called
eurythermal.
Form d r a g : is a form o f fric tio n w h ic h is the
fu n ctio n o f v o lu m e o f sea w a ter d isp la c e d by
m o v in g fis h e s b y h a v in g su ch b o d y sh ap e w h ich is
cy lin d r ica l but w ith tap erin g en d s, ju st lik e the
b o d y o f tuna fish .
Food chain : A fo o d ch a in or fe e d in g ch ain is
the seq u en ce o f en erg y tran sfer from low er
trophic le v e ls to h ig h er tro p h ic le v e ls .
Gross prim ary production : is the total
am ount o f fo o d e n erg y or o rg a n ic m atter p rod u ced
b y the au totrop h ic p rim ary p ro d u cers (in th e case
o f o cea n s, p h y to p la n k to n s) at th e b a se o f m arine
fo o d ch ain , sa y trop h ic le v e l o n e.
H ypertonic organisms : are th o se o rg a n ism s
in w h ich salt in their b o d y flu id s is m o re than the
salt con ten t in seaw ater.
Hyptotonic organisms : are th o se o r g a n ism s
in w h ich salt in th eir b o d y flu id s is le s s th an th e
sa lin ity o f seaw ater.
Infauna : T h e an im a ls liv in g in th e detritu s
o f sea flo o rs are c a lle d in fau n a.
Isotonic organism s : are th o se m arin e o rg a n ­
ism s w h erein the sa lt co n te n t in th eir b od y
flu id s eq u a ls the sa lt co n te n t o f su rrou n ding
seaw ater.
M arine biogeochemical cycles : in v o lv e the
circu la tio n o f m atter (n u trien ts) fro m in organ ic
p h a se through o rg a n ic p h a se and b a c k to inor­
g a n ic p h a se th rou gh c y c lic p a th w a y s in m arine
e c o sy ste m .
M arine biological deserts : T h e p e la g ic m a­
rine h ab itats and d eep s e a flo o r s h a v in g less
n um ber o f m arin e o r g a n ism s an d p o o r prim ary
p ro d u ctiv ity are c a lle d m a rin e b io lo g ic a l deserts.
M arine ecology : M a rin e e c o lo g y sim p ly
m ea n s in tera c tio n s o f m a rin e, o r g a n ism s, both
p lan ts and a n im a ls, w ith m a rin e en v ir o n m en ts o f
b oth p e la g ic (se a w a te r at d iffe r e n t d ep th s) and
b en th ic (s e a flo o r s ) h a b ita ts, an d m u tu al interde­
p en d en ce and in tera ctio n s a m o n g m arin e organ­
ism s o f sa m e h ab itat or d iffere n t h ab itats.
M arine oases : P a tch es o f rich b io co m m u n ities
o f h yd roth erm al v o lc a n ic v e n ts , hydrotherm al
se e p s and su b d u ctio n z o n e s e e p s on d eep sea
flo o r s are c a lle d m arin e o a s e s .
 MARINB ECOLOGY a n d b io l o g ic a l pr o d u c t iv it y
N«t p rim ary production : rep resen ts the
amount o) io o d e n e r g y or o r g a n ic m atter fix e d or
utored *t trop h ic le v e l o n e . T h e n et prim arv
production e x c lu d e s th e a m o u n t o f e n e r e y w h ich
is lost through resp ira tio n b y a u to tro p h ic p rim arv
producers (N e t p rim a ry p r o d u c tio n , N P P = G P P -
loss o f e n e r g y th ro u g h re sp ir a tio n ).
New p rim ary p roduction : New primary
production oi the oceans refers to the addition o f
nutrients brought from other sources i e from
outsideI the concerned marine ecosystem .upwelline
of cold ocean water from below is the major
source of new primary production.
O s m o s is : is a p r o c e s s o f d iffu s io n o f w ater
m o lecu les th ro u g h th e s e m ip e r m e a b le m em brane
(skin) o f th e o r g a n is m s .
P r im a r y p r o d u c e r s : T h e g ree n p lan ts ( o f
estuaries, s a ltm a r s h e s , a n d m u d fla ts) and a lg a e o f
marine a q u a tic b io m e are c a lle d p rim ary p rod u c­
ers.
P rim a ry p r o d u c t iv it y : refe rs to th e rate o f
grow th o f o r g a n ic m a tter o f p rim ary producer
green p la n ts an d a lg a e p er u n it tim e p er unit area
or per unit v o lu m e o f se a w a te r .
S ten o h a lin e o rg a n ism s : T h e m arine o rg a n ­
ism s w h ich h a v e le a st to lera n ce to s a lin ity
v ariation s and are adapted to a lm o st u n ifo rm
sa lin ity co n d itio n are c a lle d sten o h a lin e organ ­
ism s.
S te n o th e r m a l : T h e m arine organ ism s w h ic h
can n ot tolerate h ig h therm al va ria tion s but adjust
to lo w range o f tem perature ch a n g e are c a lle d
stenotherm al.
S u rface d rag : is the frictio n b e tw e e n the
b o d y m o v em en t o f fish es and seaw ater. T he fis h e s
ov erco m e the su rface drag b y red u cin g th e su rfa ce
area o f their b o d ies.
Trophic l e v e l s : T he p o in ts or le v e ls th rou gh
w h ich fo o d en ergy p a sse s from o n e grou p o f
m arine organ ism s to other group are c a lle d
trophic le v els.
T u rb u len t d rag : is the force o f frictio n o f
turbulent w ater w h ich retards th e sp e e d o f
m o v em en t o f fish es. The fish es o v erc o m e turbu­
lent drag by h avin g su ch b o d y sh ap e w h ic h is
characterized b y blunt lea d in g frontal part and
tapering trailing ends, resem b lin g a torp ed o
(ex a m p le, b o d y o f tuna fish ).
 CHAPTER 17 : MARINE RESOURCES
>r m arin e reso u rces : m ean in g and im portance,
11
la w o f sea : h istorical p ersp ectiv e, m aritim e zo n e,
c la ss ific a tio n o f m arine resources,
m arin e b io lo g ic a l resou rces,
H j '■ fo o d reso u rces,
fis h in g , m arine farm ing,
o c e a n ran ch in g, w h alin g,
m in eral reso u rces,
n o n -co n v en tio n a l m arine energy resources, vitam ins and d rugs reso u rces,
co n serv a tio n o f m arine resources, *

17.1 M A R IN E RESOURCES : M E A N IN G AND
IM P O R T A N C E
W o r ld o c e a n s are a r c h iv e s o f w o r ld cu ltu re
a n d c i v ili z a t io n b e c a u s e s e a flo o r s h a v e k ep t and
p r e s e r v e d n u m e r o u s b o a ts, v e s s e ls , c a n o e s , sh ip s
a n d w a r e q u ip m e n ts o f d iffe r e n t ty p e s ra n g in g
fr o m a n c ie n t tim e o f h u m a n s o c ie t y to m o d ern a g e
o f a d v a n c e d c u ltu r e o f s c ie n c e and te c h n o lo g y .
T h e s u n k e n b o a ts , v e s s e ls , c a r g o s h ip s, w a rsh ip s
la s h e d w it h n u c le a r w e a p o n s , n u c le a r su b m a rin es
n o t o n ly t e ll th e s to r y o f th e s ta g e s o f d e v e lo p m e n t
o f s k ill s a n d t e c h n o lo g y o f sh ip b u ild in g but a lso
r e v e a l th e h is to r y o f s e a w a rs and p ira c y . T h u s,
b e s id e s th e tr e a su r e o f n atu ral m a rin e r e so u r c e s
in c lu d in g b o th b io tic a n d a b io tic (m in e r a ls)
r e s o u r c e s , s e a b e d s a ls o h a v e im m e n s e treasu re o f
w o r ld c u ltu r e a n d c iv iliz a t io n , and h is to r ic a l
r e c o r d s o f s e a w a r s , s e a p ir a c y , s e a trade and
c o m m e r c e , g r e a t v o y a g e s , e x p lo r a tio n and d is ­
c o v e r y . S u c h m a r in e r e s o u r c e s m a y b e term ed
m arine cultural and historical resources.
T h e b io t ic an d a b io tic r e so u r c e s fo u n d in
th e o c e a n ic w a te r an d b o tto m s are c a lle d m a rin e
r e s o u r c e s , w h ic h in c lu d e m a rin e w a ter, in h eren t
17
MARINE RESOURCES
en e r g y in th e o c e a n ic w a ter (e.g. w a v e energy,
tid a l e n erg y e tc .), b io tic lif e o f m arine water
(p la n ts and a n im a ls), m a rin e d e p o s its and abiotic
e le m e n ts (m in era ls, f o s s il fu e ls e tc .), b iotic and
a b io tic m atter o f o c e a n b o tto m s, b en th ic organ­
ism s etc. E v en a drop o f o c e a n ic w ater contains
c o u n tle s s m ic r o s c o p ic o r g a n ism s. T h e marine
r e so u r c e s are u n iq u e in the s e n s e that they are
re n e w a b le as m o s t o f th e o r g a n ism s can be
reg en era ted . S in c e tim e im m e m o r ia l o cea n s have
a lw a y s b e e n u s e fu l for h u m an s o c ie ty and have
attracted m an in d iffe r e n t w a y s . M an has been
u s in g o c e a n s in a n u m b er o f w a y s s in c e lon g e.g.
fo r tran sport, c o m m u n ic a tio n and trade, fishing,
d e fe n s e p u r p o se s, m in era l e x tra c tio n , recreation,
m e d ic in e s , w a ste d is p o s a l etc. P resently, the
im p o rta n ce o f o c e a n s h a s in c r e a se d m any fold
b e c a u s e o f in c r e a se d d em a n d o f fo o d and m in e ra ls
c o n s e q u e n t u p o n e v e r in c r e a s in g w orld popula­
tio n . C o n s e q u e n tly , m a n , b e s id e s traditional ways
o f e x p lo ita tio n s o f m a rin e r e so u r c e s, has become
c a p a b le o f m o d e r n iz in g tra d itio n al metho s
th ro u g h h is s k ill and a d v a n c e d scien ce an
te c h n o lo g ie s . F o r e x a m p le , th e p rod u ctivity an
p r o d u c tio n o f m a rin e o r g a n ism s (plants an
a n im a ls) h a v e b e e n in c r e a se d m a n y fo ld throu»
 jvIRINE RESOURCES
marine culture (m a ricu ltu re), a q u acu ltu re, o cea n
ranching etc.
T here has b eg u n a race fo r th e e x p lo ita tio n
o f minerals a sso c ia te d w ith o c e a n ic w ater, o cea n
deposits and o c e a n cru sts, w ith th e resu lt the
strategic im p ortan ce o f o c e a n s h as a lso in creased
accordingly. M a n y b ra n ch es o f k n o w le d g e o f
oceans h ave b e e n d e v e lo p e d fo r s p e c ific p u rp oses
e.g. m arine g e o lo g y , m a rin e b io lo g y (fo r d etailed
study o f m arin e o r g a n is m s ), e c o n o m ic o c e a n o g ­
raphy (for th e s y s te m a tic stu d y o f m arine re­
sources), re so u r c e o c e a n o g r a p h y etc.
17.2 LAW OF SEA : HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
T he p r e se n t ‘la w o f th e sea tr e a ty ’, w h ich is in
force, c o u ld b e a g ree d u p o n b y in tern a tio n a l
com m unities after s e v e r a l d elib e ra tio n s, sem inars
and c o n fe r e n c e s o n th is su b ject. T he h isto ry o f the
‘law o f th e s e a ’ d a tes b a c k to th e y e a r 1609 w hen
Hugo G ro tiu s, w h o w a s a ju rist o f N eth erlan d s
(H olland), p r o p o u n d e d th e d o c trin e o f ‘ m a r e
lib eru m ’ m e a n in g th e r e b y ‘free o c e a n s ’ . H is d o c ­
trine e n v is a g e d that o c e a n s b e lo n g to all nations
and h en ce th e y are fr e e to u se o cea n s for various
purposes. T h is d o c tr in e o f ‘m e re lib e ru m ’ aroused
the c o n tro v er sy reg a r d in g the actual con trol o f
nation on a p articu la r p o rtio n o f the o cean or on
any part o f th e w o r ld o c e a n s . L ater on C ornelius
van B y n k e r sh o n k a ttem p ted to d elim it the portion
o f the se a a tta ch ed to a n a tio n in 1 7 0 2 on w h ich the
con cerned n a tio n c o u ld h a v e fu ll co n tro l. Thus,
the c o n c e p t o f te r r ito r ia l sea w a s e v o lv e d , the
seaw ard lim it o f w h ic h w a s to b e d ecid ed by the
fire range o f a c a n o n , i.e . 3 n a u tica l m ile s from the
sea shore.
T h e first in tern a tio n a l in itia tiv e to d elim it
the territorial s e a w a s tak en b y th e U n ited N ation s
(U N O ) in th e yea r 1 9 5 8 w h en First U .N .
‘C on feren ce o n th e L a w o f th e S ea w as organ ize
and first treaty w a s sig n e d . T h is treaty en v isa g e
the g u id e lin e s fo r th e co n tro l o f con ti nenta
sh elv es o f a n a tio n . S in c e the co n tin en ta l s h e lf
w as n ot c le a r ly d e fin e d in th e treaty, and h en ce it
in vited d isp u te s a m o n g th e n a tio n s regarding e
use o f reso u rce s o f c o a s ta l w aters.
T he S eco n d U n ited N a tio n s C o n fe r e n c e o n
the L aw o f the S ea , w h ich w a s h eld in G e n e v a in
the year 1 960, but co u ld n o t b e p ro d u ctive as n o
co n crete agreem en t regarding th e co n tro l o f
coastal w aters co u ld b e arrived at. T h e T hird U .N .
C on feren ce on the L aw o f the S ea w a s h eld during
1 9 7 3 -1 9 8 2 and fin a lly the ‘L aw o f th e S ea T reaty*
w as agreed upon b y m ajority n ation s in th e year
1 982, though 17 n ation s ab sen ted from the v o tin g
w h ile the U n ited S tates, T urkey, Israel and
V en ezu ela vo ted again st the treaty. T h e treaty o f
L aw o f the S ea w as ratified b y th e required
num ber o f nations in the year 1993 and it b eca m e
international law .
The fo llo w in g are the b a sic co m p o n en ts o f
the ‘Law o f the Sea T reaty’ :
j u r i s d i c t i o n o f coastal n ations
(1) territorial sea
(2) ex c lu siv e eco n o m ic zo n e (E E Z )
>■ s h ip p a s s a g e
Free p a ssa g e o f sh ip s o f all n a tio n s in
H igh Seas and w ith in territorial s e a fo r
interaation n avigation .
extraction o f m inerals from d eep o cea n
control o f ex p lo ita tio n o f m in eral
resources o f deep sea b ed s b y p rivate
com p an ies under the regu lation o f
International S eab ed A uth ority (I S A )
o f the U N O .
> - arb itration o f d isp u tes
by the U n ited N a tio n s L aw o f S ea
Tribunal
1 7 .3 MARITIME ZO NE
M arine zo n es h ave b een d iv id ed from tim e
to tim e into different zo n es on the b a sis o f
different purposes v iz . so v ereig n ty , ex p lo ita tio n
o f m arine resou rces, trade and transport, recrea­
tion, war practices etc., and a num ber o f interna­
tional law s h ave b een en acted to g iv e them le g a l
recogn ition . T h e o ffsh o re areas o f a country h ave
been d ivid ed into 3 z o n e s e.g. territorial sea ,
e x c lu siv e eco n o m ic zo n e and h igh sea. B e s id e s , a
few m ore term s are in practice such as internal
w aters, m arine b elt, m arginal sea , co n tig u o u s
zo n e etc.
416
V Territorial Sea
T h e sh o re an d co astlin e s o f a co astal
c o u n try a re se ld o m stra ig h t ra th e r are cren u lated
a n d in d e n te d . T h e im a g in a ry line jo in in g the land
p ro je c tin g to w a rd s th e sea is c alled b ase lin e (fig.
17.1). S e a w a te r ly in g b e tw ee n co astlan d an d b ase
lin e is c a lle d in tern a l w a ter w hich is n ev er
c o n tig u o u s . T h e sea w ard w a te r from the c o astlan d
o f a n a tio n is c a lle d te rrito r ia l sea, the d istan ce o f
w h ic h is m e a s u re d fro m th e base line g en erally
u p to 12 n a u tic a l m ile s to w ard s the sea. In the
b e g in n in g , th e sea w ard lim it o f te rrito ria l sea w as
d e te rm in e d as 3 m ile s (4.8 km ) b u t now g en erally
th e lim it o f te rrito ria l sea o f d ifferen t n atio n s has
b e e n d e te rm in e d d iffe re n tly e.g. L atin A m erican
c o u n trie s h a v e d e term in e d the lim it o f th eir
te rrito ria l se a as 320 km (200 m iles) w hile the
U S A a c c e p ts 4.8 km (3 m iles) as th e seaw ard lim it
o f th e te rrito ria l sea. T e rrito ria l sea has been
v a rio u sly n a m e d as m arin e b elt, m argin al sea etc.
T h e c o a sta l n a tio n has th e rig h t o f its so v ereig n ty
o v e r its te rrito ria l sea and has the fu ll and
e x c lu siv e rig h t o f its use. N o o th e r c o u n try can
e n te r th e te rrito ria l sea o f a c o u n try w ith o u t the
p e rm is sio n o f th e c o n ce rn e d country.
17.1: Maritime zones
T h e c o n tin u o u s p o rtio n o f th e se a beyond
th e seaw ard lim it o f te rrito ria l sea u p to a distance
o f 12 n a u tic a l m ile s is c a lle d c o n tig u o u s zon e (fig.
17.1) in w h ich th e c o n c e rn e d c o a sta l country
co m m an d s lim ite d e x c lu siv e rig h ts. It m ay be
m e n tio n e d th a t th e se a w a rd lim it o f th e c o n tig u ­
ous zone is 24 n a u tic a l m ile s fro m th e b a se line.
T he c o n ce rn e d c o a s ta l n a tio n h a s th e rig h ts o f
cu sto m d u tie s, fis c a l, s tra te g ic , d e fe n c e , im m ig ra­
tio n an d sa n ita ry re g u la tio n s w ith in th e territo rial
sea an d c o n tig u o u s z o n e a n d a lso e n jo y s th e rig h t
to p u n ish th e c o n c e rn e d p a rtie s fo r th e in frin g e ­
m en t o f th e se re g u la tio n s.
2. E x c lu s iv e E c o n o m i c Z o n e
E x c lu siv e e c o n o m ic z o n e e x te n d s u p to a
d istan ce o f 2 0 0 n a u tic a l m ile s fro m th e b a se line.
T he c o n ce rn e d c o a s ta l sta te h a s th e ex clu siv e
rig h t o f th e su rv e y , e x p lo ita tio n , c o n s e rv a tio n and
m a n ag e m e n t o f m in e ra l re s o u rc e s o f ocean
d ep o sits, o cean flo o r (c ru s t), m a rin e w a te r en­
ergy, w ater an d m a rin e o rg a n is m s w ith in this
ex clu siv e eco n o m ic z o n e (E E Z ). N o o th e r country
can v en tu re in a n y e c o n o m ic a c tiv ity (e.g . fish in g ,
m in in g etc.) in th is z o n e w ith o u t th e p e rm is sio n o f
the c o n ce rn e d c o a s ta l sta te b u t th is z o n e is open
fo r la y in g d o w n s u b m a rin e c a b le s , n a v ig a tio n o f
sh ip s, fly in g o f a e ro p la n e s fo r o th e r sta te s. It m ay
b e p o in te d o u t th a t su c h rig h ts are e n jo y e d by
o th e r sta te s o n ly o u ts id e th e s e a w a rd lim it o f the
te rrito ria l sea.
3. H ig h S e a
H ig h S ea e x te n d s b e y o n d th e sea w ard lim it
o f the e x c lu siv e e c o n o m ic z o n e a n d in c lu d e s the
v ast o c ea n ic a re as. A ll th e c o u n trie s h av e equal
rig h ts o f n a v ig a tio n , a v ia tio n , fish in g , m ining,
la y in g d o w n s u b m a rin e c a b le s , sc ie n tific re­
se a rc h e s, e x p lo ra tio n etc.
R e c e n tly , c la im s an d c o u n te rc la im s by
R u ssia , U n ite d S ta te s, N o rw a y , C a n a d a , D enm ark
etc. h a v e b e e n m a d e fo r th e u se o f immense
q u a n tity o f h y d ro c a rb o n s m e a s u rin g ab o u t 10
b illio n to n s on th e s e a b e d s o f th e A rc tic Ocean.
 RESOURCES
4 fl -

R u ssia f i r s t m a d e a f o r m a l c l a i m o f her r i g h t to tions m arine reso u rces can b e d iv id ed in to th e

ominand the v a s t m in eral resou rces o f t h e A rctic follow ing categories.
Ocean in the year 20 0 1 but the U n ited N ation s
1. M arine b iological resources
Q o to io iss io n on the L im its o f the C ontinental
S h e l f r u l e d o u t R u s s i a n c l a i m o n the g r o u n d that (A ) food resources
sufficient sc ie n tific e v i d e n c e s c o u l d not be (i) anim al reso u rces
produced by R u s s i a to p ro v e th e ex te n sio n o f her (f is h e s , c ra b s , p ra w n s , zoo
continental s h e lv e s c o v e r i n g m ajor p ortion o f t h e
p lan k to n s etc.)
ocean floor.
(ii) p la n t reso u rces
T h e R u s s ia n s o u r c e s s a y th a t th e s e a b e d s o f
(p h y to p lan k to n s, sea g rass e tc.)
the A r c tic O c e a n c o n t a i n 15.5 b i l l i o n t o n n e s o f
m in e ra l o i l s a n d 8 4 .5 t r i l l i o n c u b i c m e t e r s o f ( B ) non-food resources
n a tu ra l g a s o v e r a n a r e a o f 6 .2 m i l l i o n s q u a r e (i) co rals
k ilo m e te rs . I t i s e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h i s v a s t r e s e r v e o f A ltern ativ ely , m arin e b io lo g ic a l re so u rc e s
h y d r o c a r b o n s , w h i c h is p r e s e r v e d in t h e s e a b e d s can also be d iv id ed into the fo llo w in g 3 c a te g o ­
o f th e A r c t i c O c e a n i s 2 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e k n o w n ries:
g lo b a l re so u rc e s of w o rld h y d ro c a rb o n s.
(A ) P lan kton com m u n ities
The R u s s ia n g o v ern m e n t la u n c h e d m a s s iv e
e x p lo ra tio n w o rk th ro u g h advanced n u c le a r (i) p h y to p lan k to n s
s u b m a rin e s i n 2 0 0 7 t o e x p l o r e t h e h i d d e n t r e a s u r e (ii) zoo p lan k to n s
o f h y d ro c a rb o n s in th e s e a b e d s o f th e A rc tic ( B ) nekton com m u n ities
O c ean .
(i) p elag ic fish es
(ii) d em ersal fish es
17.4 C L A S S IF IC A T IO N O F M A R IN E R E S O U R C E S
(C ) b en th os com m u n ities
(i) e p ib en th ic co m m u n ity
S eas an d o c e a n s are e n d o w e d w ith d ifferen t
varieties o f b io tic a n d a b io tic r eso u rce s o f tw o (ii) b e n th ic o rg an ism s
major so u r c e s. F ir s tly , riv ers w h ile draining (iii) in flo ra an d in fa u n a
through la n d a rea s o f th e lith o sp h ere bring 2 . M arin e m in era l reso u rces
different ty p e s o f m a te r ia ls in to th e se a s. T h ese (A ) on th e b a sis o f lo ca tio n
m aterials c o n ta in m in e r a l e le m e n ts o f d ifferen t
(i) m in e ra ls o f th e c o n tin e n ta l s h e lf
types, p la n ts a n d a n im a ls . S e c o n d ly , s o m e re­
d ep o sits
sources are m a n u fa c tu r e d b y p la n ts in sh a llo w
waters. It m a y b e r e m e m b e r e d th at o c e a n s are v a st (ii) m in e ra ls o f th e c o n tin e n ta l slo p e
reservoirs o f b io t ic r e s o u r c e s . N e a r ly , 4 0 ,0 0 0 d ep o sits
sp ecies o f m o llu s c s , a n d 2 5 ,0 0 0 s p e c ie s o f fis h e s (iii) m in e ra ls o f th e d e ep se a b o tto m
are fou n d in m a r in e w a te r s. B e s id e s m in era l d e p o sits
resources, d iffe r e n t t y p e s o f v ita m in s a n d m e d ic i­ (B ) on th e b a sis o f n a tu re
nal e le m e n ts are a ls o fo u n d . G e n e r a lly , m arin e
(i) metallic minerals
resources are d iv id e d in to th ree c a te g o r ie s e.g.
(ii) fuel minerals (petroleum, natural
biotic r e s o u r c e s, a b io t ic (m in e r a l an d e n e r g y )
resources an d c o m m e r c ia l r e s o u r c e s (n a v ig a tio n , gas)
aviation, trad e an d tra n sp o rt e t c .) . O n an a v era g e , (iii) construction materials (gravels,
marine r e s o u r c e s are a ls o c la s s if ie d in to liv in g sands, etc.)
resou rces an d n o n - liv in g r e s o u r c e s. A lte r n a ­ 3 . E n e rg y r e so u r c e s
tiv ely , m a rin e r e s o u r c e s c a n a ls o b e d iv id e d in to
(A) conventional energy
m ineral r e s o u r c e s , e n e r g y r e s o u r c e s a n d fo o d
(i) petroleum
resou rces. B a s e d o n a b o v e m e n tio n e d c o n s id e r a -

