Département de Bibliothéconomie et science documentaire

Master 1
-Administration des organismes documentaire et bibliothèque
-Gestion et traitement d l’information
-Archivistique
Module, Langue Anglaise
Enseignant : Benlefki Elhachemi

INTRODUCTION TO SENTENCES
At any top grammatical hierarchy is sentence. While linguistic utterances short of complete sentences
are certainly meaningful, it is through sentences that we convey propositional meaning. Consider the
following exchange between two language users, A and B
A: Would you like fiction or non-fiction?
B: non-fiction, please
What these examples and other examples like them demonstrate is that the function of sentences
corresponds rather loosely to their structural properties. Sentence function is determined in large part
by goals, purposes and communicative intention of the language users who use spoken written
sentence to convey messages to each other
Types of Sentences
In writing and speaking, there are four basic types of sentences that we use for different purposes:
 declarative sentences
 interrogative sentences
 imperative sentences
 exclamatory sentences
These different kinds of sentences in English allow us to express ourselves clearly. Using a variety of
sentences in your writing will add interest and help you get your ideas across effectively. To
communicate clearly, it's important to know the function of each type of sentence so you can make
the right choice, depending on your purpose.
Declarative Sentences
A declarative sentence is the most basic type of sentence. Its purpose is to relay information, and it
is punctuated with a period. For example:
 The boy walked home.
 I love honey.
 He wants to eat cookies, but he doesn't know how to make them.
As you can see, these sentences make statements, whether of fact or opinion. Declarative sentences
can be simple, as in the first two examples, or compound, as in the final example. They can also be in
any tense, as long as they do their basic job of presenting information. This makes them the most
common sentence type.
Interrogative Sentences
Interrogative sentences interrogate, or ask questions. These are direct questions, and they are
punctuated with a question mark. For example:
 Why does the sun shine?
 Whose dog is that?
 Will Sherri get to keep all her lottery winnings?
Many interrogative sentences start with question words like "how" or "why," but others are yes/no
questions that begin with the verb instead of the noun. It is important to remember that interrogative
sentences still require a noun and a verb to be complete.
Exclamatory Sentences
Exclamatory sentences are like declarative sentences in that they make a statement instead of asking
a question, but their main purpose is to express strong emotion. They are easily recognized because
they end in an exclamation point instead of a period:
 I said I wanted tacos instead of pizza!
 How well he sings!
 Wow, he just won a gold medal!
Notice that each one of these examples contains both a subject and a verb, which is still a
requirement for a complete sentence. Exclamatory sentences are often used in casual conversation
and in written dialogue to show emotion, but they are not typically useful in academic or expository
writing. In these more serious works, it's better to make your point with well-written declarative
sentences instead.
Imperative Sentences
Imperative sentences do not simply state a fact but rather tell someone to do something. These can
be in the form of friendly advice, basic instructions or more forceful commands. For example:
 Please shut the door to keep out the bugs.
 Turn left at the bridge.
 Stop bothering me!
Many imperative sentences end in periods, but some of the more forceful demands may end in an
exclamation point to highlight the emotion. You can identify an imperative sentence because it
appears to be missing a subject. However, the command of each imperative is directed at you,
making these sentences second-person. The subject of the sentence may be omitted, but it's called
"you understood" because the reader is aware that each sentence could be written as "you do this" or
"you do that."
Using Different Sentence Types in Your Writing
Though declarative sentences are by far the most common sentence type, they can lead to dull writing
if used exclusively. Take the following paragraph as an example:
I will show you how to make a snowflake. Paper snowflakes are easy to make and can even get
addictive once you learn the techniques. The steps outlined below will help you get started.
All three of these sentences are declarative, so the piece begins to sound a little flat. By contrast, see
what happens when a variety of sentence types are used instead:
Are you ready to learn how to make snowflakes? Paper snowflakes are easy to make, but be careful!
They can get addictive once you learn the basic techniques. Follow the steps below to get started.
As you can see, the paragraph above used one of each of the sentence types, and the result is a more
interesting piece. This is appropriate for writing with a casual, friendly tone, and in many works of
creative writing. Be careful with more formal writing. In the case of expository writing, declarative
sentences are the most appropriate choice.
The Bottom Line
Using the right type of sentence in your writing depends on your intention:
 To relay information or to answer a question, use a declarative sentence.
 To ask a direct question, choose an interrogative sentence.
 To tell someone what to do, use an imperative sentence.
 To show extra emotion use an exclamatory sentence (but as a rule of thumb these should be used
sparingly).
Your writing will benefit from a clear understanding and correct usage of all four types of sentences.
In addition, try to vary your sentence structure between simple, compound, and complex sentence
construction. Too many simple sentences may lose the reader's interest.

References:
Luis Cummings (2018) Working with English Grammar, Cambridge University press
E-source: https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/grammar/sentences/types-of-sentences.html
 THE FOUR FUNCTIONS OF SENTENCES: TYPES OF SENTENCES

Exercise 1
Recognizing the four functions of sentences. Identify the type of each sentence below.
Use D for declarative, INT for interrogative, IMP for imperative, and E for exclamatory.

