Concept of training and development

Training can be introduced simply as a process of assisting a person for enhancing his efficiency and
effectiveness to a particular work area by getting more knowledge and practices. Also training is
important to establish specific skills, abilities and knowledge to an employee. For an organization,
training and development are important as well as organizational growth, because the organizational
growth and profit are also dependent on the training. But the training is not a core of organizational
development. It is a function of the organizational development.

Training is different form education; particularly formal education. The education is concerned mainly
with enhancement of knowledge, but the aims of training are increasing knowledge while changing
attitudes and competences in good manner. Basically the education is formulated with in the
framework and to syllabus, but the training is not formed in to the frame and as well as syllabus. It
may differ from one employee to another, one group to another, even the group in the same class.
The reason for that can be mentioned as difference of attitudes and skills from one person to another.
Even the situation is that, after good training programme, all different type skilled one group of
employees can get in to similar capacity, similar skilled group. That is an advantage of the trainings.

In the field of Human Resources Management, Training and Development is the field concern with
organizational activities which are aimed to bettering individual and group performances in
organizational settings. It has been known by many names in the field HRM, such as employee
development, human resources development, learning and development etc. Training is really
developing employees’ capacities through learning and practicing.

Training and Development is the framework for helping employees to develop their personal and
organizational skills, knowledge, and abilities. The focus of all aspects of Human Resource
Development is on developing the most superior workforce so that the organization and individual
employees can accomplish their work goals in service to customers.

All employees want to be valuable and remain competitive in the labour market at all times, because
they make some demand for employees in the labour market. This can only be achieved through
employee training and development. Hence employees have a chance to negotiate as well as employer
has a good opportunity to select most suitable person for his vacancy. Employees will always want to
develop career-enhancing skills, which will always lead to employee motivation. There is no doubt that
a well trained and developed staff will be a valuable asset to the company and thereby increasing the
chances of his efficiency in discharging his or her duties.

Trainings in an organization can be mainly of two types; Internal and External training sessions.
Internal training involves when training is organized in-house by the human resources department or
training department using either a senior staff or any talented staff in the particular department as a
resource person.

On the other hand external training is normally arranged outside the firm and is mostly organized by
training institutes or consultants. Whichever training, it is very important for all staff and helps in
building career positioning and preparing staff for greater challenges in developing world. How ever
the training is costly. Because of that, people who work at firms do not receive external trainings most
of times. The cost is a major issue for the lack of training programmes in Sri Lanka. But nowadays, a
new concept has come with these trainings which is “Trainers through trainees”. While training their
employees in large quantities, many countries use that method in present days to reduce their training
costs. The theory of this is, sending a little group or an individual for a training programme under a
bonding agreement or without a bond. When they come back to work, the externally trained
employees train the employees who have not participated for above training programme by internal
training programmes.

Employers of labour should enable employees to pursue training and development in a direction that
they choose and are interested in, not just in company-assigned directions. Companies should support
learning, in general, and not just in support of knowledge needed for the employee's current or next
anticipated job. It should be noted that the key factor is keeping the employee interested, attending,
engaged, motivated and retained.

For every employee to perform well, especially Supervisors and Managers, there is a need for constant
training and development. The right employee training, development and education provides big
payoffs for the employer in increased productivity, knowledge, loyalty, and contribution to general
growth of the firm. In most cases external trainings for instance provide participants with the avenue
to meet new set of people in the same field and network. The meeting will give them the chance to
compare issues and find out what is obtainable in each others environment. This for sure will introduce
positive changes where necessary.

It is not mentioned in any where that the employers, managers and supervisors are not suitable for
training programmes. They also must be highly trained if they are expected to do their best for the
organization. Through that they will have best abilities and competencies to manage the organization.
Training employees not only creates a more positive corporate culture, but also add a value to its key
resources.

Raw human resources can make only limited contribution to the organization to achieve its goals and
objectives. Hence the demands for the developed employees are continuously increasing. Thus the
training is a kind of investment.

1. Meaning of Management Development:

Since 1950, Management or Executive Development has been the most
prominent area of personnel or human resources management. It is
also called management revolution.

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Management development is a systematic process of management

training and growth by which individuals (aspiring to rise on the
ladder of management) gain and apply knowledge, skills, insights, and
attitudes to manage managers, workers and work organisations
effectively.

Management development, therefore, means any planned, guided or

directed activity undertaken by a manager to help himself become
more competent in his present and/or to consciously prepare himself
for assuming higher and more important managerial duties and
responsibilities so that he can claim promotion by merit or
competence.

There are two ways to develop as managers:

1. Active and intelligent participation in the formal courses of
instructions and management training pro-grammes.

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2. Learning the techniques of management through actual job

experiences in a work environment itself.

A company should provide the training programme and opportunities

for development to its present as well as potential managers and offer
ample scope for taints to conic forward. But it should be clearly noted
that training programmes such as case studies, lectures, role playing,
readings, job rotation and so on cannot automatically guarantee, the
accelerated output of managers.

Please note that no man can develop another. More important and
vital counterpart of planned training programme is the individual
efforts of the person himself. In the final analysis, self-development is
an important component of any management development
programme.

The urge for advancement and development must come from within
the individual and a manager has to develop himself. In other words,
self-motivation is the pivot of management development programme.
Top management must create an environment in which self-
development is encouraged and facilitated.

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Management development programme must be based on

three principles:
1. All development is self- development,

2. Development programme should recognise individual differences,

and
3. Development programme is a long-range process and a manager
cannot be produced overnight.

2. Importance of Management Development:

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Executive talent is the most important asset of an organisation. It is

not shown on the corporate balance sheet, but it influences
appreciably the growth, progress, profits and the share values, than
any other corporate assets.

Managerial asset is not costly to acquire. It is a low-cost resource with

a high-profit potential. In reality, top management should give more
thought and care to the acquisition, maintenance and growth of men
and women who possess managerial talent and calibre than the
thought and care given to planning and development of a plant or a
product.

In the life of a corporation, present success is largely a

product of three types of top management actions taken in
the past:
1. Scientific selection of the right people in the management cadre;

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2. Placement of properly selected people in the right job;

3. Assurance that these properly placed managers could grow as per

expectations and could meet both the needs of the organisation as well
as their own needs. In underdeveloped and developing countries,
management is the single factor acting as the master-key for unlocking
the forces of economic development.

No modern business can continue to be successful without planned

attention to the growth and development of its managerial staff. It is
due to the unbelievably rapid expansion of technology demanding
numerous specialised and qualified employees to manage complex,
sophisticated and dynamic business.

“An institution that cannot produce its own managers will

die. From an overall point of view the ability of an
institution to produce managers is more important than its
ability to produce goods efficiently and cheaply”—P. Drucker.
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Drucker’s statement illustrates the importance of management

(executive) development. Yet we find that industry on the whole has
failed to recognise its importance, particularly in developing countries
like India.

3. Nature of Management Development:

Management or executive development is an organised and planned
process and programme of training and growth by which individual
manager or executive at each level of management hierarchy gains and
applies knowledge, skills, insights and attitudes to manage workers
and the work organisations effectively.

Of course, it is beyond the shadow of doubt that the company can only
create the favourable climate for the development of managers.
Ultimately, in any programme of management development, self-
development will be the key-factor to determine the success of the
programme of executive development.

In other words, the participants in this programme must have the

capacity to learn and develop and they must be highly motivated to
achieve the planned objectives. Executive development is the guided
self-discovery and self-development.
4. Aims of Planned Management Development:
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The primary aims and objectives are:

1. To ensure that the company is staffed both now and in the future
with a sufficient number of managers with necessary skills, experience
and ability to secure continued” growth and profitability the right
man/woman at the right time in the right place. Thus, we will have a
steady source of competent people at all levels to meet organisational
needs at all lines.

2. To check that human resources of a company are being properly and

fully used, and that potential and talent in human terms are neither
wasted nor overlooked, and they are offered ample and timely scope to
grow, so that both individuals as well as organisational needs are
adequately met. This will ensure optimum utilisation of human
capital.

3. To provide an opportunity for staff within a company to prepare

themselves for higher assignments and to reach their maximum
capabilities. The staff should be enabled to fulfill their career
expectations by training that will enable them to do a bigger and a
richer job which they can get through a sound promotion policy, viz.,
promotion from within by merit.