(ii) n a tu ra l gas
(B ) n o n -c o n v e n tio n al energy
(i) tid a l energy
(ii) w ave energy
(iii) bio m ass energy
4. Freshw ater resources
m a n u fa ctu red w ater (tran sfo rm atio n
o f salin e sea w ater through the p ro c ­
e sse s o f d esalin izatio n into po tab le
w ater)
17.5 MARINE BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES (MBR)
T h e ric h n e ss and reserv es o f m arin e b io ­
lo g ic a l re so u rc e s (m arine biom ass) depend on the
p e n e tra tio n o f so lar rad iatio n (sunlight) into
s e a w a te r an d e ffic ie n cy o f b io lo g ical cycle. The
m a rin e b io m e is d iv id ed from u p p er surface
d o w n w a rd on the b asis o f hab itats o f m arine
o rg a n ism s in to u p p e r m arine w ater surface zone,
m id d le z o n e and low er deep sea zone. It m ay be
m e n tio n e d th a t th ere is to and fro vertical
m o v e m e n t o f m arin e a nim als (/. e. u p p er surface to
m id d le an d deep sea areas and from below
u p w ard ). T h u s, th ere is tra n sfe r o f n u trien ts from
th e u p p e r su rfa ce dow nw ard. The u p p er su rface is
c a lle d photic layer (upto 2 00m depth) w h erein one
c e lle d p h y to p la n k to n s grow th ro u g h the pro cess
o f p h o to sy n th e sis. T his u p p e r or p h o tic lay er is
a lso c a lle d as m arine green pasture. T his lay er is
s u c c e e d e d b e lo w b y d im ly lig h te d zone and
a p h o tic z o n e.
T h e p la n t an d an im als co m m u n itie s o f
m a rin e e n v iro n m e n t an d the e n v iro n m e n t o f th e ir
h a b ita ts a re c o lle c tiv e ly c a lle d m arine biome
w h ic h is v e rtic a lly d iv id e d in to tw o ty p es e.g. 1.
pelagic biome, a n d 2. benthic biome (see fig. 14.1 in
c h a p te r 14).
P e la g ic b io m e is fu rth e r d iv id e d in to tw o
ty p e s o n th e b a sis o f d e p th s an d p la n t life e.g. . 1.
neritic pelagic biome, w h ic h in c lu d e s c o n tin e n ta l
s h e lv e s w ith a v e ra g e d e p th o f 2 0 0 m , a n d 2. open
sea pelagic biome. O n th e b a sis o f th e a v a ila b ility o f
s u n lig h t m a rin e b io m e s a re d iv id e d in to tw o
m a jo r d iv is io n s e.g. 1. photic biome (u p to th e d e p th
o f 2 0 0 m ), a n d 2. aphotic biome (fro m 2 0 0 m to th e
OCEANOGIUSPifjf
b o tto m o f the sea). A p h o tic b io m e is d iv id e d into
th ree su b ty p es v iz. (i) mesopelagic biome (depth
upto 1000 m fro m sea le v e l), (ii) bathypetagie
biome (d ep th u p to 4 0 0 0 m fro m s e a lev el, and
(iii) ab y sso p ela g ic biome (e x te n d s u p to th e depth, o f
6000 m or m o re).
B en th ic b io m e is d iv id e d in to 3 zo n es e.g. I.
littoral zone, in clu d es th o se a re a s o f se a sh o res and
sea co asts w h ic h lie w ith in th e h ig h a n d low tide
w ater, 2. sub-littoral zone, in c lu d e s th e sea bottom s
b elo w th e w a te r o f th e c o n tin e n ta l sh e lv e s, an d 3.
deep sea benthic zone (fro m 2 0 0 m to 6 0 0 0 m o r m ore
depth).
M arin e o rg a n ism s (p la n ts a n d a n im a ls) are
div id ed into 3 c a te g o rie s on th e b a s is o f th eir
hab itats e.g. 1. Planktons are flo a tin g a n d d riftin g
m icro p lan ts an d a n im a ls o f p h o tic z o n e . T hese
are d iv id ed into p h y to p la n k to n s (p la n t p la n k to n s)
and z o o p lan k to n s (a n im a l p la n k to n s ). 2. Nektons
in clu d e a lg ae, stro n g a n d p o w e rfu l flo a tin g and
sw im m in g m a rin e a n im a ls m a in ly fis h e s. T h ese
m arin e an im als m o v e in a ll th e z o n e s o f the
ocean ic e n v iro n m e n ts. 3. Benthos in c lu d e th o se
p lan ts (n o n -p h o to sy n th e tic o r n o n -p h o to tro p h s)
and a n im als w h ic h liv e at th e b o tto m s o f th e seas
and oceans.
1. Plankton Com m unity in c lu d e s th e g roups
o f b u o y a n t an d flo a tin g m a rin e p la n ts a n d an im als
w h ich liv e in th e p h o tic (e u p h o tic z o n e or
e u p ela g ic z o n e) u p to th e d e p th o f 2 0 0 m fro m sea
lev el. P la n t p la n k to n s , c a lle d as p h y to p la n k to n s
p ro d u c e fo o d th ro u g h th e p ro c e s s o f p h o to s y n th e ­
sis w ith th e h e lp o f s u n lig h t, w a te r a n d a tm o s­
p h e ric c a rb o n d io x id e a n d th u s th e y a re p rim ary
p ro d u c e r g re e n p la n ts a n d a re a ls o c a lle d as
a u to tro p h s. A lg a e a n d d ia to m s a re m o s t im p o rtan t
m e m b e rs o f th is c o m m u n ity . T h is co m m u n ity
g ro w s so q u ic k ly th a t w ith in a s h o rt s p a n o f tim e
th e y c o v e r v e ry la rg e a re a o f s e a su rfa c e . Such
are a o f d e n se c o v e r o f a lg a e a n d d ia to m s is called
m arine p asture. T h e re is re p r o d u c tio n e x p lo sio n in
so m e o f th e re d -g ra y m ic ro s c o p ic p la n ts . C o n se ­
q u e n tly e x te n s iv e a re a o f re d -g ra y p la n ts is
d e v e lo p e d . S u c h a re a is c a lle d is red tide. T h e size
o f z o o p la n k to n s ra n g e s fro m o n e m illim e te r to
s e v e ra l m e te rs. Z o o p la n k to n s a re o f th re e ty p e s. 1•
h e rb iv o re z o o p la n k to n s, 2. c a rn iv o re zo o p lan k to n s,
an d 3. d e triv o re z o o p la n k to n s. In fact, zooplanld*®s |

act as a b rid g e b etw een m arin e p a stu res o f
phytoplanktons o f p h o tic zo n e and the larg est sea
a n im a ls .
2. Nekton Community c o n sists o f sw im m ing
animals o f v a rio u s d ep th s o f the seas and oceans.
M ost o f th e a n im als o f n ek to n group are v e rte ­
brates. F ish e s o f n u m e ro u s sp ecies are m o st
im portant m e m b e rs o f th is co m m u n ity . S ea fishes
are d iv id ed in to tw o g ro u p s viz. p e lag ic fish es and
dem ersal fish es. T h e se fish es are m ain sources o f
m arine b io lo g ic a l re so u rc e s. T he sw im m er m a­
rine m a m m a ls o f n e k to n c o m m u n ity are divided
into tw o g ro u p s e.g. 1. th o se m arine anim als
w hich liv e in w a te rs as w e ll as on lands such as
scales, a n d (ii) th e sec o n d c ate g o ry o f sw im m ing
m arin e m a m m a ls in c lu d e s th o se anim als w hich
sp en d th e ir e n tire life in sea w a te r such as w hales.
W h ales are d iv id e d into tw o fam ilies viz. 1.
to o th e d w h a le s , an d 2. w h ale bone w hales.
T o o th e d w h a le s are p re d a to rs and range in size
fro m s m a lle r o n e (su c h as sperm w hale) to giant
s iz e (s u c h as k ille r w h ales). D olphins and
p o rp o is e s a re also in c lu d e d in the too th ed w hale
fa m ily . W h a le b o n e w h ale fam ily o f fishes in ­
c lu d e s b lu e w h a le s an d h u m p b a ck e d w hales. Sea
c o w s u c h as m a n a te e s is also im p o rtan t species o f
sw im m in g m a m m a ls o f n ek to n com m unity. G uano,
m a in ly b o o b ie s an d c o rm o ra n ts are im p o rtan t
sw im m in g b ird s.
3. B e n th o s C o m m u n ity in c lu d e s all
those
p la n ts, a n d a n im a ls w h ic h liv e on the sea bo tto m s
rig h t fro m th e litto r a l m a rin e b io m e to th e open
sea b io m e . T h e o rg a n is m s o f th is c o m m u n ity are
c h a ra c te riz e d b y la rg e sp e c ie s d iv e rsity . T he to tal
know n s p e c ie s o f b e n th o s a n im a ls re p re se n t 16
p e r c e n t o f th e to ta l s p e c ie s o f all the m arin e
anim als. B e n th o s o rg a n is m s are d iv id e d into tw o
c ateg o ries o n th e b a sis o f th e ir h a b ita ts e.g. 1.
ep iflora a n d e p ifa u n a , a n d 2. in flo ra and in fau n a.
E p iflo ra a n d e p ifa u n a liv e on th e su rfa ce s o f sea
b ottom s w h e re a s in fa u n a an d in flo ra liv e in the
d etritu s a n d a re g e n e ra lly b u rie d w h e th e r c o m ­
p letely o r p a rtia lly in th e o c ea n b o tto m d ep o sits.
Sea w e ed s, la rg e a lg a e , e e lg ra ss and tu rtle grass
are im p o rta n t b e n th o s p la n ts. B en th o s an im als
m o stly in c lu d e s e v e ra l s p e c ie s o f m o llu sc s e.g.
b iv ale m u s s e ls , o y s te rs a n d c o ck le s. M a jo rity o f
tiie b e n th o s a n im a ls a re sc a v e n g e rs (e.g. sh ark ,
sab le fish , h a g fish , o c to p u s e tc .) T h e lif e p f
m arin e b e n th ic a n im a ls liv in g o n th e 1 0 0 0 -4 0 0 0 m
d eep sea b o tto m la rg e ly d e p e n d s o n th e o rg a n ic
m a tte r o f th e u p p e r su rfa c e o f s e a w a te r a n d
rem ain s o f n e k to n a n im als.
Net p rim a ry P r o d u c t iv it y of M a rin e B i o m e
The a v erag e n e t p rim a ry p ro d u c tiv ity o f
d ifferen t m arin e b io m e s (a c c o rd in g to I. G .
Sim m ons, 1974) is 350 d ry g ra m p e r sq u a re m e te r
p e r y ear fo r co n tin e n tal s h e l f b io m e ; 125 d ry g /
m 2/y r fo r open sea b io m e; 500 d ry g /m 2/y r fo r
u p w ellin g zone b io m e; an d 155 d ry g /m 2/y r fo r th e
entire o cean ic b io m e. T h e to ta l p rim a ry p r o d u c ­
tiv ity is 9.30 x 109 to n n e s/y r fo r c o n tin e n ta l s h e l f
biom e; 41 x 109 to n n e s/y r fo r o p e n o c e a n b io m e ;
0.2 x 10 9 to n n e s/y r fo r u p w e llin g z o n e b io m e ; a n d
55 x 109 to n n e s/y r fo r th e e n tire o c e a n ic a re a s .
C orals are im p o rtan t a n im a ls in th e g ro u p s
o f m arine o rg an ism s. T h ese are g e n e ra lly c a lle d
as rain forests o f th e ocea n s. T h e c o ra l c o lo n ie s
provide d ifferen t ty p es o f h a b ita ts fo r d if f e r e n t
purposes o f m arin e o rg a n ism s. M o st o f s e a fis h e s
lay eggs in the co ral co lo n ie s. In fa c t, c o ra ls a re
the base o f m arin e b io lo g ic a l c o m m u n i t y . T h e
m arine b io lo g ic a l h e alth d e p en d s o n th e ric h n e s s
o f corals. H um an eco n o m ic a c tiv itie s a re r e s p o n ­
sible for coral b lea ch in g c au sin g m a ss c o ra l d e a th s
due to global w arm in g c o n se q u e n t u p o n d e f o r ­
estatio n , rap id ra te o f in d u s tria liz a tio n e tc . (s e e
ch ap ter 13 o f th is b o o k fo r c o ra l b le a c h in g ). T h e
average sea te m p e ratu re in c re a s e d 2°C fro m th e
n o rm al d u rin g 1997-98 d u e to w h ic h th e re w a s
large-scale destruction o f co rals w o rld w id e th ro u g h
co ral b leach in g . M o re th a n 70 p e r c e n t c o ra ls o f
A n d am an and N ic o b ar, an d L a s k sh a d w e e p w e re
d estro y ed .
17.5.1 F O O D R E S O U R C E S
O n th e b a sis o f u ses m a rin e fo o d re s o u rc e s
are d iv id ed into tw o ty p es e.g. (i) p ro te in ric h fo o d
re so u rce s fo r th e u se as fo o d fo r h u m a n b e in g (e.g.
fish e s), (ii) a n im a l feed m a in ly fo r d o m e s tic a te d
an im als. T h e c o n trib u tio n o f fish e s in th e w o rld
an n u al in co m e fro m m a rin e re s o u rc e s o f a ll
 c a te g o r ie s sta n d s s e c o n d T h e la r g est sh are o f
w o rld a n n u a l in c o m e c o m e s fro m trade and
transport. F in fis h e s m a k e 9 0 p er c en t share o f
total w o r ld c a tc h o f f is h e s w h ile rem a in in g 10
p ercen t is c o n trib u ted b y w h a le s , cru sta cea n s
(e.g. lo b ste r ), m o llu s c s and se v e r a l ty p es o f
in verteb rate a n im a ls.
U s e o f s e a fis h e s fo r m ea t e a tin g (ca rn iv o re)
p e o p le is v e r y m u ch b e n e fic ia l b e c a u se th ese
co n ta in p le n ty o f p ro tein and a m in o a cid in right
p ro p o rtio n , v ita m in B 12 and v ery little qu antity o f
satu rated fa t an d c o le str o l and thus h elp in
re d u c in g h ig h b lo o d p ressu re and heart d ise a se s.
M o s t o f th e fis h e s are a lso u sed as an im als feed .
T h e f o llo w in g are th e m ain form s o f fish in g and
fis h fa rm in g :
1. F i s h i n g
F is h in g refers to the d irect ca tch in g o f sea
fis h e s th rou gh d iffere n t m ea n s and m eth o d s. S ea
fis h e s are g ro u p ed in d ifferen t c a teg o r ies on
d iffere n t b a se s. O n the b a sis o f depth, th ese are
g ro u p ed in to tw o c a te g o r ie s e.g. (i) clupeoid,
w h ic h liv e s in the upper w ater su rfa ce e.g.
herring, sa rd in e, p ilch a rd , sh a d s, a n c o v y etc., and
(ii) gadoid, liv in g in the d eep se a m a in ly at the sea
b o ttom , e.g. c o d , h ad d ack , h ak e etc. T he fis h e s o f
c lu p e io d fa m ily a cco u n t for 4 5 p er cen t o f the total
w o rld c a tc h w h ile g a d o id fa m ily co n trib u tes 15
p er cen t. F lo u n d e r s (sm a ll il a t fis h e s ) con trib u te
15 p er c e n t o f to ta l w o r ld ca tch . T h e rem a in in g 25
p er c e n t is c o n tr ib u te d b y tuna, m a ck ere l etc. (7
p er c e n t), an d o th er ty p e s o f fla t fis h e s , ro se
fis h e s , s e a p e r c h e s , m u lle ts, ja c k s etc. O n the
b a sis o f lo c a tio n s e a fis h e s are g ro u p ed in 3
c a te g o r ie s v iz . ( i) pelagic fishes (e.g. m a c k e r e ls,
tunas, h errin g s, a n c o v ie s etc .); ( ii) demersal fishes
(e.g. co d , s o le , h a d d o c k , h a lib u t etc .); and ( iii)
anadromous or m ig ratory fishes (e.g. s a lm o n s).
Fishing areas (fis h e r ie s ) are d iv id e d in tw o
ca teg o r ies o n th e b a s is o f tem p eratu re o f s e a w a ter
e - 8 - (1 ) cold w ater fisheries, w h ic h h a v e a lr ea d y
b een d e v e lo p e d s in c e lo n g , an d (2 ) tropical and
subtropical fisheries, w h ic h h a v e p o te n tia l fo r
farther d e v e lo p m e n t. T h e tro p ica l an d su b tro p ica l
fish in g areas h a v e h ig h p o te n tia l fo r e x te n s iv e
fish catch in future. In fa c t, fis h in g h as b e e n
g re a tly d e v e lo p e d in th e n orthern h em isp h ere and
the continental shelves o f mid-latitude temperate
seas have become the largest fishing ground
because o f availability of plenty of important and
specific species o f fishes (like mackerels), rela­
tively low content of oil and fat, large demand of
fish as human food, modern and advanced
techniques and related means for fishing, provi­
sion for canning and preservation o f fishes etc. On
the other hand, high content o f fat and oil in the
fishes of tropical and subtropical water and
resultant less demand for human food, lack of
abundance of single species o f fishes in a specific
area, mixed presence of several species in a place
(area) etc. have discouraged the development of
fishing up to desired level in the tropical and
subtropical seas.
Major Fishing Areas are identified and grouped
into definite fishing zones on the basis of
concentration and abundance and catch of fishes.
The following 3 major and 13 sub-regions of
fishing have been identified :
(1) Pacific Ocean fishing area includes five
sub-areas : (i) north Pacific area, (ii) western,
middle Pacific area, (iii) eastern middle Pacific
area, (iv) south-western Pacific area, and (v)
south-eastern Pacific area (mainly Peruvian coast).
(2) A tlantic fishing areas comprise 6 sub-
areas e.g. (i) north-west Atlantic area (coastal
areas of north-eastern USA—New England re­
gion, and eastern Canada— coastal areas of
Newbrunswick, Novascotia, Newfoundland and
Qubeck), (ii) northeast Atlantic area (coastal area
of north - western Europe), (iii) western - middle
Atlantic area (Caribbean Sea), (iv) • eastern -
middle Atlantic area (western coastal areas of
north and middle Africa), (v) south - west A tlantic
area (coastal area o f Argentina), and (vi) south­
east Atlantic area (western coastal zone of south
Africa).
( 3 ) In d ia n Ocean fishing areas in clu d e tw o
s u b -a r e a s e.g . ( i) w e s te r n fis h in g area, and (ii)
ea stern f is h in g area.
A s reg a rd s th e to ta l w o r ld ca tch o f fish es,
th e P a c if ic , A tla n tic a n d In d ia n O c ea n fishing
r e g io n s a c c o u n t b y 5 3 , 4 0 a n d 5 p e r c e n t o f w orld
c a tc h r e s p e c tiv e ly . B e s id e s , M e d ite r r a n e a n
 MRINB RESOURCES
tributes 2 p e r c e n t sh a re o f to ta l w o rld catch .
as regards w o rld c a tc h o f s in g le sp e c ie s o f f i s h ,
covy acco u n ts fo r th e la rg e s t sh a re , fo llo w e d b y
ffrrine A tla n tic co d , A la s k a n w a lle y e p o llo c k
S south A fric a n p ilc h a rd .
On the b a sis o f d e g re e o f d e v e lo p m e n t
world fish in g a re a s a re d iv id e d in to 5 m a jo r
fishing reg io n s :
(1) N orth-east Pacific region e x te n d s fro m
Aleutians in th e n o rth to P h ilip p in e s in th e so u th .
This region in c lu d e s e a s te rn c o a s ta l w a te rs o f
Russia, and fis h e rie s o f C h in a , S. K o re a , Jap a n
a n d P h ilippines. S a lm o n , tu n a , k in g c ra b , h e rrin g ,
pollock, h a lib u t a n d c o d a re m a in fis h e s o f th is
region. C h in a, J a p a n a n d S o u th K o re a c o n trib u te
13, 8 and 3 p e r c e n t o f to ta l w o rld c atch .
(2) N o r th -e a s t A tla n tic r e g io n e x te n d s alo n g
the E uropean c o a s ts fro m P o rtu g a l to Ic e lan d .
M ajor fishing c o u n trie s a re N o rw a y , G re a t B rita in
and D enm ark. N o rth S e a is a p ro m in e n t fish in g
area. This re g io n a c c o u n ts fo r th e la rg e st w o rld
catch o f cod. H e rrin g a n d h a d d o c k a re o th e r
im portant fis h e s o f th is re g io n .
(3) N o r th -w e s t A tla n tic r e g io n in c lu d e s the
continental s h e lv e s o f N e w E n g la n d re g io n o f the
USA, N e w b ru n s w ic k , N o v a s c o tia a n d N e w ­
foundland o f C a n a d a . G ra n d B a n k a n d G eo rg e
bank are im p o rta n t f is h in g g ro u n d s o f th e w o rld .
The p ro d u c tiv ity o f fis h e s b e c o m e s v e ry h ig h due
to m eeting o f c o o l L a b r a d o r o c e a n c u rre n t and
warm G u lfs tre a m n e a r N e w fo u n d la n d . C o d is the
most im p o rta n t fis h o f th is re g io n . B e sid e s,
herring, h a lib u t, s q u id s , flo u n d e rs a n d re d fis h are
other im p o rta n t v a rie tie s to b e c a u g h t in th is
region.
(4) South-east Pacific region c o m p a n ie s the
western c o a sta l a re a s o f S o u th A m e ric a m a in ly
the P eruvian a n d C h ile a n c o a s ta l w a te rs . P e ru is
for fam ous fo r ric h h a u l o f a n c h o v y s p e c ie s . T h e
c°astal w a te rs o f P e ru a re c h a r a c te riz e d b y
c°ntinuous u p c o m in g o f n u trie n ts fro m b e lo w d u e
to Upwelling o f c o ld w a te r m a ss . T h e P e ru c o ld
current, th u s flo w in g fro m th e s o u th n o rth w a rd is
eneficial fo r th e g ro w th a n d a b u n d a n c e o f
anchovies. In th e e v e n t o f s tro n g E l N in o c a u s in g
southw ard m o v e m e n t o f w a rm w a te r m a ss a lo n g
the W estern c o a s t o f S o u th A m e ric a , P e ru c o ld
c u rre n t is w e a k e n e d , th e u p w e llin g o f c o ld w a te r
m ass sto p s and th e s u p p ly o f n u trie n ts is a ls o
s to p p ed an d h en ce a n c h o v ie s d ie o f sta rv a tio n d u e
to th e a b se n c e o f n u trie n ts. N o w P e ru h a s b e c o m e
th e lead in g c o u n try in fish in g . A s re g a rd s th e
c atch o f a sin g le sp e c ie s o f fish , P e ru sta n d s firs t
in the w o rld as P e ru c atc h e s m o re th a n 10 m illio n
to n n e s o f a n c h o v ie s p e r y ear. P e ru h a s re g is te re d
su d d en p h e n o m en a l g ro w th in fish in g s in c e 1957.
(5) W est C en tra l P a cific reg io n e x te n d s fro m
P h ilip p in es to th e e aste rn c o a sta l a re as o f A u s ­
tralia. T he im p o rtan t fish es o f c o m m e rc ia l v a lu e
o f th is reg io n are m a ck e ra l, tu n a , m u lle t, re d fis h ,
bass, o y ster, crab s etc.
F ish in g has n o t b een d e v e lo p e d u p to m a rk
in In d ia th o u g h its to tal c o astlin e s ru n fo r a le n g th
o f 7,517 km and ideal p la tfo rm s o f c o n tin e n ta l
sh elv es fo r fish in g are sp read o v e r an a re a o f
3 1 1 ,6 8 0 sq u are k ilo m e te rs. T he w e ste rn a n d
eastern co astal areas a cco u n t fo r 75 a n d 25 p e r
cen t o f to tal an n u al fish catch re sp e c tiv e ly . T h e
p o ten tial o f an n u al fish catch o f In d ia h a s b e e n
estim ated as 20-25 m illio n m e tric to n n e s b u t
actu al an n u al fish catch is less th an o n e m illio n
m etric to n n es due to a h o st o f fa c to rs e.g. tro p ic a l
clim ate; lack o f am ple n u m b er o f b a y s, c o v e s,
e stu aries, b ack w aters etc. alo n g th e c o asts;
h e rb iv o re a ttitu d e o f m a jo rity o f In d ia n p o p u la ­
tio n and re la ted less d em an d o f fish as h u m a n
food; tra d itio n a l old m eth o d s o f fish c a tc h in g an d
lim ited m eans; lack o f m o d e m te c h n iq u e s o f
c an n in g and sto rag e o f fish es etc.
2. M arin e F a r m in g
M arin e farm in g , also k n ow n as m a ricu ltu re
o r m arin e cu ltu re, in clu d es th e p ro c e sses o f
in c re ase o f p ro d u c tiv ity and rep ro d u ctio n , b re e d ­
ing an d p ro d u c tio n o f certain sea an im als by
m ak in g th em c ap tiv e in c ertain lo calities o f sea
w a ter, fe e d in g th e m on a d d itio n al n u trien t feed
a n d se llin g th e m in the m ark et by m an. In fact,
m a ric u ltu re is a fo rm o f aq u acu ltu re, w herein
c e rta in y o u n g a n im als are k ep t cap tiv e in certain
S m a rk e d lo c alitie s o f sea w a ter fo r certain
p e rio d o f tim e w h en they are C W cw d
a d d itio n a l feed an d are fin a lly i
m a rk e t. In o th e r w o rd s, yo u n g sea an im als o
 certain s p e c ie s a re ta k e n aw ay fro m th e ir n ativ e
S p aw n ing g ro u n d s a n d are k e p t cap tiv e in a n o th er
a re a w h e re th e y a re fa tte n e d on a d d itio n a l feed
u n til th e y a re re a d y fo r m ark et.
M a ric u ltu re is n o t e n tire ly a n ew m eth o d
ra th e r it w a s p ra c tic e d ev en in an cie n t tim e in a
fe w c o u n trie s lik e Jap a n , C h in a, Jav a etc. E v i­
d e n c e s o f o y s te r fa rm in g (rea rin g ) in a n cien t
p e rio d b e fo re C h rist h av e b e en fo u n d in Japan.
M a rin e fa rm in g o f carp s w as p re v a le n t in R om an
an d m e d ie v a l p e rio d s in E u ro p e w h ile re a rin g o f
m ilk fish w a s in p ra c tic e in the 15th cen tu ry in
Ja v a . T h e fo llo w in g sea a n im als are u sed for
re a rin g u n d e r th e p ro c e ss o f m a ric u ltu re : o y ster,
m u s se ls , sc a llo p s , sh rim p , carp, salm o n , tro u t,
c a tfis h , A sia n m ilk fish , m u llet, tu n a etc.
It m a y b e p o in te d ou t th a t the fo o d d em an d
is in c re a sin g a la rm in g ly due to e v e r-in c re a sin g
w o rld p o p u la tio n . It m ay n o t be p o ssib le to m eet
th e in c re a se d fo o d d e m an d in fu tu re e x clu siv e ly
fro m lan d re so u rc e s and th e re fo re it has b eco m e
n o w n e c e s sa ry to fo cu s a tte n tio n to w a rd s m arin e
fo o d re s o u rc e s to in c re ase the w o rld su p p ly o f
re q u ire d a m o u n t o f fo o d to feed the te em in g
m illio n s. It h a s n o w b e e n re a liz e d th a t in ste a d o f
o v e rfis h in g th e re sh o u ld b e m a rin e farm in g
(re a rin g ) o f fish e s fo r su sta in a b le y ie ld b e ca u se
o v e rfis h in g m a y d e c re a se th e an n u al y ie ld an d
s u p p ly o f fish e s. K e e p in g th is fa c t in m in d sev e ra l
c o u n trie s h a v e in itia te d to re a r fish e s in m a rin e
e n v iro n m e n t. T h e o y s te r re a rin g is m o st p re v a le n t
fo rm o f m a ric u ltu re . F irst, th e y are c o lle c te d and
th e n th e s e s p a w n s o f o y ste rs are see d e d in n ew sea
a re a s s p e c ia lly m a rk e d an d p re p a re d fo r th is
p u rp o s e . O n e fe m a le o y s te r lays 10 m illio n eg g s at
a tim e . S in c e o y s te rs flo u rish on se a b o tto m s an d
h e n c e b e fo re s e e d in g o f sp a w n s all th e p re d a to rs
a re c o m b e d a n d re m o v e d aw ay . T h e U S A u ses
ro p e m a ts to tra p a n d c o lle c t su c h p re y d a to rs (lik e
s ta r fis h ) fro m th e s p e c ifie d a re a o f o y s te r re a rin g .
I r c o a s ta l a re a s o f F ra n c e , p re d a to rs a re re m o v e d
fro m th e s p e c ifie d sea b o tto m s an d o y s te r see d in g
b e d s a re fe n c e d so th a t p re d a to rs o f o y s te rs c a n n o t
re e n te r th e o y s te r s e e d in g b e d s. A fte r th e sp a w n s
b e c o m e y o u n g , th e y a re b ro u g h t to o th e r s p e c ifie d
a re a s k n o w n as c la ire s fo r fa tte n in g , w h e re th e y
fe e d o n d ia to m s . D iff e re n t m e th o d s h a v e b e en
d e v e lo p e d f o r o y s te r fa rm in g in d iffe re n t c o u n ­
tries, e.g. su sp e n sio n c u ltu re in Ja p a n , ra ck and
stick cu ltiv a tio n sy stem in A u stra lia etc.
T h e fre q u e n t a n d m o re m o v e m e n t o f fish es
p o ses d iffic u ltie s in fish re a rin g . T h e re is m arin e
farm in g o f p a m p an o , P a c ific sa rd in e a n d m a c k e ra l
at co m m e rcial le v el in th e U S A . L o b ste rs are
re a red in th e c o a s ta l a re a s o f N e w E n g la n d reg io n
w h ile sh rim p s are c u ltu re d in G u lf o f M exico.
P raw n re a rin g h a s g o t m o m e n tu m in th e co astal
w aters o f m a n y c o u n trie s. P ra w n fa rm in g has
p ro v e d su cc e ss in In d ia , T h a ila n d a n d P h ilip ­
pin es.
3. O c e a n R a n c h in g
O cean ra n c h in g , a lso c a lle d as o ce a n hus­
b a n d ry , re fe rs to ta m in g a n d tra in in g o f sea
m a m m als (lik e p o rp o is e , d o lp h in , w h a le e tc.) in
m a rin e e n v iro n m e n t. A h o s t o f s c ie n tis ts a re b u sy
in activ e re s e a rc h e s fo r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f
scie n tific te c h n iq u e s to ta m e a n d tra in w ild sea
m a m m a ls to b e u s e d fo r d iff e r e n t p u rp o ses.
P o rp o ise s are b e in g tra in e d to o b e y th e s ig n a ls and
d ire c tio n s g iv e n b y re m o te c o n tro l a n d to m im ic
h u m a n so u n d s. D o lp h in s a re tra in e d fo r the
fo llo w in g p u rp o s e s : to h e lp d iv e rs , to c a rry and
b rin g b a c k to o ls fo r th e re p a ir o f a n c h o re d ships,
r e lie f w o rk etc. In so m e a re a s p o rp o is e s a re b eing
tra in e d as a q u a -c o w b o y s . T h o u g h th e ocean
ra n c h in g is in its in itia l s ta g e b u t th e re are
a m p le p o s s ib ilitie s fo r its d e v e lo p m e n t in near
fu tu re.
4. W h a lin g
T h e c a tc h in g o f w h a le is c a lle d w h a lin g . It
m ay b e re m e m b e re d th a t w h a le is a m a m m a l and
g iv e s b irth to c a lv e s . G e n e ra lly , w h a le s are
d iv id e d in to 2 c a te g o rie s e.g . (i) Toothed whales
fe e d on fis h e s, s q u id s a n d c ru s ta c e a n s . Sperm
w h a le is th e m a jo r s p e c ie s o f th is fa m ily and is
fo u n d in tro p ic a l a n d te m p e ra te s e a s . It m ay be as
la rg e as 18 m in le n g th w ith a v e ra g e w e ig h t o f 35
to n n e s. K ille r w h a le is th e m o s t d a n g e ro u s species
o f to o th e d w h a le s a n d fe e d s o n s e a ls , porpoises,
p e n g u in s a n d o th e r s m a ll w h a le s , (ii) Toothless
whale is g e n e r a lly c a lle d a s baleen whale and
 jdlUNE RESOURCES
compris®8 8Pe c *es ° f blu e w hales, finback
whales, h u m p b ack w h ales, gray w hales, sei,
iw'nke etc. B lu e w h a les arc the largest o f all the
species o f to o th le ss w h ales and arc on verge o f
I extinction. It m ay be p o in te d out th at b lu e w hales
breed in su b tro p ic a l se a w a te r du rin g w in te r and
then m ig rate to p o la r areas d u rin g sum m er for
feeding. F ish e rm e n find this perio d as the m ost
convenient tim e fo r th e ir catch in g . B lue w hales
now need p ro te c tio n and c o n serv atio n .
S in ce b e g in n in g m an used to hu n t w hales to
get d iffe re n t m a te ria ls from w hales for various
purposes e.g. m e at and b lu b b e r for hum an food,
oil for lig h tin g and a m b erg ris. T he oil from sperm
w hales is u se d as lu b ric a n ts in the facto ries and to
prep are s o a p s and c o sm etics. M eat o f w hales is
also u se d as feed fo r o th e r anim als w hile w hale
b o n es are u sed to m a n u fa ctu re fertilizers.
In th e b e g in n in g tra d itio n a l tools and
m e th o d s w e re u sed for w h aling (like open boats
a n d h a n d h a rp o o n s) and thus w hales w ere not put
to s e v e re th re a ts o f e x tin c tio n but now these have
b e c o m e e n d a n g e re d sp ecies because o f the in tro ­
d u c tio n o f m o d ern tech n iq u es o f w haling like
‘steam w h a le r ’, ‘p e lag ic w h a lin g ’ etc. A few
sp ecies o f w h a le s, like large b aleen w hales, have
b een so m a ss iv e ly k ille d th a t th ey are on the verge
o f e x tin c tio n . B lu e w h ales, h u m p b ack w hales and
gray w h a le s h a v e also b een v ictim o f m assive
o v e rw h alin g . A tte m p ts are b ein g m ade at w orld
level fo r h a u ltin g m a ssiv e k illin g o f w hales and a
few in te rn a tio n a l re g u la tio n s have b een fo rm u ­
lated fo r th e ir c o n se rv a tio n . T he Intern atio n al
C o m m issio n o n W h a lin g (IC W ) d eterm in es the
lim it o f w h a le c a tc h in te rm s o f B W U (blu e w hale
unit, one B H U = o n e b lu e w h ale, 2 fin w hales, 2.5
hum pback w h a le s, o r 6 sei w h a les) p e r y ear from
time to tim e . A fe w c o u n trie s have im po sed s e lf
restriction on w h a lin g (e.g. U S A , G reat B ritain,
N orw ay, N e th e rla n d s ) k n o w n as w h a lin g m orato­
rium. K illin g o f m o th e r w h a les w ith th e ir calves
has been b an n ed .
17.6 M IN E R A L R E S O U R C E S
D iffe re n t m e ta llic and n o n -m e ta llic m in e r­
als o f the seas are fo u n d in tw o form s as fo llo w s :
>■ m inerals m ixed w ith seaw ater d isso lv ed in
seaw ater.
>" m inerals o f sea d ep osits on sea floors
(i) m in erals o f co n tin en tal s h e lf an d slo p e
deposits
(ii) m in erals o f deep ocean bo tto m d e p o s­
its
(iii) su b su rface m in erals
Minerals D iss o lve d in Se aw ater
Im portant m inerals o f th is categ o ry are salt,
brom ine, m agnesium , gold, zinc, u ran iu m , th o ­
rium etc. A ccording to an estim ate one cu b ic
kilom eter o f seaw ater co n tain s 41.25 m illio n
tonnes o f solid m aterials in d isso lv e d form .
N early 85 per cent o f salt d isso lv ed in se a w a te r is
constituted by sodium and chlorine. T he p o p u la r
m ethod o f m an u factu rin g o f salt fro m sea w ater
involves the p rocesses o f h o ld in g o f s e a w a te r in
the evaporation basins p rep ared in the co astal lan d
areas and drying o f w ater th ro u g h so lar heat. T he
crude salts, o btained th ro u g h ev ap o ratio n o f w a te r
in sunlight and p recip itatio n o f salt co n ten ts, are
m ade for hum an use after these are fu rth er re fin e d .
A bout one th ird o f total w o rld salt is m a n u fa c ­
tured through evaporation m ethod. In In d ia sa lt is
m ade from seaw ater along the co asts o f G u jarat,
M aharashtra and T am il N adu. G u jarat alo n e
produces 50 per cent o f to tal salt p ro d u c e d in In d ia
per year.
S eaw ater is saline and h en ce it is re fin e d
and is transform ed into fresh w ater so as to m ak e it
potable w ater, w hich is called m an u factu red w a ter.
T here is increasing dem and o f m an u factu red
w ater in the co astal countries o f w arm a rid reg io n s
due to rapid rate o f u rb an izatio n . C o n seq u en tly ,
several tech n iq u es o f d esalin izatio n hav e b een
developed.
M inerals d isso lv ed in seiawater are sep a­
rated through d ifferen t m ethods and p ro cesses bu t
the com m ercial value o f such m inerals depends on
th eir refin in g coast and real m arket price.
A ccording to an estim ate 4 gram s o f gold can be
obtained from every one m illion to n n es o f
seaw ater. It is estim ated th at the to tal reserv e o f
gold d isso lv ed in seaw ater is 5 m illio n tonnes. It
 m ay be p o in te d o u t that it is not econom ical to
o b ta in g o ld fro m seaw ater because on one hand, it
b eco m es d iffic u lt to g et su fficien t supply o f
u n d ilu te d s e a w a te r as m any elem ents are m ixed
w ith se a w a te r, on the o th er hand, the cost o f
p u m p in g o f sea w ater and chem ical refin in g is
v e ry h igh.
M in e ra ls of Se a D e p o sits
O n th e b a sis o f sources and location
m in e ra ls o f se a d e p o sits are divided into tw o
c a te g o rie s viz. (1) m in erals o f su rface deposits,
w h ic h are fu rth e r d iv id ed into 3 su b categ o ries e.g.
(i) m in e ra ls o f c o n tin e n ta l sh elv es, (ii) m inerals o f
d e p o sits o n c o n tin e n ta l slo p es, and (iii) m inerals
o f d eep se a b o tto m d ep o sits; (2) subsu rface
m in e ra ls.
1. M in e r a ls of the D e p o s its of Contin en ta l
S h e l v e s a n d S lo p e s
M in e ra ls o f d e p o sits on co n tin e n tal shelves
a n d slo p e s in c lu d e z irc o n , m on azite, m agn etite, gold,
p la c e r , d ia m o n d , p la tin u m , su lp h er, p h o sp h o rite and
s e v e ra l ty p e s o f b u ild in g m aterials (like sands,
g ra v e ls , b o u ld e rs etc.). M o n azite reserv es are
fo u n d in th e c o a sta l a re as o f India, U n ite d States
o f A m e ric a , B ra z il, Sri L an k a, A u stra lia and N ew
Z e a la n d . In d ia h as th e la rg e st reserv e o f m o n azite
o f t h e w o rld (9 0 p e r c e n t) in the p la c e r d epo sits o f
K e r a la c o a s ts . A b o u t 29 p e r c en t o f ru tile m in eral
o f t h e w o rld is fo u n d in A u stra lia n co ast areas. In
f a c t, r u tile is tita n iu m d io x id e and is u sed for
c o a tin g o n w e ld e d ro d s. M a g n e tite s are a sso c iate d
w ith v o lc a n ic ro c k s a n d th u s th e se are fo u n d in
th o s e c o n tin e n ta l s h e lv e s a n d slo p es w h ich are
c h a r a c te r iz e d b y v a lu c a n ic ity . M a g n e tite s are,
th u s , fo u n d a lo n g th e c irc u m -P a c ific v o lc an ic b e lt
i.e . a lo n g th e w e s te r n c o a s ta l a re a s o f N o rth an d
S o u th A m e r ic a a n d e a s te rn c o a s ts o f A sia. Jap an
c o a s ta l a r e a s a re e s tim a te d to h a v e a m a g n e tite
r e s e r v e o f 3 6 m illio n to n n e s . C a s s ite n te is a ty p e
o f tin w h ic h is s e p a ra te d d u e to w e a th e rin g o f
g r a n ite s . M a x im u m re s e rv e s o f c a s s ite rite s are
found in th e c o a s ta l a re a s o f T h a ila n d M a fc s.a
a n d I n d o n e s ia . G o ld d e p o s its a re fo u n d m the
c o n t i n e n t a l s h e lv e s o f A la s k a a n d O re g o n (U S A ),
C hile, South A frica and A u stralia b u t its extrac­
tion is com m ercially n o t b e n eficia l because o f
ex tractio n coast. P h o sp h o rites are m ix ed w ith
m uds and sands o f co n tin en tal shelves an d slopes
and are found in n o dule form . Phosphorites are
used for the m an u factu rin g o f fertilizers. Their
estim ated w o rld reserv es are 50 m illio n tonnes,
w hich are fo u n d in the co n tin en tal shelves o f
M exico, Peru, A u stralia, Jap an an d S outh A frica
and th eir e x tractio n at co m m ercial lev el h as yet to
be started.
Sands and gravels are sig n ific a n t building
m aterials w h ich are w id ely fo u n d on th e beds of
co n tin en tal sh elv es o f th o se areas w h ich are
ch aracterized by stro n g sea w av es an d currents.
Such m arin e reso u rces are v ery im p o rtan t to those
co astal lands w h ich hav e in d u stria l an d urban
com plexes. Sands and g rav els are u se d o r m ay be
used in fu tu re fo r the co n stru ctio n o f different
types o f b u ild in g s, ro ad s an d b rid g es. It m ay be
m en tio n ed th at th e m in in g o f san d s and gravels
from seabeds o f c o n tin e n tal sh elv es m ay prove
hazardous for m arin e life m ain ly fo r benthos
b io co m m u n ities. Sand and g ra v e l m in in g can
change the eco lo g ica l sy stem o f c o asta l w ater by
^ in te r f e r in g w ith p h o to s y n th e s is by
p h y to p lan k to n s due to d istu rb a n c e in the
o th erw ise calm c o asta l w a te r e x ce p t w aves
and tid es;
>■ c lo g g in g th e filte rin g d e v ice o f m arine
o rg an ism s su ch as fish es an d co ral ani­
m als,
>■ tra n sfe rrin g m a jo r p o rtio n o f nutrients
fro m seab ed s to u p p e r z o n e o f seaw ater,
>■ fo rcin g so m e a n im a ls to m ig rate to other
n o n -m in in g a reas,
k illin g c o ra l p o ly p s an d h en ce retarding
th e ir g ro w th etc.
2. M in erals of D e e p O c e a n B o t to m D e p o sits
(1) Manganese nodules
M an g a n e se n o d u le s a re th e m o st significant
m in e ra ls to be fo u n d in th e o c ea n b o tto m deposits.
P a c ific O cean c o n tain s th e la rg e st d ep o sit o f
 m anganese n o d u le s u p to th e d e p th o f 4 0 0 0 m . It
may be Pointe<* o u t 11131 m a n g an e se n o d u les
comprise sev e ra l m in e ra ls lik e n ic k el, co p p er,
cobalt, lead, z in c, iro n , s ilic o n b u t th ere is
maximum p e rc e n ta g e o f iro n a n d m ang an ese.
B lak e p la te au is th e s e c o n d la rg e st area o f
m an g an ese n o d u les. T h ese are d eriv ed th ro u g h tw o
m o st p re v a len t tech n iq u es e.g. (i) a ir lift tech n iq u e,
and (ii) co n tin u o u s b u ck et lin e system . C o m m er­
cial m in in g o f m an g an ese nod u les h as n o t d e v el­
o p ed b ecau se o f v ery h ig h m in in g cost. Fig. 17.2
d ep icts w o rld d istrib u tio n o f m an g an ese n o d u les.