1. Please correct your misspelled words now. ________________

2. Ginseng is an herb used for medicinal purposes. ________________
3. What a terrible accident! ________________
4. Which artist do you admire the most? ________________
5. Mary Pickford starred in My Best Girl. ________________
6. How many videotapes do you have in your collection? ________________
7. Drive to the first traffic light and turn right. ________________
8. How happy we all are today! ________________
9. In Greek mythology, Orpheus wrote beautiful music. ________________
10. Stop that shouting at once! ________________

Exercise2

Writing sentences with different uses. Write a sentence according to the directions given for each
of the following items.

1. Write an imperative sentence that begins with a verb.

________________________________________________________________________________
2. Write an interrogative beginning with Which.
_________________________________________________________________________________
3. Write a declarative sentence about your favorite hobby or pastime.
_________________________________________________________________________________
4. Write an exclamatory sentence beginning with How.
_________________________________________________________________________________
5. Write a sentence about music you enjoy. Identify which type of sentence it is.
_________________________________________________________________________________

What type of sentence is this? ________________

Adapted from Writing and Grammar Exercise Workbook, pg. 97-98

 Département de Bibliothéconomie et science documentaire
Master 1
-Administration des organismes documentaire et bibliothèque
-Gestion et traitement d l’information
-Archivistique
Module, Langue Anglaise
Enseignant : Benlefki Elhachemi

Place of Library in Dissemination of Information

PARTE 1: READING COMPREHENSION

Libraries, through their books, are actually repositories of information and knowledge.
Information is indispensable for any human activity aiming at social progress. The researcher, the
teacher, the student, the administrator, the industrial and business manager, the artisan, the
entrepreneur, the farmer, the worker in the factory and the field, all need information to equip,
themselves better for the fruitful pursuit of their respective vocations. The basic information role of
the library is to collect material containing information through appropriate methods. It is primarily
in this sense that a library is described as an information centre. But a library also has an
information role in the sense of providing information relating to the socio-economic needs of the
people. Similarly, well-produced “how-to-do-it” type of books would be helpful in providing
guidance to youngsters wanting to start some enterprise. In short, a library should be so equipped
and organised that it will be able to serve its community with all types of information that may be in
actual or potential demand. Libraries also are undergoing a very drastic transformation in all aspects
of their growth. The changes that are occurring in different facets of human life in modern society
can be seen in some aspects. Pressures exerted by the population explosion. Socio-economic
changes. Political and educational changes. Research and development in the scientific and
technological fields. Industry, trade and business. Government and administration factors and
Cultural changes take place in the fine arts and music, in the show business, in films, satellite TV,
etc.
All these factors have radically changed the conventional functions of the library. The new
demands of users have to be met by several activities based upon documentation, information
analysis, consolidation and repackaging, computer based information systems, etc. that have sprung
up in the last 30 years. Many of these developments have also provided new opportunities for
commercialisation of information products and services, thus paving the way for an information
industry which is growing and flourishing steadily. These rapidly changing roles of the library have
made an eminent information scientist to remark that “in a metaphorical sense, we are moving from
a Ptolemaic world with the library at the centre to a Copernican one with information at the centre
and the library as one of its planets” (Robert S. Taylor).
The above statement vividly brings out the changing dimensions of knowledge and information and
the institutional mechanism to handle them. Now, information is at the centre, while earlier the
library was at the centre. Although the library essentially handles information and knowledge, the
institutional mechanism to meet the demands of users in an information society has expanded by
properly organising and operating many of the modern information systems and services.

Adapted from: Foundation of library and information science, lovely professional university 2018
Further reading
Henderson, Kathrine A. (2009), Case Studies in Library and Information Science Ethics, McFarland.
Prasher, Ram Gopal (1997), Library and Information Science: Information science, information technology and its application,
Concept Publishing Company.

PARTE 2 SELF ASSESSMENT:

1- Explain the underline quotation said by (Robert S. Taylor)

2- State whether the statement is true or false

a. Now, information is at the centre, while earlier the library was at the centre
b. Educational changes do not take place in the fine arts and music
c. New institutional mechanisms are being set up with the introduction of structural
innovation
d. repositories of information and knowledge are found through books in libraries
e. There are many factors that have taken in last few decades that changed the face of
libraries’ functions.
 Département de Bibliothéconomie et science documentaire
Master 1
-Administration des organismes documentaire et bibliothèque
-Gestion et traitement d l’information
-Archivistique
Module, Langue Anglaise
Enseignant : Benlefki Elhachemi

5 LAWS OF LIBRARIANSHIP
“When we say that a library grows, what we mean is that each of its components grows”
Michael Gorman

PARTE1: Read the following and use dictionary if necessary

Michael Gorman theorizes that there are new 5 laws of librarianship which controls the
landscape of library

1. Libraries serve humanity: This law covers the assistance of individuals and implies a desire to
provide a quality service which exceeds the user’s expectations.
2. Respect all forms by which knowledge is communicated: Gorman advocates the use of various forms
of knowledge and information.
3. Use technology intelligently to enhance service librarians: Gorman suggests that librarians embrace
technological advances, although print-on-paper remains the primary medium for the communication of
knowledge. Technology should be utilized to improve services, solve problems, and achieve cost-
effectiveness.
4. Protect free access to knowledge: Allowing the records of the past to disappear is a form of
censorship, which goes against a librarian’s belief and job description.
5. Honour the past and create the future: Gorman advocates the need to balance nostalgia for a pre-
digital past with the need to embrace new technologies if they greatly enhance the library service.
Adapted from: Our Singular Strengths [American Library Association, 1998].