In addition, there are many other objectives, such as prevention of

managerial obsolescence (becoming out of date) preparation for new
business and expansions, to replace old executives with younger
talents, to Indianise management, to promote a high morale and good
organisational climate, to promote productivity, profits and so on.

Management Development Programme (MDP):

The process of management development begins with top
management’s recognition of the need for MDP. Development of
suitable policy guidelines and assignment of special responsibility for
executing the policy create a favourable climate of on-the-job growth,
personal improvement and development of managers.
A special committee of senior executives will look after planning and
guiding management development. The personnel manager and
special training staff will administer the routine of MDP.

5. Contents of Management Development:

There are three areas in which we can have management
development training:
1. Knowledge,

2. Skills and

3. Attitudes, to become competent managers.

Note:
1. Lower level managers need considerable technical skills, whereas
higher level executives need considerable administrative skills.

2. There are three skills:

(i) Technical skills

(ii) Human relations skills and

(iii) Conceptual skill, i.e., a combination of vision, imagination and
intelligence. These skills can be learned,

(3) Attitudes are:

(a) Thinking like an executive,

(b) Empathy, i.e., ability to put ourselves in the position of others and
understand their minds,

(c) Team concept, and

(d) Recognition of human values.

6. Facilities of Management Development:

We can have the following methods of management or
executives development:
1. External:
(a) Management education at University and other institutions of
higher learning offering specialised courses for interested executives,
e.g., marketing management, export management, financial
management, personnel management and so on.

(b) Management seminars, conferences and workshops at

management associations or educational institutions.

2. Internal:
(a) Art of delegation,

(b) Job rotation,

(c) Promotions and transfers,

(d) Understudy method,

(e) Coaching by the superior or boss, and

(f) Multiple Management, i.e., membership of committees and junior
boards.

Job rotation means the transferring of executives from job to job and
from plant to plant on a co-ordinated and planned basis. It is a very
popular method in many business concerns. An understudy is a
person who is in training to assume, at a future time., the full duties
and responsibilities of the position, currently held by his superior. The
person under training acts as ‘Assistant to—’.

In multiple management we have senior and junior boards. The junior

boards serve in an advisory capacity only. If the recommendation of
the junior board is with unanimous consent, it is usually adopted by
the senior board without modifications.
Orientation
Human resource management: An introductory stage in the process of new employee assimilation,
and a part of his or her continuous socialization process in an organization. Major objectives of
orientation are to (1) gain employee commitment, (2) reduce his or her anxiety, (3) help him or her
understand organization's expectations, and (4) convey what he or she can expect from the job and
the organization. It is commonly followed by training tailored to specific job positions. See also
acculturation and company orientation.

Read more: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/orientation.html

What is Orientation?
Induction, also called orientation is designed to provide a new employee with
the information he or she needs to function comfortably and effectively in
the organization. It is a planned introduction of new hires to their jobs, their
peers and the company.

Typically, orientation conveys three types of information – (i) general

information about the daily work routine; (ii) a review of the firm’s history,
founding fathers, objectives, operations and products or services, as well as
how the employee’s job contributes to the organisation’s needs; and (iii) a
detailed presentation, perhaps, in a brochure, of the organisation’s policies,
work rules and employee benefits.

Purpose of Orientation
Firms are known to spend a few weeks or even months on orientation
programmes. The idea is to make the new employees feel at home’ in the
new environment. It is a well-known fact that employees feel anxious on
entering an organization. They worry about how well they will perform on the
new jobs. They feel inadequate when they compare themselves with the
more experienced employees, and they are concerned about how well they
will get along with their co-workers. Effective orientation programmes reduce
the anxiety of new employee by providing them information on the job
environment and on supervisors, b) introducing them to co-workers, and by
encouraging them to ask questions.

The ease with which employees adjust to a new job and work environment is,
often, a function of the expectations they bring to the job. If expectations are
realistic, adjustments will be relatively simple. If, however, expectations are
unrealistic or unreasonable, adjustment will be more difficult. In the latter
case, orientation can be instrumental in modifying employee expectations.

In one study of considerable importance, researchers discovered the

following about new employees:

1. The first days on the job were anxious and disturbing ones.
2. ‘New employees initiation’ practices by peers intensified anxiety.

3. Anxiety interfered with the training process.

4. Turnover of newly hired employee was caused primarily by anxiety.

5. The new workers were reluctant to discuss problems with their

supervisors. Employee orientation is aimed at minimizing such problems.

Orientation seeks to expose new employees to all areas of the company. This
prevents inductees from getting overspecialized. Induction makes new hires
become productive to the company quickly.

Finally, a good orientation programme will create a favorable impression of

the firm and its work. Just as a favorable first impression of an individual
helps to form a good relationship, so a good initial impression of a company,
a co-worker, or a supervisor can help a new employee adjust better. Further,
effectiveness of an orientation programme can have a lasting effect on
absenteeism and turnover.

First developed in the U.S. during early 1970s, orientation is gaining

popularity. Several blue chip companies are orienting their new hires.

Orientation Programme
A firm needs to make four strategic choices before designing its orientation
programme. They are (i) formal or informal, (ii) serial or disjunctive and, (iv)
investiture or divestiture.
Formal or Informal: In informal orientation, new hires are directly put on
the jobs and they are expected to acclimatise themselves with the work and
the company. In contrast, orientation can be formal too. In formal
orientation, the management has a structured programme which is executed
when new employees join the firm.

The choice between formal and informal orientation will depend on the
management’s goals. The more formal the programme, the greater the
likelihood that the new hire will acquire a known set of standards. That is, the
new member is more likely to think and act like an executive, a management
trainee, or a management professor. But an informal programme is
desirable to maintain individual differences.

Innovative ideas to solve organizational problems and healthy questioning of

the status quo are likely to be generated by a person who has been inducted
informally.

Individual or Collective: Another choice to be made by the management is

whether the new hires should be inducted individually or in groups. The
individual approach is likely to develop tin less homogeneous views than
collective orientation. Individual orientation is more likely to preserve
individual differences and perspectives. Orienting each person separately is
an expensive and time consuming process. It also denies the new hire the
opportunity of sharing anxieties with fellow appointees.

Collective orientation of the new hires solves the problems stated above.
Most large firms tend to have the collective orientation approach. But small
firms, which have fewer new appointees to socialize frequently use the
individual approach. Individual socialization is popular even with large finns
when they hire executives whose number is small.

Serial or Disjunctive: Orientation becomes serial when an experienced

employee inducts a new hire. The experienced employee acts as a tutor and
model for the new hire. When new hires do not have predecessors available
to guide them or to model their behaviour upon, the orientation become
disjunctive.

Each option has its own advantages and pitfalls. Serial orientation maintains
traditions and customs. Consistent use of this strategy will ensure a
minimum amount of change within the firm over time. But, maintenance of
status quo itself may breed resistance to change. Further, if the experienced
employee is frustrated and apathetic towards work and the firm, it is likely
that he or she would pass on the same to the new hire.

Disjunctive orientation almost stands on the other side of the spectrum. Such
induction is likely to produce more inventive and creative employees
because the new hire is not burdened by traditions. But this benefit needs to
be weighed against the potential for creating deviants, that is, individuals
who fail-due to an inadequate role model-to understand how their job is to
be done and bow it fits into the grand scheme of the company.

Orientation programmes range from brief, informal introductions to lengthy,

formal programmes.

In informal orientation, new employees are instructed to report to the HR

department for an explanation of company policies before being referred to
the immediate supervisor for an on-the-job briefing on specific work
procedures. Informal orientation tends to be brief- lasting one hour or even
less.

Formal orientation is elaborate and is spread over a couple of weeks or

months. Most formal programmes consist of three stages-(i) a general
introduction to the company, often given by the HR department; (ii) specific
orientation to the department and the job, typically given by the employee’s
supervisor; and (iii) follow-up meeting to verify that the important issues
have been addressed and employee questions have been answered. This
follow-up meeting usually takes place between a new employee and his or
her supervisor a week or so after the employee has begun working.

A formal orientation programme is shared by the HR specialists and the

supervisors. The former covers such areas as organizational issues,
employee benefits, and introductions, while supervisors outline mainly job
duties.