Greenland

Arctic Cirde
Alaska

Atlantic
Ocean Europe
North
America
i30°N
^Tropic of Cancer $

Africa !
0° Equator
South
America
Tropic of Capricorn #?
30°S Australia
Pacific Indian Ocean
Ocean
p i i i i

■Antarctic Circle v l w :
Antarctica

H I Nodules extensive
E 3 Nodules common

Fig. 77.2 : W orld distribution o f m anganese nodules. Source : after DSACronan. Deep-sea nodules : distribution and
geochem istry, in M arine m anganese deposits, edtted by G.P. Glasby. 1977.

(2) Cobalt
C o b a lt is a s tra te g ic m in e ra l b e c a u s e o f its
use in m ilita ry a irc ra fts ( je t f ig h te r p la n e s ) m a in ly
in m a n u fa c tu rin g a ir c r a f t e n g in e s , a n d in o th e r
ind u stries. C o b a lt-ric h m a rin e d e p o s its h a v e b e e n
d isco v e re d to b e a s s o c ia te d w ith s e a m o u n ts ,
guyots a n d s o m e is la n d s . T h e re is v e ry ric h c o b a lt
m th e te r r ito r ia l s e a a n d e x c lu s iv e
e co n o m ic z o n e a ro u n d H a w a iia n Isla n d s in th e
P a c ific O cean . S eam o u n ts in th e P a c ific O cean
c arry la rg e d e p o sits o f c o b a lt as each sea m o u n t is
e x p e c te d to h a v e 3 to 4 b illio n m e tric to n e s o f
c o b a lt ore.
(3) Phosphate
S in ce p h o sp h a te is th e re s u lt o f o rg a n ic
m a tte r, it is c u sto m a ry to b e lie v e * w nho*
,.-pgsgppM3Sf-r-
' m $ ? '
w o u ld b e a b u n d a n tly found in those areas o f the
o c e a n s w h e re b io lo g ic a l a c tiv itie s are very high.
T h u s, p h o s p h a te s are found in the sh allo w w ater
zo n e o t c o n tin e n ta l sh elv es and o th e r o ffsh o re
re g io n s w h e re d ep th o f se a w a te r does no t exceed
1000 m e te rs. T he co astal w aters o f u p w ellin g
z o n e a c c o u n ts fo r large d ep o sits o f p h o sp h ates. It
m ay be m e n tio n e d th at p h o sp h ate is very essen tial
e le m e n t as it is re q u ire d by both p lan ts and
a n im a ls in c lu d in g m an. P h o sp h a te rocks are also
fo u n d on lan d a re as and are e x ten siv e ly used for
m a n u fa c tu rin g p h o sp h a te fe rtilize rs. P h osp h ate,
are g e n e ra lly fo u n d in the form o f p h o sp h o ritic
n o d u le s on s h a llo w seab ed s.
T h e re a re th re e im p o rtan t areas o f m arine
p h o s p h a te :
o f f th e c o a st o f M o ro cco
>■ o f f th e c o a st o f so u th ern C a lifo rn ia (U SA )
^ o f f the c o a st o f C a ro lin a s (U SA )
sm all d e p o sits a ro u n d N ausu Island (sm a ll­
e st in d e p e n d e n t n atio n , area o f the co u n try
= 5 0 0 0 a c re s) in the P acific O cean
3. H y d r o c a r b o n s
T h e su b su rfa c e m in e ra ls (h y d ro c a rb o n s)
a re m o stly fo u n d in the o c ea n ic c ru sts o f
c o n tin e n ta l sh e lv e s and in clu d e gas h y d rates,
p e tro le u m (m in e ra l o il) and natu ral gas.
(1) Gas Hydrates
4
G as h y d ra te s h a v in g m e th a n e ( C H 4 ) are ; field s are lo c a te d 176 k m n o rth - w e s t o f M um bai
w h ite d e p o s its o f so lid an d fro zen w a te r m o l­
e c u le s a n d a re fo u n d a lo n g the fissu re s on seab ed s
at th e d e p th ra n g in g fro m 300 to 500 m e te rs in
c o n tin e n ta l m a rg in s. L a rg e d e p o sits o f gas h y ­
d ra te s h a v e b e e n d is c o v e re d in the se d im e n ts o f
th e A rc tic O c e a n , M e x ic a n G u lf, c o n tin e n ta l
m a rg in s o f N a n d S C a ro lin a s (U S A ), J a p a n etc.
R e c e n tly , la rg e d e p o sits o f g as h y d ra te s h av e b een
d is c o v e re d in th e G u lf o f M e x ic o an d it is
e s tim a te d th a t i f th is v a st re s e rv e o f gas h y d ra te s
is fu lly e x p lo ite d an d e n e rg y is p ro d u c e d th ro u g h
a p p r o p r i a t e te c h n o lo g ie s , w h ic h , m ay e n a b le m an
to g e t fu e l e n e rg y fro m g as h y d ra te s. It m ay be
m e n t i o n e d th a t th e p ro c e s s in g o f gas h y d ra te s fo r
e n e r g y p u rp o s e s m a y a lso re le a s e u n w a n te d
p o llu tin g g a s e s a s is th e c a se o f c o m b u stio n o f
p re sen t h y d ro c a rb o n s (m in era l oi
T h u s, w h ile d e v e lo p in g te c h n o lo g ie s fo r p ro cess­
ing gas h y d ra te s, care sh o u ld also be ta k en to tam e
any p o llu ta n ts c o m in g o u t o f th e p ro c e ss o f
tra n sfo rm a tio n o f gas h y d ra te s in to en erg y .
(2) Mineral Oil and Natural Gas
S u b su rfa c e m in e ra ls are m o stly fo u n d in the
o cean ic c ru sts o f co n tin e n ta l sh e lv e s and include
m in e ra l oil and n a t u r a l gas. M an y c o u n trie s have
a lread y started c o m m e rc ia l p ro d u c tio n o f p e tro ­
leum and n a tu ra l gas. A s re g a rd s th e d ev elo p ed
m arin e m in eral re so u rc e s, m in e ra l oil an d n atu ral
gas are the m o st d e v e lo p e d m a rin e m in eral
reso u rces. T h ere is g re a t p o s s ib ility o f th e ir
ex p an sio n and d e v e lo p m e n t in fu tu re. M in eral oil
and natural gas to g e th e r c o n trib u te 90 p e r c e n t o f
all m arin e m in eral re so u rc e s. O ffsh o re o il fie ld s
have been d e v elo p e d in th e c o n tin e n ta l sh e lv e s o f
M ex ican g u lf, P e rsia l g u lf, N o rth S ea, N o rth
A lask a, M ex ico , S o u th C a lifo rn ia n c o a st, A rctic
Sea, India, B ra zil, A u stra lia , T a iw a n , Jap a n etc.
B esid es, o ffsh o re o ilfie ld s a re b e in g d e v e lo p e d in
In d o n esia, e ast A fric a , n o rth -w e s t A fric a , T a sm a ­
nia, east A sia etc.
R ese rv e s o f o ffsh o re m in e ra l oil hav e been
e x p lo re d in the o ffsh o re re g io n s o f K o n k an co ast
(M a h a ra s h tra ), G u ja ra t c o a s t, M a la b a r and
C o ro m a n d al c o a s ts , K ris h n a -C a u v e ry d e lta coast,
S u n d arb an ctc. F ro m th e s ta n d p o in t o f produc-
%tion, th ree o ffsh o re oil fie ld s o f In d ia are most
s ig n ific a n t e.g. B o m b a y H ig h , B assein and
A lia b et, B o m b a y (M u m b a i) H ig h o ffsh o re oil
and are sp re a d o v e r an a re a o f 2 ,5 0 0 square
k ilo m etres. T he estim ate d oil re se rv e is 200,000,000
to n n e s. P ro d u c tio n s ta rte d in 1976 an d oil is
d rille d fro m th e d e p th o f 1400 m . B a s s e in offshore
o ilfie ld s are lo c a te d to th e s o u th o f M u m b ai High,
th e p ro d u c tio n o f w h ic h m a y b e m o re than
M u m b ai H ig h o ilfie ld s i f fu lly d e v e lo p e d . A liabet
o ffsh o re o ilfie ld s a re lo c a te d 45 k m aw ay from
B h a v n a g a r in th e G u lf o f K h a m b a t.
M in e ra l O il in th e A r c t i c O c e a n
R e c e n tly , it h a s b e e n d is c o v e re d th a t there
a re v a st re s e rv e s o f h y d ro c a rb o n s m e a s u rin g 15.5
b illio n to n n e s o f m in e ra l o il a n d 8 4 .5 trillio n ctib*c
m e te rs o f n a tu ra l g a s o v e r a n a re a o f 6.2
■?’ •V .... • '
mR!NE RESOURCES
square k ilo m e te rs o f th e s e a b e d s o f th e A rc tic
O cean. N o w , R u ss ia h as sta k e d h e r c laim o v e r an
area o f 1.2 m illio n s q u a re k ilo m e te rs o f th e A rc tic
seabeds w h ic h a re e x p e c te d to h a v e a re s e rv e o f 10
billion to n n e s o f h y d ro c a rb o n s . T h e U n ite d S ta te s
has re fu te d th e c la im s o f R u ssia and is also
claim in g la rg e a re a o f s e a b e d s u n d e r h e r c o m ­
m and. B e sid e s, N o rw a y , C a n a d a an d D en m ark
have also s ta k e d th e ir c la im s o v e r h y d ro c a rb o n
reserv es in th e A rc tic O c e a n .
T h e fo llo w in g a re th e s a lie n t fe a tu re s o f
m in eral o il in th e A rc tic O c e a n .
T h e is 22 p e rc e n t o f w o rld in ta p e d p e tro ­
le u m d e p o s its .
• 90 b illio n b a rre ls o f oil.
• 1610 trillio n c u b ic feet o f n atu ral gas
w h ic h is 30 p e rc e n t o f w o rld re serv e o f
n a tu ra l g as.
• 4 4 b illio n b a rre ls o f liq u id natu ral gas.
>■ A b o u t 8 4 % o f m in e ra l oil re serv e is in
o ff s h o re re g io n .
>■ P e tro le u m d e p o s its sp re a d o v e r 25 d efin ed
g e o lo g ic a l p ro v in c e s o f the A rc tic O cean.
• A rc tic A la sk a , A m e ra sia b a sin and E ast
G re e n la n d R ift B asin c o n ta in o v e r 55%
o f o il re s e rv e .
• O v e r 7 0 % u n ta p e d n a tu ra l gas d e p o sits
a re in 3 g e o lo g ic a l p ro v in c e s e.g. W est
S ib e ria n B a s in , E a st B a rn e ts B asin and
A rc tic A la sk a .
>• C a n a d a , D e n m a r k a n d R u s s ia c la im
L o m o n o so v R id g g e .
^ N o rw a y h a s b o rd e r d is p u te in th e B aren ts
S ea w ith R u ss ia .
U SA d is p u te s C a n a d a 's c la im o v e r the
N o rth w e st P a s sa g e .
17.7 N O N -C O N V E N T IO N A L M A R IN E ENERGY
RESOURCES
O cean tid e s, sea w a v e s a n d th e rm a l v a ria ­
tion b etw een u p p e r w a rm s u rfa c e o f sea a n d lo w e r
cold w a te rm a ss etc. a re m a in s o u rc e s o f g e n e ra ­
tion o f e le c tric ity . T id a l a n d w a v e e n e rg y h as b een
ev elo p ed in the c o a s ta l a re a s o f so m e o f the
countries. T h e ris e a n d fall o f w a te r d u rin g tid e s
are used fo r e le c tric ity g e n e ra tio n . T w o fa v o u r­
a b le c o n d itio n s a re n e c e s s a ry fo r th e d e v e lo p m e n t
o f tid al e n e rg y v iz. la rg e tid a l ra n g e a n d n a rro w
w a te r p a ssa g e h a v in g s w ift tid a l c u rre n ts . T h u s ,
tid al e le c tric ity c an be g e n e ra te d o n ly in th o s e
c o asta l a re a s w h e re th e se c o n d itio n s a re a v a il­
ab le. A m in im u m tid al ra n g e o f 5m is a
p re re q u is ite c o n d itio n fo r e le c tric ity g e n e ra tio n .
F undy B ay in N o v a sc o tia o f C a n a d a is c h a ra c te r­
ized by tid al ra n g e u p to 15m , w h ile m o st o f th e
co astal a re as a re fre q u e n te d by low tid al ra n g e o f
2m o r ev en less. T h u s, th e a re a s fo r g e n e ra tio n o f
e le c tric ity from tid al e n e rg y a re lim ite d . B ig
p o w e r p lan ts h av e b een e s ta b lis h e d in th e R an ee
estu a ry o f B ritta n y o f F ra n c e , at th e K isla y a G u b a
in M arm an sk o f C IS (C o m m o n w e a lth o f In d e ­
p e n d en t S ta te s), at K a n d la in In d ia etc.
Sea w a v es c a rry e n o rm o u s a m o u n t o f
en erg y but little e ffo rts an d p ro g re s s h a v e b een
m ade to d e v elo p w av e e n e rg y d u e to c o st fa c to r.
T h ree m eth o d s h av e b een d e v e lo p e d to g e n e ra te
e le c tric ity from sea w a v es e.g. (i) v e rtic a l
d isp la ce m e n t m e th o d , (ii) s a lte r d e v ic e , an d
(iii) dam atoll m eth o d . A p ilo t p o w e r p la n t to
g en erate e le c tric ity fro m sea w a v e s h a s b e e n
p lan n ed at V ijin ijh a m .
T he o ffsh o re w in d s m a in ly in th e N o rth S ea
have g re a t p o te n tia l fo r w in d e n e rg y . H o lla n d h a s
started h a rn e ssin g w in d e n e rg y in h e r o ffs h o re
reg io n by e sta b lis h in g w in d m ills. N u m e ro u s
p o les m e asu rin g 380 fe e t h av e b e e n e re c te d in th e
o ffsh o re reg io n . A le n g th o f 2 1 0 feet o f th e p o le s
rem ain s ab o v e sea s u rfa c e , 70 fe e t le n g th is u n d e r
w a te r and the re m a in in g 100 feet le n g th is b u rie d
in sea b ed s. T h e tu rb in e s can w ith s ta n d p o w e rfu l
sea w av es u p to 14 m h e ig h t. O n e s u c h o ffs h o re
w in d m ill g e n e ra te s e n o u g h e le c tric ity th a t can
illu m in ate 300 0 h o u se s in H o lla n d . In fu tu re o th e r
n a tio n s m ay a lso h a rn e ss o ffsh o re w in d e n e rg y .
17.8 V ITA M IN S A N D D R U G S R E S O U R C E S
M arin e p h a rm a c o lo g is ts are p re s e n tly b u sy
in re s e a rc h e s to u se m a rin e o rg a n ism s (p la n ts and
a n im a ls) for v ita m in s a n d m e d ic in e s to c u re
d iffe re n t d is e a s e s . It m ay be p o in te d o u t th a t a
d is tin c t d is c ip lin e o f m arine pharm acology h as
b een d e v e lo p e d . M a rin e p h a rm a c o lo g ists are
b u sy in in v e s tig a tin g p h y s io lo g ic a l, p h y sic a l an d
c h e m ic a l p ro p e rtie s o f m a rin e o rg a n is m s lik e
c ra b s, sea w e e d s, sea c u c u m b e rs , barnacles*