PARTE 2: Write short essay you discuss the importance of those laws in librarianship:

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 Département de Bibliothéconomie et science documentaire
Master 1
-Administration des organismes documentaire et bibliothèque
-Gestion et traitement d l’information
-Archivistique
Module, Langue Anglaise
Enseignant : Benlefki Elhachemi

PART 1: Read the following paragraph use your dictionary ?

PART 2
Translate the paragraph into Arabic?

Paragraph in Arabic ‫الفقرة بالعربية‬

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 Département de Bibliothéconomie et science documentaire
Master 1
-Administration des organismes documentaire et bibliothèque
-Gestion et traitement d l’information
-Archivistique
Module, Langue Anglaise
Enseignant : Benlefki Elhachemi

Information and communication technology ICT

Technological innovation, for example, is enabling us to create "brave new worlds"... But automated
environments are unfamiliar worlds. Our old intuitive habits of evaluation, which are adequate for
determining what is best in traditional worlds, are inadequate in new and different settings
(Severson 1995,13).

Technology plays a major role in the world in which we live, Information Communication
Technology (ICT) is an integral part of almost everyone’s life; be it at work, in education or socially. It is
felt paramount that children are exposed to technology and are given the opportunity to develop the skills
required. Teaching staff should integrate technology effectively into their teaching to create an inclusive,
innovative and exciting learning environment
ICT stands for Information Communication Technology It is widespread and essential to play a
meaningful role in changing and modernizing educational systems as well as the way of learning. It is
part of many aspects of our daily lives.
It refers to the technology that access to information. It includes any product that will store,
restore, operate, or receive information in a digital form. It is similar to IT that ICT focus more on
communication which includes internet, wireless network and other communication mediums. There are
some examples of ICT tools, such as computing industry, telecommunications, and electronic display.
The computing industry includes Internet, computer hardware and software. Internet means a
worldwide system of interconnected networks and computers. As we know that it is very useful for
everyone today. For example, there are 5 out of 10 students using their iPad to search information while
teacher is teaching. It is general and easy to have internet in the 21st century.
As a result, modern information and communication technologies make a way for people to
communicate with others across the world. For this reason, it is often affects the education today.
Moreover, ICT in education can also be broadly categorized in the following way as a subject (computer
studies), a tool to support traditional subjects (computer- based learning, presentation, research) and as an
administrative tool (education management information systems). It does not have only great impact on
education but also provided some bad impact to the educators. Similarly, ICT also has some great impact
on practitioners and schools.

Adapted from:
Essays, UK. (November 2013). Positive And Negative Impacts That Ict On Education Education Essay. Retrieved
https://www.ukessays.com/essays/education/positive-and-negative-impacts-that-ict-on-education-education-
essay.php?vref=1

QUESTION 1:
Rephrase the underline quotation?

QUESTION 2:
Summarize the text in 5 lines ? with your own English ?
 Département de Bibliothéconomie et science documentaire
Master 1
-Administration des organismes documentaire et bibliothèque
-Gestion et traitement d l’information
-Archivistique
Module, Langue Anglaise
Enseignant : Benlefki Elhachemi