 About

 Latest Posts

Employee Orientation Program

Goals of Orientation
An effective orientation program is an ongoing process, allowing the employee time to assimilate all
the required information. It is a critical tool in making employees feel part of the organization and
increasing employee engagement and loyalty. The employee orientation program will:

 demonstrate that the Government of Newfoundland and Labrador is an employer of choice,

valuing each and every employee who joins the organization;
 welcome the individual to the organization, workplace, and the position;
 define and clarify work assignments, roles, and responsibilities;
 highlight Government's organizational structure, legislation, policies and procedures;
 build positive connections between the employee, co-workers, and the organization;
  consider the social and team-building aspects of employee development;
 make workplace resources readily available to the newly-hired individual;
 ensure the adoption of a "safety first" philosophy;
 exhibit our commitment to a diverse and inclusive workplace.

Why is Orientation Important?

Orientation is important because it lays a

foundation for the new employee’s entire career with the department.
First impressions are important since they establish the basis for
everything that follows. Without orientation, a new employee sometimes
feels uncomfortable in his/her new position and takes longer to reach
his/her full potential.

Orientation is important because it:

 Provides the new employee with concise and accurate information

to make him/her more comfortable in the job;
 Encourages employee confidence and helps the new employee
adapt faster to the job;
 Contributes to a more effective, productive workforce;
 Improves employee retention; and
 Promotes communication between the supervisor and the new
employee.

 Training of Employees: Meaning, Objectives, Need and

Importance!
 Training is concerned with increasing the knowledge and skills of
employees for doing specific jobs, and development involves the
growth of employees in all aspects.

 ADVERTISEMENTS:

 Whereas training increases job skills, development shapes

attitudes of employees.

 Meaning of Training:
 “Training is the act of increasing the knowledge and skills of an
employee for doing a particular job.” — Edwin B. Flippo

 Training is an organized activity for increasing the technical

skills of the employees to enable them to do particular jobs
efficiently. In other words, training provides the workers with
facility to gain technical knowledge and to learn new skills to do
specific jobs. Training is equally important for the existing as
well as the new employees. It enables the new employees to get
acquainted with their jobs and also increase the job-related
knowledge and skills.

 Objectives of Training:
 The objectives of training are as follows:
 ADVERTISEMENTS:

 (i) To provide job related knowledge to the workers.

 (ii) To impart skills among the workers systematically so that

they may learn quickly.
 (iii) To bring about change in the attitudes of the workers
towards fellow workers, supervisor and the organization.

 (iv) To improve the productivity of the workers and the

organization.

 ADVERTISEMENTS:

 (v) To reduce the number of accidents by providing safety

training to the workers,

 (vi) To make the workers handle materials, machines and

equipment efficiently and thus to check wastage of time and
resources.

 (vii) To prepare workers for promotion to higher jobs by

imparting them advanced skills.

 Need and Importance of Training:

 Why is Employees’ Training Necessary?
 ADVERTISEMENTS:

 The need for training of employees arises due to the

following factors:
 (i) Higher Productivity:
 It is essential to increase productivity and reduce cost of
production for meeting competition in the market. Effective
training can help increase productivity of workers by imparting
the required skills.
 (ii) Quality Improvement:
 ADVERTISEMENTS:

 The customers have become quality conscious and their

requirement keep on changing. To satisfy the customers, quality
of products must be continuously improved through training of
workers.

 (iii) Reduction of Learning Time:

 Systematic training through trained instructors is essential to
reduce the training period. If the workers learn through trial and
error, they will take a longer time and even may not be able to
learn right methods of doing work.

 (iv) Industrial Safety:

 Trained workers can handle the machines safely. They also know
the use of various safety devices in the factory. Thus, they are less
prone to industrial accidents.

 (iv) Reduction of Turnover and Absenteeism:

 Training creates a feeling of confidence in the minds of the
workers. It gives them a security at the workplace. As a result,
labour turnover and absenteeism rates are reduced.

 (vi) Technology Update:

 Technology is changing at a fast pace. The workers must learn
new techniques to make use of advance technology. Thus,
training should be treated as a continuous process to update the
employees in the new methods and procedures.
  (vii) Effective Management:
 Training can be used as an effective tool of planning and control.
It develops skills among workers and prepares them for handling
present and future jobs. It helps in reducing the costs of
supervision, wastages and industrial accidents. It also helps
increase productivity and quality which are the cherished goals
of any modern organization.

Training: Meaning, Definition and

Types of Training
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Training: Meaning, Definition and Types of Training!

Training constitutes a basic concept in human resource development.
It is concerned with developing a particular skill to a desired standard
by instruction and practice. Training is a highly useful tool that can
bring an employee into a position where they can do their job
correctly, effectively, and conscientiously. Training is the act of
increasing the knowledge and skill of an employee for doing a
particular job.

Definition of Training:
Dale S. Beach defines training as ‘the organized procedure by which
people learn knowledge and/or skill for a definite purpose’. Training
refers to the teaching and learning activities carried on for the primary
purpose of helping members of an organization acquire and apply the
knowledge, skills, abilities, and attitudes needed by a particular job
and organization.

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According to Edwin Flippo, ‘training is the act of increasing the skills

of an employee for doing a particular job’.

Need for Training:

Every organization should provide training to all the employees
irrespective of their qualifications and skills.

Specifically the need for training arises because of following

reasons:
1. Environmental changes:
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Mechanization, computerization, and automation have resulted in

many changes that require trained staff possessing enough skills. The
organization should train the employees to enrich them with the latest
technology and knowledge.

2. Organizational complexity:
With modern inventions, technological upgradation, and diver-
sification most of the organizations have become very complex. This
has aggravated the problems of coordination. So, in order to cope up
with the complexities, training has become mandatory.

3. Human relations:
ADVERTISEMENTS:

Every management has to maintain very good human relations, and

this has made training as one of the basic conditions to deal with
human problems.

4. To match employee specifications with the job

requirements and organizational needs:
An employee’s specification may not exactly suit to the requirements
of the job and the organization, irrespective of past experience and
skills. There is always a gap between an employee’s present
specifications and the organization’s requirements. For filling this gap
training is required.

5. Change in the job assignment:

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Training is also necessary when the existing employee is promoted to

the higher level or transferred to another department. Training is also
required to equip the old employees with new techniques and
technologies.

Importance of Training:
Training of employees and mangers are absolutely essential in this
changing environment. It is an important activity of HRD which helps
in improving the competency of employees. Training gives a lot of
benefits to the employees such as improvement in efficiency and
effectiveness, development of self confidence and assists every one in
self management.
The stability and progress of the organization always depends on the
training imparted to the employees. Training becomes mandatory
under each and every step of expansion and diversification. Only
training can improve the quality and reduce the wastages to the
minimum. Training and development is also very essential to adapt
according to changing environment.

Types of Training:
Various types of training can be given to the employees such as
induction training, refresher training, on the job training, vestibule
training, and training for promotions.

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Some of the commonly used training programs are listed

below:
1. Induction training:
Also known as orientation training given for the new recruits in order
to make them familiarize with the internal environment of an
organization. It helps the employees to understand the procedures,
code of conduct, policies existing in that organization.

2. Job instruction training:

This training provides an overview about the job and experienced
trainers demonstrates the entire job. Addition training is offered to
employees after evaluating their performance if necessary.

3. Vestibule training:
 It is the training on actual work to be done by an employee but
conducted away from the work place.

4. Refresher training:
This type of training is offered in order to incorporate the latest
development in a particular field. This training is imparted to upgrade
the skills of employees. This training can also be used for promoting
an employee.

5. Apprenticeship training:
Apprentice is a worker who spends a prescribed period of time under a

supervisor.
Why host employee trainings online, you say? Well,
because that way you get to…

 Save time and money, since no one needs to be

scheduled to give the trainings at different time slots
with every new update or batch of new hires
 Guarantee informational consistency across all
levels, so you can rest assured that everyone gets the
same information and training
 Train multiple locations at various times at no
extra cost
 Digitally track and assess training completion –
sign up sheets are so outdated!
 Provide employees with easy access to
information, reducing uncertainty, misinformation and
error.

Later on, this post will show you how to host employee
trainings online. But first, here are 6 types of online
employee trainings:

1. Orientation
Orientation is the most common type of employee
training. It’s a one-time event formally welcoming and
introducing new hires to your company within their first
week on the job. This training tends to be relevant to all
company-wide roles and departments.

Orientation trainings are usually prepared by HR on big-

picture topics such as:

 Company mission, vision, and values

 Corporate culture
 Organizational structure and leadership team intro
 Mandatory new-hire paperwork
 Overview of benefit plans
 Administrative procedures (computer logins,
extension, email setups, etc.)
 Key corporate policies
2. Onboarding Training
Contrary to a very common misconception, orientation
and onboarding are actually different types of employee
trainings.