h o rse sh o e c ra b s, sharks, cods etc. Shark oil and
cod liv e r oil are alread y in use as energy tonics.
N o w cod liv e r oil is also a vailable in capsule form.
1 7 .9 CONSERVATION OF MARINE RESOURCES
It is bey o n d doubt that if the present rate o f
g ro w th o f w o rld p o p u latio n con tin u es, the d e­
m and fo r w orld supply o f food w ould also
in crease p ro p o rtio n ately in future, w hich cannot
be m et w ith land so u rces alone. T hus, one has to
look to w ard s m arin e food resources. It is evident
th at the p re ssu re on m arine resources w ould
in c re ase in fu tu re, th erefo re, it is necessary to
in itia te n e ce ssa ry su itab le steps for exploitation,
u tiliz a tio n , c o n se rv a tio n and preservatio n o f
m a rin e re so u rc e s. It is necessary to look into the
fo llo w in g c ertain b asic facts reg ard in g natural
re s o u rc e s b e fo re atte m p tin g m easures o f m an ag e­
m e n t o f m a rin e re so u rce s :
^ A fte r land re so u rce s, m arine resources are
re so u rc e fro n tie r for hum an com m unity
an d , th e re fo re , th ere are po ssib ilities o f
th e ir e x te n siv e ex p lo itatio n and utilizatio n
in d iffe re n t form s.
>*■ T h e in te n sity and m agnitude o f ex p lo ita­
tio n o f m arin e reso u rces w ould increase
u n d e r the p re ssu re o f ever-in creasin g
w o rld p o p u la tio n . T hus, there is a need for
in d e p th stu d y and u n d e rstan d in g o f abiotic
a n d b io tic a sp e c ts o f m arine environm ent.
S o m e o f the m arin e b io lo g ical reso u rces
(lik e fish e s) are o v e re x p lo ite d w hile a b i­
o tic (p h y sic a l) re so u rce s (m in erals, en ­
e rg y , b u ild in g m a te ria ls) still aw ait th eir
e x p lo ita tio n at c o m m ercial level.
D e c re a se in the ab u n d an c e o f fish es due to
o v e rfis h in g has been re p o rte d from d iffe r­
e n t p a rts. T his m ay lead to red u ctio n in
w o rld p ro d u c tio n o f fish es in future.
T h e re has been sp atial d iffe re n c e in the
d e v e lo p m e n t o f d iffe re n t fish in g areas due
to d y n a m ic s o f d iffe re n t sp ec ie s o f fishes
(m o v e m e n t o f fish es fo r b re e d in g , sp a w n ­
ing, fe e d in g in d iffe re n t areas).
>■ C h a n g e s in m a rin e b io lo g ic a l e n v iro n m e n t
d u e to o v e rfis h in g .
>■ M a rin e b io lo g ic a l e n v iro n m e n t is a d ­
v e rs e ly a ffe c te d by the in tro d u c tio n o f
OCEANOGRAPHY
m odern m eth o d s and e q u ip m en t o f fishing.
Fish p ro d u ctio n (c a tch ) d ep en d s on the
estim ate and p re d ic tio n o f fu tu re dem and
o f fish for hum an food and anim al feed.
Som e tim es, the estim ate d and predicted
future d em an d o f fish es com es true w hile
som e tim es p ro v es false.
It b eco m es d iffic u lt to find out total
nu m b er and q u a n tity o f m arin e living
o rg an ism s. T he a cc u ra te e stim ate o f the
grow th and m o rtality rate o f m arin e o rg an ­
ism s is a p re re q u isite c o n d itio n to ensure
th eir su sta in a b le y ield . T h ere sh o u ld also
be accu rate k n o w led g e o f th e ir a b so lu te
quantity.
>• M arine o rg an ism s do not h o n o u r an y
artificial b o u n d ary fix ed by m an b ecau se
they freely m ove in d iffe re n t areas o f seas
both h o riz o n ta lly and v e rtic ally .
It beco m es p ra c tic a lly d iffic u lt to e n fo rc e
any in te rn a tio n a l re g u la tio n re la te d to
ex p lo ita tio n o f m a rin e re so u rc e s. T h u s,
u n r e g u la te d e x p lo ita tio n o f m a r in e
reso u rces g e n erate s m o re c o m p e titio n s
and m akes e x p lo ita tio n p ro c e ss m o re
costly.
>■ S u ccessfu l fish in g d o es n o t d e p e n d o n th e
size o f th e ir (fish e s) a re as an d ric h n e ss o f
th eir re serv e s b u t d e p en d s on th e ir c o n c e n ­
tratio n an d a b u n d an c e at a p a rtic u la r tim e
in a sp ec ific area.
The k n o w le d g e o f n a tu re an d d y n a m ic s o f
fishes is n e c e ssa ry fo r s u c c e ss fu l and
p ro fita b le fish in g .
M e a s u re s of M a n a g e m e n t
T he fo llo w in g p o in ts sh o u ld a lso b e taken
care o f fo r the e ffic ie n t m a n a g e m e n t o f m arine
re so u rce s to get th e ir c o n tin u e d a n d ensured
su sta in a b le y ie ld , ra tio n a l e x p lo ita tio n , optim um
u tiliz a tio n , c o n se rv a tio n an d p re s e rv a tio n ( o f rare
sp ec ie s) o r m a rin e re s o u rc e s a n d p o llu tio n free
m arin e e n v iro n m e n t.
T h e w ise an d ra tio n a l e x p lo ita tio n and
o p tim u m u tiliz a tio n o f m a rin e re so u rc e s involve
fo llo w in g p o in ts ;
( I) T h e re s h o u ld be w ell re g u la te d ex p lo i
tio n o f m a rin e re so u rc e s. T h is req u ires the
 jtfRlNE RESOURCES
f accurate k n o w led g e o f e x a c t q u a n tity o f abiotic
resou rces and p ro c e ss and rate o f reg en eratio n
I of biological (liv in g , p la n ts and an im als) re-
I sources.
I (2) T h e re sh o u ld be e ffic ie n t e x p lo ita tio n o f
marine re so u rce s. T h is re q u ire s the follo w in g -
knowledge o f a b so lu te n u m b e r o f gross reserv e o f
' a specific sp e c ie s o f fish e s. T his m ay be ach iev ed
I through p ro p e r su rv e y o f fish in g areas by ap p ly ­
ing ‘e c o so u n d e r te c h n iq u e ’, by m ain ta in in g catch
statistics, d e te rm in a tio n o f th e ir age on the basis
ofth e study o f rin g g ro w th on fish scales, m apping
o f b reed in g p la c e s o f fish in g and d e term in atio n o f
their n u m b e rs etc.
(3) A c c u ra te e stim a te and p red ictio n o f
future d e m a n d o f fish es for hum an food and
anim al feed.
(4) P ro p e r a rra n g em en t o f cannin g and
re frig e ra tio n for sto rag e o f fishes.
(5) E ffic ie n t m ethods and techniq u es o f
fish in g .
It is n e c e ssa ry to m ake the presen t fishing
areas m o re an d m o re e ffic ie n t and productive and
to e x p lo re n ew a re as for rational and proper
e x p lo ita tio n and u tiliz a tio n o f m arine biological
re so u rce s. P ro p e r k n o w le d g e o f p otential reserve,
p o s sib ilitie s o f a b u n d a n c e , av ailab ility and re­
new al o f m a rin e m in e ra l and fishes should be
av ailab le. C o n c re te step s sh o u ld be taken to
develop an d e n ric h m a ric u ltu re (breedin g and
rearing o f c e rta in se le c te d m arin e organism ),
ocean h u sb a n d ry , m a rin e p a stu re, tam in g and
training o f c e rta in sea an im a ls (like dolphin,
porpoises, sh ark e tc .) etc. fo r the su sta in a b le yield
o f m arine re s o u rc e s .
Pollution C o n t r o l
E ffo rts sh o u ld be m ad e to keep the seas and
oceans free from a n th ro p o g e n ic p o llu tio n for rich
and h ealthy c o n d itio n o f m a rin e e n v iro n m e n t and
ecology. T he fo llo w in g are the m a jo r so u rces of
marine p o llu tio n :
(1) d isc h a rg e o f w a ste w a ter, sew ag e, and
toxic ch em icals from the u rb an a re as and in d u s­
trial e stab lish m en t o f c o asta l areas into the seas;
(2) d u m p in g o f u rb an and in d u strial g a r­
a g e o f co astal c itie s and in d u strie s into the seas;
(3) disp o sal o f so lid w a ste m a te ria ls m ain ly
plastics in the sea w ater;
429
(4) L eakage o f enorm ous q uantity o f
m ineral oil from oil tan k ers and spreading o ils
slicks therefrom ;
(5) p o llu tan ts from offshore oil w ells
(acco rd in g to an estim ate on an average about 241
m illion g allo n s o f oil are leaked every year from
oil tankers in the oceanic w ater);
(6) increase in the acid ity o f seaw ater due to
increase in the co n cen tratio n o f carbon dioxide
consequent upon rapid rate o f d efo restatio n ;
(7) increase in the c o n cen tratio n o f heavy
m etallic m aterials like lead, co p p er, zinc, ch ro ­
m ium , nickel etc. from land areas b ro u g h t by the
wind;
(8) arrival o f rad io activ e su b stan ces from
nuclear plants, nu clear-p o w ered ships and testing
o f nuclear w eapons into seaw ater etc.
C onservation
It is expected from the w orld com m unity to
initiate concrete and effectiv e steps to keep the
oceanic w ater free from p o llu tio n in the in terest o f
both m arine biological com m unity and hum an
com m unity. If com plete check on the d isch arg e
and disposal o f p o llu tan ts o f d ifferen t sorts into
seaw ater is not possible, m inim um q u an tity o f
pollutants to be disch arg ed should be d eterm in ed
and agreed upon. T here are tw o fo rm id ab le
problem s in the co n serv atio n o f m arine reso u rces
e.g. international ch aracter o f m arine reso u rces
and equal right o f all co u n tries for th e ir u se; high
m obility o f m arine organism s. It is n ecessary to
form ulate and en act in tern atio n al law s and to
enforce them strictly for su stain ab le u tilizatio n o f
m arine resources. S everal attem p ts have beeir
m ade in this reg ard and m any law s have been
form ulated like law o f high sea; law s related to
piracy, trade o f slav es, w ar etc, law o f co n tin en tal
shelves; law o f e x p lo itatio n o f sea b o tto m s etc.
but these law s are not en o u g h for the desired
purposes. T h ere is n eed for e ffectiv e law s related
to the ex p lo ita tio n o f d eep sea reso u rces, strategic
and m ilitary uses o f seas, scien tific research es and
in tern atio n al co o p eratio n s to m ake m arine re­
so u rces usefu l fo r w o rld hu m an com m unity.
T h ere is earn est n eed for serio u s ecological
research es for the u n d erstan d in g o f m arine
b io lo g ical p ro c e sses (b o th chem ical and physi-
ca t). F urther d ev elo p m en t o f m arine b io lo g y is
req u ired fo r the stu d y o f m arine e c o lo g y .
T h e e n d an g e re d species o f m arine o rg a n ­
ism s m a in ly fish es, w hich are at the verge o f
e x tin c tio n due to o v erfish in g need im m ediate
p ro te c tio n . F o r ex am p le, 8 species o f w hales
w h ic h h av e becom e en d an g ered are facin g ex tin c ­
tio n . B aleen w h ales are the m ost endang ered
sp ec ie s o f w h ales. T he num ber o f blue w hales and
h u m p b a ck w h ales has also fallen alarm ingly due
to m o d ern and e ffic ie n t m ethods o f w haling. A
few c o u n trie s like U .K . N orw ay, N eth erlan d s etc.
h a v e s e lf im p o sed m oratorium for the protectio n
o f w h ales. In te rn a tio n a l cooperation is the need o f
h o u r in this regard.
17.10 IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
B ase line : The im aginary line jo in in g the
lan d p ro je c tin g tow ards the sea is called base line
w h ich is the landw ard lim it o f internal seaw ater.
C ontiguous zone : The continuous portion o f
sea b ey o n d the seaw ard lim it o f territorial sea upto
a d istan ce o f 12 nautical m iles is called con tig u ­
ous zone.
Exclusive economic zone : The extent o f
seaw ater from the baseline to seaw ard distance o f
200 n autical m iles is called exclusive econom ic
zone w herein the concerned coastal country has
the ex clusive right o f survey, exploitation, co n ­
servation, and m anagem ent o f m ineral resources
o f ocean deposits o f ocean floor (crust), m arine
w ater energy, w ater and m arine organism s,
nav ig ation etc.
F is h in g : Fishing refers to the direct catching
o f sea fishes through different m eans and m ethods.
Gas hydrates : G as hydrates are w hite
hydrocarbon d eposits co n sistin g o f m eth an e
m olecules trapped in c ag e -lik e stru c tu re s o f ice
near the fissures on deep seaflo o rs u n d er sea w ater
from 300 to 500 m depth from sea surface.
High sea : The p o rtio n o f sea e x ten d in g
beyond seaw ard lim it o f ex clu siv e eco n o m ic zo n e
is called high sea w hich in clu d es v a st o p en o cean
areas w herein all the co u n trie s h av e eq u al rig h ts
o navigation, av iatio n , fish in g , m in in g , lay in g
dow n subm arine cab les, sc ie n tific re se a rc h e s
exploration etc.
Internal water : S eaw ater ly in g b e tw e e n
coastland and b a selin e is c a lle d internal w ater
w h ich is n ev er co n tig u o u s.
M anganese nodules : M anganese nodules are
lum ps o f several m ixed m inerals such as nickel
copper, cob alt, lead, zin c, iron, silico n etc. but there
is m axim um percentage o f iron and manganese.
M a n u fa c tu r e d s e a w a te r : S eaw ater is saline
and is not su ita b le for d irect u se by humans,
and h en ce is refin ed through appropriate tech­
n o lo g ie s and is tran sform ed in to freshw ater so as
to m ake it u sab le w ater for hum an b ein g s. Such
refined seaw ater is ca lle d m an u factured water.
M a ric u ltu re j M a ric u ltu re , a lso k n o w n as
m arine farm ing or m a rin e c u ltu re in c lu d e s the
processes o f in crease o f p ro d u c tiv ity an d re p ro ­
duction, b reed in g and p ro d u c tio n o f c e rta in sea
anim als by m ak in g them c a p tiv e in certain
localities o f seaw ater, feed in g th em on a d d itio n a l
n u trien t feed and sellin g th em in th e m a rk e t by
man.
M a rin e belt : M arin e b e lt is, in fact,
territo rial sea and is a lso c a lle d m a rg in a l sea.
M a rin e p a s tu r e : T h e e u p h o tic z o n e o f the
o c e a n s d o m in a te d b y g r e e n a u to tr o p h ic
p h y to p lan k to n s is c a lle d m a rin e g re e n p a stu re or
sim ply m arine p a stu re.
Ocean r a n c h i n g : O c ea n ra n c h in g , a lso c a lle d
ocean h u sb an d ry , refers to ta m in g an d tra in in g o f
sea m am m als, such as p o rp o is e , d o lp h in , w h a le
etc., in m arine e n v iro n m e n t.
R ainforests of oceans : C oral c o lo n ie s are
called rainforests o f th e o c e a n s b e c a u s e th ey
p rovide d ifferen t ty p e s o f h a b ita ts for various
m arine organism s and thus there is rich b iod iversity
in coral c o lo n ie s . B e s id e s , co ra l a n im a ls provide
su itab le n ich e to th eir s y m b io tic g ree n algae,
z o o x a n th e lla e a a lg a e , w h ic h in turn th e y provide
fo o d to their partners (c o r a ls).
Red t i d e s : E x te n s iv e area o f red gray plants
d e v e lo p m e n t d u e to rep ro d u ctio n e x p lo s io n o f
red -gray m ic r o s c o p ic p h y to p la n k to n plants is
c a lle d red tid e b e c a u s e su c h a reas o f o cea n s look
red d ish in c o lo u r .
Territorial sea : T h e sea w a rd co a sta l water
from the c o a s tla n d o f a n a tio n is c a lle d territorial
sea , the d is ta n c e o f w h ic h is m ea su red from the
b a s e lin e g e n e r a lly u p to 12 n a u tica l m ile s towards
th e sea .
Whaling : T h e c a tc h in g o f w h a le s is called
w h a lin g b y d iffe r e n t m e a n s an d m eth od s.
; CHAPTER 18 : MAN AND OCEANS 430-451
' m a n ip u la tio n o f c o a s ta l p ro c e ss e s , 431
m a r in e p o llu tio n , 435
m a n a n d m a r in e e c o s y s te m , 442
o v e r f is h in g , 443
g lo b a l w a r m in g a n d o c e a n s , 445
g lo b a l w a r m in g a n d m a rin e e c o lo g y , ^9

M a n h a s b e e n a s s o c ia te d w ith th e o c e a n s in
one w a y o r th e o th e r s in c e tim e im m e m o ria l.
O cean s a re la r g e m a r in e e c o s y s te m s c o m p ris in g
v ast r e a s o u r c e s o f b io t i c a n d a b io tic n a tu re . M an
sta rte d u s in g m a r in e r e s o u r c e s w h e n h e d e v e lo p e d
the s k ill to m a k e s m a ll b o a ts . F r o m th o s e sm all
b e g in n in g s o f b o a t m a k in g a n d s a ilin g in th e
c o asta l w a te r n e a r h is n e ig h b o u r h o o d to th e
p re s e n t-d a y p o w e r d r iv e n b ig s h ip s , w a rs h ip s a n d
s u b m a rin e s la s h e d w ith n u c le a r w a rh e a d s m a n h as
c o m p le te d a lo n g j o u r n e y o f u s e s o f th e o c e a n s in
d iffe re n t w a y s . T h e o c e a n s h a v e r e m a in e d m u te
s p e c ta to rs to m a n y w a y s a n d n u m e r o u s c a s e s o
sea p ira c y , a n d m e r c ile s s p lu n d e r o f t h e i r p re c io u s
re so u rc e s w h ic h a re v e r y m u c h e s s e n tia or
m a in ta in in g e c o lo g i c a l b a la n c e a n d e c o s y s te m
s ta b ility o f m a r in e e c o s y s te m s . N u m e r o u s s u n en
boats, sh ip s, v e s s e ls , w e a p o n s a n d o th e r e q u ip m e n s
ly in g o n s e a b e d s te ll th e s to r y o f p a s t c u ltu re an
c iv iliz a tio n , n a tu r e o f tr a d e a n d c o m m e rc e ,
h isto ry o f w a r s f o r s u p r e m a c y o v e r m a in la n as
well a s o v e r is la n d s a n d o c e a n s . It is r ig h tly sai
that oceans are the repository o f world history *n
**hore.
Man has affected and is affecting marine
ecosystems in a variety of ways, such as by taking
18
MAN AND OCEANS
o u t m arin e reso u rces com prising b o th m ineral and
fo o d reso u rces (m ain ly fishes), b y m anipulating
c o astal p ro cesses th ro u g h con stru ctio n al activi­
tie s o f v ario u s sorts, b y nav ig atio n , trade and
co m m erce, b y m ak in g n u clear tests, by dredging
an d ch an n elizatio n , b y b lastin g etc. It m ay be
m e n tio n e d th at any n atu ral ecosystem h as inbuilt
h o m e o static m ech an ism w hich enables the eco­
sy stem to w ith sta n d changes effected b y natural
p ro cess. It is also im p o rtan t to b e ar in m in d th at
e ac h n a tu ra l eco sy stem has a th resh o ld value o f
re silie n c e to changes. I f th e changes becom e
im m e n se an d ex ceed th e resilien ce o f the n atu ral
eco sy stem , its stab ility is d istu rb ed an d environ­
m e n ta l d e g ra d atio n sets in.
T h e e v er-in creasin g econom ic activities o f
m an in th e c o asta l eco sy stem s, overexploitation
o f m a rin e b io lo g ic a l reso u rces, m ain ly fishes,
in c re a sin g in te n sity o f hum an presence in the
o c e a n s, in c re ase in th e nu m b er an d frequencies o f
m o v e m e n t o f c o m m ercial vessels, coral m ining
e tc h a v e d e g ra d e d the m arin e environm ent,
a tle a s t in th e co asta l w aters and have created
se v e ra l e n v iro n m e n ta l p ro b lem s o f serious conse-
quences.
 432
The impacts of human activities on marine
ecosystems and environment may be studied in
two ways as follows :
^ (1 ) m a n ip u la tio n o f c o asta l p ro c e sses a n d
m a rin e e n v iro n m e n t, and
^ (2 ) m a rin e p o llu tio n an d e n v iro n m e n ta l
d e g ra d a tio n o f m a rin e eco sy stem s.
18.1 M A N I P U L A T I O N O F C O A S T A L P R O C E S S E S
S e a c o a s ta l a re a s are a ffe c te d b y n a tu ra l
m a rin e p ro c e s s e s m a in ly b y sea w av es an d tid a l
c u rre n ts . T h e s e w a v e s an d c u rre n ts, o f v ario u s
ty p e s , e ro d e th e c o a s ta l lan d s and cre ate sev eral
e r o s io n a l la n d fo rm s (e.g . sea c liffs, ro c k y slo p es,
in d e n te d a n d c re n u la te d c o a st lin es, co v es and
c a v e s e tc .) a n d in tu rn th e se w a v es also d e p o sit
m a te ria ls o f v a rio u s size s to fo rm b e ac h e s and
b a rs (s e a c h a p te r 8). M a jo rity o f the co asta l
fe a tu re s a re fo rm e d b y n a tu ra l m a rin e p ro c e sses
b u t m a n ’s a c tiv itie s h av e m o d ifie d the co asta l
p ro c e s s e s a n d h a v e a c c e le ra te d o r d e c e le ra te d
e ro s io n a l a n d o r d e p o sitio n a l w o rk s o f m arin e
w a v es a t c e rta in lo c a litie s m a in ly at the sites o f
h a rb o u rs a n d re c re a tio n .
T h e d ire c t m o d ific a tio n s o f c o a sta l p ro c ­
e s s e s b y m a n in c lu d e th e fo llo w in g :
> - d is ru p tio n o f w av e m o tio n and w e ak e n in g
o f e n e rg y o f c o a s t-b o u n d w a v es by in je c t­
in g a ir b u b b le c u rta in s.
a tte m p ts to d e fle c t o r re s ist th e e ffe c ts o f
s e a w a v e s a n d c u rre n ts by c o n stru c tin g sea
w alls, groynes (g ro in s ), break-w aters (m a ­
s o n r y w a lls to b re a k se a w a v es).
tr a p p in g o r im p o r t o f s e d im e n ts to re p le n ­
is h b e a c h e s , a n d
p la n ta tio n o f tre e s to s ta b ilis e b e a c h e s an d
c o a s ta l d u n e s .
M a n ’s a tte m p ts to re d u c e o r sto p c o a s ta l
e r o s io n a n d th e r e f o r e to c h e c k re tro g r a d a tio n o n
th e o n e h a n d a n d to p ro m o te d e p o s itio n to
e n c o u r a g e p r o g r a d a tio n o n th e o th e r h a n d h a v e
n o t b e e n s u c c e s s f u l b e c a u s e o f c o m p le x n a tu re o f
m e c h a n i s m s o f c o a s ta l p r o c e s s e s , b o th e ro s io n a l
a n d d e p o s i t i o n a l . T h e s e d ir e c t a tte m p ts o f m a n to
m a n i p u l a t e a n d m o d if y c o a s ta l p ro c e s s e s fo r
oceanography
sp ec ific p u rp o se s (to h a lt e ro s io n a t h arb o u rs, to
b u ild b e ac h e s, to re p le n ish a lre a d y depleted
b e ac h e s, to o p e n in le ts to e n c o u ra g e se a transport
e tc.) b rin g in c h a n g e s in n e a rsh o re topography,
m e ch a n ism s o f w a v e a n d c u rre n t actio n s and
c o a sta l e ro sio n , n a tu re a n d p a tte rn o f sedim ent
m o v e m e n t a n d d e p o sitio n o n th e a d ja c e n t p art of
th e c o a st w h e re s tru c tu ra l w o rk s h av e been
in itia te d .
P ro te c tiv e S t r u c t u r e s
P ro te c tiv e s tru c tu re s to c h e c k c lif f erosion
in clu d e the fo llo w in g :
(1) s e a w a lls
(2) b re a k e rs
(3) g ro in s
( 1 ) Sea W alls : P ro te c tiv e stru c tu re s in the
form o f m a so n ry o r c o n c re te sea w a lls are built to
p ro te c t the co astal la n d fo rm fro m w a v e an d current
ero sio n in th o se areas w h ic h h a v e c liffe d -c o a st but
the im m ed iate h in te rla n d s are e ith e r u rb an ised or
in d u stria lised an d are in d a n g e r o f b e in g eroded by
the re c essio n o f c lif f d u e to w a v e a tta ck or the
co astal areas are sig n ific a n t re s o rt c en tres, o r there
are sites o f h a rb o u rs w h ic h are e n d a n g e re d b y wave
ero sio n . T he c o n stru c tio n o f sea w a lls (fig. 18.1) to
stop th e re c e ssio n o f c liffs at th e site s o f recreation
p ro d u ces a d v erse e ffe c ts o n b e a c h e s. In su ch cases
b e ac h e s are d e p le te d b e c a u s e (i) th e supply of
san d s and sh in g le s fro m th e c lif f e ro s io n is stopped
due to p ro te c tio n p ro v id e d b y e x te n d e d sea wails
p a ra llel to th e c o a st, a n d (ii) w a v e s a fte r striking
p o w e rfu lly a g a in s t th e w a lls s c o u r th e b each es and
re m o v e th e m a te ria ls.
B a s ic a lly th re e ty p e s o f s e a w alls are
c o n s tru c te d :
(i) c o n c re te s e a w a lls
(ii) w o o d e n s e a w a lls
(iii) b o u ld e r s e a w a lls
B o u ld e r s e a w a lls h a v e b e e n u s e d to protect
th e c o a s ts o f R a tn a g iri a re a o f M a h a ra s tra (In d ia ).
Another use o f sea walls as dykes is to
enclose tidal marshlands and mudflats as a
measure o f land reclamation. Such device does
 j^IAN a n d o c e a n s
not encourage scouring b y the storm w aves which
are deflected by sea w alls and their effects are
reduced by inter-tidal areas with the result there is
continuous a c c re tio n o f m u d on the sea w ard side
o f sea w a lls. E x a m p le s o f su c h m e a su re s m ay be
cited fronl th e shore lin es o f N etherlands
G erm any a n d D e n m a rk .
/ / / / / / / / / S / / S / / / / S ' ' '''
"/////////Ss/ss's/ss/s///*//
/////////’////St '' S/'SS//S.'/////.///,,
^////////////SSSS/.S/S/S / . / / / / / / / / /
////SS '/SS/S.'S/SS ' / / / / / / / / / / / / / / ' , V V,
f f / f ///////////////■ * //* //////////* , , ,
/ //////s/s/s/s.' •■/ ' ' / . ' / / / / / / / ' //, . • /
f////f////S/SSSS 'f/S/S ','//// '//// / ■-..
////////// ■*////* ' ■’ 'S/ w
/ / / / / / / / ....... / / / / / * / / / / , / / / / / , ' , / , y . y
■//////St I '////S/////t/S//f s , , ,
///////t 'S///tS/S-*/////,
/ ////////////" " " '/'
////////////S'
Fig. 18.1 : D ifferent types o f seawalls.
(2) Breakwaters : Efforts are made to shelter
the harbours and the estuaries o f river mouths
being u sed as harbour from strong w ave act o
and drifting o f sand and shingle into the harbou
through the con stru ction o f breakwaters which
extended from the coast towards t e sea.
G enerally, fiv e types o f breakwaters are
used as fo llo w s (fig- 18.2) :
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv )
(v )
T h is human action results in the
tion o f sand and sh in g le and formation
d e n ^ i n Pdrift SidC ° f break waters w hereas beach
depletion occurs on the dow ndrift side o f br«k
s e d im e n T T 6 °*.mf ked A u c tio n o f transport o f
sedim ents dow ndrift. The m odification o f coastal
P ocesses m ainly o f longshore drift transporting
’ sedim ents at N ew Haven harbour located on the
m outh o f Sussex O use river (southern coast o f
b n g lan d ) is a typical exam ple o f m an’s m anipula­
S'S/ ✓.
/' "
tion o f coastal processes and positive and negative
results arising therefrom . B reakw aters have been
built to prevent the drifting o f sands and shingles
'St .-
transported by the south-w esterly w aves into the
entrance o f the harbour. The result is that the river
m outh, w hich was previously very often deflected
by strong w aves (before 1731), has been stabi­
lised, shingle has accum ulated on the w estern side
o f the breakw ater (updrift side o f the break­
w ater), beach on the eastern side o f the river
m outh at Seaford has been depleted and c liff
erosion at Seaford Head has been accelerated.
This after-effect o f protective m easures o f New
H aven harbour dem anded protection o f coastline
and beaches from accelerated c liff erosion (in­
duced by hum an activities) on long stretches o f
D ifferent T y p e s ot coastline east o f the Sussex Ouse estuary.
Consequently, additional m asonry and con­
S ea W alls
crete sea w alls have to be built along the
vulnerable coast and groynes have to be inserted
at right angle to the coast line. O ther exam ples o f
updrift accum ulation o f sedim ents and dow ndrift
erosion o f cliffs and beaches due to construction
o f breakw ater include South Lake W orth Inlet
(Florida coast, U .S.A .), harbour in Lagos (N ige­
rian coast), D urban H arbour (south A frican
coast), M adras harbour (India, drifting o f sand by
northw ard longshore drift has been prevented and
sand has accum ulated to the south o f harbour-
breakw aters w hereas beach has been eroded to the
north o f breakw aters), Santa B arbara (C alifornian
coast U .S.A .), Tw eed R iver m outh on the east
co ast’o f A ustralia, Salina C ruz (M exican coast)
etc In order to offset the depletion ° f beaches on
parallel breakwaters,
perpendicular breakwaters,
slanting breakwaters,
th at the eroding , i^ ters are also con-
curved breakwaters, and
en clo sin g breakwaters. s °“ I T IE T m
 oceanography

loss o f san d an d sh in g le. In su ch cases the

w d e stru ctio n o f th o se p a rts o f b e ac h e s w h ich have
Parallel (to the clo se ly sp ac e d g ro y n es m ay b e re ta rd e d b u t the
z"" ■■
coast) Breakwa­ w av es are d e fle c te d b y th e se g ro y n es and thus
ter (Concrete) re so rt to sc o u rin g in th o se p a rts o f th e beaches
w h ere g ro y n es are n o t in serted . T h e exam ples of
^ " ' ***************** ■■/, * / / / / / , / ,
f f " " * " '* '* * * * * * S S * * S * * S . \ * S * r * S S '* /
d e p le tio n o f b e a c h e s th ro u g h h u m a n actions to
f ' * S ' ' * * * * * * * * * * S S / S > ' / ////s*s]f

'**'****'*******s**s. / / v / . v w w w
stab ilise th e e ro d in g c liffs th ro u g h th e construc­
'" * / ""*'*************sss**ss**
Perpendicular tio n o f sea w a lls m ay be c ite d fro m B ournem outh
A W W //V /W //////.
w // /A y‘*********SSSSSSSS/SS, Breakwater
V ///y //////W /W W W W W (so u th c o a st o f E n g la n d ), n o rth -e a s te rn shores of
f""*******'*****s***ssss*sss*fss, (Concrete)
P o rt P h illip B a y (A u stra lia ) a n d m a n y m ore.
***************S**SSSSS**SSSSSSS,
W W / v . V /////////W //////,
V / / / / / , M ‘*****sssssss*s*ssss,
******** ’*********SSSSSSSSSS.
*******************************s<
***************************S S * ff/\
************************S**/*S***S
****************************S*****ry
*********************'*****SSSS*SSS. ,
********............ ***S****S*/S****SSSSSS>
******** p \ 'SS**S/SS*SSS*SSS*SSSSSi .
******** U ’*****SS*S**S*SS**'*SSSSSS,
********S'/SrSSSS/SSSSSSSSSS/SSSSS. S '//,
'* ********.'*// *****S*/SSSSSSSS/ */s fSSSSSSSr , „ I>
W '* ************************* 'SSSSS /sss**ssss*s,
****************SSS*S/***S/*SSS*SSSS**S/S//S/S.
*************S*SSSSSSSSSSS'S'S'SSS‘ /SSSSS'/SS,
******** *********S*S**SSS*S*S***S/St SSS/Sj
*****************S/SSSSSS/*S'*'/S
*************S**S*SSS*SSS****SS/*.
*********S*SSSSS/SSSS*SS*£
c ^ e
**********ssss* * s* sssA
***********. •/**/**/SJ
Enclosing
f* s.******/*/*****.■
'***/*****/■ SSS**-
*****S***S*/**S'.
Breakwater
*****************
'* ********//**//■
****************s*.
* ************** * * * * *
W / / / W /////////////V
/ S S S S / 'S / S / / / S / / '/ / / / S / z J> v>»r r r f / 7 / < / ////* / / / / / / /
'* * * S / * / * * * S S S / S / S S 'S S * S S S S * S S S / / S S / / S , / / / y /,
*********SSSSS' / / .'/ / / / / / / / / 'SSSSS./S/SSS ' ✓. /////./ -
f**S/ * '* * * S S S S S //.///S ' / , .'/ * / v , v > /S ////S S , S. /S'A
f******SSSSSS 'SSSSS fSSSSS/ / / / / / / . ' / / >/s / , , 'SSSS. 'SI
f* * * ***S*SSS'S*SS"SSSSSSSS'/SSS/S/ A " V ,

Breakwaters

F ig . 18.2 : Different types o f breakwaters.