Information and communication technology ICT

in library and information science

PART1- READING COMPREHENSION

A library plays an important role in the academic institution providing access to world-class
information resources and services and stimulates academic research in the country. Hence, the
success of any educational institution depends upon its library, as library services are fundamental,
which affect the whole educational system. University libraries being part of higher education are
no exception. University libraries support learning, teaching, research and other educational
functions appropriate to their parent institutions. The special collections cater to the needs, not
only for teaching and learning but also for research, publication, conservation of ideas and
knowledge. The new technologies especially electronic technologies have contributed to the
radical changes in LIS and practice.
The phrase ICT had been used by academic researchers since the 1950s, information and
communication technology has induced traditional libraries to transform into digital libraries. The
libraries have transformed from close-access libraries of earlier times to the present day hybrid,
digital, and virtual libraries. Librarians have been changed from mere storekeepers who were
concerned with the protection of books against theft, mutilation, and pilferage, to that of
information officers, navigators, and cybrarians who encourages use in the vast ocean of reading
or information material. They are busy satisfying their clients who want information anytime, any
format and anywhere. University libraries provide quicker and user-oriented services with the use
of ICT.
The library is an important component of any educational institution or college or university,
which is the hub of the teaching, learning and research activities where students, researcher, and
teachers can explore the vast resources of information. In the traditional libraries, users have to
spend more time searching a small piece of information and for that have to depend mainly on the
LIS professional or library staff. But in the age of information communication technology,
Internet and computers are being used for day-to-day housekeeping activity of the library which
saves the time of the end users, and LIS professional also and at the same time avoid duplication
of work and make the library service smooth and effective.
The availability of the right information at the right time and in the right form is of utmost
importance to users for their knowledge and developmental activities. Developments in
information and communication technology-ICT have greatly changed the methods of information
handling. ICT may be any combination of tools and procedures that facilitate the generation,
acquisition, storage, organization, retrieval, searching, viewing, updating and transmission of
information using electronic means. The tools used in ICT include computer programs, databases,
communication networks, analysis and design methods, programming languages, artificial
intelligence, knowledge bases, etc. ICT has long-standing influence in almost all areas of human
activity. Over the past two decades, libraries have become increasingly aware of the revolutionary
impact of developments in information and communication technology on their key functions. The
application of ICT facilitates easy and instantaneous access to information. It provides
opportunities for libraries and information centers to widen the scope of their resources and
services and to increase their significance within the organization they serve. The increasing
availability of information in machine-readable form allows much information needs to be
satisfied with the decreased involvement of library and librarians.
Adapted from:
K.m, P. (2018). Use of ict resources and services at state university libraries in Gujarat a study. Retrieved
from: http://hdl.handle.net/10603/247168

Vocabulary:

ICT: Information and communication technology

Institution: an organization founded for a religious, educational, professional, or social purpose.
LIS: Library and information science
Digital libraries: s a collection of documents in organized electronic form, available on the Internet or on
CD-ROM (compact-disk read-only memory) disks
Hybrid library: A library which is partly electronic and partly physical. It has a physical space with both
the physical and electronic resources
Cybrarian: a compound of cyber and librarian) is a library and information science professional that
specializes in using the Internet as a resource tool.
Information: knowledge obtained from investigation, study, or instruction, knowledge obtained from
investigation, study, or instruction
Data: facts and statistics collected together for reference or analysis
Database: a structured set of data held in a computer, especially one that is accessible in various ways.
Artificial intelligence (AI): refers to the simulation of human intelligence in machines that are
programmed to think like humans and mimic their actions. The term may also be applied to any machine
that exhibits traits associated with a human mind such as learning and problem-solving.

PART2- SELF ASSESSMENT

Fill in the blanks:
In general sense library allows students and users to……………………..to world-class
information resources, it is important and ……………………..in effecting education landscape,
electronic technology has…………………….the shape of library and information science from
traditional library into …………………….. and library service through ICT
becomes………………...and easy to control as well as it gives information centers to easily find
……………………and…………………..at the right time and in the right form.
 Département de Bibliothéconomie et science documentaire
Master 1
-Administration des organismes documentaire et bibliothèque
-Gestion et traitement d l’information
-Archivistique
Module, Langue Anglaise
Enseignant : Benlefki Elhachemi

MISSING WORDS LANGUAGE OF LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE

Complete the passage below, choosing your words from the box
Library Catalogue Open Access (OA) Copyright
Periodicals Reference Record
Dissemination Manuscripts Bibliography
Information systems (IS) Formal Education Documentation
Academic Library Public Library Author:
Technology Information society Metadata:
Digitization Librarianship:

1-……………………..: A society in which the central instrument of change, force and direction is
information and knowledge.
2-………………: It is any document written by hand, as opposed to being printed or reproduced in
some other way.
3- …………………….: It is a register of all bibliographic items found in a library or group of libraries,
such as a network of libraries at several locations.
4- …………………..: It is the practice of providing unrestricted access via the Internet to peer-
reviewed scholarly research.
5- …………………….: They are publications which are issued at regular intervals, such as journals,
magazines, and newspapers.
6-…………………….: Usually come at the end of a text (essay or research report) and should contain
only those works cited within the text.
7- ……………………: Means the disclosure of knowledge by any appropriate means (e.g. publications,
conferences, workshops, web-based activities).
8-…………………….: It is classroom-based, provided by trained teachers. Informal education happens
outside the classroom, in after-school programs, community-based organizations, museums, libraries, or
at home.
9- ……………………….: It is defined as the study of complementary networks of hardware and
software that people and organizations use to collect, filter, and process, create, and distribute data.
10-…………………: It is a form of protection given to the authors or creators of “original works of
authorship,” including literary, dramatic, musical, artistic and other intellectual works.
11-……………..…: Document that memorializes and provides objective evidence of activities
performed, events occurred, results achieved, or statements made.
12- ………………….: It is a body of knowledge used to create tools, develop skills, and extract or
collect materials.
13-…………………..: It is a library that is accessible by the general public and is generally funded
from public sources (such as taxes) and operated by civil servants.
14- ……………………..: It is a library attached to an academic institution i.e. an institution engaged in
teaching and or research and imparting formal education to students who aspire to complete a particular
course under a prescribed syllabus.
15-…………………..: Manuals, instructions, tutorials, procedures, specifications, etc., that accompany
a piece of equipment or software, and provide guidance for its proper use and maintenance.
16-……………..…: A list of books, articles, and other sources you use when researching a topic and
writing a paper.
17- ……………………: A representation of an object, image, sound, document or a signal (usually an
analog signal) by a discrete set of its points or samples.
18- …………………It is the data which describes the content and attributes of any particular item in a
digital library.
19- ………………… Broadly it defined as “the person who originated or gave existence to anything”
and whose authorship determines responsibility for what was created.
20- ……………………A profession concerned with acquiring and organizing collections of books and
related materials in libraries and servicing readers and others with these resources.
 Grammar and Phonetics
Forever Focus
By Yassine
Summary of English language lessons