While orientation training is a one-time session with a

checklist-style agenda delivered to everyone in the
company, onboarding training is a series of department-
specific sessions that take place over a longer period of
time. It is strategically created with the goal of enabling
new employees to be as successful as they can be in
their new roles in the shortest period of time.

Onboarding trainings ideally start on the first day of

employment and may carry on throughout the first year
as needed. It is prepared by department leaders with the
focus of reaching departmental goals and connecting
them with overall company objectives. Topics should,
therefore, address employee needs and provide them
with easy access to information and skills that they
need to do their jobs efficiently and maximize employee
engagement.

A holistic onboarding training program should focus on

more than the technical aspects of a job. It should also
offer education on ways to stay engaged and productive
at worked. A good example of such content is Mindfresh
TV, a Uscreen video website that teaches modern
mindfulness at work.
Through 5 minute online sessions, Mindfresh videos
teach anyone who works at a desk to boost body
posture, decrease stress levels and increase
productivity at work. This type of training is a great
educational component to add to your company’s
employee onboarding training.
Effective and successful onboarding trainings gradually
bring new employees up to speed much quicker than if
left to fend for themselves. An effectively executed
onboarding training will also free up a lot of leadership
time because most answers to questions would be
available within the training.

3. Technical Skills Development

Training
No matter what technical level your employees are at,
there is always room for improvement. Technical (hard)
skills include the know-how of doing things like data
analysis, content writing, social media management,
coding, programming, etc.

Technical skills training is a fundamental employee

education component because it’s the main way your
employees will know how to technically do their jobs
right. And for those who already know how to do their
jobs, we guarantee they still have more to learn.
Employees need to engage in ongoing learning on a
regular basis to stay up-to-date with the latest
developments.

MTD Training Group has great technical skills

development training content that can serve as
inspiration for your training content. MTD is a training
center that uses Uscreen to provide a full range of
blended learning solutions on sales and management
skills development topics, including videos, podcasts, e-
learning and online support solutions.

Technical skills development programs can be included

in the onboard training program or can be delivered to
any existing employees who can use a little more
development. There is always something new to learn.
 4. Soft skills development training
How your employees act is just as important and what
they know – that’s why soft skills are so essential for
growth. Soft skills are personal attributes that enable
employees to interact effectively and harmoniously with
other people in the workplace, including co-workers,
management, and customers.

Studied have actually shown that a gap in basic soft

skills among company employees affects company
success and increases turnover rates.

Soft skills trainings are useful for new and existing

employees of all levels and are an extremely effective
way to build an efficient, respectful and collaborative
culture – ultimately affecting the bottom line.

Some topics to consider covering in your soft skills

training include:

 Communication skills
 Presentation skills
 Problem-solving skills
 Conflict resolution
 Leadership skills
 Emotional Intelligence
 Time management
 Ethics
 Teamwork
 Adaptability

A great example of online soft skills training video

content can be found at Leadercast, one of Uscreen’s
best-performing customers.

Leadercast is a leadership development consultant that

uses Uscreen to host current, relevant and inspiring
content for its clients. It is a full suite of learning
solutions designed to meet the leadership development
needs of all employee learners and serves as a solution
map throughout the continuous learning spectrum.

5. Products and services training

Product trainings can either be a part of onboarding for
newcomers or can be available for any employees who
need refreshers on the products and services the
organization offers. This type of training can also be
used to educate staff on newly introduced products,
services or features so they are always up to date.

6. Mandatory training
Depending on where your company is located and the
industry it operates in, certain employee preparedness
and training regulations may apply.

For instance, public-sector employees are often required

to take occupational health and safety trainings and
refreshers. Establishments with liquor licenses need
their server employees to be alcohol-safety certified.
And a few state laws require both public and private
companies to deliver sexual harassment trainings to
employees.

Governments will often provide these trainings

themselves, and since it’s 2017, they usually exist
online in the form of slides and videos. With online
access to these trainings, you can integrate them into
your online employee training website to consolidate all
required training in one centralized hub.

Hosting your company’s employee

training online
With 6 different types of employee training programs
that your company needs to deliver, hosting your
training portal online is the easiest and most cost-
effective way to do it. Whether you decide to host all
your trainings online or start off with just a few, Uscreen
is the platform that can serve you best.

Uscreen is a video streaming platform that allows you

all the flexibility and none of the hassle of building a
video website. Uscreen provides the ultimate
personalized video-distribution platform with a login
wall, offering your company the opportunity to host its
own customized training portal to populate with films
and videos, case studies, planned readings and quizzes
to bring your employees up to speed.

A training needs assessment identifies individuals' current level of

competency, skill or knowledge in one or more areas and compares
that competency level to the required competency standard
established for their positions or other positions within the
organization. The difference between the current and required
competencies can help determine training needs. Rather than assume
that all employees need training or even the same training,
management can make informed decisions about the best ways to
address competency gaps among individual employees, specific job
categories or groups/teams.

Assessments can be conducted at any time but are often done after
hiring, during performance reviews, when performance improvement is
needed, for career development plans, for succession planning, or
when changes in an organization also involve making necessary
changes to employees' jobs. It is beneficial to perform these
assessments periodically to determine the training needs of an
organization, employees' knowledge and skills, and also training
program effectiveness.

Step 1: Identify the Business Need

A training assessment is the first step to any successful training

program and is also a critical aspect of succession planning.
Conducting this analysis allows an organization to focus its efforts on
areas of training that are necessary for employees to successfully
carry out the organization's goals, make optimum use of the
company's training dollars and motivate employees by contributing to
their career development. The person conducting the training needs
assessment must clearly understand the overall organization and
department goals and priorities, so he or she can properly assess the
training options and identify which training opportunities will
contribute most to the overall success of employees, the business
units and the organization as a whole.

Essentially, why is the organization conducting a training needs

assessment? What is the end result that the employee, manager or
executive team is trying to accomplish? Will training contribute to this
accomplishment? Sometimes training is not the answer. There may be
other organizational issues that would be best addressed through
another means—for example, through job analysis, goal clarification,
reorganizing or realigning a department, or employee engagement.

Step 2: Perform a Gap Analysis

Performing a gap analysis involves assessing the current state of a

department's or employee's performance or skills and comparing this
to the desired level. The difference between the existing state and the
desired state is the gap. There are many different methods for
conducting a gap analysis. The method for identifying the gap will
depend on the organization and the situation. Depending on the
situation, it may be helpful to use one or more gap analysis methods.
Some gap analysis assessment tools are the following:
 HR records. HR records can include accident and safety reports, job
descriptions, job competencies, exit interviews, performance
evaluations and other company records such as production, sales and
cost records. For example, if a department has a dramatic increase in
workplace accidents, then it would be important to review accident
reports as part of the gap analysis prior to conducting safety training.
 Individual interviews. Individual interviews may be conducted with
employees, supervisors, senior managers and even sometimes
clients/customers or outside vendors. If an organization is providing
safety training, talking with the employees who not only had the
accidents but also witnessed the accidents would be advisable. In
addition, talking to employees who have never had accidents could be
useful in creating a training program that includes a standard of safe
practices. If the accidents involved equipment, it may be beneficial to
talk to the vendor that manufactured or serviced the equipment. The
information gathered can identify the gaps that an organization needs
to address. A company and its employees can benefit from new
training opportunities as a result of the training needs assessment.

 Focus groups. Unlike individual interviews, using focus groups

involves simultaneously questioning a number of individuals about
training needs. Best results occur with a department or group of
employees who have similar training needs. The participants
brainstorm about all the training needs they can think of and write
them on a flip chart. Then each person is provided perhaps five dots or
sticky notes (employers should provide the number of dots or sticky
notes that will work best for the organization). Each individual places
his or her dots or sticky notes on the training ideas he or she believes
are the most important. An individual could choose to place one dot on
five different items, or all five on one training item.

 Surveys, questionnaires and self-assessments. Surveys generally use

a standardized format and can be done in writing, electronically or by
phone. Depending on the situation, it may be helpful to conduct
surveys with employees as well as with customers. When conducting a
customer service training needs assessment, employers should ask
employees what would help them provide better customer service.
Employers should also obtain opinions from customers about their
experiences with employees.
  Observations. Sources for observation include a supervisor's direct
observation and input, on-the-job simulations of work settings, and
written work samples.