T h ir d ty p e o f b re a k w a te rs is e n c lo sin g one
(fig . 1 8 .2 ) to c o n v e rt a b a y in to a h a rb o u r. T h is
d e v ic e c h a n g e s th e p a tte rn o f w a v es in term s o f
Fig. 18.3 : Construction o f groins perpendicular to sea
th e ir e n e r g y a n d a n g le a t w h ic h th e y strik e the coast.
c o a s t. T h e w a v e s a re re fra c te d b y e n c lo sin g
b r e a k w a te r s a n d th e s e re fra c te d w a v es ero d e the
b e a c h e s w ith in c re a s e d e n erg y . C re atio n o f S u ch g ro in s h a v e b e e n co n stru cted at
P o r tla n d h a r b o u r o n th e s o u th -e a s te rn c o a st o f M ad ras (C h e n n a i) h a rb o u rs to c h e c k sedim enta­
A u s tr a lia b y e n c lo s in g th e b a y th ro u g h the tio n in th e h a rb o u r.
c o n s tr u c tio n o f b re a k w a te rs h as re s u lte d in to
s e v e r e b e a c h e ro s io n a t D u tto n W ay lo c a te d to th e D r e d g in g

n o r th o f th e h a rb o u r.
(3 ) G r o i n s : In o rd e r to sto p b e a c h sc o u rin g D re d g in g o f p o rts an d h a rb o u rs to im pr°v®
n a v ig a tio n c h a n n e ls m o d ifie s th e pattern an
a n d its d e p le tio n a s e rie s o f g ro y n e s (th e se m ay be
v e lo c ity o f w a v e s a n d c u rre n ts. T he ina*ena s
o f h u g e r o c k m a s s e s , o r o f c o n c re te o r o f w o o d en
lo g s fig 18 3 ) a r e p la c e d a t c lo se in te rv a ls a t rig h t d e riv e d fro m d re d g in g are g e n e ra lly d u p m p e d a^
m an y a lte rn a tiv e lo c a tio n s e.g. offshore l<>ca'
angles to the seawalls or shore lines to reduce the
 AND OCEANS
tions, s h a llo w areas a d ja cen t to th e harbour,
onshore sh a llo w areas (to r e c la im lan d ), b e a c h e s
(to enrich th em ) e tc. T h e se d u m p ed m a teria ls are
r e w o r k e d and d isp e r se d b y w a v e s in a v a riety o f
ways- The d u m p in g o f d red g ed m a teria ls o ffsh o r e
creates new m o u n d s w h ic h m o d ify th e d irectio n ,
str e n g th , v e lo c it y an d o v e r a ll pattern o f sea
waves. S o m e tim e s s e a f lo o r is d red g ed to ob tain
materials to r e c la im m a rsh y c o a s ta l la n d s or to
replenish er o d in g b e a c h e s . T h is a c tiv ity d eep en s
the sea flo o r w h ic h in turn g en era te s lo n g w a v e s
w hich erod e th e c o a s ta l la n d at r e la tiv e ly faster
rate than th e n o rm a l w a v e s .
G o v t, o f In d ia la u n c h e d a m a s s iv e p ro ject o f
‘Sethusamudram’ in J u ly , 2 0 0 5 fo r d red g in g the
sh a llo w p o r tio n s o f s e a to th e so u th o f T a m il N ad u
co ast in ord er to c o n n e c t th e B a y o f B e n g a l and the
G u lf o f M an ar th ro u g h P a lk Strait inord er to
fa c ilita te e a s y an d s m o o th m o v e m e n t o f c o m m er­
c ia l sh ip s b e tw e e n ea st and w e s t c o a sts o f the
c o u n try . T h u s c ir c u m -n a v ig a tio n o f Sri L anka
w o u ld b e a v o id e d . T h e p ro ject w a s la u n ch ed after
p rop er a n a ly s is o f en v ir o n m en ta l co n d itio n s o f
the area s u c h as m a rin e, lan d and s o c io -e c o n o m ic
e n v ir o n m e n t an d p rop er en v iro n m en ta l im p act
a sse m e n t. T h e p r o je c t a lso en su res to p rotect
m arine e c o l o g ic a l r e so u r c e s m a in ly co ra l reefs in
the G u lf o f M a n a r an d P a lk B a y . T h e w ork o f
d red gin g h a s b e e n s to p p e d b y th e court order.
S e d im e n to lo g ic a E C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
M a n ’s a c tiv itie s a lso affect s e d im e n to lo g ic a l
ch a ra cte ristics o f c o a s ta l en v ir o n m e n t as fo llo w s :
T h ere is a d d itio n a l su p p ly o f w a ste m a teri­
a ls c o m in g o u t o f q u a rry in g in th e c o a sta l
z o n e s . T h e s e m a te r ia ls are rew o rk ed and
d is p e r s e d b y s e a w a v e s and th u s th ese
m a teria ls are d e p o s ite d in certa in lo c a litie s
and n e w b e a c h e s are fo rm ed (e x a m p le ,
p ro g ra d a tio n o f b e a c h rid g e p la in o n the
e a st c o a s t o f J u tlan d , D en m a rk , d u e to
d u m p in g o f w a ste m a teria ls c o m in g ou t
fro m ch a lk quarry).
> - A r tific ia l r ep len ish m e n t o f ero d ed b e a c h e s
d u e to a ltera tio n o f se d im e n t su p p ly c a u se d
b y co n str u c tio n o f b rea k w a ters.
*'1P
■■W?-
Q uarrying o f b e a c h e s to ob tain b u ild in g
m aterials le a d s to e r o sio n o f co a sta l lan d
b e c a u se o f d ep letio n o f b ea ch and d irect
ex p o su re o f c o a st to s e v e r e w a v e attack
(e x a m p le , quarrying o f b e a c h e s fo r san d
and g ra v el on B la c k S e a C o a st o f th e
form er U S S R resu lted in to se v e r e w a v e
ero sio n o f S o ch i c o a st w h ic h p rom p ted to
rev erse the p roced u re b y d u m p in g o f san d
g ra v el to restore the b ea ch and sa v e th e
co a st from co n tin u o u s w a v e e r o sio n ). T h e
other e x a m p le s o f b e a c h n o u rish m en t
through a ccu m u la tio n o f sa n d s and g r a v e ls
b y m an in clu d e the b e a c h e s at A tla n tic c ity
(N e w Jersey, U .S .A .), P alm B e a c h (F lorid a,
U .S .A .), W est H a v en (C o n n e c tic u t, U S A ) ,
C alifornian coast (U .S .A .), M en ton e (S h o res
o f Port P h ilip B a y , A u stra lia ) etc.
D e v e g e ta tio n and e x te n s iv e c u ltiv a tio n , in
the im m ed ia te h in terla n d s o f th e c a tc h ­
m en ts o f th o se rivers w h ic h drain th e c o a s t,
result in p rograd ation o f c o a s ta l la n d s,
p h en o m en a l grow th in b e a c h e s an d d e lta s
b eca u se o f in crea sed s u p p ly o f f lu v ia l
m aterials b rou gh t b y th e riv e r s. T h is
p ro cess has resu lted in to rap id rate o f
silta tio n o f b a y s and in le ts at th e m o u th o f
rivers a lo n g the M ed iterra ea n c o a s t d u e to
e x te n s iv e rem o v a l o f v e g e ta tio n (fo r in ­
crea sin g th e cro p la n d ) and resu lta n t a c c e l­
erated rate o f s o il e r o s io n an d s u p p ly o f
en o rm o u s q u an tity o f s e d im e n ts .
co n stru ctio n o f d am s an d r e s e r v o ir s o n
m ajor riv ers (w h ic h d rain in to th e s e a s )
rev erses th e p r o c e s s o f g r o w th o f b e a c h e s
and d elta s b e c a u s e th e d a m s trap th e
sed im en ts and fo r c e th e m to s e ttle d o w n in
the reserv o irs an d th e r e fo r e s u p p ly o f
flu v ia l s e d im e n ts th ro u g h th e r iv er m o u th s
is m a rk ed ly red u ced . T h is r e s u lts in rap id
rate o f e r o sio n o f b e a c h e s a n d d e lta s w h ic h
c a u s e s retro g ra d a tio n . It,h a s b e e n rep o rte d
that th e N ile d e lta is s u ffe r in g s e v e r e w a v e
e r o sio n and th e sh o re lin e is r e c e d in g at th e
rate o f 4 0 m p er y e a r s in c e th e c o m p le tio n
o f A sw a n H ig h D a m in 1 9 7 0 .
• M a rk ed r e m o v a l o f v e g e ta tio n fr o m sta]
lis e d c o a s ta l d u n e s th r o u g h in te n t!
 c le a ra n c e fo r e c o n o m ic u se o f th e land,
b u rn in g , g ra z in g etc. a c c e le ra te w in d e ro ­
s io n o f c o a s ta l d u n es an d the e ro d e d fine
m a te ria ls b lo w n b y th e o n sh o re w in d are
h e a p e d in la n d . T h is p ro c e ss d e sta b ilise s
th e p re v io u s ly s ta b ilise d c o a sta l d u n es
(e x a m p le , s o u th -e a s te rn A u stra lia n co ast).
C o n v e rs e ly , d e sta b ilis e d c o a sta l d u n e s can
b e s ta b ilis e d b y p la n tin g tre e s, sh ru b s and
g ra s s e s (e x a m p le , L a n d e s re g io n , S.W .
F ra n c e , C u lb in a re a on S c o ttish c o a st etc.).
R e c la m a tio n o f tid a l m a rsh es an d m u d flats
th ro u g h e x p a n d in g e a rth fills from u rb a n
a n d in d u s tria l se a b o a rd areas p ro v id e s
a d d itio n a l sp ac e fo r in d u s tria l in s ta lla ­
tio n s , c o n s tru c tio n o f b u ild in g s , ro a d s an d
a irfie ld s o n th e one h a n d an d p o ses
p ro b le m s o f w e a k fo u n d a tio n s o f b u ild ­
in g s, h ig h w a y s a n d a ir strip s an d d e stro y s
e s tu a rin e e n v iro n m e n t re s u ltin g in to lo ss
o f m a rin e fo o d re s o u rc e s on th e o th e r h an d .
18.2 M A R I N E P O L L U T I C ,>l
L e t u s f ir s t d e fi j p o llu tio n a n d th e re a fte r
m a rin e p o llu tio n . S in c e p o llu tio n is v ie w e d fro m
d iff e r e n t a n g le s , as an e n v iro n m e n ta l p ro b le m b y
th e g e o g ra p h e rs in g e n e ra l an d e n v iro n m e n ta l
g e o g ra p h e rs in p a rtic u la r; as a s o c ia l p ro b le m b y
th e s o c io lo g is ts ; as an e c o n o m ic p ro b le m b y the
e c o n o m is ts ; as a n e c o lo g ic a l p ro b le m b y th e
e c o lo g is ts e tc ., a n d th u s it m a y be d e fin e d in a
n u m b e r o f w a y s. It is c o m m o n ly a g re e d th a t
p o llu tio n is , w ith o u t d o u b t, th e o u tc o m e o f u rb a n -
in d u s tr ia l a n d te c h n o lo g ic a l re v o lu tio n a n d ra p a ­
c io u s a n d s p e e d y e x p lo ita tio n o f n a tu ra l re ­
s o u r c e s , in c r e a s e d ra te o f e x c h a n g e o f m a tte r an d
e n e r g y a n d e v e r - in c r e a s in g in d u s tria l w a ste s,
u r b a n e f f lu e n ts a n d c o n s u m e r g o o d s. A c c o rd in g
to M a s s a c h u s e tts In s titu te o f T e c h n o lo g y (M IT ,
1 9 7 0 ) p o llu tio n is d e fin e d in th e fo llo w in g
m an n er.
“R e s id u a ls , o r w a ste s , a r e g e n e r a te d in a ll
c ta e e s o f p r o d u c ti o n a n d c o n s u m p tio n o fg o o d s o r
c a r v ic e s R e s id u a ls b e c o m e p o llu ta n ts o r a n
m e n t. H a rm fu l e ffe c ts a r e e ffe c ts th a t a re harm ful
to m an, o r to a n im a ls, p la n ts o r in a n im a te objects
o r c o n d itio n s th a t a r e im p o r ta n t to m a n . Their
im p o rta n c e to w a n m a y b e b io lo g ic a l, econom ic,
re lig io u s, m o ra l, a e s th e tic o r in te lle c tu a Y \
Savindra Singh (1991) h a s d e fin e d p o llu tio n
in a v e ry sim p le m a n n e r. T h is d e fin itio n , as given
b e lo w , m a y b e a p p lie d to a ll ty p e s o f p o llu tio n
ra n g in g fro m p h y s ic a l to e c o n o m ic , p o litical,
so c ia l a n d re lig io u s p o llu tio n .
‘D is e q u ilib r iu m c o n d itio n f r o m eq u ilib ­
riu m c o n d itio n in a n y s y s te m is c a lle d p o llu tio n ’
S a v in d ra S in g h , 1991
A p ollutant is d e fin e d as a n y fo rm o f energy
o r m a tte r o r a c tio n th a t c a u s e s d ise q u ilib riu m
state fro m e q u ilib riu m s ta te in a n y existing
n a tu ra l e c o sy ste m .
W ater pollution m a y be d e fin e d in the
fo llo w in g m a n n e r :
‘ W a ter p o llu tio n r e fe r s to d e te r io r a tio n o f
p h y s ic a l (su ch a s c o lo u r, o d o u r, tu rb id ity , taste,
te m p e r a tu r e e tc.), c h e m ic a l (su c h a s a cid ity,
a lk a lin ity , s a lin ity e tc .) a n d b io lo g ic a l (p resen ce
o f b a c teria , C o lifo r m M P N , a lg a e e tc .) c h a ra c te r­
istic s o f w a te r fr o m v a r io u s s to r a g e s (su ch as
r iv e r w a ter, la k e w a te r, p o n d w a te r, g ro u n d w a te r)
th ro u g h n a tu r a l (e.g. f a l l o u t o f v o lc a n ic dust,
la n d s lid e s n e a r th e w a te r b o d ie s, sed im en ts
s u p p lie d b y s o il e ro s io n a n d w e a th e r in g p r o c ­
e sse s) a n d a n th r o p o g e n ic (e.g. in d u s tria l, urban,
a g ricu ltu ra l, d o m estic, ra d io a ctive , m in in g so u rc e s
e tc.) p r o c e s s e s to s u c h an e x te n t th a t it becom es
h a r m fu l to h u m a n b e in g s, p la n ts a n d a n im a l
c o m m u n itie s. ’
S a v in d ra S in g h , 1991
M arine pollution h a s b e e n d e fin e d b y the
U n ite d N a tio n s J o in t G ro u p o f E x p e rts on the
S c ie n tific A sp e c ts o f M a rin e P o llu tio n in th e year
1982 as fo llo w s :
M a r in e p o llu tio n is ‘th e in tro d u c tio n by
m an, d ir e c tly o r in d ir e c tly , o f s u b sta n c e s or
e n e r g y in to th e m a r in e e n v iro n m e n t, in clu d in g
e stu a rie s, w h ic h r e s u lts o r is lik e ly to r e su lt in
s u c h d e le te r io u s e ffe c ts a s h a rm to liv in g re­
s o u rc e s a n d m a r in e life, h a z a rd s to hu m a n health,
h in d r a n c e o f m a r in e a c tiv itie s, i n c l u d i n g fis h in g
 '’' ' V ;.s v .- ; ■-
j^ A m O C B A N S
and o th er le g itim a te u se s o fth e sea, im p a irm en t o f
quality f o r u se o f s e a w a te r a n d red u c tio n o f
^ e n itie s . ’
mature of S e a w a t e r P o llu tio n
S ea w a te r is p o llu te d m o stly n e a r th e co ast
th ro u g h th e d is p o sa l o f u rb a n an d in d u stria l w aste
m atters in to th e c o a s t w a ter. C o n c e n tra tio n o f a
single m a tte r in th e litto ra l w a te r cau ses serio u s
e n v iro n m e n ta l p ro b le m . F o r ex am p le, c o n c e n tra ­
tion o f m e rc u ry in th e M in a m a ta B ay (Jap an ) due
to dum ping o f m e rc u ry -rich sludges from M inam ata
city in to th e b a y c a u s e d sev e re m e rc u ry p o iso n ­
ing. T h e re s u lta n t d is e a s e k n o w n as M in am ata
D isea se c la im e d s e v e ra l liv e s in th e city o f Jap an in
early 1 950s. D u m p in g o f in d u s tria l w astes, u rban
e fflu e n ts a n d to x ic c h e m ic a ls into the co astal
w a te r le a v e s a d v e rse e ffe cts on m an y m arine
o rg a n is m s. M a n y o f th e co rals are re p o rte d to
h a v e b e e n k ille d o f f the A n d m an and N ic o b ar
c o a s t (is la n d s in th e B ay o f B en g al, In d ia) b ecau se
o f to x ic in d u s tria l efflu e n ts. F ish es are m o stly
a d v e r s e ly a ffe c te d d u e to sea w a ter p o llu tio n .
I t m a y b e m e n tio n e d th a t p e o p le are
g e n e ra lly a c q u a in te d w ith m arin e p o llu tio n caused
b y h u m a n a c tiv itie s alo n e b u t th ere are also
n a tu ra l s o u rc e s o f s e a w a te r p o llu tio n such as
n a tu ra l s e e p a g e o f o il fro m sea b e d s, e m issio n o f
gas h y d ra te s th ro u g h th e fissu re s on seafloor,
su b m a rin e v o lc a n ic e ru p tio n s w h ic h e m it d iffe r­
en t g a se s e tc .
T h e m o s t fo rm id a b le h in d ra n c e in the study
o f m a rin e p o llu tio n is th e a b se n c e o f b a se lin e data
re g a rd in g th e n a tu ra l c o n d itio n s o f d iffe re n t
c o m p o n e n ts o f m a rin e h a b ita ts , an d h en ce it
b e c o m e s d if f u lt to a s c e rta in th e d e g re e o f m arin e
p o llu tio n . T h e fo llo w in g a re th e d iffic u ltie s in the
stu d y o f m a rin e p o llu tio n :
It b e c o m e s d iff ic u lt to a s c e rta in th e d eg ree
o f m a rin e p o llu tio n b e c a u s e th e re are no
s u ffic ie n t d a ta re g a rd in g n a tu ra l c o n d i­
tio n s o f m a rin e e n v iro n m e n t b e fo re the
o c c u rre n c e o f a n th ro p o g e n ic p o llu tio n .
M a rin e s c ie n tis ts do n o t h a v e b a se lin e d ata
to d is tin g u is h b e tw e e n p o llu te d an d n o n ­
p o llu te d re g io n s.
^ It is also d ifficu lt to d istin g u ish b etw een
the n atu ral and anthropogenic pro cesses o f
m arine p ollution.
^ It is no t easy to determ ine as to how m u ch
m arine p o llu tio n has been caused b y
an th ro p o g en ic and n atu ral sources sep a­
rately.
>■ Since the ocean w ater is m obile, p o llu tan ts
are d istrib u ted ov er larg er areas and hence
c o n cen tratio n o f p o llu tan ts can n o t be
p recisely determ ined.
>* The only reliab le tech n iq u e to m easu re the
level o f m arin e p o llu tio n is stan d ard
laboratory b ioassay b u t it su ffers from tw o
shortcom ings :
• T his tech n iq u e can n o t p re d ic t th e
lo ng-term effects o f su b leth al d o ses on
m arine organism s.
• T his tech n iq u e is u n ab le to d e tec t an d
p red ict new ch em icals w h ich are p ro ­
duced w hen som e p o llu ta n ts co m b in e
w ith o th er ch em icals in th e o cean s.
A reas of C o ncentratio n of Marine P o llu ta n ts
Since the m ajo r m arin e p o llu ta n ts co m e
from an th ropogenic so u rces an d m a n ’s p re se n c e
is on the land and co astal lan d s and h e n c e it is
custom ary to th in k th at m ax im u m c o n c e n tra tio n
o f m arine p o llu tan ts occurs in th e c o a sta l w a te r o r
m arg in al seas. Som e p o llu ta n ts, su ch as o il sp ills
and oil slicks, are also d isch a rg e d in th e o p e n
o ceans by oil tan k ers due to a cc id e n t o r m e c h a n i­
cal failu res b u t such p o llu ta n ts are d is p e rse d o v e r
larg er areas and h ence no h a rm fu l c o n c e n tra tio n
o ccurs. T he fo llo w in g are th e areas w h e re th e re is
m ax im u m co n ce n tra tio n o f m a rin e p o llu ta n ts :
on sea b o tto m s,
alo n g p y c n o clin e la y er,
>- co asta l w a te rs, and
>- at th e in te rfa c e b e tw e e n a ir a n d sea.
(1) On sea b o tto m s: S o lid p o llu ta n ts , s u c h as
silts an d san d s an d h e a v y c h e m ic a ls sin k an d
settle d o w n on se a flo o r. C h e m ic a ls, i f a tta c h e d
w ith silt p a rtic le s, sin k a n d fa ll d o w n o n se a b e d s.
A few b e n th ic a n im a ls, m a in ly b u rro w in g a n M a ls
 438
m ix th e s e p o llu ta n ts w ith seab o tto m deposits.
M a n y o f t h e b o a ts, sh ip s and vessels rangin g from
tra n s p o rt sh ip s to co m m ercial and w arship s have
su n k a n d are se ttle d on seafloors sin ce the
b e g in n in g o f an cie n t hum an civ ilizatio n . The
s in k in g o f u n sin k ab le g ian t 269 m long RM S
T ita n ic , th e la rg e st p a sse n g e r ship o f h er tim e, is a
fin e e x am p le to d em o n strate the g arbage o f m an-
m a d e stru c tu re to be d ep o sited on sea bottom s.
T ita n ic s h u n k on A p ril, 14, 1912 in the A tlan tic
O cean , n e a r G ran d B anks to the south o f N ew ­
fo u n d la n d . T h e ship w as b ro k en in tw o parts and
th e w re c k a g e se ttle d on seab ed at the dep th o f
3 8 4 4 m e te rs. T h e p a sse n g ers nu m b erin g 1513 out
o f to ta l 2 2 2 4 p a sse n g ers on b o ard w ere killed . The
w re c k a g e w as d isco v e re d du rin g 1985-86, nearly
a fte r 75 y e a rs w h en the T itan ic sunk in the year
1912. N u m e ro u s cases o f sin k in g o f ships o f
v a ry in g d im e n sio n s h av e b een rep o rted sin ce the
tra g e d y o f th e R M S T itan ic. A few n u clear
su b m arin es, eq u ip p ed w ith n u c lea r w arh ead s
h av e su n k in the ocean s. T he w reck ag e o f n u c lea r
su b m arin e an d w a rsh ip s b eco m es e n v iro n m en tal
h azard to deep p e lag ic and b e n th ic m arin e
o rg an ism s.
(2) A long pycnocline layer : A p y n cn o clin
la y e r, lo c a te d b e tw ee n the d ep th zone o f 300m to
100 0 m fro m se a su rfa ce , is the zone o f sharp
c h a n g e o f s e a w a te r d en sity . In fact, p y cn o clin e
s e p a ra te s 2 w a te rm a sse s o f v ary in g d en sities.
P o llu ta n ts c o m in g th ro u g h riv e rs from lan d areas
a re tra p p e d in p y c n o c lin e an d the re p e titio n o f
th is p ro c e s s in c re a s e s the c o n c e n tra tio n o f
p o llu ta n ts in s u c h a re a s w h e re fre s h w a te r
b ro u g h t b y th e riv e rs is sep a ra te d from salin e and
b ra c k is h s e a w a te r. S u c h s itu a tio n o ccu rs in the
e s tu a rie s .
(3 ) C o a s t a l w a t e r s : a re the areas o f m a x i­
m u m c o n c e n tra tio n o f p o llu ta n ts in th e o cean s
b e c a u s e th e s o u rc e s o f p o llu ta n ts , su ch as p o rts,
c itie s a n d to w n s , in d u s trie s etc. a re lo c a te d in the
im m e d ia te v ic in ity o f s e a sh o re . T h e se eco n o m ic
a n d c o m m e rc ia l c e n tre s p ro d u c e a n d d isc h a rg e
h u g e q u a n titie s o f p o llu ta n ts o f v a rio u s so rts in to
th e c o a s ta l w a te rs . B e s id e s , la rg e riv e rs also
d u m p p o llu ta n ts , w h ic h a re c a rrie d b y th e riv e rs,
in to c o a s ta l w a te rs . T h is is w h y , th e c o a sta l
z o n e s o f th e s e a , h a v in g s e a p o rts , in d u s trie s ,
urban cen tres etc., are m o st p o llu te d
oceans.
(4) At the in te rfa c e o f a i r a n d s e a : A very thin
lay er o f 0.1 to 10 m illim e te rs th ic k n e ss at the
ju n c tio n o r in te rfa c e b e tw e e n th e a ir and sea
su rface is c a lle d n e u sto n lay e r. T h is is a lso called
sea su rface m ic ro la y e r. T h is la y e r c o n tain s the
c o n ce n tra tio n o f c h e m ic a ls, so lid p a rtic u la tes etc.
w hich becom e injurious to m icroscopic phytoplankton
and z o o p lan k to n c o m m u n itie s.
(5) O n sea s u rf a c e : T h e s e a su rface is
p o llu te d g e n e ra lly b y o il slic k s w h ic h are actually
o il sp read s on sea su rfa c e o r v e ry th in lay er of
m in e ra l oil. T h e o il ta n k e rs s p ill enorm ous
v o lu m e o f m in e ra l o il e ith e r d u e to acc id e n ts or
due to m e c h a n ic a l fa ilu re s in th e sh ip s. The
sp ille d oil q u ic k ly sp re a d s o v e r la rg e areas o f sea
su rface an d fo rm s e x te n s iv e o il slic k s. Since
m in eral o il c o m p rise s o rg a n ic c o m p o u n d s and
h en ce is b io d e g ra d a b le , b u t o il s p ills k ill m any sea
o rg an ism s w ith in sh o rt p e rio d . S in c e sp ill oil is
d e co m p o sed by o rg a m sm ic a c tiv itie s w ith in short
p e rio d o f tim e i.e. 24 h o u rs to a fe w w eek s, the
e e o rg a n ism s re c o v e r so o n a n d m a in ta in their
m arin
grow th.
S o u r c e s a n d P o llu t a n ts of M a r in e P o llu tio n
T h e m a rin e p o llu ta n ts a re g e n e ra te d from
tw o b a sic so u rc e s as fo llo w s :
>■ n a tu ra l so u rc e s
>- a n th ro p o g e n ic so u rc e s
T h e n a t u r a l s o u rc e s in c lu d e tw o basic
so u rc es :
• sea flo o rs
• la n d a re as
T h e n a t u r a l s o u r c e s in c lu d e s e e p a g e
o f m in e ra l o il a n d e m is s io n o f g as hydrates
fro m se a flo o rs a n d v o lc a n ic a c tiv itie s on
t h e b o tto m o f th e o c e a n s. T h e a n t h r o p o g e n i c
so u rc e s p ro d u c e la rg e s t n u m b e r a n d a m o u n t o f
p o llu ta n ts o f m a rin e p o llu tio n . T h e se are being
e la b o ra te d b e lo w a lo n g w ith th e p o llu ta n ts o f
m a rin e p o llu tio n .
^ AND OCEANS

Table 18 - 1 ' S ° urces and pollutants of m arine pollution

M a jo r p o llu ta n ts Sources o f P o llu tan ts

N a tu ra l sources A n th ro p o g en ic so u rces
1. H y d r o c a r b o n s seep s o f oil from tran sp o rtatio n o f
(m a in ly o il) o cean flo o rs, em ission oil tan k ers in the
o f gas h y d rates from oceans, offsh o re
fissu re s o f ocean floors, oil d rillin g and
su b m arin e volcanoes, p ro d u ctio n , oil
atm o sp h ere, b acteria, refin eries on co astal
riv ers etc. lands, aerosol etc.

2. H eavy m e ta ls su b m arin e volcanic in d u strial and

e ru p tio n s, riv er discharge m unicipal
into the oceans, w eathering effluents
o f c o n tin e n tal rocks and
th e ir tra n sp o rt to the
c o asta l w aters by surface
ru n o ff, sedim ents etc.

3. N u trien ts riv e r disch arg e, upw elling m unicipal

o f co ld seaw ater, atm osphere, and in d u strial

b a c te ria l d eco m p o sitio n efflu en ts, w ash o u t

etc. o f fertilizers
from ag ricu ltu ral
fields etc.

4. S ynthetic c h e m ic a ls
in d u stries, tra n sp ­
none
o rtatio n , m unicipal
and in d u strial efflu en ts,
fertilizers and p esticid es
from ag ricu ltu ral fields

etc.