Modals Prefix & suffix

These modals express: Prefix: it comes before the word and changes its meaning.

- 𝑀𝑢𝑠𝑡 ⟼ Strong obligation - Opposites

- 𝑀𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑛’𝑡 ⟼ Prohibition “forbidden”
- 𝐻𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 ⟼ Necessity Agree ⟼ disagree Moral ⟼ immoral
𝑑𝑜𝑛′ 𝑡 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 Legal ⟼ illegal Fair ⟼ unfair
⟼ Lack (absence) of obligation Direct ⟼ indirect Responsible ⟼irresponsible
- 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑛′𝑡
′
𝑑𝑜𝑛 𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜
𝐻𝑎𝑑 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟
Suffix: it comes after the word and changes its form to an
- 𝑠𝑕𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 ⟼ Advice
𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑡𝑜 adjective, an adverb, a noun, a verb.
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑
- ⟼ Remote possibility (15%) Example:
𝑚𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡
𝑚𝑎𝑦
- ⟼ Possibility (50%) - The suffix “ty” is added to an adjective to form a noun.
𝑐𝑎𝑛
𝐼𝑡 ′ 𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑦 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡
- ⟼ Probability (80%) Stupid ⟼ Stupidity
𝐼𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑦
- 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑦 ⟼ Certainty (100%) - The suffix “y” is added to a noun to form an adjective.

The “ing” form: Spice ⟼ Spicy

 As a past of verb called participle. Conditionals
Examples: I’m waiting, I’m playing. We have four types of conditionals:

 As a noun or gerund. Type zero: T 0

Example: The eating of GMF’s might harmful. If + Verb in present simple, Verb in present simple.

 As an adjective. Eg: If you heat water, it boils.

Example: This book is more interesting than that one.  T 0 is used to describe a general or scientific truth.

Stative (state) & action verb Type one: T 1

A state verb: is a verb which describes a states (has not a
well defined beginning & the end)
Examples: like, agree, believe, dislike, deserve, love, enjoy,
prefer, hate, dread, and mind.
If + Verb in present simple, verb in future (will + stem)
Eg: If she works hard, she will go to university.
 The situation in T 1 is possible to happen.

 A state verb is usually use in the present form Type two: T 2

 A state verb can’t be progressive
If + Verb in past simple, would + stem
(Continuous form (“ing” form)).
Eg: If I were you, I would buy a car.
An action verb: is a verb which describes an action or an
event (has a specific beginning & the end).  The situation in T 2 is impossible to happen (an
imaginary situation).
Examples: go, stop, come, start, achieve, write, win,
Describe, Search, and Replace.

 An action verb can be used in simple and continuous

form (“ing” form) (progressive)
 By Yassine Forever
Summary of English language lessons

Type three: T 3 Content & structure (function) words

If + Verb in past perfect, would have + past participle Sentences contain two kind of word:

Eg: If I had read the question well, I would have taken the Content words: are necessary and contain the meaning.
best mark.
- Main verb (play, go, work…).
 The situation in T 3 is a regret about an event that had - Nouns.
happened in the past - Adjectives (serious, nice…).
- Adverbs (carefully, quickly…).
Quantifiers - Demonstratives pronouns (this, that…).
𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑦 - Negative auxiliaries (wasn’t, couldn’t…).
- 𝑓𝑒𝑤 for countable nouns. - Yes, No (auxiliary) questions.
𝑚𝑢𝑐𝑕 - Wh questions.
- for uncountable nouns.
𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒
𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑓 Structure (function) words: they make the sentences correct
- for countable & uncountable nouns(both).
𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 grammatically.
𝑠𝑢𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 Pronouns (I, he, they…).
= 𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑕 (It’s the right quantity). -
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒
- Prepositions (on, the, at, to, under…).
𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑛𝑜𝑡
not𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑕
enough (It isn’t the right quantity). - Articles (a, an, the).
- Conjunctions (but, and, because…).
The excessive and the insufficient of something: - Auxiliary verbs (is, are, do, have, can…).

𝑡𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑢𝑐𝑕 ⟼ 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑠 Content words are stressed.