Step 3: Assess Training Options

The gap analysis generates a list of training options and needs. Now
the list can be assessed based on the goals and priorities of the
organization, both currently and in the future.

A scale of 1 to 3 could be used with number 1 being critical, 2 being

important and 3 being not important at all. Here are factors to consider
when determining if training is a viable option.
 Solution to a problem. For example, an employee has a performance
problem that has clearly been identified as a training issue. The
employee is provided with additional on-the-job training in which he or
she successfully acquires the needed skills. As a result, the company
would have a fully competent employee who is also meeting the
required performance standards.

 Cost. Cost of training is a significant factor that needs to be weighed

in terms of importance. Depending on the situation, the organization
may be willing to invest a significant amount in one training but not in
the others listed due to organizational priorities and finances. Here is
the formula to calculate the total cost of training:

Number of Employees Trained x Cost of Training = Total Cost of

Training
 Return on investment. Return on investment (ROI) is a calculation
showing the value of expenditures related to training and development.
It can also be used to show how long it will take for these activities to
pay for themselves and to provide a return on investment to the
organization.
 Legal compliance. If any of the training needs from the gap analysis
are required legally (i.e., by federal, state or industry laws) or to
maintain employees' licenses or certifications, then these trainings
would be a high priority.

 Time. Sometimes the amount of time involved to build the capacity

within the organization will affect its operational needs as it can
interfere with the employees' ability to complete other job duties. In
this case, it may be more beneficial to hire the talent from outside the
organization or outsource the task to fill in the skills gaps. In other
 cases, like succession planning, the organization can afford a long-
term commitment to building the capacity from within.

 Remaining competitive. Perhaps there exists minimal

knowledge/competencies in a new product or service that is negatively
affecting company revenue. The employer can provide the needed
training to its employees so that the new product or service generates
or exceeds the desired revenue. In this situation, the company benefits
from the increase in revenue, therefore outweighing the cost of
training.

After all the training needs/options have been assessed, the HR

professional will have a list of training priorities for individual
employees, departments or the organization as a whole.
Step 4: Report Training Needs and Recommend Training Plans

The next step is to report the findings from the training needs
assessment, and make recommendations for short- and long-term
training plans and budgets, starting with the most critical priorities
from the training option list. If there is a timeline for any of the
trainings, such as a deadline to satisfy training obligations for legal
compliance purposes, then they should be budgeted and scheduled
accordingly. The report should include a summary of why and how the
assessment was completed, the methods used and people involved,
and the training recommendations with a general timeline.

Considerations for the report and recommended training plans include:

 What training is already being offered, and should it continue to be
offered?
 Will the training be conducted in-house or externally?

 Does it make sense to bring in a trainer to train several employees on

the same subject matter, rather than send everyone to an off-site
training?

 Does the company have the subject matter expertise within HR, the
training department or another department to conduct the training?

 Can and should the training be conducted online?

 What is the learning style of the participants?

 Are all participants at one location or multiple locations, or are they

decentralized?
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EMPLOYEE DEVELOPMENT NEEDS ASSESSMENT

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Top 8 Methods and Techniques for

Training Employees
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Some of the useful methods and techniques you can use for training
employees are: 1. Vestibule Training 2. Role Playing 3. Lecture Method
4. Conference or Group Discussions 5. Programmed Instruction (PI) 6.
Audio-Visuals 7. On-the-Job Training 8. Simulation.

These different methods can be broadly classified as:

(i) On-The-Job Training:
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The training methods that are applied in the work place can be
referred to as on-the- job training.

(ii) Off-The-Job Training:

The training methods that are used away from the work place can be
termed as off- the-job training.
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Some of the training methods are new whereas others are

improvement over the traditional methods. These training techniques
represent the medium of imparting skills and knowledge to
employees.

The different methods of training are as follows:

1. Vestibule Training:
Here training takes place away from the work place but uses all the
equipments, materials and methods that resembles the actually ones
used in job performance. In this method the actual work conditions
are simulated in classroom. A special space is set aside from the actual
production area and is equipped with furnishings similar to the actual
work place.

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The advantages of this method are training process that takes place
without disrupting the ongoing operations. The trainees are not
pressurized by expecting them to produce while learning.

The disadvantages are—the cost involved in this method is high.

Further it will not be possible to replicate the actual pressure that an
employee faces during the job into this artificially created
environment.

2. Role Playing:
It is defined as a method of human interaction that involves realistic
behaviour in imaginary situation. This method involves creation of
realistic situation in which the participants assumes and plays the role
of a specific personality in the situation.

This method involves action, during and practice. The main intention
in this method is the development of interpersonal relations and
thereby promotes better inter-personal interaction and attitudinal
changes.
3. Lecture Method:
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It is a direct method of instruction that involves a verbal presentation

of information by an instructor to a large audience. The instructor
organises the material and gives it to a group of trainees in the form of
talk. By motivating and creating interest among the trainees this
method can be made effective.

However, when this method is used in combination with other

training methods it can be very effective.

4. Conference or Group Discussions:

In this method of training, a group of people freely discuss and pose
ideas, share and examine the information or idea, test and evaluate
them and finally draws conclusions on various aspects that contributes
towards the improvement of job performance.

The main advantage of this method is that there is the involvement of

all the participants and there is two-way communication but the
success of this method depends on the leadership qualities of the
person leading the group.

5. Programmed Instruction (PI):

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In this method of training there is no intervention of a trainer. The

subject-matter to be learned is presented in a series of planned
sequential units. After reading each part, the learner must answer a
question about it for which feed back in the form of right answers is
provided.

The advantages of PI are—it is self-paced, this method offers much

scope for practices as the study materials are structured and self-
contained.
There are a few limitations of this method. They are, though there is
scope for learning through practice, the scope of learning offered by
other method is much more. This method is expensive and time
consuming.

6. Audio-Visuals:
Audio-visual training methods are used widely in these days. This
method makes use of slides, overhead projectors, television, video-
tapes, audio-tapes and films. The main advantage of this method is
that the quality of the presentation will remain equal for all training
groups.

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Further, the impact is better compared to the other methods like

lectures, seminars. But this method constitutes a one-way
communication and hence there is no scope for doubt clarification for
the participants. Since the presentations are standardized, it may not
cater to the specific requirements of the individual audience.

7. On-the-Job Training:
Here the training is conducted at the work site and in the contact of
the job. The trainer who will be an experienced worker demonstrates
the job on to how various tasks are performed. This method is often
used in industrial training where the workers actually work on the
machine.

The advantages of this method of training are: it is less costly; the

effectiveness of the training is very high as it involves actual
demonstration and the trainees actually experience the job to be done.
The disadvantage is that, since the training process takes place in the
work spot, on the machines, it will affect the smooth functioning of the
production.

8. Simulation:
In this method of training the equipment or techniques of the actual
job is duplicated to create a realistic decision-making environment for
the trainees. The best example of this is the aircraft simulation. The
pilots undergo this training. The aircraft contacts are simulated so that
the pilots under training feel as though they are actually flying the
aircraft.

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The advantage of this training method is that the result of the

decisions the trainees make are reported back to them with an
explanation of what would have happened had they actually been
made in the work place. This avoids costly mistakes. But this method
is very expensive.

Transfer of Training: Types and

Theories | Child Psychology
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In this article we will discuss about:- 1. Meaning and Definitions of

Transfer of Training 2. Types of Transfer 3. Theories 4. Experiments 5.
Educational Implications.

Meaning and Definitions of Transfer of Training:

It is common belief that training in one subject is transferred to
another subject. If we study mathematics, the logical reasoning
developed in solving complex mathematical problems is so developed
that it is utilised in other situation.

It is again generally said that study of science develops scientific spirit,

the teaching of grammar develops discipline of mind, music develops
aesthetic sense and cricket develops sportsmanship in every walk of
life.

All these common beliefs are subject of scientific discussion. In case

these beliefs are correct, many of our educational practices are sound.
Then we say that transfer of training takes place from one subject to
another.

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Thus if the training in one act is transferred to another, we say transfer

has taken place.

Definitions:
1. Crow and Crow:
“The carry-over of habits of thinking, feeling, or working of
knowledge or of skills, from one learning area to another
usually is referred to as the transfer of training.”
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2. Skinner:
“Transfer of training is concerned with the question of whether or not
the learning of material A-say Mathematics – aids, hinders or does not
affect the subsequent learning of material B – say Physics or
Chemistry.