Source: B ased on R .A . G ey er, 1980, in P.R . P in et, 2000

 T h e fo llo w in g are th e m a jo r m arin e po llu t- su b seq u en t d e sc rip tio n ,
ants
oil fro m n a tu ra l as w e ll as an th ro p o g en ic sources
^ h y d ro c a rb o n s , m a in ly m in eral oil (fo ssil are m ajo r so u rces o f h y d ro c a rb o n m arin e p o llu ­
fu e ls ), tio n (tab le 18.3). T h e m a jo r so u rces o f o il
p o llu tio n o f th e o cean s in clu d e th e fo llo w in g :
^ m u n ic ip a l a n d in d u stria l e fflu e n ts,
>■ R iver runoff tra n sp o rts and dum ps large
^ s e w a g e p o llu ta n ts ,
q u a n tity o f in d u stria l h y d ro c a rb o n w astes
^ m e ta l p o llu ta n ts , c o m in g o u t o f n u m e ro u s in d u strie s into the
^ s y n th e tic c h e m ic a ls (c h e m ica l fe rtilize rs c o asta l w ater, a n d c o n trib u te s largest
a n d b io c id e s), p e rc en ta g e (3 1 .1 ) o f h y d ro c a rb o n p o llu ­
^ s e d im e n ts fro m o c ea n d re d g in g an d m in ­ tio n load o f th e o cean s.
in g , >• T he transport o f oil b y ta n k e rs acro ss the
^ o v e rfis h in g , o cean s c o n trib u te s 2 1 .8 p e rc e n t o f total
h y d ro c a rb o n p o llu tio n . T h e o il sp ills at
d u m p in g etc.
v a rio u s stag e s o f o il ta n k e r o p e ra tio n i.e. at
T h e fo llo w in g are the re la tiv e p e rc en ta g e s th e p la c e s o f lo a d in g o f o il, in th e transit,
o f m a rin e p o llu ta n ts fro m d iffe re n t so u rces o f and at th e u n lo a d in g p la ce s. S u ch spillage
m a rin e p o llu tio n (ta b le 18.2) : o f p e tro le u m fro m o il ta n k e rs alo n g the
o cean ic ro u te s is c o n sid e re d n o rm a l situ a­
tio n , an d is c a lle d ‘standard operational
Table 18.2 : P ercentage o f marine pollution from
different so u rces d isch arge’.
>■ T h ere is le ak ag e o f su b sta n tia l am o u n t o f
S o u rc e o f m a rin e P e rc e n ta g e o f oil fro m the o il re fin e rie s lo c a te d alo n g the
p o llu tio n p o llu tio n sea co asts. T he refinery leaks contribute
13.1 p e rc e n t o f th e to ta l h ydrocarbon
1. R u n o f f an d p o in t
p o llu tio n lo a a o f th e o c ea n s.
T he atm ospheric fallou t o f hydrocarbons
d is c h a rg e 44
c o n trib u te s a b o u t 10 p e rc e n t o f hydrocar­
2. A ir p o llu tio n 33 b o n s o f th e o cean s.
3. S h ip p in g 12 T he oil tanker accidents, w h ic h are much
4. D u m p in g 10 p u b lic is e d in th e p u b lic th ro u g h p rin t and
5. O ffs h o re o il a n d e le c tro n ic m e d ia , w h e n su c h accid en ts of
01 o il ta n k e rs e ith e r d u e to c o llisio n or
g a s p ro d u c tio n
ru n n in g a g ro u n d o c c u r an d h u g e quantity
o f o il sp ills in th e o c e a n s, c o n trib u te s only
S ource i D o w n to E a rth , 15 Ja n ., 1998 3.3 p e rc e n t o f th e to ta l hydrocarbon
p o llu tio n lo a d o f th e o c ea n s. Q uestion
• 1. H y d r o c a r b o n M a r in e P o llu t io n a rises, i f th e o il ta n k e r a cc id e n ts contribute
o n ly sm all p e rc e n ta g e o f o il p o llu tio n in
the o c e a n s, th e n w h y it d raw s atten tio n o f
H ydrocarbons (m in e ra l o il) a re c h e m ic a ls
d iffe re n t se g m e n ts o f so c ie ty soon after the
c o m p r is in g tw o m a in e le m e n ts o f h y d ro g e n an d
a c c id e n t an d re s u lta n t o il sp ill o ccu rs? This
c a r b o n a n d a fe w m in o r e le m e n ts , su c h a s n itro g e n
is b e c a u se o f th e fo llo w in g reaso n s :
a n d m e ta ls . I n fa c t, m in e ra l o il is a h y d ro c a rb o n
w h ic h is o rg a n ic c o m p o u n d , and h en ce is biodegrable (1) T h e h y d ro c a rb o n p o llu tio n o f the
o c e a n s fro m o th e r so u rces, except
b e c a u s e h y d r o c a r b o n s a re b ro k e n d o w n by
d e lib e ra te a c tio n s o f m an, is a very
S o m p o s S r s s u c h a s b a c te ria . N o w th e w o rd
slo w p ro c e ss b u t o il sp ills from tanker
p e t r o l e u m w ill b e u s e d f o r h y d ro c a rb o n s m th e
 a c c id e n ts c a u se p o llu tio n im m e d i­
a te ly . It m a y b e re c a lle d th a t m illio n s
o f to n s o f o il w e re re le a se d b y Iraq u i
G o v t, in th e P e rs ia n G u lf d u rin g 1991
G u lf w ar. T h is is th e ex am p le o f
d e lib e ra te o il p o llu tio n o f th e o cean b y
m an .
(2) T h e re is q u ic k sp ill o f o il fro m the
ta n k e rs d u e to a c c id e n ts an d h e n ce oil
im m e d ia te ly s p re a d s o v e r sea su rface
a n d fo rm s o il slic k s w h ic h sp re ad at
v e ry fa s t s p e e d a n d c o v e rs v a st area o f
s e a s u rfa c e a n d b e c o m e b io lo g ic a l, and
to u ris m h a z a rd s (o n th e b e ac h e s).
>* N a tu r a l s o u r c e s in c lu d e see p a g e o f oil from
o c e a n b o tto m s , e m is s io n o f gas h y d rates
fro m fis s u re s o n s e a flo o rs. N a tu ra l see p ­
age o f h y d ro c a rb o n s fro m sea b e d s c o n trib ­
utes a b o u t 10 p e rc e n t o f to ta l h y d ro c a rb o n
p o llu tio n lo a d o f th e o c ea n s.
Table 18 .3 : R ela tive p e rc e n ta g e s o f petroleum
pollution o f the o c e a n s from different
s o u rc e s
S o u rc e s P e rc e n t
1. R iv e r r u n o f f
(in d u s tria l h y d ro c a rb o n c o a sts) 31.1
2. O il ta n k e r o p e ra tio n s
(tr a n s p o rt o f o il b y ta n k e rs
a lo n g o c e a n ro u te s ) 21.8
3. C o a s ta l fa c ilitie s
(s u c h as o il re fin e rie s ) 13.1
4. A tm o s p h e ric fa llo u t o f
h y d ro c a rb o n s
N a tu ra l s e e p a g e o f h y d ro c a rb o n s
5.
fro m se a b e d s
6. O th e r tra n s p o rta tio n a c tiv itie s
7. O il ta n k e r a c c id e n ts
8. O ffsh o re p e tro le u m p ro d u c tio n
S o u rce : R .A . G e y e r, 1 9 8 0 , in P . R . P in e t, 2 0 0 0 .
Since oil spills from tankers due to acci­
dents cause immediate damage to marine environ­
m en t and m arin e o rg an ism s th ro u g h o il slick s, it is
n ecessary to p re sen t a b rie f rep o rt o f a few su ch o il
spills.
(1) T o r r e y C a n y o n Oil S p ills , 1967
H uge v o lu m e o f oil sp ille d o v e r from th e oil
tan k er, nam ed T o rre y C an y o n , w h ich w as c a rry ­
ing 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 tons o f crude o il on M arch 1 8 , 1 9 6 7
w hen the said o il ta n k er stru ck Seven S to n e R e e f
o ff the coast o f C ornw al, E n g lan d . T he sp ille d oil
soon spread ov er sea su rface as e x ten siv e oil
slicks w hich w ere soon c arrie d b y th e w in d s
across the E n g lish C hannel to th e sh o res o f
France. The efforts w ere m ad e to d isp erse oil
slicks by using to x ic ch em icals in o rd e r to sav e th e
C ornish beaches o f C ornw all fo r th e to u rists b u t
the likely adverse effects o f to x ic ch em icals on
m arine organism s w ere ignored. C o n seq u en tly ,
the m arine organism s, maixily fish es, lim p ets,
barnacles etc., w ere not as m uch a d v erse ly
affected by oil slicks as w ere affected b y to x ic
chem ical dispersants. It took 4 to 5 y ears fo r the
adversely affected fishes, lim pets and b a rn acles
to reestab lish th em in th e ir h ab itats.
(2) Florida Oil Sp ills, 1969
A bout 680,000 liters o f oil sp ille d fro m the
oil tan k er Florida in Septem ber, 1969 in the
B uzzard B ay o f M assach u ssetts (U S A ) w h en the
oil tan k er ru p tu red n ear W est F a lm o u th H arb o u r.
T he huge volum e soon sp read o v er sea su rfa ce and
form ed ex ten siv e oil slick s w h ich d e stro y ed
m arsh grasses and k illed m arin e a n im als o f
9.8 in tertid al an& su b tid al b io m e s w h ich w ere w o rst
affected by oil slick s. It to o k 3 to 5 y ears fo r th e
9.8 m arsh g rasses an d sea an im als to re c o v e r fro m oil
d isaster and re e sta b lish them .
9.8
3.3
(3 ) U rq u io la O il Sp ill, 1976
1.3
T he oil ta n k e r v essel U rq u io la ra n a g ro u n d
n e ar th e S p an ish c o a st L a C o ru n a o n M ay 12,1976
re su ltin g in to sp illa g e o f 100,1
in th e sea.
 (4) Argo Merchant Oil Spill, 1976
T h e o il ta n k e r A rg o M erch a n t ran ag ro u n d
o n F is h in g R ip S h o als o f f N a n tu ck e t Islan d ,
M a s s a c h u s e tts , U S A in D e ce m b e r, 1976, w ith
th e re s u lt 2 9 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 lite rs o f oil sp ille d fro m the
ta n k e r in th e sea. S in ce the oil sp ill o c c u rre d a b o u t
4 0 k ilo m e te rs aw ay fro m the sh o re o f N a n tu c k e t
Isla n d an d w in d s w ere b lo w in g o ffsh o re i.e. in
e a s te rn d ire c tio n an d h e n ce oil slic k s co u ld not
m o v e w e stw a rd to re a c h th e shore. T h u s, so il
slic k s w e re sp re a d b y e a ste rly o ffsh o re w in d s in
th e o p e n o c e a n an d o il slic k s d isa p p e a re d so o n i.e.
w ith in a p e rio d o f one m o nth.
(5 ) M u m b a i H ig h O il S p ills , 1982, 1987
O il d is s a rte rs also o c c u r o f f the M u m b ai
c o a st fro m th e o ffsh o re o il w e lls. F o r e x am p le,
o n e su ch o il s p ill a c c id e n t to o k p la c e n e ar
B o m b a y H ig h o n Ju ly 30, 1982 w h e n O il
a n d N a tu ra l G a s C o m m is sio n (O N G C ) s u ffe re d a
lo s s o f R s. 900 m illio n , in v o lv in g d am ag e
o f d rillin g rig s an d p re c io u s cru d e oil. A m a jo r
o il d is a s te r fro m B o m b a y H ig h o c c u rre d on Ju ly
3 0 , 1 9 8 7 w h e n a b ig o il ta n k e r o f U n io n O il
C o m p a n y le a k e d 1 1 7 ,0 0 0 to n s o f c ru d e o il in to the
se a .
( 6 ) E x x a n V a l d e z O il S p ill, 1989
A .s u p e r ta n k e r , n a m e d E x x a n , c a rry in g
c ru d e o il m e a s u r in g 2 0 0 m illio n lite rs fro m th e
p o r t o f V a ld e z , o n th e s o u th e rn c o a s t o f A la sk a ,
ra n a g r o u n d o n s u b m e rg e d ro c k y B lig h R e e f o n ly
4 0 k ilo m e te r s a w a y fro m th e p o rt o f V a ld e z ,
w h e r e th e ta n k e r w a s lo a d e d c ru d e o il, o n M a rc h
2 9 ,1 9 8 9 . T h e a c c id e n t w a s so s e v e re th a t 8 o f to ta l
11 c a r g o o il ta n k s k e p t o n th e s u p e rta n k e r, w ere
r u p tu r e d a n d a b o u t 4 4 m illio n lite rs o f c ru d e o il
s p i l l e d in to th e se a . T h e re s u lta n t e x te n s iv e o il
s lic k s w e r e d riv e n b y th e w in d s , tid a l c u rre n ts ,
w a v e s e tc . to w a r d s th e A la s k a n c o a s ts w h e re in
1 7 7 5 k il o m e te r s s tr e tc h o f A la s k a n s h o re lin e s
w ere h e a v ily p o llu te d a n d m a n y s e a b ird s an d sea
a n i m a l s w ere k ille d .
2. Municipal and Industrial Effluents
T h e m u n ic ip a l an d in d u s tria l w a ste s g en er­
ated by u rb a n c e n te rs, p o rts a n d in d u strial
e sta b lish m e n ts lo c a te d o n th e c o a s ta l la n d s and
alo n g th e m a jo r riv e rs a re d u m p e d in to co astal
w aters by u n d e rw a te r p ip e s a n d riv e rs. The
m u n ic ip a l an d in d u s tria l w a ste s are c la s s ifie d into
3 b ro a d c a te g o rie s as fo llo w s :
>■ se w a g e e fflu e n ts
>■ m e tals
>- sy n th e tic c h e m ic a ls
T h e m u n ic ip a l a n d in d u s tria l p o llu ta n ts
re a c h th e c o a s ta l w a te rs in tw o fo rm s, n a m e ly in
so lid fo rm , an d in d is s o lv e d fo rm . T h e s e p o llu t­
an ts, w h e n d is c h a rg e d in c o a s ta l w a te rs, are
e x p e c te d to b e d ilu te d b y tid a l c u rre n ts , w av es,
n e a rsh o re c u rre n ts b u t n o t a ll p o llu ta n ts are
d ilu te d . S o m e p o rtio n re m a in s u n d ilu te d and
p o llu te s th e h a rb o u rs , b a y s, e s tu a rie s , saltm arsh e s,
o th e r w e tla n d s, tid a l fla ts e tc. a n d a d v e rs e ly a ffect
m a rin e o rg a n is m s in c lu d in g b o th p la n ts and
a n im a ls as w e ll as h u m a n s.
(1 ) S e w a g e P o llu t io n
S e w a g e e fflu e n ts fro m th e m u n ic ip a l cor­
p o ra tio n s o f u rb a n a n d in d u s tria l a re a s lo c a te d in
th e v ic in ity o f th e s e a c o a s ts a n d a lo n g th e riv ers
c o n ta in so lid a n d s e m i-s o lid fo rm s o f o rg a n ic and
in o rg a n ic c h e m ic a ls w h ic h a re d is c h a rg e d into
c o a sta l w a te rs b y u n d e rw a te r p ip e s a n d rivers.
B e s id e s, se w a g e e fflu e n ts a ls o c a rry so m e in o r­
g a n ic n u trie n ts s u c h as p h o s p h a te a n d n itra te s and
b a c te ria a n d v iru s e s . It m a y b e m e n tio n e d that
p n o s p h a te a n d n itra te a re e s s e n tia l n u trien ts
w h ic h are u s e d b y p h y to p la n k to n s d u rin g the
p ro c e ss o f p h o to s y n th e s is . T h e g re a te r c o n c e n tra ­
tio n o f th e se n u trie n ts in th e c o a s ta l w aters,
e stu a rie s a n d w e tla n d s in c re a s e s p h o to sy n th e sis
a n d th u s th e r e is p h e n o m e n a l g ro w th in
p h y to p la n k to n s . T h is p ro c e s s o f p la n k to n bloom
is c a lle d eutrophication. T h e p h e n o m e n a l in crease
in p h y to p la n k to n s in c re a s e s B O D (b io lo g ica l
o x y g e n d e m a n d ) w h ic h c a u s e s d e c re a se in
z o o p la n k to n s b e c a u s e th e y c a n n o t s u rv iv e in an
 MAN AND OCEANS
system w hich h as d e p le te d o x y g e n . It is, th u s,
e°ident the sew age p o llu tio n o f c o a sta l w a te r
a d versely a ffects m a rin e fo o d ch ain s.
Neashore waters o f all the big coastal cities,
orts and industrial centers o f the world have been
heavily polluted b y se w a g e e fflu e n ts.
J.E. M c D o w e ll (1 9 9 3 ) h a s stu d ie d the
impact o f se a w a g e p o llu tio n m a in ly c h e m ic a l
pollution on o rg a n is m s fro m c e ll s y ste m to
com m unity le v el. T h e c h e m ic a l p o llu tio n o f
nearshore e co sy stem cau ses p h y sio lo g ic al changes,
behavioural c h a n g e s , d is e a s e s , re d u c tio n in re ­
p roduction, d e c re a se in th e v ia b ility o f la rv a e etc.
in m arine o rg a n is m s. A t c o m m u n ity le v el, c h e m i­
cal c o n ta m in a tio n in tro d u c e s c h an g e s in sp ecies
ab u n d an ce a n d d is trib u tio n , b io m a ss etc.
(2) Metal P o llu t io n
M e ta ls , w h ic h c o n ta m in a te sea w ater and
e n te r th e m a rin e fo o d ch ain v ia d iffe re n t p ro p h ic
le v e ls, in c lu d e m e rc u ry , lead , cad m iu m , arsen ic,
c o p p e r e tc . T h e se m e ta llic e lem en ts re a ch m arin e
e c o s y s te m s th ro u g h (1) n a tu ra l, an d (2) h u m an
so u rc es. U n d e r n a tu ra l p r o c e sse s th e se m e tals are
re le a se d fro m th e c o n tin e n ta l ro c k s w h en th ey are
w e a th e re d a n d e ro d e d a n d th e n are b ro u g h t to the
o cean s b y riv e rs . V o lc a n ic e ru p tio n s also d is ­
ch arg e s o m e q u a n tity o f su c h m e ta ls w h ic h are
b lo w n b y w in d s a n d a re d is p e rs e d in th e oceans.
S u b m a rin e v o lc a n ic e ru p tio n s a lso c o n trib u te
som e q u a n tity o f a b o v e m e ta ls. H u m a n so u rce o f
m etal p o llu tio n in c lu d e s m e ta ls d is c h a rg e d from
urban an d in d u s tria l a re a s. It m a y be m e n tio n e d
that so m e s m a ll q u a n tity o f m e ta ls is re q u ire d b y
m arine o rg a n is m s a n d n a tu ra l s o u rc e s p ro v id e
su fficien t a m o u n t o f th e se m e ta ls as n u trie n ts
required b y m a rin e o rg a n is m s b u t th e h u m an
sources c o n trib u te e x c e s s a m o u n t o f m e ta ls w h ich
are n o t re q u ire d b y m a rin e o rg a n is m s. T h e e x cess
am ount o f m e ta ls su c h as m e rc u ry , le a d , n ic k e l in
the b o d ies o f s e a a n im a ls b e c o m e s p o is o n o u s and
w hen e a te n b y h u m a n b e in g s , th e se p o iso n o u s
elem ents c a u se s e v e ra l le th a l d is e a s e s su ch as lead
p o iso n in g , m in a m a ta d is e a se etc. F o r e x a m p le ,
co n ce n tra tio n o f m e rc u ry in th e M in a m a ta B ay o f
Japan d u e to d u m p in g o f m e rc u ry -ric h slu d g e s
from M in a m a ta c ity in to th e b a y c a u s e d se v e re
m e rc u ry p o is o n in g . T h e re s u lta n t d is e a s e k n o w n
as ‘m in a m a ta d is e a s e ’ c la im e d s e v e ra l liv e s in th e
city o f J a p a n in e a rly 1950s.
(3 ) S y n t h e t ic C h e m i c a l s
S y n th e tic c h e m ic a ls , th e p r o d u c t o f h u m a n
a c tiv itie s, e n te rin g th e m a rin e e c o s y s te m s a re
know n as h alogen ated h y d r o ca rb o n s o r o rg a n o c h lo r in e .
D D T (d ic h lo ro - d ip h e n y l-tric h lo ro - e th a n e ) a n d
P C B s (p o ly c h lo rin a te d b ip h e n y ls ) a re th e m o s t
leth al m e m b e rs o f m a n -m a d e s y n th e tic c h e m i­
cals. D D T s a re u se d (n o w th e ir u s e h a s b e e n
b a n n e d in so m e c o u n trie s) as p e s tic id e s to p r o te c t
crops fro m le th a l p e sts a n d to k ill d is e a s e c a r r ie r
b a cte ria an d v iru se s to c o n ta in c e r ta in h u m a n
d iseases su ch as m a la ria , tu b e rc u lo s is , ty p h o id
etc. D D T has lo n g re s id e n c e p e rio d in th e s o ils a n d
sed im en ts. T h e se c h e m ic a ls are w a s h e d o u t fro m
the a g ric u ltu ra l la n d s b y s u rfa c e r u n o f f g e n e r a te d
by ra in sto rm s an d are u ltim a te ly d is c h a rg e d in to
co astal w aters b y riv e rs.
P C B s are s y n th e tic a lly p ro d u c e d b y m a n
and are u sed in the in d u strie s w h ic h m a n u fa c tu re
and p ro d u ce e le c tric a l a p p lia n c e s, p la s tic s , a d h e ­
siv es, p ain ts, fo am s etc. T h e se c h e m ic a ls re a c h
the o cean s v ia a tm o sp h e re . It m a y b e m e n tio n e d
th at b o th D D T and P C B s h a v e b e e n b a n n e d in
som e co u n trie s in c lu d in g th e U S A . T h e c o a s ta l
w aters m a in ly o f th e e stu a rie s a re c o n ta m in a te d
by th ese le th a l to x ic c h e m ic a ls w h ic h re a c h th e
m a rin e fo o d c h ain th ro u g h th e p ro c e s s o f
b io a c cu m u la tio n an d b io m a g n ific a tio n . B io a c c u -
m u la tio n m e an s g ra d u a l a c c u m u la tio n o f to x ic
su b sta n c es in th e tis su e s o f liv in g o rg a n is m s.
18.3 M AN A N D M A R IN E E C O S Y S T E M
It is im p o rta n t to b e a r in m in d th a t n a tu ra l
e c o sy ste m (h e re m a rin e e c o s y s te m ) h a s in b u ilt
h o m eo sta tic m e ch a n ism w h ic h e n a b le s th e n a tu ra l
e c o sy ste m to s u sta in a n y c h a n g e c a u s e d b y
n a tu ra l fa c to r(s ) in its o n e o r m o re c o m p o n e n ts, t o ­
o th e r w o rd s, th ro u g h h o m e o sta tic m e c h a n ism an y
ch an g e in n a tu ra l e c o sy ste m b y n a tu ra l p ro c e ss (e s)
is c o u n te rb a la n c e d b y re sp o n se s (c h a n g e s ) o f th e
sy ste m to th e c h a n g e an d u ltim a te ly e c o s y s te m
s ta b ility an d e c o lo g ic a l b a la n c e a re m a in ta in e d .
ill

B u t i f th e c h a n g e s e ffe cted b y a n th ro p o g en ic
fa c to rs in th e n a tu ra l eco sy stem ex ceed s the
re s ilie n c e o f the system (h o m eo static m ech a­
n ism s o f th e e co sy stem ), the e co sy stem stab ility is
d is tu rb e d a n d e c o lo g ic a l im b alan ce is in tro d u ced .
T h is b a sic p rin c ip le o f eco sy stem sta b ility /
in s ta b ility a n d e co lo g ica l b a lan ce / im b alan ce
a lso a p p lie s to m arin e ecosystem .
T h e m a n 's p re sen c e in the o cean s and his
e co n o m ic a c tiv itie s are cap ab le to d e stab ilise
m a rin e e co sy stem s. E x p lo itatio n o f m arin e re ­
so u rc e s, o c e a n d re d g in g and m ining, g lo b al
w a rm in g etc. are cap ab le o f d istu rb in g m arin e
e c o sy ste m s. P rese n tly , hum an activ ities have n o t
d o n e g re a t d am ag e to ocean e co sy stem s, ex cep t
c o a sta l w a te r e co sy stem s and fish eries e co sy s­
tem s b u t in c re a sin g h u m an a ctiv ities have g reat
p o te n tia l fo r d e sta b iliz in g m arin e ecosy stem s.
H e re, o n ly o c ea n d red g in g and m in in g w ill be
d iscu ssed .
O c ean D red gin g
T h e im p a c t o f d re d g in g o f ocean beds has
a lre ad y b e en d isc u sse d in the sectio n 18.1 o f this
ch ap ter. O c ea n d re d g in g is g en erally c arrie d out
to c le a r th e h a rb o u rs from siltin g , to c le a r the
n a v ig a b le c h a n n e ls, to re p le n ish the d e p letin g sea
b e ac h e s, to re m o v e the co n tam in ate d d ep o sits in
the n e a rsh o re re g io n s h a v in g in d u stria l and u rb an
e s ta b lis h m e n ts, to re m o v e the o v e rd u m p in g o f
m a te ria ls in the n e a rsh o re 'w a te rs etc.
T h e d is p o sa l o f d re d g e d m a te ria ls in the
o c e a n s is a te e th in g p ro b le m . I f the d re d g e d
m a te ria ls a re n o t c o n ta m in a te d b y to x ic s u b ­
s ta n c e s, th e ir d is p o sa l is n o t a p ro b le m , b u t th e
d re d g e d m a te ria ls a re c o n ta m in a te d w ith u rb an
a n d in d u s tria l s e w a g e , m e ta ls su ch as lead ,
m e rc u ry , n ic k e l, c a d m iu m e tc., c h e m ic a l to x ic
s u b s ta n c e s e tc ., th e ir d is p o sa l is d e fin ite ly a g re a t
p ro b le m . T h e d u m p in g o f dredge spoils (c o n ta m i­
n a te d m a te ria ls ) d is tu rb s th e m a rin e o rg a n ism s
b e c a u s e th e y le a v e th e d u m p in g site s a n d m o v e to
o th e r f a v o u ra b le p la c e s . T h is c a u s e s s h o rt-p e rio d
s p a tia l s h if t in m a rin e a n im a l p o p u la tio n . I f the
dumping o f dredged s p o ils is n o t c o n tin u e d at the
same place, marine organisms again return to
their original habitats to recolonize them. Bottom
living animals, living in the dumpsites o f con­
ta m in a te d m a teria ls h a v in g o ils , m e ta ls , b io cid es
and oth er ty p e s o f w a ste s, a ccu m u la te th e se toxic
su b sta n ces th rou gh fe e d in g in th eir b o d ie s through
the p r o c e ss o f b io a c c u m u la tio n . S u ch m arine
org a n ism s b e c o m e in ju rio u s to large marine
an im a ls and h u m a n s w h e n th e y ea t th em .
T h e o c e a n b ed s c o n ta in la r g e d ep o sits o f
so m e im portant m in e r a ls su c h as m an gan ese
n o d u les, p h o sp h a te s, n itra tes, g a s h y d ra tes, m in­
erals o il etc. T h o u g h th e s e m in e r a ls are not
e x te n s iv e ly m in e d th e s e d a y s b u t th e y h a v e great
p o ten tia l d a n g er to m a rin e e c o s y s t e m and e co lo g y
i f th ey are m in ed e x t e n s iv e ly in c o m in g future.
T ech n iq u es and m e th o d s fo r th e ex tra c tio n o f
m in erals from se a b e d s are y e t to d e v e lo p e d .
18.4 OVERFISHING
r
M an h as b e e n a s s o c ia te d w ith th e oceans
sin ce tim e im m e m o ria l. T h e c o a s ta l fish erm en
c o m m u n itie s to ta lly d e p e n d o n f is h in g fo r their
liv e lih o o d . F is h in g b y tr a d itio n a l m e th o d s and
m ean s do n o t a d v e rs e ly a ffe c t fis h c o m m u n itie s in
the seas b u t th e u se o f m o d e m tra w le r s h a s already
d o n e g re a t d a m a g e to im p o r ta n t fis h e rie s , because
o v e rfis h in g h a s r e s u lte d in th e d e p le tio n o f
c o m m e rc ia lly im p o rta n t fis h e s lik e c o d , sardine,
m a c k e re l, s a lm o n e tc. M a n y tr a d itio n a l fishing
g ro u n d s h a v e b e c o m e v ic tim s o f re c k le s s excess
fish in g re s u ltin g in to d e p le tio n o f im p o rtan t
fish e s. It m a y b e m e n tio n e d th a t d e p le tio n o f
tra d itio n a l fis h in g g ro u n d s r e s u lts w h e n fis h catch
e x c e e d s th e a n n u a l r e p r o d u c tiv e ra te o f fishes.
T h is is w h y th e fo llo w in g fis h in g g ro u n d s have
e x p e rie n c e d s h a rp d e c lin e in th e fis h c a tc h .
>• G e o r g e B ank, o ff N ew E n g la n d coast
(U S A ) in th e A tla n tic O c e a n ,
^ J a p a n ese m a c k e r e l f is h e r ie s in th e W est
P a c ific O c e a n ,
^ C a lifo r n ia n sa r d in e fis h e r ie s in th e east
P a c ific O c e a n ,
^ A la sk a n K in g C rab fis h e r ie s in th e P acific
O c ea n ,
^ P er u v ia n a n c h o v y fis h e r ie s , o f f th e coasts
o f P eru in th e P a c if ic O c e a n ,
>• Salman fisheries in the Atlantic andPacific
 jvian and ocean s