An excessive amount:
𝑡𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑦 ⟼ 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑠 Note:
Structure words are not stressed.
𝑡𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 ⟼ 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑠 Comparatives & superlatives
An insufficient amount:
𝑡𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑒𝑤 ⟼ 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑠
Comparatives
Used for & Used to
We must have two elements to compare.
𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜
are verbs used to describe purpose and function
𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 - Superiority
of objects
Short adjectives: adjectives of one syllable
 Used to + stem (a verb without “to”)
Eg: It’s used to cut wood. Adj + er + than (Eg: she is taller than me.)
 Used for + verb+ing (gerund)
Long adjectives: adjectives of two or more syllables
Eg: It’s used for cutting wood.
More + adj + than (Eg: meat is more expensive than
How …? chicken.)
How: is a word question used for ask about dimension and - Equality
size of objects.
As + adj + as (she is as intelligent as her brother.)
- How tall…? ⟼ Height
- How long…? ⟼ Height - Inferiority:
- How high…? ⟼ Height
- How far…? ⟼ Distance Less + adj + than (he is less intelligent than me.)
- How fast…? ⟼ Speed
- How deep…? ⟼ Depth Not as + adj + as (our garden is not as large as yours).
- How wide…? ⟼ Width
- How much…? ⟼ Weight Not so + adj + as
 By Yassine Forever
Summary of English language lessons

Superlatives: Unless
We compare one element to a group or a whole. Unless: expresses warning.

- Superiority: Unless = If … not

Short adjectives: adjectives of one syllable  Unless + an affirmative verb

The + Adj + est. (Eg: Uranus is the biggest planet in the
solar system.)
Long adjectives: adjectives of two or more syllables
The most + adj. (Eg: English is the most important
language in the world.)
- Inferiority:
Unless + verb present, Future (will + stem).
(Will not = won’t)
Example: Unless you revise your lessons, you won’t pass
your exam.
The real meaning: If you don’t revise your lessons, you
won’t pass your exam.

The least + adj. (Eg: the cat is the least dangerous animal.) Articles
Adjectives ⟼ Comparatives ⟼ Superlatives Indefinite articles:
Well/good ⟼ Better ⟼ The best
Bad ⟼ Worse ⟼ The worst a: is used before consonants (sound).
Far ⟼ Farther ⟼ The farthest
Many ⟼ More ⟼ The most an: is used before vowels (sound).
Much ⟼ More ⟼ The most
Little ⟼ Less ⟼ The least - We use it before countable nouns that are unknown:
Similarity & difference
Eg: a table, a car, a house.
Expressing Similarity:
- We use it before names of profession (jobs).
We use these expressions: like, the same as, such as, both,
similar to, too. Eg: a doctor, a painter.

Examples: - We use it before measurement.

Eg: a liter, an hour.

- She is intelligent like her brother.
- Both she and her brother are intelligent. Definite articles: (the)
- She is intelligent the same as (such as) her brother.
- She is similar to her brother, they are intelligent. - We use it before adjectives to specify the category
- She is intelligent, her brother too. of people.

Expressing difference: Eg: the homeless, the poor, the jobless, the rich.

We use these expressions: unlike, whereas, while, but, - We use it before an object that is the only one.
different from, in contrast to.
Eg: the moon, the earth, the pyramids.
Examples:
- When we talk about institutions.
- Unlike Algeria, U.S.A is a developed country.
- Algeria is different from U.S.A. Eg: the radio, the bank, the television.
- U.S.A is a developed country but (while, whereas)
- When we refer to a class of animals.
Algeria is not.
- U.S.A is a developed country in contrast to Algeria. Eg: the tiger is a dangerous animal.
 By Yassine Forever
Summary of English language lessons

Zero articles: (∅) no article is used. Concession

- Before uncountable nouns. (money, oil …) Expressing concession:

- Before abstract nouns. (Peace, happiness…)
- Before names of people & places. We can express concession using a number of conjunctional
- Before plural nouns. phrases: although, even though, though, despite, in spite of.

Purpose (goal) 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑕𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑕

- 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑕 + Subject + verb …
Expressing purpose: 𝑡𝑕𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑕

We can express purpose using a number of conjunctional Examples: Although it rained a lot, we enjoyed our holiday.
phrases: to, so as to, in order to, so that, in order that.
𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓
- + A Noun phrase or a Gerund.
𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑒
- Subject + verb + 𝑠𝑜 𝑎𝑠 𝑡𝑜 + stem.
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 Examples:

Examples:  In spite of being ill, she went to school.