3. Sorrenson:
“A person learns through transfer to the extent that the abilities
acquired in one situation help in another.”

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4. W.B. Kolesnik:
“Transfer is the application of carry over the knowledge’s, skills,
habits, attitudes or other responses from the situation in which they
are initially acquired to some other situation.”

5. Peterson:
“Transfer is generalization for it is extension of ideas to a new field.”

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6. Hilgard Atkinson Atkinson:

(Introduction to Psychology)” The influence that learning one task,
may have on the subsequent learning of another is called transfer of
learning.”

7. Guthrie & Others:

“Transfer may be defined as a process of extending and applying
behaviour.”

8. Encyclopaedia of Educational Research:

“The term’ learning’ would be applied to the special kind of transfer
phenomena in which there is great similarity between training
conditions and test conditions.”

Types of Transfer:
On the basis of magnitude or quality, it is of three types-positive, zero
and negative.

Positive Transfer:
In this case, the past learning of one subject or activity facilitates the
learning of another subject or activity. A sportsman playing football
plays volley-ball as nicely. A bus-driver can drive a truck also equally
efficiently.

Zero Transfer:
In this case, the learning of one subject does help the learning of
another. There may be zero transfer between language and
mathematics.

Negative Transfer:
Herein learning of one task makes the learning of a second task
harder. Learning shorthand by Danton method may cause interference
in subsequent learning by Pitman method. The negative transfer is
also called habit interferences.

One form of positive transfer is bilateral transfer or cross-transfer.

Practice in using right hand while handling a machine in the factory
may help handling by the left hand.
Theories of Transfer:
There are a number of theories regarding transfer of training.

The major theories are explained briefly below:

1. Mental Faculty Theory:
This theory is the out-come of Faculty School of Psychology, which
believed that mind is composed of a number of independent faculties
like memory, attention, will, imagination, reasoning and
temperament. According to this theory, a particular faculty works in
every situation. If a person possesses strong memory, he can use it in
any situation. He will be able to remember anything.

Theory has been abandoned now. It has been found experimentally

that there is no faculty (amongst many) that is used in different
situations. Take memory, for instance. Memory is of different types
visual memory, auditory memory, immediate memory, rote memory,
etc. Training in visual memory does not affect auditory memory and
vice-versa. Hence this theory is not tenable now.

2. Theory of Formal Discipline:

According of this theory some school subjects or instructional items
have a disciplinary value, apart from the knowledge value. Subjects
like classics, geometry, logic and grammar train the mind and
strengthen the faculties of observations and scientific thinking.

The advocates of formal discipline undermined the study of practical

or utilitarian subjects, because the subjects having disciplinary value
could train to learn to meet all situations in life. Geometry, for
instance, was enough to strengthen the reasoning faculty.

Appraisal of the Theory:

A number of experiments were made to find out the significance and
truth of the theory.

(i) William James was the first person to attack on this problem. He
determined to find out whether practising memorisation of poetry
really helped general memory. He discovered that it did not help at all.
(ii) Thorndike also made experiment on reasoning ability. But he
found that one subject was as good as another in developing reasoning
ability. Greek and Latin made no better logicians than Science or
Physical Education.

These and such other evidences disproved the theory of formal

discipline.

3. Theory of Identical Component:

According to this theory transfer takes place from one situation to
another to the extent that there are common or identical elements (or
components) in the two situations. Reasoning ability is common to
Geometry and Physics. Hence transfer can take place here.

Modern psychologists also believe that mental functions like

perception, attention, memory and reasoning are not separate entities
but interrelated aspects of the total functioning of the mind.

Hence learned response in one situation may benefit the learner in

another situation, if there are common elements in it. This theory was
propounded by Thorndike. He says, “By identical elements are
meant mental process which have the same cell action in the
brain as their physical correlate”. Latter Woodworth substituted
the word element by component.
Examples:
(i) A boy who is a good hockey-player can be a good football- player
also, because in playing hockey he has learnt the skill of keeping eye
on the ball, judging the flight of the ball, catching the ball, hitting the
ball, hitting the ball towards the companion or the goal etc. All these
skills will help him in both the games. These skills are common
elements in the two games.

(ii) A girl who has practised hemming a towel by hand can hem a short
or a curtain in the same nice manner, because hemming skill is
common to both.
(iii) A student who acquires good expression and style in writing in
one language can be as good a writer in another language he learns.

Educational Implication:
This theory has got significant implications. There are a number of a
courses in our scheme of studies which have identical elements. It
would be profitable to form a group of all those subjects which possess
identical or common components. This grouping of subjects was
unknown during the last century. But the present higher secondary
curriculum is based on the same principle.

The elective groups constitute of the subjects which have common

elements. These common elements are related to some special skill or
ability. If a student possesses that special ability he will profit by
taking up that educational course in which all the subjects are related
to ability.

Secondly, now-a-days, we like to drop all those topics and skills, from
the school curriculum which are unique and isolated. A subject or
topic which has nothing common with other subjects, may be dropped.
A number of a topics in arithmetic like stocks and shares’, ‘trains’,
‘pipes and cisterns’ are being dropped on this account.

Again, subjects which are of practical nature, which develop a number

of abilities, like scientific curiosity, initiative, originality,
resourcefulness, application of knowledge, judgment and reasoning,
are being emphasised more. The curriculum is being divested of much
of the theoretical topics. Practical work, activity, projects,
assignments, field-work and application are being emphasised more.

4. Theory of Generalisation:
Charles Judd has gone a step further in propounding this theory. He
accepts the common element theory but gives further explanation that
transfer takes place because the pupil learns to acquire some broad
principles or generalisations which he applies in a number of
situations with common elements. The attitudes, skill and abilities are
transferred only when these are systematised and related to many
situations wherein these can be utilised.

Suppose two situations a common element viz., punctuality. According

to the common element theory, a boy who is punctual at dinner party
should be punctual for school also. But no, this may not always be
true. The child will not be punctual in both situations, unless
‘punctuality’ has become a part of the child’s attitude pattern as a
result of schooling and training.

Again, a child may be tidy in the school for fears of punishment, but he
may be untidy at home. Transfer can take place from school situation
to home (or vice-versa) if the child full grasps the principle of tidiness,
and gains a complete view of the principle.

Symbolically we may say what is learned in situation X gets

transferred in situation Y when a general principle applicable to both
is acquired. Judd explained this principle through an experiment on
two groups of boys regarding throwing darts at a target placed 12
inches under water.

He explained the principle of refraction to one group could not apply

the principle as the target was very deep. But next time, the target was
kept only four inches deep. This time that group only. But that did not
help that group, because the pupils in that group fared better.
Hendrickson and Schoroder made further experiments of this type
and confirmed the theory.

This theory is in consonance with the Gestalt theory of Psychology.

The Gestaltists believe that learning of a meaningful configuration
presumes a kind of organisation that modifies the organism. The
organisation leads to the necessity of generalisations.

Educational Implications:
It has been accepted now that there are certain broad principles which
govern the learning of some groups of subjects. In the absence of
generalised principles, isolated or fragmented pieces of information
are soon forgotten. We may forget the entire Physics long after the
schooling is completed, but some generalised principles that the study
of Physics gave to us, can be applied to a number of other situations in
life.

Even in the teaching of a particular subject, transfer from one

situation can take place to another, if the generalised principles to
both are comprehended. In spelling, for example, grouping of words
with similar spellings may lead to improvement in spelling, as it may
help the pupil to see a generalised principle which he can apply.

Virtually speaking, the Theory of Generalisation is only an extension of

the Theory of Identical Components. The latter talks of common
elements, and these are substituted by the word ‘common rules’ in the
former. Many psychologists take these two theories as identical.

5. Transposition Theory:
This theory has been put forth by Gestalt psychologists. Gestalt
Psychology emphasises the total pattern of behaviour. So transfer is
dependent upon the whole-part relations between the old and the new
situations. It is not the principle or generalisation that is at the basis of
transfer, but the understanding of the relationship between facts,
processes and principles. Hence the need for ‘transposition’.

Thus a song learned in a certain key may be recognised even in a

different key. The component of the song may be different, but that
does not hamper the transfer. It is because of the understanding of the
total situation.

6. Theory of Ideals:
W.C. Bagley, goes a step further from the Theory of Generalisation,
and he emphasises ‘ideals’ or generalised attitudes at the basis of all
transfer. Ideals are rather deeper than generalisations, generalised
attitudes.