The whaling (k illin g o f w h ale) h as b een so >■ F a u lty m eth o d s o f catch in g . T h e tra w le rs
reckless th a t n o w o v e rw h a lin g has m ad e the catch in d isc rim in a te ly all ty p e s an d siz e s
whales as th e th re a te n e d m a rin e m am m al species. o f fishes b u t sm all fish es tra p p e d in th e n e ts
In the b e g in n in g tra d itio n a l to o ls and m eth o d s are th ro w n b a ck in to th e sea. S u ch d is ­
Were used fo r w h a lin g (lik e o p en b o ats an d hand c ard ed fish e s e ith e r d ie o r b eco m e in cap a­
harpoons) a n d th u s w h a le s were n o t pu t to severe ble fo r re p ro d u c tio n .
threats o f e x tin c tio n b u t no w th e se h av e becom e y>- N o n -c o m p lia n c e to th e re c o m m en d a ­
endangered sp e c ie s b e c a u s e o f th e in tro d u ctio n o f tio n s o f th e In te rn a tio n a l C o u n cil fo r
m odern te c h n iq u e s o f w h a lin g like ‘steam w h a le r’, the E x p lo ita tio n o f th e S eas. A c c o rd ­
‘pelagic w h a lin g ’ etc. A few sp ec ie s o f w hales, ing to th e re c o m m e n d a tio n e ac h n a tio n
like larg e b a le e n w h a le s , h av e been so m assiv ely m ust red u ce th e fish c a tc h a tle a s t b y 40
killed th a t th e y a re on th e v e rg e o f e x tin ctio n . B lue
p er cent.
w hales, h u m p b a c k w h a le s and g ray w h ales have
A fter the failu re o f th e a b o v e m e n tio n e d
also b een v ic tim o f m a ssiv e o v erw h alin g . A t­
prin cip le o f fish catch (M S Y ) th e sc ie n tis ts
tem pts a re b e in g m a d e at w o rld level fo r h aulting
re c o m m e n d e d a n o th e r fis h e ry m a n a g e m e n t
m a ssiv e k illin g o f w h a le s and a fe w intern atio n al
p rin c ip le , k n o w n as p r e c a u tio n a r y p r in c ip le
re g u la tio n s h a v e b e e n fo rm u la te d fo r th e ir c o n se r­
having certain g u id elin es fo r m a k in g fis h e ry a n d
v a tio n . T h e In te rn a tio n a l C o m m issio n on W h al­
fishing su stain ab le so th at th e re m ay b e c o n tin u ­
in g (IC W ) d e te rm in e s the lim it o f w h a le catch in
ous yield o f fishes in fu tu re w ith o u t c o m p ro m is­
te rm s o f B W U (b lu e w h ale unit, one B H U = one
ing w ith the rep ro d u ctiv e p ro cess o f fish c o m m u ­
b lu e w h a le , 2 fin w h a le s, 2 .5 h u m p b ack w h a les, or
nities and fish stocks. T he m a jo r e lem en ts o f th e
6 se i w h a le s ) p e r y e a r from tim e to tim e. A
‘precau tio n ary p rin c ip le ’ fish ery m a n a g em en t are
fe w c o u n trie s h a v e im p o se d s e lf restriction on
as follow s :
w h a lin g (e .g . U S A , G re at B ritain , N orw ay,
N e th e r la n d s ) k n o w n as w h aling m o ra to riu m . K ill­ to control access to new fish e rie s im m e d i­
in g o f m o th e r w h a le s w ith th e ir calv es has been ately,

banned. >- to estab lish co n serv atio n cap o n b o th

T h e p r in c ip le o f m a x im u m su sta in ab le yield
(M S Y ) w a s a ls o e v o lv e d by th e fis h e ry
b io lo g is ts to a v o id o v e rfis h in g and to get su sta in ­
a b le y ie ld o f fis h e s e ac h y e a r w ith o u t dep letin g
fish re s o u rc e . T h is p rin c ip le a d v o c a te d for n o n ­
in te rfe re n c e in th e re g e n e ra tio n o f fish in g stock
b u t th is p r in c ip le a lso d id n o t w o rk b e ca u se o f
s e v e ra l e c o n o m ic , p o litic a l an d b io lo g ic a l factors
as fo llo w s :
D a ta o f fis h c a tc h and q u a n tity are p ro ­
v id e d b y th e fis h in g in d u s try and h ence
th e y a re c o o k e d a n d n o t re lia b le .
>- S o m e o f th e fis h e s a d a p t su ch b io lo g ic a l
b e h a v io u r o f re p ro d u c tio n an d re g e n e ra ­
tio n th a t c a n n o t b e p re d ic te d .
>■ T h e re is n o p ro p e r te c h n iq u e fo r a cc u ra te
e s tim a tio n o f fish sto ck .
fishing c ap acity and to tal fish in g catc h
rate,
>■ to d evelop c o n serv ativ e catch lim it a n d to
set an u p p e r lim it o f c atc h th a t c a n n o t b e
ex ceed ed ,
to im p lem en t re c o v ery p la n s w ith o u t d e lay
w hen th e re is d eclin e in fish sto ck ,
to red u ce g o v ern m en t su b sid ie s a n d to
d ev elo p e co n o m ica lly v ia b le fish e ry ,
>■ to e sta b lish d a ta c o lle c tio n an d re p o rtin g
sy stem ,
>• to p ro m o te se le c tiv e c a tc h in g to m in im ize
b y c atc h ,
>■ to p ro te c t fish re fu g e s, an d
> to d e v elo p fish e ry m a n ag e m e n t p o lic ie s in
c o o p e ra tio n w ith all th e fish c a tc h in g
n a tio n s.
 446
Source : re p ro d u c e d from A .P . M cG inn,
1 9 9 8 , in P. R . P in e t, 2000.
18.5 GLOBAL WARMING AND OCEANS
T h e g lo b a l w arm in g refers to g rad u al rise in
a tm o sp h e ric an d su rface (b o th land and sea
su rfa c e s) te m p e ra tu re s and c o n se q u e n t ch an g es in
g lo b al ra d ia tio n b a lan ce cau sed m ainly b y an th ro ­
p o g e n ic p ro c e sse s such as ozone d e p letio n and
g reen h o u se e ffe cts, lead in g to clim ate chan g es at
lo cal, re g io n a l and glo b al levels. It m ay b e p o in ted
o u t th a t th e p a tte rn o f g lo b al rise in air te m p e ra ­
tu re s has b e en stu d ied and re p o rte d by v ario u s
s c ie n tists an d ag en cies, and a few co m p u ter
m o d els h av e b een c o n stru cted , bu t th e ir resu lts
are n o t u n ifo rm , ra th e r a few are c o n trastin g . The
ra d ia tiv e fo rcin g and glob al w arm in g p oten tial (G W P)
are u sed b y the In te rg o v e rn m e n ta l P an el on
C lim ate C h an g e (IP C C ) to com pare the relativ e
w arm in g e ffe c t o f d iffe re n t gases.
F o llo w in g are the evidences o f global
w a rm in g :
In c re a se in a v erag e annual global te m p e ra ­
tu re ,
>■ M e ltin g o f m o u n ta in and c o n tin en tal g la ­
c ie rs,
>• M e ltin g o f A n ta rc tic ice sheets,
>■ F a s t ra te o f m e ltin g o f G reen lan d ice
s h e e ts ,
>■ M e ltin g o f A rc tic sheet,
W a rm in g o f o c e a n w a te r a t g lo b a l level,
>- G ra d u a l rise in se a lev el,
» - T h a w in g o f p e rm a fro s t areas,
U p w a rd s h iftin g o f sn o w lin e s o f the
tro p ic a l a n d s u b tro p ic a l m o u n ta in s,
»* S p re a d in g o f tro p ic a l d ise a se s to w ard s
te m p e ra te a n d p o la r re g io n s,
>• S h if tin g o f s e a s o n a l w e a th e r p h e n o m e n a
a n d c h a n g e s in p re c ip ita tio n p a tte rn s etc.
V a rio u s m o d e ls h a v e b e e n d e v e lo p e d to
p r e d ic t g lo b a l ris e in a ir te m p e ra tu re . S.H .
S c h n e id e r (1 9 5 0 ) p o in te d o u t th a t th e te m p e ra tu re
c o u ld ris e u p to 1.5°C to 3°C i f th e c o n c e n tra tio n o f
OCEANOGRAPHY
atm o sp h eric carb o n d io x id e c o u ld b e do u b led
fro m th e 300 p p m v le v el to 6 0 0 p p m v . The
G en eral C irc u la tio n M o d el d e v e lo p e d b y S.
M an ab e an d R .T . W ea th ra ld (1 9 7 5 ) p re d ic ts th at
if th e p re se n t (1 9 7 5 le v el) a m o u n t o f carbon
d io x id e o f th e a tm o sp h e re is d o u b le d , th e te m ­
p e ra tu re o f th e e a rth ’s su rfa c e w ill in c re ase by
2.9°C .
T h e g lo b a l c irc u la tio n m o d e ls (G C M ) hav e
sh o w n a te m p e ra tu re rise b e tw e e n 0.4°C to 0.8°C
in th e 20 th c e n tu ry an d h a v e p re d ic te d w a rm in g o f
h ig h la titu d in a l zo n es m a in ly a rc tic re g io n s. The
early m e ltin g o f w in te r sn o w in th e G re a t B ritain .
N o rw ay , C an ad a, th e U S A e tc. h a s re s u lte d in
early b e g in n in g o f sp rin g se a s o n a t le a s t b y 15
days as e v id e n c e d b y flo w e rin g o f p la n ts o f sp rin g
seaso n tw o w eek s in a d v an c e . T h e flo w e rin g o f
m ango trees in U tta r P ra d e sh , In d ia in D e c e m b e r
2004, also in d ic a te s w a rm in g tre n d . T h e te m p e ra ­
ture reco rd s o f a few A m e ric a n a n d E u ro p e a n
co u n tries hav e sh o w n th a t th e d iu rn a l ra n g e o f
te m p e ratu re o r say d iffe re n c e o f te m p e ra tu re s
b etw een days an d n ig h ts h as b e e n re d u c e d . T h e
in crease in the fre q u e n c y o f E l N in o e v e n ts
b etw een 1970 and 2 0 0 0 A .D . a lso d e n o te s
w arm in g o f the e a rth ’s su rfa ce an d its a tm o s ­
phere. On the b a sis o f a fo re sa id tre n d o f te m p e ra ­
tures in the p ast cen tu ry it m ay be said th a t ris in g
tren d o f te m p e ratu res d e n o tes g lo b a l w a rm in g . It
is arg u ed by so m e sc ie n tists th a t th e te m p e ra tu re
d ata are d e ce p tiv e an d c o n fu sin g b e c a u s e m o s t o f
the te m p e ratu res h av e b e en re c o rd e d in u rb a n
areas w h ich b e co m e lo c a lly w a rm e r th a n th e
su rro u n d in g c o u n try sid e b e c a u s e o f u rb a n p o llu ­
tio n , an d w e la ck in s u ffic ie n t te m p e ra tu re d ata
fro m o cean su rfa c e s, so n o th in g p re c is e ly c o u ld
be said ab o u t e ith e r g lo b a l w a rm in g o r g lo b al
co o lin g .
T h e 2001 S y n th e s is R e p o r t o n C lim a te
C h an g e b y In te r g o v e r n m e n ta l P a n e l on C lim a te
C h a n g e (IP C C ) h a s s h o w n th a t i f th e c o n c e n tra tio n
o f a tm o sp h e ric C 0 2 in c re a s e s to 5 4 0 -9 7 0 p p m v by
the en d o f th e 2 1 st c e n tu ry , th e a v e ra g e g lo b al
te m p e ra tu re m a y ris e b y 1.4 to 5 .8 °C a n d sea lev el
m ay rise to 9 -8 8 c m fro m 1 9 9 0 le v e l (ta b le 18.4) if
no se rio u s a tte m p ts a re m a d e t o c h e c k C O 2
c o n c e n tra tio n .
 uaN and OCEANS
* 18 4 . prelection of emission of C 0 2 and consequent rise in average global temperature a n d s e a
Ta0 level
Year
QO2 concentration 4 0 5 -4 6 0 ppm
Global mean temperature 0 .4 - 1 .1°C
change from the year 1990
Global mean sea level 3 -1 4 cm
rise from the year 1990
Source : IP C C s y n th e sis re p o rt on clim ate ch an g e, 2001
T he W o r ld W ildlife F u n d (W W F ) p re d ic ted in
D ecem ber, 2 005 th a t ‘th e e arth co u ld w arm by
2°C ab o v e p re -in d u s tria l le v el as early as 2026
A.D. an d b y 6°C in th e A rctic re g io n ’.
P r o c e s s e s of G lo b a l W a r m in g
M a jo r so u rc es and p ro cesses o f global
w a rm in g b y a n th ro p o g e n ic factors inclu d e ozone
d e p le tio n a n d g re e n h o u se effects.
O z o n e ( 0 3) d epletion refers to th in n in g o f
stra to sp h e ric o z o n e la y e r lying betw een 12 and 35
km h e ig h t in th e a tm o sp h ere from sea level.
O zone, d e fin e d as a th re e -a to m iso to p e is unstable
gas b e c a u s e it is c re a te d as w ell d estro y ed or
d is in te g ra te d b y n a tu ra l p ro c e sses. O zo n e absorbs
u ltra v io le t s o la r ra d ia tio n and th u s sav es the
e a rth ’s s u rfa c e fro m b e c o m in g too hot. T hus,
ozone la y e r in th e lo w e r a tm o sp h e re , say in lo w er
stra to sp h e re , is a life sav in g an d p ro te c tiv e lay er
for all b io ta in th e b io sp h e re . In fact, o zo n e lay er
is like an u m b re lla w h ic h p ro te c ts all fo rm s o f life
on the e arth fro m u ltra v io le t so la r ra d ia tio n .
O zone c re a tio n a n d d e p le tio n are n a tu ra l p ro c ­
esses w h ic h o p e ra te c o n tin u o u sly in n a tu re but
ozone d e p le tio n b y a n th ro p o g e n ic fa c to rs is a
serious e n v iro n m e n ta l p ro b le m b e c a u se m an-
in d u ced o zo n e d e p le tio n c a n n o t be a u to m a tic a lly
rev ersed u n le ss p re v e n tiv e m e asu re s are ad o p ted
in tim e. T he release o fC F C s (c h lo ro flu o ro carb o n s)
from c ertain d o m estic a p p lia n ce s su ch as air
co n d itio n e rs, re frig e ra to rs, h a ir d ry e rs, fire e x tin ­
g u ish ers etc. b re a k ozone (O 3 —> O 2 + O ) a n d cau se
' 7
2050
4 4 5 -6 4 0 p p m
0 .8- 2 .6°C
5 -3 2 cm 9 - 8 8 cm
ozone d ep letio n w h ich a llo w s m o re s o la r u ltr a v io ­
let rays to reach th e e a r th ’s s u rfa c e a n d th u s
in crease air te m p e ratu re. T h e fo llo w in g h y p o th ­
eses have b een p o stu la te d to a c c o u n t fo r o z o n e
d ep letio n :
ch lo rin e h y p o th e sis
sulphate h y p o th e sis
>• n itro g en o x id es h y p o th e sis
>- p o lar stra to sp h e ric c lo u d s h y p o th e s is
Green house effect m eans ‘progressive w arm in g -
up o f the e a rth ’s su rfa ce d u e to b la n k e tin g e ffe c t
o f carbon d io x id e in th e a tm o s p h e re ’. G re e n h o u s e
is a bod y w h ich allo w s th e s h o rtw a v e in c o m in g
so lar ra d iatio n to e n te r b u t d o es n o t a llo w th e lo n g
w ave o u tg o in g te rre s tria l in fra re d r a d ia tio n to
escape.
T he g ases w ith th e p ro p e rtie s o f g re e n h o u s e
are c alled g ree n house gases, su c h as c a rb o n
d io x id e, n itro g e n o x id e s, m e th a n e , w a te r v a p o u r
etc. C arb o n d io x id e is c o n sid e re d m o s t d a n g e ro u s
green h o u se gas w h ic h is re s p o n s ib le fo r g lo b a l
w arm in g . T he e m issio n o f c a rb o n d io x id e fro m
a n th ro p o g e n ic so u rc e s su ch as b u rn in g o f c o a l an d
w o o d , m in e ra l o il etc. is ra p id ly in c re a s in g . T h e
c o n c e n tra tio n o f C 0 2 in th e a tm o s p h e re in 1860
A .D . w as 280 to 2 9 0 p p m v w h ic h in c re a s e d to
3 5 0 -3 6 0 p p m v in 1988 a n d 3 7 0 p p m v in 2 0 0 1 . I f
the p re s e n t ra te o f e m is sio n o f C 0 2 e m is s io n is n o t
c h ec k e d , its c o n c e n tra tio n w o u ld go u p to 4 0 5 -
4 6 0 p p m b y 202 5 A .D ., 4 4 5 - 6 4 0 p p m b y 2 0 5 0
A .D . and 5 4 0 —9 7 0 p p m b y th e e n d o f 2 1 s t c e n tu ry
(ta b le 18.4). T h is p h e n o m e n a l in c re a s e in C O 2
e m is s io n , i f n o t c o n tro lle d , w o u ld cau se rise in
g lo b a l m e a n te m p e ra tu re b y 0 .4 to 1.1°C b y 2025
A .D ., 0 .9 8 to 2 .6 °C b y 2 0 5 0 A .D ., an d 1.4 to 5.8°C
b y th e e n d o f 2 1 s t c en tu ry .
General Impacts of Global Warming
F o llo w in g a re th e im p a c ts o f g lo b a l w a rm ­
in g o n th e c o n tin e n ts an d o c ea n s, and o v erall
im p a c ts o n c lim a te c h a n g e and te rre s tria l and
m a rin e e c o lo g y :
P e rc e p tib le c h an g e in th e a tm o sp h eric
c h e m istry d u e to in c re ase in th e c o n c e n tra ­
tio n o f a tm o sp h e ric c a rb o n d io x id e sin ce
in d u s tria l re v o lu tio n .
S ig n ific a n t c h a n g e in g e n eral co m p o sitio n
o f th e a tm o sp h e re a n d o v e ra ll h e at balan ce.
G ra d u a l in c re a se in th e te m p e ra tu re o f the
e a r th ’s su rfa c e an d lo w e r atm o sp h ere.
In c re a s e in th e a ctiv ity o f h y d ro lo g ica l
c y c le .
D e c re a s e in p re c ip ita tio n and soil m o istu re
c o n te n t in th e m o st d e v elo p e d a g ricu ltu ral
re g io n s o f th e w o rld .
W h o le e c o sy ste m s (te rre stria l and m arine)
m a y b e a d v e rse ly a ffe cted .
P ro b a b le in c re a se in the a c id ity o f the
o c e a n s a n d d e c re a se in the b io lo g ic a l
p ro d u c tiv ity o f the m a rin e e co sy stem s
a n d c h a n g e in th e a lb ed o o f th e ocean
su rfa c e .
>■ M e ltin g o f c o n tin e n ta l an d m o u n ta in g la ­
c ie rs, A rc tic an d A n ta rc tic ice sh ee ts an d
G re e n la n d ice sh e e ts an d c o n se q u e n t rise
in s e a le v e l a n d flo o d in g o f c o a sta l a re as o f
lo w la n d c o u n trie s, a n d isla n d n a tio n s.
>• T o ta l a tm o s p h e ric p re s su re m ay in c re ase .
M ay in c re a s e p la n t p ro d u c tio n in so m e
a re a s an d m a y d e c re a se in o th e r areas.
>* M a y a c c e n tu a te tro p ic a l c y c lo n e s in te rm s
o f b o th fre q u e n c y an d se v e rity . A s p e r the
re p o r t o f th e W M O th e n o rth e rn h e m i­
s p h e r e w a s h o tte s t d u rin g 2 005 A .D . sin ce
th e d a ta c o lle c tio n s ta rte d in 1861. T h e
y e a r 2 0 0 5 re c o rd e d th e h ig h e s t 27 n u m b e rs
o f tro p ic a l c y c lo n e s o f w h ic h 14
w e re o f th e in te n sity o f h u rric a n e s. H u rri­
can e W ilm a , w h ic h stru c k F lo rid a o f th e
U S A w as te rm e d as th e s tro n g e st e v e r
re c o rd e d h u rric a n e in th e w o rld . H u rric a n e
K a trin a , w h ic h fla tte n e d N e w O rle a n s o f
th e U S A in A u g u st 2 0 0 5 , p ro v e d to b e m o st
d isa stro u s.
M ay c h a n g e e x istin g w o rld p a tte rn s o f
p re c ip ita tio n .
In c re a se in th e fre q u e n c y o f ex trem e
w e a th e r c o n d itio n .
>• In c re ase in sea te m p e ra tu re h a s fo rced
m an y sh o re lin e s p e c ie s o f b a rn a c le s , sn ails
and lim p e ts a ro u n d G re a t B rita in fu rth e r
n o rth in se a rc h o f c o o le r a re a s o f c o a s ta l
reg io n s
>- L ik ely ch an g e o f o c e a n b io d iv e rs ity d u e to
rise in sea te m p e ra tu re .
D ecre a se in th e a b ility o f th e o c e a n s to so ak
up e x tra C 0 2 e m issio n s.
M elting of Ice S h e e ts a n d G l a c ie r s a n d S e a L e v e l
Rise
T he re c e n t ev id en c e s h a v e sh o w n th a t th e
ice sh eets o f A n ta rctica an d G ree n la n d a re b re a k ­
ing, the p e rm a n en t ice c o v ers o f th e A rc tic re g io n s
are m e ltin g , an d c o n tin e n ta l an d m o u n ta in g la ­
ciers are sh rin k in g in b o th size and le n g th as
ev id en c e d b y th e ir re g u la r re tre a t. It m a y be
m e n tio n e d th a t th e A n ta rc tic a is w e ll in stru m e n te d
c o n tin e n t in te rm s o f th e stu d y o f v a rio u s a sp ects
o f th e c o n tin e n t e.g. s u rfa c e a n d a ir te m p e ra tu re s,
ice co re a n a ly sis, size an d th ic k n e s s o f ice sheets
an d g la c ie rs, c o n tra c tio n a n d s h rin k in g ra te o f ice
sh e e ts etc. T h e re g u la r m o n ito rin g o f A n ta rc tic ice
sh e e ts h as sh o w n a b o u t 100 m a n n u a l ra te o f th eir
sh rin k in g . A ris e o f te m p e ra tu re o f w in te r season
b y 4°C h a s b e e n re p o rte d sin c e 1950 in th e w est
A n ta rc tic P e n in s u la . T h e re a re a m p le ev id en c e s to
d e m o n stra te re g u la r b re a k in g o f ice sh e lv e s and
fo rm a tio n o f g ia n t ic e b e rg s w h ic h are flo atin g
m a sse s o f ice. It m ay be m e n tio n e d th a t ice s h e lf
is flo a tin g h u g e m a ss o f ice b u t is a tta c h e d to the
la n d m a ss w h ile ic e b e rg s a re flo a tin g m asses o f ice