 Despite her illness, she went to school.
 John went to the station to meet his parents.
 I study in order to succeed. Note:

There are also negative forms: 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡

+ Subject + verb…
𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡
𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑜
- Subject + verb + 𝑠𝑜 𝑎𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑜 + stem. Examples: we enjoyed our holiday despite the fact that it
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑜 rained a lot.
Examples:
Formation of plural
The soldiers moved at night, so as not to alarm the villagers. - The plural of the most nouns is formed by ending “s”
𝑠𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡
- + Subject + verb (model). Boy ⟼ Boys
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡
Girl ⟼ Girls
Example: Book ⟼ books
- Nouns ending in “s, ch, sh, x, z” we add “es”
I leave the window open so that the cat can get out.
Brush ⟼ brushes
Note: Kiss ⟼ kisses
Match ⟼ matches
- The Present purpose: we use these models - Most nouns ending in “o” also form their plural by
adding “es” to the singular.
𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙
𝑠𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡
+ Subject + 𝑐𝑎𝑛 + stem. Hero ⟼ heroes
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑦 Potato ⟼ potatoes
Volcano ⟼ volcanoes
- The past purpose: - Note that a few nouns ending in “o” merely add “s”.
𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑
𝑠𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 Dynamo ⟼ dynamos
+ Subject + 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 + stem. ⟼
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡
Piano pianos
Photo ⟼ photos
Logo ⟼ logos
Example:
Kilo ⟼ kilos
We took an umbrella so that we wouldn’t get wet.
 By Yassine Forever
Summary of English language lessons

- Nouns ending in a consonant “y”: Word formation

 Before “y” a consonant, we change “y” into “ies”
We can form verbs by adding the suffix “en” to some
Lady ⟼ ladies adjectives.
City ⟼ cities
 Before “y” a vowel, we add “s” - Wide + en ⟼ widen.
- Bright + en ⟼ brighten.
boy ⟼ boys - Short + en ⟼ shorten.
- Nouns ending in “f” or “fe”, we form their plural by
changing “f” or “fe” into “ves”. The prefix “self” is added to some adjectives

Wife ⟼ wives 𝒎𝒚𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒇

Leaf ⟼ leaves 𝒚𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒇
Half ⟼ halves 𝒉𝒊𝒎𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒇
Except some nouns like: Self refer to: 𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒇
𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒔
Chief ⟼ Chiefs 𝒚𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒔
Gulf ⟼ Gulfs 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒔
Safe ⟼ Safes
Proof ⟼ Proofs Example: He is a self-educated person.
Invariable nouns ending in “s” or “es”:
He is educated himself.
News, Series, species, Billiards, Dominoes
Expressing like & dislike:
Some nouns form their plural by mutation:
𝑒𝑛𝑗𝑜𝑦
Foot ⟼ feet 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 + Gerund (verb + “ing”).
-
Tooth ⟼ teeth 𝑑𝑜𝑛′ 𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑑
Goose ⟼ geese 𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑
Man ⟼ men 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒
Ox ⟼ oxen 𝑙𝑜𝑣𝑒
Child ⟼ children - 𝑕𝑎𝑡𝑒 + Gerund or to + stem (infinitive).
𝑐𝑎𝑛′ 𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒
Silent letter - It is better + to + stem.
- Would rather + stem (a verb without “to”).
A silent letter is a letter which is written and not
pronounced. Each other & one another
- k before n at the beginning. ⟼ Knife Compound pronoun, they express reciprocity.
- p before s at the beginning. ⟼ Psychology
- b before t at the end. ⟼ Dept Each other: is used to refer to two persons only.
- b after m at the end. ⟼ Lamb
- l before d ⟼ Should Eg: Women kiss each other.
Students join
- l before f ⟼ Half
- l before k ⟼ Walk One another: is used to refer to more than two (a group)
- s before l ⟼ Island
- w before r at the beginning ⟼ Write Eg: players hug one another when they score.
- t in the middle of some words ⟼ Castle
- d in the middle of some words ⟼ Wednesday Type of questions
- g before n at the end ⟼ Foreign
- n after m at the end ⟼ Autumn We have two types of questions:
- h at the beginning ⟼ Honest
- gh ⟼ High - Reference question: is a direct question.
- r before consonant ⟼ Bird
- Inference question: is a indirect question, you
- h before the sounds 𝑘; 𝑑; 𝑡 ⟼ Ask him
have to read between the lines to find the answer.
 By Yassine Forever
Summary of English language lessons

Stress 𝑐𝑦
𝑡𝑕𝑦
Definition: 𝑡𝑦
𝑝𝑕𝑦
Stress is an extra force used when pronouncing a e. Word ending in “ 𝑔𝑦 ” are all stressed on the 3rd
particular word or syllable. 𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
- A prefix is not stressed 𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑒𝑛𝑡
- A suffix in not stressed
syllable from the end.
- ə schwa is never stressed
a. A word of one syllable has stress on the first letter. Eg: competence, identical, democracy.

Eg: hot, teach, got, take. 𝑖𝑛

𝑖𝑚
b. A word of two syllables: 𝑖𝑙
- A noun has stress on the 1𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒. f. Word with prefix “ 𝑖𝑟 ” are stressed on the root.
𝑢𝑛
Eg: teacher, actor, English. 𝑑𝑖𝑠
𝑚𝑖𝑠
- An adjective has stress on the 1𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒.
Eg: impossible, disagree, mislead, irregular, illegal.
Eg: happy, sunny, stupid.
g. Word with suffixes like: ee, eer, ese are stressed on the
- A adverb has stress on the 1𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒. suffix itself.

Eg: under, over, always, never, after. Eg: trainee, engineer, Japanese.