There is no denying the fact that ideals, once adopted, and adopted
seriously, are applicable to all situations. The truth-seeking ideal, the
spirit of enquiry, the love for wisdom and thirst for discovery are
transferable from one subject to another, whether it is science or
philosophy or history.

The teacher will do well to emphasise some practicable ideals, which

can be applied to majority of situations. If these ideals are kept in
view, teaching methods will secure greater transfer.

Two more theories viz. Edward Tolman’s Theory and Lewin’s Field
Theory are not so significant, hence not discussed here.

Conclusion:
Six theories have been explained above. The Theory of Formal
Discipline has been discarded now, as it does not accord with the facts
discovered after numerous experiments. There is nothing like a mental
discipline which may be gained from one subject, and transferred to
another.
Memorisation of paradigms of grammar, or of stanzas of poetry or of
non-sense syllabus will no longer strengthen the memory of a person.
That will be applied in an entirely different situation, say remembering
the prices of commodities in a business-shop. Like Browning’s
Grammarian, who died of cancer, most of the grammarians are prone
to get no benefit from the knowledge of grammar in solving actual
problem of life, such as maintaining health, succeeding in a vocation
etc.

The other four theories have much in common, and these prove that
transfer of learning does occur. These theories are only different
explanations of the same truth, in varied linguistic expressions.
Identical components, general principles, ideals and total patterns are
in fact the same thing.

Having thus proved that transfer of learning does occur, we would like
to understand how it occurs. In this respect a brief discussion of some
experiments made will not be out of context.

Experiments of Transfer:
In conducting experiments on transfer of learning varied types of
materials have been utilised by psychologists.

The different types are:

(a) Sensori-motor,

(b) Perceptual,

(c) Memory,

(d) Reasoning

(e) Ideals,

(f) Problem-solving, and

(g) School subjects.

1. Experiments of Sensori-Motor:
(i) Starch experimented with the mirror drawing of a star. The subject
was asked to draw the figure of a star with his left hand after looking at
the figure in mirror. The paper for writing was concealed from the
sight. The time taken in doing was noted. Then he was asked to draw
the figure with the right hand. Practice given for 10 days. It was found
that now the person could do it in less time than before, proving
transfer of skill from hand to hand.
(ii) Web tried to determine whether learning to thread a pathway
through a maze with a stylus aided, helped learning several other
mazes. He used both animal and human subjects. He discovered that
one maze helped the learning of other mazes. The degree of transfer
was positive, but it varied from one individual subject to another from
19 to 77% so there is positive transfer from one sensori-motor to
another.
2. Experiments on Perceptual Materials:
Thorndike and Woodworth have worked in this field. Some minor
experiments on perceptual material have been made. The subject was
given a line of fixed length, and told the measurement. He was then
asked to estimate the length of a number of lines of varied length
shorter or longer than the first.

A square of one dimensions is presented. It is compared with a

number of other squares as regards their areas. Two circles of which
one has double radius, are compared as regards their area. The
subjects are thus tested whether they can apply the knowledge or
judgement of length, dimensions, area, volume, weight and colour
from one situation to another.

3. Experiments on Memory:
(i) William James memorised 158 lines from Victor Hugo’s Satyr’ and
kept account of the time took him – viz., 132 minutes. He then spent
38 days (about 20 minutes per day) in learning the first book
of Milton’s Paradise Lost’. Then he selected again 158 lines from the
‘Satyr’ and remembered them, and to his surprise it took him 151
minutes, i.e., more than what was needed on the first occasion. This
lead to the refutation of the Theory of Formal Discipline.
(ii) W.H. Winch conducted a controlled experiment by having two
equated groups with the same memory ability, one experimental group
and other control group. The experimental group memorised poetry
for 2 weeks. On retesting both the groups it was found that the
experimental group fared better.

(iii) W.G. Sleight tested the effect of memorising poetry, tables and
prose upon the ability of memorise data, nonsense syllables, poetry,
prose and letters. He discovered little or no transfer.

His conclusions were:

(a) There appears to be no general memory improvement as a result of
practice.

(b) There would seem instead to be a very large number of related and
unrelated memory functions of a more or less complex kind.

Many other experiments educated also signify that practice does not
improve memory. The transfer memory depend upon the specific
activity exercise and its relation to memory activity to which it is
transferred.

4. Experiments on Reasoning:
(i) Winch used school children to determine the value of training
arithmetical reasoning problems in solving other logical problems. He
trained the experimental group in arithmetical problems, and found
after retesting that it fared 30% better than the control group which
was not trained in arithmetic problem solving.

(ii) Barlow, on the basis of his experiment claims that training in

analysis, abstraction and generalisation helps in interpreting fables
and language material.

5. Experimentals on Ideals:
(i) Bagley, emphasised neatness and accuracy in arithmetic papers to a
third grade. Although the pupils slowed improvement in neatness and
accuracy in arithmetic papers, there was deterioration in these aspects
in language papers.

Neatness did not get transferred from arithmetic to language. But

Bagley went a step further. In another investigation, he emphasised
neatness in all the papers, as an ideal to be followed when he retested
the pupils for neatness, he found considerable improvement. Thus he
concluded that ideas can transfer.

6. Experiments on Problem Solving:

(i) Gray conducted experiment in code substitution on two educated
groups. He gave initial test and then gave training in a new code to
experimental groups by a method in which emphasis was placed upon
its logical relationship. Upon retesting, the experimental group
evinced an advantage of 20 percent in its performance over the other
group.

(ii) Judd and Scholcknow conducted experiments on hitting of target

12″ under water. To the experimental group they gave training in the
principles of refraction in water. This training did not give any
advantage to them because the target was too deep. But on a second
time the water level was lowered, and the target was only 4″ under
water. This time the experimental group fared better as they used
theoretical knowledge.

7. Experiments on School Subjects:

(i) Brigs’ conducted experiment on two groups through relation group
technique in the effect of grammar on the one hand, and composition
on the other. Two groups were equated in intelligence. By rotation,
one group was trained in grammar and tested in grammar, and then
trained in language and composition and then retested.

The second group was trained in language and composition, then

tested in that, and then trained in grammar at the end of three
months. The two groups were compared, It was found that grammar
groups improved is only one of the abilities measured, viz., the ability
to see likeness and difference.

(ii) Winch took up two equated groups in reasoning ability. One group
practised arithmetic computation 30 minutes a day for 10 days. The
other group practised drawing. After 10 days both groups were tested
for arithmetical reasoning ability, and were found equal. So no
transfer took place.

(iii) Thorndike experimented upon 8000 students, gave them

preliminary intelligence test, studied them during one year’s
instructional period in a high, and again tested their intellectual
capacity, to find out whether one year’s instructions had any transfer
effect up intellectual activity.

The pupils showed a gain of 23 points on the second test. But the
maximum gain was by the 1% pupils of the highest intelligence (20 ½
points). Pupils of low intelligence gained very little (1½ points).
Thorondike concluded that intelligence rather than study of subjects
contributed to the improvement in reasoning ability and intellectual
activity.
(iv) Wesman found correlation between intelligence test scores and
achievement test scores at the beginning and end of a school year, and
concluded the presence of transfer.

(v) Rugg found that a course in descriptive geometry transferred 32%

to other geometrical material.

(vi) Thorndike made another experiment on transfer from Latin to

English. He found that high school freshmen who studied Latin for a
year gained in a knowledge of English words of Latin origin about 2½
times as much as these who did not study Latin. He further found that
transfer value of knowledge of Latin was 10%. But the transfer in
reality was in relation to those English words which were of Latin
origin. The transfer was negative in relation to spelling words of non-
Latin origin.

Summary of the conclusions through Experimentations:

(i) Positive transfer does take place in majority of the cases, although
absence of transfer and negative transfer also have found in certain
cases. This positive transfer goes even upto 92%, and the variations
are usually due to conditions under which it takes place.

(ii) Some subjects do have transfer value. The teacher should find out
the value of each subject in helping the student meet situations in life.

(iii) In order to increase the degree of positive transfer, learning

conditions in the class-room should be improved. Some experiments
have proved that instruction in the methods of learning considerably
increase the degree of positive transfer. L. W. Webb generalises: “It
has been proved that the methods used in learning, the
methods of instruction employed, the attitude of the learner
at the time the transfer is to take place, the generalising of
an experience, and the degree of mastery to material are all
extremely effective in increasing the degree of positive
transfer”.
(iv) Positive transfer increases, if knowledge is imparted in a way that
its application is emphasised. Teach arithmetic not for the sake of
arithmetic, but for application. The pupils will learn to transfer their
arithmetic experience to various aspects for their life.