independent o f ice sh elv e s. In o th e r w o rd s, the
icebergs are fo rm e d w h en th e ice sh elv e s are
disintegrated, th u s h u g e v o lu m in o u s m ass o f ice
known as ic e b e rg m e a su rin g sev e ra l h u n d re d
square k ilo m e te rs in area, flo a ts in d e p e n d e n tly in
the sea. It is s ig n ific a n t to p o in t o u t th a t m e ltin g o f
ice-bergs d o es n o t m a k e an y c h an g e in se a lev el
because th e se h a v e a lre a d y o c c u p ie d p la c e s in the
sea but m e ltin g o f ice sh e lv e s an d g la c ie rs cau ses
rise in sea le v el. T h e d is in te g ra tio n o f A n ta rc tic
ice shelves is ra p id ly in c re a sin g e.g. L a rse n ice
shelf d is in te g ra te d in 1995 w h ile m an y A n tarctic
ice sh elv es in c lu d in g L a rse n B and W ilk e s ice
shelves b ro k e a w ay d u rin g 1998-1999.
T h e s tu d y o f 2 4 4 g la c ie rs in th e A n tarctic
P en in sula s in c e 1950 b y the B ritis h A n ta r c tic
S u rv e y b a s e d on 2 0 0 0 a e ria l p h o to g ra p h s tak en
sin ce 1 9 40s an d m o re th a n 100 m o d e m satellite
im a g e s re v e a le d the fa c t th ro u g h its rep o rt
p u b lis h e d in 2005 th a t te m p e ra tu re in th is region
h a s re g is te re d a rise o f 2°C since 1950, 87 p e rc e n t
o f 2 4 4 g la c ie rs h av e show n sig n ific a n t shrin k in g
in th e ir s iz e an d len g th . T he glaciers re g istered a
m u c h fa s te r ra te o f re tre a t i.e. 50 m p er y e ar since
2 0 0 0 A .D . T h e stu d y fu rth er show s th at the
g la c ie rs a re lo sin g 250 cu b ic k ilo m eters o f ice
e v e ry y e a r.
R e c o rd in g o f ice c o v ers o v er B e rin g S ea and
A rc tic S e a h a s re v e a le d g rad u al bu t reg u lar
sh rin k in g o f th e ir a re a s, e.g. (i) there has been
d e c re a se in a re a l c o v e ra g e o f B erin g sea ice
co v ers b y 5 p e r c e n t sin ce 1960, (ii) the sea ice
area o v e r A rc tic s e a h as d e crea se d b y about
9 0 ,0 0 0 s q u a re k ilo m e te rs sin ce 1978 etc.
T h e ic e c o v e r a re a o f th e A rctic Sea around
N o rth P o le re g is te re d a re c o rd sh rin k ag e during
2 0 0 5 -0 6 as re p o rte d b y W alt M eier, a re se a rc h e r
at th e U .S . N a tio n a l S now and Ice D a ta C enter,
C o lo rad o in 2 0 0 6 . ‘T h e A rc tic is ra p id ly b e c o m ­
ing th e c le a re s t d e m o n stra tio n o f the effe cts o f
m a n k in d s’ im p a c t on th e g lo b a l clim ate. The
tem p eratu re is ris in g tw ic e as fa st as the re st o f the
p la n et an d the re g io n is e x p e c te d to w arm b y a
fu rth er fo u r d e g re e s c e n trig ra d e to sev en d eg rees
cen trig rad e b y 2 1 0 0 A.D.* (H in d u , 20 0 6 ). T he
scien tists b e lie v e th a t i f the p re se n t tren d o f
m elting o f A rc tic ic e c o n tin u e s, the A rctic S ea
w ill lo se m o s t o f its ic e b y 203 0 A .D .
■
T h e 2 0 0 7 re p o rt cm A rctic k e sh eets
re v e a le d th e fa c t th a t ‘A rc tic ice h as s h r u n k ^ ^ S
lo w e st le v el on re c o rd , n e w sa te llite im ages show
ra isin g th e p o s s ib ility o f th e fa c t th a t the Northwest
P a s s a g e , th a t e lu d e d fa m o u s e x p lo rers, w ill be*
co m e an o p e n s h ip p in g la n e ’ (T h e H indu, 2007).
T h e re are a m p le e v id e n c e s to dem onstrate
the m e ltin g an d re tre a t o f m ountain glaciers i.e.
A lp in e, H im a la y a n a n d A n d e a n g la c ie rs etc. A
few ex am p les w o u ld b e s u ffic ie n t en o u g h to
v a lid a te th e m e ltin g a n d re tre a t o f m o u n ta in
g laciers u p w a rd e.g. (i) E u ro p e a n A lp in e g la c ie rs
have b een re p o rte d to h a v e s h ru n k in th e ir le n g th
and v o lu m e b y m o re th a n 50 p e r c e n t in th e p a s t
cen tu ry , (ii) the ra te o f u p w a rd r e tre a t o f A n d e a n
g laciers in P eru in c re a se d s e v e n tim e s in th e la s t 3
decades o f the 2 0 th c e n tu ry , m o re p r e s c is e ly
b etw een 1978 an d 2 0 0 0 A .D ., (iii) th e R u s s ia n
C aucuses m o u n tain g la c ie rs h a v e b e e n S h o rte n e d
in th e ir len g th by ab o u t 50 p e r c e n t d u e to m e ltin g
since 1960, (iv) the g laciers o f C h in e se T ie n S h a n
M o u n tain s have lo st th e ir ice v o lu m e b y 2 5 p e r
cent on m eltin g sin ce 1960, (v) th e g la c ie rs o f
S outhern A lps o f N ew Z e a la n d h a v e m o v e d
upw ard by about 1000 m e te rs d u e to th e ir re tre a t
caused by th erm al m e ltin g o f ice, (v i) M t. K e n y a
has lost its m o st ex ten siv e g la c ie r in th e p a s t
century etc.
D ifferen t stu d ies h av e d e m o n stra te d fa s te r
rate o f m eltin g o f the H im a la y a n g la c ie rs in In d ia ,
resu ltin g into th e ir u p w a rd re tre a t a n d n e g a tiv e
m ass balance. A re c e n t stu d y o f 19 g la c ie rs o f th e
B asp a b a sin o f H im a ch a l P ra d e sh b y th e s c ie n tis ts
o f M arine and W ate r R e so u rc e G ro u n d o f S p a c e
A p p licatio n C en ter (S A C ), A h m e d a b a d d u rin g
20 0 0 -2 0 0 2 on th e b a sis o f w e e k ly s a te llite im a g e s
and field d ata p ro v id e d b y th e G e o lo g ic a l S u rv e y
o f In d ia (G S T ) h as re v e a le d th a t th e ir m a ss
b alan ce d u rin g 2001 an d 2 0 0 2 re g is te re d n e g a tiv e
tre n d (i.e. - 9 0 m 3 in 2001 a n d - 7 8 m 3 in 2 0 0 2 ). T he
stu d y re v e a le d th a t i f th e c u rre n t ra te o f re tre a t
c o n tin u e s, th e se g la ciers w o u ld d is a p p e a r b y 2 0 4 0
A .D . T h e stu d y b y S A C sc ie n tis ts fro m 1962 to
2001 also re v e a le d lo ss o f 24 p e r c e n t o f g la c ia l ice
c o v e r at th e a ltitu d e o f 5 0 0 0 m e te rs a n d o f 14 p e r
c en t at th e a ltitu d e o f m o re th a n 5 0 0 0 m e te rs. T h e
la te st fin d in g s o f S A C stu d ie s p u b lis h e d in
C u rre n t S c ie n ce (V o l. 86, N o . 1 ,2 0 0 4 ) a s
 450
in D o w n to E arth (M a rch 3 1 , 2 0 0 4 ) r e v e a le d th e
f a c t th a t c o n tin u o u s m e ltin g and retreat o f g la c ie r s
in H im a c h a l P ra d esh r e su ltin g in to d e c r e a se in the
m a s s o f ic e o f g la c ie r s w o u ld resu lt in m ark ed
r e d u c tio n o n r u n o f f c a u s in g se r io u s sh o rta g e o f
w a te r s u p p ly in fu tu re. T h e rap id rate o f retreat o f
g la c ie r s in th e G a rh w a l and K u m a o n H im a la y a s
h a s a ls o b e e n rep orted .
A c c o r d in g to th e la te st su rv ey o f the
H im a la y a b y C h in e s e s c ie n tis ts there is red u ctio n
in th e h e ig h t o f H im a la y a s in c e 1966. T he
m e a su r e d h e ig h t o f M t. E v ertest w a s 8 8 4 9 .7 5
m eters in 1 9 6 6 w h ic h d rop p ed to 8 8 4 8 .4 5 m in
1 9 9 9 , th u s r e g iste r in g a drop o f 1.3 m h eig h t in 33
y e a r s. T h e rate o f lo w e r in g o f its h eig h t w a s 0.1 m
p er y ea r fro m 1 9 6 6 to 1 9 7 5 , 0 .0 1 m b etw een 1975
an d 1 9 9 2 an d a g a in 0.1 m from 1992 to 1999.
T h e n e t resu lt o f m e ltin g o f A rctic S ea ic e,
ic e s h e e ts o f G r een la n d and A n tarctica and
c o n tin e n ta l g la c ie r s and ic e sh eets w ill be
in c r e a se d d isc h a r g e o f w ater in the sea s and
o c e a n s and c o n se q u e n t rise in sea le v e ls at
r e g io n a l and g lo b a l le v e ls .
D iffe r e n t m o d e ls h a v e p red icted sea le v e l
rise d u e to g lo b a l w a rm in g . T he Inter G o v ern m en ­
tal P a n e l o n C lim a te C h a n g e (IP C C ) has p red icted
sea le v e l rise u p to o n e m eter b y the end o f 2 1 st
cen tu ry , i f th e facto rs o f g lo b a l w arm in g (o z o n e
d e p le tio n and g r e e n h o u se e ffe c ts ) are n ot p rop ­
erly c o n tr o lle d . I f th is so h a p p en s, the co a sta l
lo w la n d s w o u ld b e flo o d e d b y sea w a ter and about
a quarter o f w o r ld p o p u la tio n w o u ld b e d isp la ced .
Global Warming and Marine Ecology
T h e r ise in s e a tem p eratu re w o u ld trigger a
ch a in o f e ff e c t s o n m a rin e life . S u ch ch a n g es are
n o w p e r c e p tib le in th e areas o f c o o le r sea s. For
e x a m p le , m a n y s p e c ie s o f b a rn a cles, sn a ils and
lim p e ts liv in g in the n ea rsh o re r e g io n s o f G reat
B rita in h a v e n o w m o v e d north w ard to r e c o lo n iz e
in c o o le r areas o f th e se a
T h e photosynthesis b y p h y to p la n k to n s in th e
m a rin e e c o s y s t e m w o u ld b e m a rk ed ly red u ced .
M a n y m ic r o -p h y to p la n k to n s w o u ld d ie b e c a u se
o f th e ir e x p o s u r e to u ltr a v io le t so la r ra d iation .
T h u s, m a rk ed r e d u c tio n in th e p r o d u c tiv ity o f
p h y to p la n k to n s w o u ld in turn a d v e r se ly affect
z o o p la n k to n s an d m a rin e fis h e s b eca u se these
w ill sta rv e and d ie in th e a b s e n c e o f su fficien t
su p p ly o f th eir fo o d in th e fo rm o f phytoplanktons.
T h e loss of fish population w o u ld d irectly
a ffe c t hu m an b e in g b e c a u s e fis h e s are m ajor
so u rce o f fo o d to th e in h a b ita n ts o f th e coastal
areas. T h e in c r e a se d u ltr a v io le t so la r radiation
w ill a lso in c r e a se the m o r ta lity rate o f larvae o f
z o o p la n k to n s. It is a ls o fea re d that th e in creased
u ltra v io let so la r ra d ia tio n m a y c h a n g e th e s p e c ie s
c o m p o sitio n o f the m arin e e c o s y s t e m s b e c a u s e o f
the fact that n ot a ll the m a rin e s p e c ie s are
u n ifo rm ly v u ln era b le to u ltr a v io le t s o la r rad iation
rather so m e s p e c ie s are m o re v u ln e r a b le w h ile the
others are le s s v u ln era b le to u ltr a v io le t ra d ia tio n .
G lo b a l w a rm in g c a u s e s co ra l b le a c h in g
resu ltin g into m a ss d estru ctio n o f c o r a ls w h ic h in
turn a d v ersely a ffe c ts oth er m a rin e o r g a n ism s. It
m ay be m en tio n ed that c o r a l c o lo n ie s p r o v id e
su itab le habitats for n u m ero u s s p e c ie s o f m arin e
organ ism s.
C oral b le a ch in g refers d e c o lo u r a tio n o f c o r ­
als and their d eaths due to sta rv a tio n b e c a u s e o f
lo ss o f their sy m b io tic a lg a e (z o o x a n th e lla e
alg a e) b eca u se th ese a lg a e p r o v id e fo o d to co ra ls.
G lobal w arm in g ca u sed b y o z o n e d e p le tio n an d
em issio n s o f g ree n h o u se g a s e s h a s b e e n rep orted
as the m ajor factor o f co ra l b le a c h in g . T h e coral
b lea c h in g during 1 9 9 7 -9 8 h a s b e e n reco rd ed as
the m o st ca ta stro p h ic e v e n t as it acco u n ted for
la r g e -sc a le d eath o f co ra ls in th e tro p ica l ocean s
o f 6 0 co u n tries and isla n d n a tio n s. T h ou gh coral
b le a c h in g w a s o b se r v e d b y A lfr e d M a y er as back
as 1 9 1 9 but it w a s th e y ea r 1 9 9 8 w h e n large scale
co ra l b le a c h in g a c c o u n tin g fo r 7 0 p er cen t death
o f co ra ls o f f the c o a s ts o f K e n y a , M aldives,
A n d a m a n s and L a k s h w a d w e e p isla n d s in the
In dian O c ea n and 7 5 p er c e n t death in the
S e y c h e lle s M a rin e Park S y s te m and the Mafia
M a rin e Park o f T a n za n ia w a s rep orted by Clive
W ilk in so n o f th e G lo b a l C o ra l R e e f M onitoring
N e tw o r k (G C R M N ) o f T o w n s v ile (A ustralia). He
id e n tifie d fo u r o v e r la p p in g le v e ls o f cora
b le a c h in g : ( 1 ) catastrophic bleaching adverse y
a ffe c tin g 9 5 p er c e n t o f s h a llo w w ater cora .
B a h ra in , th e M a ld iv e s , Sri L an k a, Singapore
T a n z a n ia ; ( 2 ) severe bleaching a cco u n tin g °r
 MAN A M 0O C EA N S
70 p er cent death o f corals in K enya, Seychelles,
Japan, T hailand and V ietnam ; (3) moderate
bleaching re su ltin g into 20-50 p ercen t coral m or­
tality but w ith q u ick recovery; and (4) insignificant
bleaching o r no bleaching.
The cases o f la rg e-scale b leach in g have
been rep o rted in the A n d am an and N ico b ar
islands o f In d ia. It m ay b e p o in te d out th at the
areal co v erag e o f c o ra l reefs in India has been
estim ated to b e 18,000 k m 2. T he corals have
m ainly c o lo n iz e d a ro u n d the L ak sh w ad eep and
the A n d am an an d N ic o b a r islands. B esid es, sm all
patches o f c o ra l re e fs are fo u n d in the G u lf o f
K utch and th e G u lf o f M anar.- A cco rd in g to the
study c o n d u c te d b y th e S o ciety fo r A ndam an and
N icobar E c o lo g y (S A N E ) b a se d at P o rt B la ir there
has b e en m a ss c o ra l b le a c h in g (in 1998) around
th e A n d a m an re e fs and 3 0-70 p e r cen t b leach in g
aro u n d th e N ic o b a r reefs. T his b leach in g is
re la te d to 2°C rise in te m p e ratu re from the norm al
te m p e ra tu re in the A n d am an Sea in 1997-1998.
A c c o rd in g to the stu d y by N atio n al Institu te o f
O c e a n o g ra p h y (N IO ) b a se d in G oa coral reefs o f
the K av aratti and K adam at islands in Lakshw adw eep
h a v e s u ffe re d g re a t d am ag e from coral b leach in g
d u e to b a c te ria l d ise a se s and w arm er sea te m p e ra ­
tu re. T h e c o ra ls in the G u lf o f K u tch have been
b le a c h e d d u e to silta tio n .
(1 ) M o st o f the sc ie n tists h av e a ck n o w l­
ed g ed g lo b a l w a rm in g as th e m o st sig n ific a n t
fa c to r o f c o ra l b le a c h in g c au sin g la rg e -sc a le coral
d e ath . ‘A c c o rd in g to th e G lo b a l C o ral R e e f
A llia n c e (G C R A ) e v e ry k n o w n m ass b le ac h in g
o c c u rre d w h e n te m p e ra tu re s w e re ju s t 1°C h ig h e r
th a n n o rm a l d u rin g th e w a rm e st su m m e r m o n th s ’
(D o w n to E a rth , 1999).
(2 ) El Nino p h e n o m e n o n h as a lso b een
re la ted to c o ra l b le a c h in g . It m a y be m e n tio n e d
th at the w a rm e st y e a r o f 1998 w as also a sso c ia te d
w ith the s tro n g e s t E l N in o p h e n o m e n o n cau sin g
fu rth er w a rm in g o f th e P a c ific O c e a n w a ters. It
m ay be p o in te d o u t th a t E l N in o a cc o u n ts fo r co ral
b le ac h in g in c e rta in lo c a litie s o n ly bu t the
p h e n o m en a l in c re a s e in c o ra l b le a c h in g in th e
years 1983, 1987 a n d 1998 w as a lso a ss o c ia te d
w ith s tro n g E l N in o w e a th e r p h e n o m e n o n .
(3) The outbreaks o f co ral d iseases (b la c k
band d isease, co ral p lague, a sp erg illo sis an d
w hite band disease) cause co ral death.
( 4 ) L ocal f a c t o r s : as m en tio n ed b elo w also
cause coral deaths at local level.
Increase in siltatio n o f co astal w aters and
seabeds due to m ass flux o f sed im en ts and
n u trien ts bro u g h t by the riv ers from the ero sio n o f
highlands co n seq u en t upon land use ch an g es,
> “ P o llu tio n o f seaw aters c au se d b y in d u stria l
effluents, u rb an sew age and o il slic k s,
>■ D estru ctiv e fish in g p ra c tice s, o v e rfish in g ,
cleaning o f m arin e fo rests a ro u n d c o ra ls,
>■ F illin g and re c lam atio n o f w e tla n d s (m a ­
rine forests, and w etlan d s tra p se d im e n ts
and filter p o llu tan ts an d th u s sav e c o ra ls
from d eg rad atio n ) cau ses c o ra l d e ath s,
>■ M ining o f co ral ro ck s fo r b u ild in g m a te ri­
als,
C ollection o f rare co ral sp ec ie s etc.
1 8 .6 IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
B ioaccum ulation : B io a c c u m u la tio n is a
process o f grad u al a cc u m u la tio n o f to x ic s u b ­
stances in the tissu e s o f liv in g o rg a n ism s.
B iom agnification : B io m a g n ific a tio n is a
p ro cess o f g reater c o n ce n tra tio n o f e v e r-in c re a s -
ing am ounts o f to x ic s u b sta n c e s in th e b o d ie s o f
o rg an ism s at each tro p h ic le v e l o f fo o d c h a in a n d
food w eb. In o th e r w o rd s, b io m a g n ific a tio n
m eans lo w est c o n c e n tra tio n o f to x ic s u b s ta n c e s in
h e rb iv o re s an d th e c o n c e n tra tio n in c re a s e s fro m
h e rb iv o re s to c arn iv o re s an d fro m c a rn iv o re s to
o m n iv o res.
Bioremediation : B io re m e d ia tio n is a te c h ­
n o lo g y w h e re in m ic ro -o rg a n is m s a re u s e d to
d e g ra d e th e c o n ta m in a n ts n a tu ra lly . T h is te c h n o l­
o g y is n o w u sed to d e g ra d e o il f lic k s in th e o c e a n s
b y ‘s e e d in g ’ g e n e tic a lly e n g in e e re d m ic ro -o rg a n -
ism s.
C oral bleaching : C o ra l b le a c h in g is a
p ro c e ss o f d e c o lo u ra tio n o f c o ra l o rg a n is m s a n d
th e ir d e a th d u e to e x p u ls io n o f s y m b io tic
z o o x a n th e lla e a lg a e liv in g in th e o u te r tis s u e s o f
th e b o d ie s o f c o ra l a n im a ls c o n se q u e n t u p o n rise
in a v e r a g e te m p e ra tu re o f s e a w a te r.
E u tr» p h ic a tio n : E u tr o p h ic a tio n m e a n s
p h e n o m e n a l in c re a s e in v e g e ta tio n g ro w th d u e to
e n o rm o u s in c re a s e o f n u trie n ts in w a te r b o d ie s.
G lo b a l w a r m in g : re fe rs to g ra d u a l rise in
a tm o s p h e ric a n d su rfa c e (b o th lan d an d sea
s u rfa c e s ) te m p e ra tu re s a n d c o n se q u e n t c h a n g e in
g lo b a l ra d ia tio n b a la n c e c a u se d m a in ly b y a n th ro ­
p o g e n ic p ro c e s s e s su c h as o z o n e d e p le tio n an d
g re e n h o u s e e ffe c ts , le a d in g to c lim a te c h a n g e s at
lo c a l, re g io n a l a n d g lo b a l le v els.
G r e e n h o u se e f f e c t : m ean s ‘p ro g ressiv e w a rm ­
in g -u p o f th e e a r th ’s su rfa c e d u e to b la n k e tin g
e ffe c t o f c a rb o n d io x id e in th e a tm o s p h e re ’.
G re e n h o u s e is a b o d y th a t a llo w s the sh o rtw a v e
in c o m in g s o la r ra d ia tio n to e n te r b u t d o es n o t
a llo w th e lo n g w a v e o u tg o in g te rre s tria l ra d ia tio n
to esc a p e.
H a lo g e n a te d h y d r o c a r b o n s : T h e sy n th e tic
c h e m ic a ls , th e p ro d u c t o f h u m a n a c tiv itie s,
e n te rin g th e m a rin e e c o s y s te m s are k n o w n as
h a lo g e n a te d h y d ro c a rb o n s o r o r g a n o c h lo r in e s (e.g .
D .D .T ., P C B s e tc .).
H y d r o c a r b o n s : H y d ro c a rb o n s (m in e ra l o il)
a re c h e m ic a ls c o m p ris in g tw o m a in e le m e n ts o f
h y d ro g e n a n d c a rb o n a n d a fe w m in o r e le m e n ts
su ch as n itro g e n a n d m e ta ls.
M a r in e p o llu t io n : re fe rs to c o n ta m in a tio n o f
se a w a te r, b y m a n , d ire c tly o r in d ir e c tly , b y
in tro d u c in g s u b s ta n c e s o r e n e rg y in to m a rin e
e n v iro n m e n t to s u c h le v e l th a t s e a w a te r b e c o m e s
in ju rio u s to m a rin e o rg a n is m s .
O il s lic k s : T h e w id e s p r e a d th in film s o f
m in e ra l o ils o n s e a s u rfa c e s p ille d b y o il ta n k e r s in
th e o c e a n s are c a lle d o il s lic k s .
P o llu t a n t : A p o llu ta n t is d e f in e d a n y fo rm o f
e n e rg y o r s u b s ta n c e o r m a tte r o r a c tio n th a t c a u s e s
d is e q u ilib riu m s ta te fro m e q u ilib r iu m s ta te in an y
e x istin g n a tu ra l e c o s y s te m .
P o llu tio n : T h e d is e q u ilib r iu m c o n d itio n
fro m e q u ilib riu m c o n d itio n in a n y s y s te m is
c a lle d p o llu tio n .
S ta n d a r d la b o r a to r y b io a s s a y : is a te c h n iq u e
to m e a su re th e le v e l o f m a rin e p o llu tio n .
S ta n d a rd o p e r a tio n a l d is c h a r g e : T h e s p illa g e
o f p e tro le u m fro m o il ta n k e rs w ith o u t a n y a c c i­
d en ts a lo n g o c e a n ro u te s is c o n s id e re d n o rm a l
situ a tio n , an d is c a lle d ‘s ta n d a rd o p e ra tio n a l
d is c h a rg e ’.
CHAPTER 19: BERMUDA TRIANGLE > 4 5 2 -4 5 4
A rea o f B erm u d a T ria n g le 452
^ D isa p p e a ra n ce o f aircrafts & sh ip s 453
Supernatural ex p la n a tio n s 453
S c ie n tific ex p la n a tio n s 454

Several in c id e n c e s o f d isap p earan ce o f
ships, boats, aircrafts etc. n u m berin g about 170
from the years 1492 to 2001 h ave b een reported in
different so u rces in a triangular area o f the S.W .
North A tlan tic O cean (fig . 1 9 .1 ). T he lo s s ot
%• 19.1 : L o c a tio n o f B e rm u d a T riangle.
BERMUDA TR IA N G L E (Myth or Reality)
F lig h t 19-a group o f U S N a v y T B M A v e n g e r
bom b ers on tra in in g m is s io n d rew th e a tte n tio n o i
m any s c ie n tific and n o n - s c ie n t ic o r g a n iz a tio n s
and in d iv id u a ls. T h is tr ia n g le -s h a p e d area h a s
b een v a rio u sly n a m ed su ch as ‘ B e r m u d a T r i a n g l e ’,
‘Devils T r i a n g l e ’, ‘T h e T r i a n g l e o f D e a t h ’, ‘D e a d l y
B e r m u d a T r i a n g l e ’ etc. S e v e r a l su p e r n a tu r a l a n d
natural, s c ie n tifc and n o n - s c ie n t if ic e x p la n a t io n s
h ave b een o ffe r e d fro m tim e to tim e to s o lv e
th e r id d le o f th e m y s t e r y o f B erm uda
T rian gle.
19 .1 AREA OF BERMUDA TRIA N G LE
It m a y b e m e n tio n e d at th e v e r y o u t s e t th at
‘T h e US B o a r d o f G e o g r a p h i c N a m e s ’ h a s n o t y e t
r e c o g n iz e d B e r m u d a T r ia n g le a s an o f f i c i a l n a m e
and d o e s n o t m a in ta in a n y o f f ic i a l f i l e fo r th is
area.
T h e b o u n d a r ie s o t B e r m u d a T r ia n g le area
are g e n e r a lly d e te r m in e d b y 3 s id e s h a v in g th e ir
a p e x e s at M ia m i in F lo r id a o f th e U S A . S a n Ju an
o f P u erto R ic o a n d B e r m u d a I s la n d . It m a y b e
m e n tio n e d th at th is tr ia n g u la r a rea o f th e S . W .
N o rth A tla n tic O c e a n is o n e o f th e m o s t c r o w d e d
sh ip p in g la n e s in th e w o r ld a n d h e a v ily lo a d e d
w ith flig h ts o f a e r o p la n e s o f s e v e r a l s o r ts .
^ m a j o r d is a p p e a r a n c e s o f s h ip s a n d
a ir c r a f ts
C h r i s t o p h e r C o lu m b u s is c o n sid ered to be the
f i r s t to re p o rt unusual fu n ctio n in g o f m agnetic
c o m p a ss in th e B erm uda T rian g le du rin g his
v o y a g e on 11 O cto b er, 1492. He also re p o rte d the
o c c u rre n c e o f bolt o f fire fallin g into the sea o f this
tria n g le area.
The term Bermuda Triangle became more
familiar and popular between 1964 and 1974 but
G e o rg e X. S a n d defined and demarcated the
triangular area o f S.W. North Atlantic Ocean in
his article ‘Sea M y stery at o u r Back D o o r’ in 1952.
Sand offered non-scientific supernatural explana­
tion for the mysterious disappearance o f Flight
19. But prior to Sand's article first reporting of
unusual disappearance in the Bermuda Area was
made on Sep. 16, 1950.
In 1964 V incent G a d d is published an article
entitled ‘T h e Deadly B e r m u d a T r ia n g le ’ in Argosy
and later on he published a book entitled
‘Invisible H o r iz o n ’. He maintained that disap­
pearances o f Flight 19 and other objects were part
o f strange events in this triangle area.
(a ) In c id e n ts in the S k y
>■ D e c e m b e r s , 1945: Loss o f Flight 19-a group
o f 5 US Navy TBM Avenger bombers on
training mission. All the 14 airmen were
also lost.
> Flig h t P B M M a r i n e r : Bu No. 59225 with 13
airmen took o f f to search Flight 19 on
D ecem b er 5, 1945 but could not return
(was lost).
>• J a n u a r y 30, 1948 : Flight Avro Tudor G-A
H N P Star Tiger with 6 crewmen and 25
passe nger s on board took off from Santa
Maria Airport in the Azores to Kindley
Field o f B e r m u d a but was lost.
D e c e m b e r 2 8 ,1 9 4 8 : Flight Douglas DC-3 NC
16002 with 3 crew members and 36
passengers on board took o f f from San Juan
o f Puertorico to Miami, Florida of USA but
was lost in the area o f Bermuda Triangle.
J a n u a r y 17, 1949 : Flight Avro Tudor G-
A G R E Star Arie with 7 crew me mber s and
13 passen gers on board en route from
Ki ndley Field o f Ber m uda to Kingston
Airpo rt o f Jama ica was lost and could not
reach the destination.
A nd m any more.
( b ) I n c id e n ts at th e Sea
• M a rc h 4 ,1 9 1 8 : Ship V SS C yclops, C ollier
set o f f w ith 309 crew an d passengers from
B arb ad o s to B a ltim o re , M aryland o f the **
U SA but w as lost. \
• J a n u a r y 31, 1921 : S hip C arro ll A. D eering
d isa p p e a re d n e a r C ap e H atteras, N orth
C a ro lin a o f the U SA .
• D e c e m b e r 1, 1925 : S.S. C o to p ax i set off
from C h a rle sto n , South C aro lin a o f the
U SA to H a w a n a o f C u b a but w as lost in the
transit.
• N o v e m b e r 23, 1941 : U SS P ro teu s (A C -9)
w ith 58 p e rso n s on b o ard w ith cargo o f
b au x ite w as lost in th is area.
• D ecem ber, 1941 : U SS N areu s (A C -1 0) ship ^
w ith 61 p erso n s on b o ard w as lost in this
area.
• F e b r u a r y , 1963 : SS M arin e S u p h u r Q u een
cargo ship h a v in g 15,260 to n s o f su lp h u r
and 39 cre w m en w as lo st in th e B erm uda
T rian g le.
>■ A nd m any m o re.
19.3 SUPERNATURAL EXPLANATIONS
M any tria n g le a u th o rs, e le c tro n ic an d print
m ed ia have o ffere d su p er n a tu ra l o r e x tra te rre s ­
trial fo rces for the in c id e n c e s o f d isa p p e a ra n c e s o f
airc ra fts, sh ip s, b o a ts etc. in the so -c a lle d
B erm u d a T rian g le b u t su ch e x p la n tio n s h av e b een
fo rce fu lly re je c te d by th e s c ie n tis ts an d o th e rs on
c o n v in cin g sc ie n tific b a sis as fo llo w s :
>■ L a w r en D a v id K u s c h e a rg u e d th a t
• the c laim s o f th e a d v o c a te s o f m y ste ri­
ous d is a p p e a ra n c e as p a rt o f strange
ev en ts w e re u n fo u n d e d , e x ag g e ra te d ,
d u b io u s an d u n v e rifia b le .
• the n u m b e r o f a irc ra fts a n d sh ip s re­
p o rte d as m is sin g in th e so-called
B e rm u d a T ria n g le w a s n o t g re a te r than M
s im ila r d is a p p e a ra n c e s in o th e r parts o f
the g lo b e .
• so m e o f the re p o rte d d isap p earan ces
n e v e r h a p p e n e d an d th u s w ere false
sta te m e n ts .
• ‘th e le g en d o f t h e B e rm u d a T rian g le is a
m a n u fa c tu re d m y s te r y .’
>* A c c o rd in g to th e re c o rd s o f U n ite d States
C o ast G u a rd th e n u m b e r o f d isap p earan ces
o f a irc ra fts an d sh ip s in th is re g io n is not o f
 1 p r MYT H O R R E A L IT Y )
B E R M U D A T R I A N G L c (M
in comparison to very
m u ch s ig n ific a n c e
large number o f aircrafts and ships which
pass through this area, the Coast Guard
also does not subscribe to the name of
‘triangle’.^
^ Ships and aircrafts behave in this so called
Bermuda Triangle in the same way as they
behave elsewhere in other parts o f the
globe.
>■ Science does not need to explain un­
founded baseless stories o f mysterious
disappearances o f objects like ships and
aircrafts in this area.
19 .4 NATURAL/SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATIONS
The variations in magnetic compasses may
be confined to very small places. It may be
mentioned that there are natural variations in
magnetic com pas ses with reference to magnetic
poles (north and south) and hence such variations
are not caused by any supernaturakphenomenon.
It may further be stressed that disappearances of
ships, aircrafts etc. are not uncommon in the so-
called B er m uda Triangle but such incidents also
occur elsewhere e.g. east o f Japan which is called
‘Death S e a ’.
The following causes have been held
responsible for the incidents o f disappearances of
ships, aircrafts etc. in the Bermuda Triangle by
different authorities from time to time but
recently ‘m e th a n e h y d r a t e s ’ have been accepted as
plausible reason for such incidents.
(1) A n t h r o p o g e n i c F a c to r s
There are intentional and unintentional acts
o f humans which lead to such incidents as
follows :
• such as World Wars I and II and
w a rs,
regional conflicts,
• such as illegal capture o f ships
p ira cy ,
and boats by pirates for extortions,
which happened in the past and still
continues at present, and
• hum an e r r o r , o f h a n d lin g the
a irc ra fts, y a ch ts, b o a ts etc.
(2) Ocean Currents
T h e G u lf S tr e a m , a d e e p a n d w id e o c e a n
Urre n t, o r ig in a tin g in th e M e x ic a n G u l f a n d
m a k in g the w e s te r n b o u n d a r y o f the N o r th
A tla n tic Gy re, flo w in g at the v e lo c ity o f 2.5
m per s econd, is c a p a b le o f c a r r y i n g a w ay
boat s and d e f e c t iv e v e s s e ls ( such as en g in e
failure).
(3) Turbulent Weather
It is known to all that the Caribbean Sea
and S.W. North Atlantic Ocean are the breeding
areas o f furious and destructive atmospheric
storms locally knows as h u r r i c a n e s which have
been responsible for the sinking o f several ships
in the Bermuda Triangle e.g. F r a n c i s c o de
B o b a d i l l ' s S p a n i s h F l e e t sank in 1502. The sinking
o f P r i d e o f B a l t i m o r e in 1986 (May, 14) was
caused by very turbulent weather resulting from
powerful downdraft o f cold air wh er ein the
velocity o f air sudenly increased from 32km /h to
96-144km/h.
(4) Methane Hydrates
Professor Joseph Mon argh an and David
May of the University o f Melbourne, Australia,
opined that gigantic air bubbles er upting from
methane hydrates from the sea beds m ight be
responsible for the sudden disap pe aran ce o f ships
and aircrafts in the B e r m u d a Triangle and
elsewhere in similar situation. Other similar areas
are Sea of Japan and North Sea.
Methane is normally frozen as gas hy drates
due to enormous pressure at the sea bed and is
embedded in the subterranean rocks o f sea flo o r.
Whenever such m ethane hydrates are ex p o s e d due
to faulting or landslides on sea floor th ey are
transformed into gigantic air b u bbles an d m o v e
upward. These air bubbles ex p a n d geo m et ric al ly
as they explod upward. W h e n they reach se a
surface, the density o f sea. water sudd enly
decreases to such an extent -that the floating
objects like ships, vessels boats etc. lo se their
buoy an cy and su dden ly sink to,the b o tto m o f th e
sea.
sh ip s,
S o m e tim e s th e m e th a n e a ir b u b b le s a re so
e n o rm o u s th a t a fte r re a c h in g th e s e a w a te r
s u rfa c e , th e y e x p a n d u p w a rd s a n d o u tw a rd s in th e
a ir a n d u ltim a te ly k n o c k d o w n th e a ir c ra fts in to
th e sea .