- A verb has stress on the 2nd syllable. h. Word with the following suffixes are stressed on the
syllable before them.
Eg: correct, present. - Ish - Ive - Ian
- Ity - Ia - Ient
c. Most word of three syllables words: nouns, verbs, - Aty - Ial - Ious
adjectives, adverbs are stressed on 1st syllable.

Eg: difficult, consider, photograph. Eg: university, society, expensive.

But: remember, together, advisor.

- Nouns ending by “ion” are stressed on the syllable

before the last.

Eg: addition, solution.

d. Words ending in “ic” are stressed on the 2nd syllable from

the end.

Eg: graphic, sympathetic.

 By Yassine Forever
Summary of English language lessons

Phonetics Examples:

The final “s”: Simple Present: Rita writes a letter.

The final “s” is pronounced in different ways, - A letter is written by Rita.

according the “Sound” before:
Simple Past: Rita wrote a letter.
- “s” is pronounced 𝑠 after: 𝑝; 𝑡; 𝑘; 𝑓; 𝜃
- “s” is pronounced 𝑖𝑧 after: 𝑠; 𝑧; ; 𝑡 ; 𝐷𝜁 - A letter was written by Rita.
- “s” is pronounced 𝑧 after:
Present Perfect: Rita has written a letter.
 Vowels: goes.
 Nasals sounds: cleans. - A letter has been written by Rita.
 Voiced sounds: drives.
Future simple: Rita will write a letter.
The final “ed”:
- A letter will be written by Rita.
The final “ed” is pronounced in different ways,
according the “Sound” before: Modals: Rita can write a letter.

- “s” is pronounced 𝑡 after: 𝑝; 𝑘; 𝑓; 𝜃; ; 𝑡 ; 𝑠 - A letter can be written by Rita.

- “s” is pronounced 𝑖𝑑 after: 𝑡; 𝑑
- “s” is pronounced 𝑑 after: Present Progressive (Continuous): Rita is writing a letter.
 Vowels: prayed.
 Nasals sounds: cleaned. - A letter is being written by Rita.
 Voiced sounds: traveled.
Past Progressive (Continuous): Rita was writing a letter.
Active & Passive Voice - A letter was being written by Rita.
Use of Passive: Past Perfect: Rita had written a letter.

- Passive voice is used when the focus is on the - A letter had been written by Rita.
action. It is not important or not known, however,
who or what is performing the action. Future perfect: Rita will have written a letter.
- Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than
active voice
- A letter will have been written by Rita.
Form of Passive:
Conditional simple: Rita would write a letter.

Subject (the Object in active) + finite form of to be + Past - A letter would be written by Rita.
Participle (3rd column of irregular verbs) + Object (the
Subject in active). Conditional perfect: Rita would have written a letter.

When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the - A letter would have been written by Rita.
following:
Pronouns
 the object of the active sentence becomes the subject - I - Me
of the passive sentence - She - Her
 the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past - He - His
participle) - It - It
 the subject of the active sentence becomes the object - You - You
of the passive sentence (or is dropped) - We - Us
- They - Them
 By Yassine Forever
Summary of English language lessons

How to ask a question - Whose: possession

“Wh” question: Whose + noun + aux + subject + verb?

Wh + Auxiliary + Subject + Verb? a) The pen is mine.

b) Whose pen is it?
 If the auxiliary exist we don’t change the tense of
the verb. - Which: choice
 If the auxiliary doesn’t exist we use the infinitive of
the verb. Which + noun + aux + subject + verb?

Example: a) They took the blue Jacket.

b) Which jacket did they take?
The lion eats the meats. (Subject, verb, object)
- How: manner
- What eats the meats? (subject) (we replace the a) She feels better now.
subject by “Wh”) b) How does she feel now?
- What does the lion do? (verb)
- What does the lion eat? (Object)  How often: (Always, Usually, Often,
Sometimes, Never).
WH Question Words: a) He sometimes visits his friend.
b) How often does he visit his friend?
- Who: subject person.
 How long: period of time (duration).
a) His mother prepares the lunch.
a) The exam lasted two hours.
b) Who prepares the lunch?
b) How long did the exam last?
Subject (thing / animal)
 How many: countable nouns (numbers).
- What: 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑏
a) Three pupils got a good mark.
𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 (thing / animal)
b) How many pupils got a good mark?
a) The lion eats the meats.
b) What does the lion eat?
a) They will visit four towns in the country.
b) How many towns will they visit?
- Whom: Object person.
a) She phoned to her friend.
 How much: uncountable nouns (quantity).
b) Whom did she phone to?
a) He put some sugar in the cup.
b) How much sugar did he put in the cup?
- When: Time (Last, next, yesterday, tomorrow).
a) She will have an exam next week.
b) When will she have an exam?

- Where: Place.
a) She is leaving to Paris.
b) Where is she leaving?

- Why: Cause (reason).

a) They move to new house because the first one is too
old.
b) Why do they move to new house?

- What … for: purpose, goal (to, in order to, so as to).

a) They are working hard to succeed
b) What are they working hard for?

Mr.Benlefki Elhachemi