(v) Even after studying the various theories about transfer of training,
we cannot come to a conclusive result about the varying conditions
that affect the degree of transfer, or about causes of transfer. All that
we know is transfer does take place, and it takes place in situations
which have common elements, or common principles or common
ideals. It is the duty of the teacher to obtain largest possible value from
the experiences he is giving to students by making them to apply the
experience in many situations.

(vi) Rote learning has been found useless, as it has no transfer value.
All theoretical voltage learnt for its own sake has no transfer value.
Knowledge that can be applied has got transfer value.

(vii) What affects transfer is not only the applicability of the

experience but also the desirable attitude, dispositions, and methods
of learning.

Educational Implications of Transfer of Training:

1. Factors Affecting Transfer of Training:
It is a crucial question before the teacher, how to secure maximum
transfer. He must know the factors that determine or affect transfer.
We conclude and reply to this question on the basis of the theories
propounded by psychologists and experiments conducted.

The three major factors are:

(i) Intelligence,

(ii) Positive attitude and

(iii) Meaningfulness of the contents.

(i) Intelligence:
The amount of transfer is closely related to the intelligence of the
learners. Thorndike’s experiments give clear evidence. Brighter
children transfer their experience more effectively in different
situations than average or dull children. The intelligent pupil
comprehends the subject-matter more efficiently, masters it,
remembers it and over-learns it. Over-learning helps greater transfer.

(ii) The positive self-confident attitude:

Influences greater transfer when the pupil knows that a particular
subject is to be learnt not for the sake of examination but for its
intrinsic work, for its applicability, when he is confident of its utility in
varying situations, he is bound to apply the knowledge in as large
extent of the field as possible. The teacher and the pupil should be
conscious of the goal.

(iii) Generalising affects transfer i.e., transfer depends up on the

extent to which principles are developed and experiences are made
more meaningful. The common elements, common principles and
common ideals in different situations, affect transfer. This has already
been explained above in connection with common. Element Theory,
Theory of Generalisation and Theory of Ideals.
2. Factors helping Maximum Transfer:
Three essential conditions ensure maximum transfer.

Firstly, the purport and meaning of the subject-matter taught should

be explained fully and in minute details. It is not enough to dole out
some geographical facts to be mugged up.

Thoroughness and details will stimulate the pupil to think more and
apply the knowledge in different situations. The paragraph in a
language lesson could be explained with all its details — grammar,
spelling, pronunciation, idiom, etymology, beauty of thought etc. This
will ensure maximum transfer.
Secondly, all learning should take place in living and concrete
situations. Thus all unreal problems in arithmetic, useless items in
grammar, memorisation of dates and names in history and geography,
which have no utility in life situations should be eliminated from the
curriculum.
Thirdly, pupils should be given as much of practical experience as
possible. The curriculum should contain subjects of practical nature,
which are applicable in vocations or life situations.

3. Curriculum and Transfer:

The theories and experimental evidences regarding transfer of
learning provide us with certain broad principles on the basis of which
we can remodel, overhaul or reorganise the present curriculum in
order to secure-greater transfer.

(i) Disciplinary value of subjects:

As the theory of formal discipline is no longer acceptable now, there is
no reason for inclusion or rejection of any subject in the curriculum
simply for its disciplinary value. We can easily dispense with
theoretical grammar, Euclid’s logic (in geometrical theorems) and
classical languages which to thought to be of disciplinary value.

(ii) Varying Importance of Subjects:

All subjects in the present curriculum do not have equal value. Some
subject are least connected with life situations (like ancient history),
and these have the least transfer value. The present approach is the
social-utility approach in including a subject or a topic in the
curriculum.

(iii) Subject-matter Vs. Experiences:

Thorndike and Wesman have experimentally proved that it is not the
subject-matter but the experiences gained in the study of the subject
that is important and useful for future applicability. The transfer value
of all the subjects for any trait (say improvement in reasoning) is
almost equal.

But the experiences gathered by the pupils differ, and that accounts for
greater or lesser positive transfer. Hence an attempt should be made
to provide superior experiences leading to greater transfer rather than
teach subjects in a theoretical manner.
Mathematics enjoys no monopoly for developing reasoning ability.
There are no less opportunities for the same in the teaching of other
subjects, say geography or history or physics. All subjects can be
taught in a manner that they encourage raising questions and offering
answers.

(iv) Classical Languages:

The old belief that classical language should be taught for its
disciplinary value is no longer tenable. Even its linguistic value is
questionable. Experiments on transfer value of Latin by Thorndike do
not give credit to Latin beyond 10% transfer. In India we may teach
Sanskrit not for its transfer value for Hindi or modern Indian
languages, but for its literary importance.

(v) Grammar may be taught only for its practical use and
application:
The present grammar teachers get lost in details of parsing, tenses,
moods, analysis, transformation and etymology, which have no
bearing upon the real objectives of teaching the subject, as these do
not help correct expression or smooth communication. “The
transfer is to take place from expression to grammar, that is,
expression and communication is to take place first and
then correct grammatical usage is to follow.”
(v) Subjects related to life:
Subjects and topics which are directly connected with our vocations,
physical environment, social environment social living and life-
situations have great transfer value. Hence stress should be laid on
those subjects which bear daily needs and help solving life problems.

Diversification of courses, and presenting groups of subjects directly

connected with future vocations of the pupils, or certain areas of life,
will help the pupils in gaining appropriate knowledge of maximum
utility which have transfer value for vocations and life-activities.

4. Methods of Instruction and Transfer:

For securing desirable transfer, the present methods of instructions
shall have to be modified and overhauled, on the evidences of
experimentations (cited above). There is no ‘best method’. But there
are varying approaches to instruction in accordance with varying
situations.

(i) Importance of goals:

Firstly goals and outcomes of each subject should be clearly stated. It
is only recently that attempts have been made in analysing a particular
subjects in terms of objectives, behaviour patterns and learning
experiences. Much of what is useless and unrelated to the objectives of
a subject is being discarded.

The awareness of goals both on the part of the teacher and the pupil
will lead to devotion to work, habits of thoroughness, exactness,
accuracy, sound attitude to work and consciousness of the utility for
future occasions.

(ii) Understanding of Individual Differences:

The teacher should study each pupil and his credit side and debit side,
so as to vary with great flexibility his teaching methods, illustrating
material and emphasis on the subject-matter. Approaches towards
bright and dull pupils will differ, otherwise the same approach might
cause negative transfer.

(iii) Integrated Approach:

It was Herbert who emphasised first the need for correlating various
school subjects, and further upon concentrating upon subject as a
centre of study for many other subjects. Ziller and Colonel Parker
actually put this idea into practice. Froebel kept play as the centre of
all study. Transfer from one central subject to many others was
considered possible.

Dewey gave the integrated approach, and propounded the problem

and the project method through which a number of subjects could be
introduced in an integrated manner, with their common elements
emphasised at one place.
Modern experiments on transfer, the Theory of Common Components,
vouchsafe the fact that maximum transfer can be procured by
integrating different subjects and emphasising their common
elements, principles or generalisations.

(iv) Attitude towards work:

The value and importance of attitude towards work and study has
already been explained above (Theory of Ideals). Healthy attitudes and
worthy ideals get integrated into the mental and moral make-up of the
pupil, and thus these ensure greater transfer.
The pupils should study with a spirit of enquiry, desire to know love
for wisdom and hunger of the soul. All scientific discoveries have been
preceded by this attitude. Such an attitude will be transferable from
one subject to another.

(v) Practical application of knowledge:

Practical application of knowledge and out-of-school experiences are
helpful in assimilating the core of a particular subject. Which can help
transfer. Every subject, including the sciences should be taught
intelligently with the scope of practical application. Mursell remarks in
this regard.

“When any ability is most intelligently taught and organised

for its own sake, it is thereby taught and organised in such a
way as will facilitate transfer, and its converse; when we
deliberately work for the transfer of some ability, we
facilitate its acquisition in its own right.”
We may conclude that securing of maximum transfer depends solely
upon the teacher. It is he who can inculcate worthy ideals and
attitudes which secure maximum transfer in all situations. It is he who
can find out that he wants to teach, and for what goal. Transfer can
take place, if the goals of teaching are known, and the appropriate
methods are used.